metals

Article
Comparative Study on the Uniaxial Behaviour of
Topology-Optimised and Crystal-Inspired
Lattice Materials
Chengxing Yang, Kai Xu and Suchao Xie *
Key Laboratory of Traffic Safety on Track, Ministry of Education, School of Traffic & Transportation Engineering,
Central South University, Changsha 410075, China; Chengxing_Yang_Hn@163.com (C.Y.);
csu_xukai@csu.edu.cn (K.X.)
* Correspondence: xsc0407@csu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-1370-7481-946




Received: 10 March 2020; Accepted: 7 April 2020; Published: 8 April 2020


Abstract: This work comparatively studies the uniaxial compressive performances of three types
of lattice materials, namely face-centre cube (FCC), edge-centre cube (ECC), and vertex cube (VC),
which are separately generated by topology optimisation and crystal inspiration. High similarities are
observed between the materials designed by these two methods. The effects of design method, cell
topology, and relative density on deformation mode, mechanical properties, and energy absorption
are numerically investigated and also fitted by the power law. The results illustrate that both
topology-optimised and crystal-inspired lattices are mainly dominated by bending deformation
mode. In terms of collapse strength and elastic modulus, VC lattice is stronger than FCC and ECC
lattices because its struts are arranged along the loading direction. In addition, the collapse strength
and elastic modulus of the topology-optimised FCC and ECC are close to those generated by crystal
inspiration at lower relative density, but the topology-optimised FCC and ECC are obviously superior
at a higher relative density. Overall, all topology-generated lattices outperform the corresponding
crystal-guided lattice materials with regard to the toughness and energy absorption per unit volume.

Keywords: lattice material; topology optimisation; crystal inspiration; mechanical properties;

energy absorption

1. Introduction
As a mimic of nature cellular material, lattice material is designed with its unit cells arranged
periodically along tessellation directions. Metallic lattice materials can provide excellent mechanical
properties, e.g., ultra light weight, better durability, high specific strength and stiffness, and a superior
energy absorption capability [1–4]. Methods for lattice material design can be generally classified into
two categories, i.e., manual generation and mathematical generation [5].
Manual generation means designing a lattice material by using beams and trusses with joints
modified to create seamless transitions between unit cell elements [5]. There are numerous manually
designed lattice materials and some of them are inspired by crystal structures. Typical examples
are simple cubic [6], diamond [7], face-centred cubic (FCC) [8], FCCZ (i.e., FCC with enhanced
vertical struts) [9], body-centred cubic (BCC) [10], Kagome [11], F2BCC [12]; Gurtner-Durand [13],
Octet-truss [14], Octahedron [13], Octahedron-cross [15], Octahedral [16], tetrakaidecahedron [13],
rhombic dodecahedron [17], etc. Additive manufacturing (AM) technology can be employed to
fabricate lattice materials [18]. Lozanovski et al. [19,20] numerically investigated the strut defects of
lattice materials fabricated by the AM method, and a Monte Carlo simulation-based approach was
proposed to predict the stiffness of a lattice material with defects.

Metals 2020, 10, 491; doi:10.3390/met10040491 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2020, 10, 491 2 of 16

The mathematical generation method utilises algorithms and constraints to create a lattice
structure [5]. Examples of mathematically generated lattice materials are triply periodic minimal
surfaces (TPMS) (e.g., skeletal-TPMS and sheet-TPMS lattices) [17,21,22], all face-centred cubic
(AFCC) [23], FCC [1], edge-centre cube (ECC) [1], vertex cube (VC) [1], cuttlebone-like lattice (CLL) [24],
etc.) The topology optimisation algorithm can also be used to determine the optimal material
distribution for lightweight structure design.
Two common solutions for topology optimisation are the optimality criteria (OC) [25] and
the Method of Moving Asymptotes (MMA) [26], and details are referred to [27]. Its applications on
engineering structures are reviewed by Sigmund and Maute [28] and Kentli [29]. Topology optimisation
methods based on discrete elements are the ground structure approach (GSA) [30], solid isotropic
material with penalization (SIMP) method [31–34], homogenization method (HM) [35], evolutionary
structural optimization (ESO) [36], level-set method (LSM) [37,38], and the hybrid cellular automata
(HCA) algorithm [39]. In terms of lattice material design by topology optimisation, Hu et al. [24]
proposed a CLL material that exhibited high compression-resistant capability. However, it can only
suffer uniaxial loading rather than multiple loadings from triaxial directions. Xiao et al. [1] proposed
three topology-optimised lattice materials, i.e., FCC, VC, and ECC, under three different loading modes,
which were similar to manually designed lattices. Yang et al. [40] addressed four different lattice
cells under various extreme loading modes, which expanded the library of structural metamaterials.
However, the differences between topology-optimised and manually generated lattices have not
been assessed.
In the present work, our objective is to systematically explore the similarities and differences
of three types of lattice materials guided by two methods, i.e., topology optimisation and crystal
inspiration. Section 2 presents the detailed design process and topological geometries, as well as
the relationship between relative density and aspect ratio for crystal-inspired lattices. Finite element
models are built in Section 3, and the results are presented in Section 4, including deformation modes,
mechanical properties, and energy absorption. Finally, some meaningful conclusions are reported in
Section 5.

2. Cell Architecture Design

2.1. Topology Optimisation Problem

In this study, two kinds of design methods, i.e., topology optimisation and crystal inspiration,
are adopted to generate lattice cells. Topology optimisation is carried out in LS-TaSCTM by integrating
with Ls-dyna® (LSTC, Livermore, CA, USA). The implicit algorithm is employed. The optimisation
problem can be mathematically stated as follows:



 min F(x) = c(x)

 s.t.

 K(x)u = f,
(1)
M(x)/M0 ≤ M f ,




0 < xmin ≤ xi ≤ 1, i = 1 . . . n




The goal of the topology optimisation in Equation (1) is to minimise the compliance c(x). The design
variable x, with 0 < xmin ≤ x ≤ 1 is known as relative density. n denotes the total number of design
variables. f and u are, respectively, the vectors of nodal force and displacement, while K(x) is the
structure stiffness matrix. M0 and M(x) represent the initial mass and the current mass of the design
domain. A constraint is imposed on the mass fraction M f . The base material is a high-strength steel
referred to Yang et al. [41], with the key parameters presented in Table 1. Three different loading
conditions, i.e., face-centred loadings, edge-centred loadings and vertexes loadings, represented by
arrows, are illustrated in Table 2. The magnitude of loadings (1 N) is well selected to make sure that the
design domain only suffers elastic deformation and the loading points are fixed during the optimisation
process. Increasing the value of loading may lead to different optimised cells and it may also cause a
Metals 2020, 10, 491 3 of 16

problem in designing structures with a high level of porosity [1]. The topology optimisation method is
a hybrid cellular automata (HCA) algorithm [42], and the solid isotropic material with penalization
(SIMP) model is adopted. Two termination conditions are used to stop the optimisation process: (i) the
number of iterations exceeds the maximum number of iterations, or (ii) the change in the topology is
smaller than the tolerance [43]. Corresponding optimal cells are also presented in Table 2.

Table 1. Material properties of the base material, data from [41].

Density, Young’s Modulus, Poisson’s Tangent Modulus, Yield Strength, Ultimate Strength
ρ0 /(kg·m−3) E0 /GPa Ratio, µ Etan /MPa σ y /MPa σ u /MPa
7850 206 0.26 517 382 482

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 the change in the topology is smaller than the tolerance [43]. Corresponding optimal cells are also
presented in Table 2.

Table 1. Material properties of the base material, data from [41].

Yield
Density,
Metals 2020, 10, 491 Young’s Poisson’s Tangent Modulus, Ultimate 4 of 16
Strength,
ρ0/(kg·m−3) Modulus, E0/GPa Ratio, μ Etan/MPa Strength σu/MPa
σy/MPa
7850 206 0.26 517 382 482
2.2. Analogy with Crystal Structures
2.2. Analogy with Crystal Structures
Crystal structures are favourable sources of inspiration in manual designs with struts and joints [44].
As shownCrystal structures
in Figure are favourable
1, a simple sources
cube (7.5 7.5 mm3 )inismanual
× 7.5of×inspiration designs
composed of with struts and
six faces, joints
twelve edges,
[44]. As shown in Figure 1, a simple cube (7.5 × 7.5 × 7.5 mm 3) is composed of six faces, twelve edges,
and eight vertexes. Therefore, three lattice materials can be generated by, respectively, connecting the
and eight
face-centre vertexes.
points, Therefore,points,
edge-centre three lattice
and materials
vertexes.can Thebeobtained
generatedlattice
by, respectively,
materialsconnecting the to as
are referred
face-centre points, edge-centre points, and vertexes. The obtained lattice materials are referred to as
the face-centred cube (FCC), edge-centred cube (ECC), and vertex cube (VC), which is consistent with
the face-centred cube (FCC), edge-centred cube (ECC), and vertex cube (VC), which is consistent with
Xiao et al. [1].
Xiao et al. [1].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 1. Schematic
1. Schematic illustrationof
illustration of manually
manually designed lattice
designed materials:
lattice (a) FCC
materials: (a)(face-centre cube); (b)cube);
FCC (face-centre
edge-centre cube (ECC); (c) vertex cube (VC).
(b) edge-centre cube (ECC); (c) vertex cube (VC).
To mathematically analyse a lattice material, the individual struts shown in Figure 2 are
To mathematically analyse a lattice material, the individual struts shown in Figure 2 are considered.
considered. The materials overlapping in joints are removed to calculate the actual volume occupied
The materials overlapping in joints are removed to calculate the actual volume occupied by the lattice
by the lattice material. It is assumed that the lattice is composed of several struts and each strut
material. It is
contains assumed
one thattwo
cylinder and thecones.
latticeThus,
is composed
the relativeofdensity
several (𝜌̅ )struts
of threeand
cellseach strut
can be contains
obtained via one
cylinder and two cones. Thus, the relative
Equations (3) and (4), respectively. density (ρ) of three cells can be obtained via Equations (3)
and (4), respectively.
𝜌̅ = 𝜌𝐿 ⁄𝜌0 (2)
ρ = ρL /ρ 0 (2)
𝑑 2 √√2 5𝑑
FCC and ECC: 𝜌̅ = 3𝜋 d( )2 ( 2 − 5d )
! !
(3)
FCC and ECC : ρ = 3π 𝑙1 2
−6𝑙1 (3)
l1 2 6l1
3𝜋 𝑑 2 1 𝑑
VC: 𝜌̅ = ( !)2 ( − ) ! (4)
3π2 d𝑙1 12 3𝑙d1
VC : ρ = − (4)
where 𝜌0 and 𝜌𝐿 are the density of the base 2material l1 2and3lof1 the lattice material, respectively, d
represents strut diameter, l1 is cube length, and d/l1 denotes the aspect ratio.
where ρ0 and ρL are the density of the base material and of the lattice material, respectively, d represents
strut diameter, l1 is cube length, and d/l1 denotes the aspect ratio.
It should be mentioned that FCC and ECC share the same expression of relative density
(Equation (3)). Figure 3 plots the curves showing the change in the relative density versus aspect ratio
d/l1 given by Equations (3) and (4). Computer-aided design (CAD) predictions are also given in the
same figure to properly validate the responses of both equations. As can be seen from Figure 3, good
consistency is observed between theoretical and CAD predictions.

2.3. Numerical Results

Lattice materials derived from topology optimisation (labelled as -TO) and crystal inspiration
(labelled as -CI) are presented in Table 2. The relative density of the generated cells varies in the
interval [0.1, 0.3], which is comparable to that of aerogel, alumina nanolattices, and other ultralight
materials [45]. The boundary surface of the final optimised topology of the lattice is fitted smoothly
by using FreeCAD software (open source); thus, the geometry model of the lattice cell is obtained.
High consistency is observed in geometry between topology-optimised and crystal-inspired materials,
but the solutions provided by topology optimisation are generally non-uniform in terms of strut
thickness and joint shape, unlike the regular topology of crystal-inspired cells. By increasing the
 Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Metals 2020, 10, 491 5 of 16

relative density, walls are likely to be formed between neighbouring struts (see lattice materials with
ρ = 0.30). It should be mentioned that the FCC in this work is similar to the octahedral lattice in [5,46].
The ECC in this work is also named as octahedron in Gross et al. [13], and the VC in this work has the
sameMetals
cell topology as PEER
2020, 10, x FOR the cubic lattice in Mei et al. [2].
REVIEW 4 of 16

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Individual strut geometries of: (a) FCC and ECC; (b) VC.

It should be mentioned that FCC and ECC share the same expression of relative density
(Equation (3)). Figure 3 plots the curves showing the change in the relative density versus aspect ratio
d/l1 given by Equations (3) and (4). Computer-aided
(a) design (CAD) predictions
(b) are also given in the
same figure to properlyFigure
validate the responses
2. Individualstrut
of both
strutgeometries
equations.
geometries of:
As can be seen from Figure 3, good
Figure 2. Individual of:(a)
(a)FCC
FCCand ECC;
and (b)(b)
ECC; VC.VC.
consistency is observed between theoretical and CAD predictions.
It should be mentioned that FCC and ECC share the same expression of relative density
(Equation (3)). Figure 3 plots the curves showing the change in the relative density versus aspect ratio
d/l1 given by Equations (3) and (4). Computer-aided design (CAD) predictions are also given in the
same figure to properly validate the responses of both equations. As can be seen from Figure 3, good
consistency is observed between theoretical and CAD predictions.

Figure3.3.Comparison
Figure Comparisonof
ofthe
therelative
relativedensity
densitypredicted
predictedby
bytheory
theoryand
andthe
theCAD
CADmodel.
model.

3.2.3.
Finite Element
Numerical Modelling
Results
Finite element models are built intopology
Ls-dyna ® to predict the uniaxial compressive behaviour of the
Lattice Figure
materials 3. Comparison
derived of the
from relative density predicted by
optimisation theory and
(labelled asthe CADand
‐TO) model.
crystal inspiration
lattice materials. The geometry models of lattice materials are
(labelled as -CI) are presented in Table 2. The relative density of the generated cells meshed into tetrahedral elements,
varieswhich
in the
are 2.3. Numerical
constant stress Results
solid elements. Instead of using periodic boundary conditions on a single unit cell,
interval [0.1,0.3], which is comparable to that of aerogel, alumina nanolattices, and other ultralight
3 × 3 × 3Lattice
amaterials cell model with dimension of ×optimisation
× 22.5 mm 3 is built. The influence of the number
[45]. materials
The derived
boundary surface of 22.5
from topologythe final 22.5optimised (labelled
topology as ‐TO)
of theand crystal
lattice is inspiration
fitted smoothly
of cells on the elastic modulus of lattice material was numerically
by using FreeCAD software (open source); thus, the geometry model of the latticevaries
(labelled as -CI) are presented in Table 2. The relative density of the studied
generated by Maskery
cells cell isinetobtained.
al. [47],
the
and interval
they found[0.1,0.3],
that which
the is comparable
converged modulus to thatofofthe aerogel,
3 × 3 alumina
× 3 cell nanolattices,
diamond and other
lattice was ultralight
just 1% below
High consistency is observed in geometry between topology-optimised and crystal-inspired
the materials
upper bound [45]. The boundary surface of the final optimised topology of the lattice is fitted smoothly
materials, but theofsolutions
the theoretical
provided elastic modulus.optimisation
by topology The FE model areofgenerally
FCC-TO non-uniform
is shown in Figure in terms4.
The by using
lattice FreeCAD
materials aresoftware
placed (open
between source);
two thus, the geometry
parallel plates, modelare
which of the lattice cell
modelled as is obtained.
rigid bodies by
of strut thickness and joint shape, unlike the regular topology of crystal-inspired cells. By increasing
High consistency is observed in geometry between topology-optimised and crystal-inspired
*Mat.020_Mat_Rigid
the relative density, [48]. The bottom plate is fixed while the top plate impacts(see thelattice
specimen at a
materials, but the walls areprovided
solutions likely to by
be topology
formed between
optimisation neighbouring
are generallystrutsnon-uniform materials
in terms
constant =speed
withof𝜌̅strut0.30). (10 m/s). be
It should “*Mat.024_Mat_Piecewise_Linear_Plasticity” [48]toisthe
selected to bilinearly
thickness and jointmentioned
shape, unlike thatthethe FCCtopology
regular in this work is similar
of crystal-inspired octahedral
cells. By increasing lattice in
approximate
[5,46].
theThe the
relative stress–strain
ECCdensity,
in this walls
workare curve
is also
likelyof elastic-plastic
named as octahedron
to be formed material
between in in Table 1. The
Gross et al.struts
neighbouring impact
[13], (see
andlatticeforce
the VC is captured
in this work
materials
by
hasusing
the the
𝜌̅ =*Automatic_Surface_To_Surface
withsame 0.30). It should be
cell topology as mentioned that thecontact
the cubic lattice inFCC algorithm
Meiinetthis [2]. is[48]
al.work applied
similar to the among
octahedral specimens
lattice in and
boundaries. In ECC
[5,46]. The this algorithm,
in this workthe stiffness
is also named ofascontact elements
octahedron is penalised
in Gross et al. [13], by
andathe
scaleVCfactor
in this[48].
workMesh
has the same cell topology as the cubic lattice in Mei et al. [2].
Metals 2020, 10, 491 6 of 16

size is determined, as a result of a sensitivity analysis, as a compromise between accuracy and low
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16
computing time. Figure 5 plots the stress–strain curves of the FCC-TO sample calculated by various
element
Metalssizes, i.e.,
2020, 10, 0.10~0.15
x FOR mm, 0.125~0.200 mm, 0.15~0.25 mm, 0.20~0.30 mm, and 0.25~0.35
PEER REVIEW 6 of 16 mm.
calculated by various element sizes, i.e., 0.10~0.15 mm, 0.125~0.200 mm, 0.15~0.25 mm, 0.20~0.30 mm,
In Figure 5, convergence can be obtained when element size is equal to 0.125~0.200 mm. Therefore,
and 0.25~0.35bymm.
calculated In Figure
various element 5, convergence can bemm,
sizes, i.e., 0.10~0.15 obtained whenmm,
0.125~0.200 element size ismm,
0.15~0.25 equal to 0.125~0.200
0.20~0.30 mm,
thismm.
element size is employed for computation throughout this study, which means the main parts
andTherefore,
0.25~0.35 mm. this In
element
Figure size is employed
5, convergence canfor computation
be obtained whenthroughout
element sizethis study,
is equal which
to 0.125~0.200 means
of the
themm.lattice
main haveofanthe
parts element size of
lattice have 0.200 mm,size while othermm,parts (e.g.,other
joints) are(e.g.,
characterised by
Therefore, this element size isan element
employed of 0.200
for computation while
throughout parts
this study, whichjoints)
meansare
a smaller element
characterised
the main parts size,
by aofsmalleri.e., 0.125
element
the lattice mm.
have size, The finite
i.e., 0.125
an element element
sizemm. model
The mm,
of 0.200 finitewhile has
element been
other model validated
partshas been
(e.g., by means
are of
validated
joints)
experimental
bycharacterised
means of resultsby aobtained
experimental for a body-centred-cubic
results
smaller element obtained for amm.
size, i.e., 0.125 (BCC) lattice
body-centred-cubic
The finite made
element of 316L
(BCC)
model hasstainless
lattice
beenmade steel,
of 316L
validated taken
from [49].
by
stainless As
means shown
steel, takenin Figure
of experimental 5b, aAs
results
from [49]. good agreement
obtained
shown forFigure
in is observed between
a body-centred-cubic
5b, a good (BCC)experimental
agreement lattice made
is observed and numerical
ofbetween
316L
data. It should
stainless
experimental be
steel,
and noted
taken that
fromthe
numerical simulation
[49].
data. As showncurve
It should innoted
be in Figure
Figure a 5b
5b,the
that goodis filtered
agreement
simulation by using
curve Butterworth
isinobserved
Figure 5bbetween Filter
is filtered
with experimental
byausing
frequency and numerical
of 20,000
Butterworth data.
Hz.with
Filter It should
Thea frequency
frequency of be noted
is 20,000 that
carefully the simulation
Hz.selected curve
to filteristhe
The frequency in Figure
numerical
carefully 5b is filtered
perturbation
selected to filter
theby
while using Butterworth
numerical
maintaining perturbation Filterwhile
with amaintaining
the characteristics frequency ofthe
20,000 Hz.curve.
The frequency
characteristics
of the stress–strain is carefully selected
of the stress–strain curve.to filter
the numerical perturbation while maintaining the characteristics of the stress–strain curve.

Figure
Figure
Figure 4.Finite
Finite
4.4.Finite elementmodel
element
element model of
model of the
the FCC-TO
of the FCC-TOwith
FCC-TO withitsits
with unit
its cell
unit
unit enlarged.
cell
cellenlarged.
enlarged.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Effects of element size on the stress‐strain curve of the FCC-TO lattice material; (b)
validation
Figure
Figure 5. (a) (a)ofEffects
5. Effectsthe
of modelling
element method
of element
size size
on by
theon using
the experimental
stress‐strain
stress-strain data
curve
curve of the ofreproduced
the FCC-TO
FCC-TO from
lattice [49], material;
lattice
material; copyright (b)
(b) validation
permission:
validation of Elsevier, 2020. method by using experimental data reproduced from [49], copyright
the modelling
of the modelling method by using experimental data reproduced from [49], copyright permission:
permission:
Elsevier, 2020. Elsevier, 2020.
4. Results and Discussion
4. Results and
4. Results Discussion
and Discussion
4.1. Deformation Modes
4.1.4.1.
Deformation
Table 3 Modes
Deformation Modesthe Von Mises stress distributions in lattice materials with a relative density of
reports
0.10 up
Table to 50% the
3 reports overall
Von deformation.
Mises stress Generally, each
distributions layer of
in lattice lattice materials
materials with collapses
a relative almost
density of of
0.10
Table 3 reports the Von Mises stress distributions in lattice materials with a relative density
synchronously, although the middle layer deforms relatively faster than the top and bottom layers,
up 0.10
to 50%upoverall
to 50%deformation. Generally,Generally,
overall deformation. each layer each
of lattice materials
layer collapses
of lattice almost
materials synchronously,
collapses almost
which was also observed in sheet-IWP latice by Al-Ketan et al. [50]. There are strong stress
synchronously, although the middle layer deforms relatively faster than the top and bottom layers,
which was also observed in sheet-IWP latice by Al-Ketan et al. [50]. There are strong stress
Metals 2020, 10, 491 7 of 16
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although concentrations
the
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations middleoccurring
concentrations occurring
layer
occurring
occurring
occurring deforms
occurring on
onon
onsome some
some
some
on some supporting
relatively
supporting
supporting
supporting
supporting faster struts
struts
struts
struts thanand
and
and
struts andand connecting
theconnecting
connecting
connecting top and
connecting joints
joints
joints bottom
joints for
for
for
joints each
foreach
each
each
for layers, lattice
lattice
lattice
lattice
each material.
which
material.
material.
material.
lattice was also
material.
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations occurring
occurringoccurring
occurring on
on
onon some
some
some
on
some supporting
supporting
supporting
some supporting
supporting struts
struts
struts
struts and
struts and
and
and connecting
connecting
connecting
and connecting connecting joints
joints
joints
joints for
joints for
for
for each
each
each
for
each lattice
lattice
lattice
eachlattice material.
material.
material.
lattice material.
material.
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations
However,
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations
concentrations the occurring
occurring
occurring
level occurring
occurring
occurring
occurring of
occurring on
on
on on
equivalent
on
on some
some
on
some
some
some
some
on some supporting
some supporting
stress supporting
supporting
supporting
supporting
supporting is
supporting the struts
struts
struts
lowest
struts
struts
struts and
struts
and
and
struts and
at
and
and connecting
and
the connecting
connecting
connecting
and connecting
horizontal
connecting
connecting connecting joints
joints
joints
joints
joints rods
joints for
joints
joints for
forof
for
for
for each
each
for
each
VC-CI
each
each
each
for lattice
each lattice
lattice
lattice
lattice
each because
lattice material.
lattice material.
material.
material.these
material.
material.
material.
lattice material.
observed However,
However,
However,
in
However,
However, However,
sheet-IWP
However, the
the
the thelevel
the thelevel
level
level
the latice
level of
of
levelofequivalent
of
of
level equivalent
equivalent
of
by equivalent
Al-Ketan
equivalent
equivalent
of equivalent stress
stress
stress
stress
stress et is
is
stress
is
stress isthe
al.
is the
thethe
is
[50].
the
is lowest
lowest
lowest
the
lowest
lowest
the lowest
There
lowest at
at
atatthe
at the
the the
at
are
the
at horizontal
horizontal
horizontal
the stronghorizontal
horizontal
horizontal
the horizontal stressrods
rods
rods
rods
rods of
of
rods ofVC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI
of VC-CI
concentrations
of
of
rods VC-CI
VC-CI
of VC-CI because
because
because
because
because because these
these
these
occurring
because these
these these on
these
However,
However,
However,
However,
However,
struts However,are the
thethe
the
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thelevellevel
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of
of
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of equivalent
equivalent
ofequivalent
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of equivalent
equivalent
to the loading stress
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is
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is
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The lowest
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atatat
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struts However, the
the
areorthogonal
are
are
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are level
level
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ofto
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equivalent
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The
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at between horizontal
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of
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horizontal
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and horizontalthese
struts
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some supporting struts are
are orthogonal
are
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struts orthogonaland toto the
theto loading
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in
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and horizontal
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Materials
Materials
Lattice Materials ε = 0.015 ε = 0.15 ε = 0.35 ε = 0.50

FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TOFCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO

FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI

ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TOECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO

ECC-CI
ECC-CIECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI

VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
Metals
Metals 2020, 10,
10, xx10,
2020,2020, FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 88 of
of 16
16
Metals x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

VC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI VC-CI

It should It
beshould
noted bethat the stress
noted that thelevel related
stress level to the colour
related to the fringe
colour of eachoffigure
fringe in Tables
each figure 3 and34and
in Table varies to have a
Table
It should be noted
It should that that
the stress levellevel
related to the colour fringe of each figure in Table 3 and Table
better visualisation. Inbe
4 varies to have
noted
general,
a betterthe the stress
blue colour
visualisation. In
related
represents to
general, thethethe colour
lowest
blue
fringe
stress
colour
of each
level, figure
while
represents the the
in Table
red
lowest
3 and
colour
stress
Table the
denotes
level,
4 varies
highest stress toinhave
4level
varies to a figure.
have
each better visualisation.
a better In general,
visualisation. the blue
In general, colour
the blue represents
colour the lowest
represents stress
the lowest level,
stress level,
while
while the
the red
red colour
colour denotes
denotes the
the highest
highest stress
stress level in
in each
levelleveleach figure.
figure.
while the red colour denotes the highest stress in each figure.
To study
To study the
the effect of
of relative density,
density, the
the deformation
deformation features
features of
of lattice materials
materials with
with aa relative
relative
To study effect
the effectrelative
of relative density, the deformation featureslattice
of lattice materials with a relative
density
density ranging
ranging from
from 0.10
0.10 to
to 0.30
0.30 are
are carefully
carefully examined.
examined. The
The stress
stress distributions
distributions are
are similar
similar for aa
for for
density ranging from 0.10 to 0.30 are carefully examined. The stress distributions are similar a
relative density
relative density higher
higher than
than 0.20,
0.20, although
although the the higher
higher the
the relative
relative density,
density, the
the higher
higher the
the Von
Von Mises
Mises
relative density higher than 0.20, although the higher the relative density, the higher the Von Mises
stress due
stress due to
to the
the higher
higher stiffness.
stiffness. Thus,
Thus, thethe Von
Von Mises
Mises stress
stress distributions
distributions inin the lattice
lattice materials
materials with
with
stress due to the higher stiffness. Thus, the Von Mises stress distributionsthe in the lattice materials with
relative
relative density
density of 0.20
of 0.20 are presented
are are
presented in Table
in Table 4. It can
4. It4.can be found
be found that lattice
thatthat
lattice materials
materials deform
deform more
more
relative density of 0.20 presented in Table It can be found lattice materials deform more
uniformly and
uniformly and collectively
collectively at at aa higher
higher relative
relative density.
density. InIn addition,
addition, the
the shear
shear band
band disappears
disappears inin the
the
uniformly and collectively at a higher relative density. In addition, the shear band disappears in the
VC-CI lattice
VC-CI lattice when
when its
its relative density
density isis higher
higher than
than 0.20.
0.20.
VC-CI lattice whenrelative
its relative density is higher than 0.20.
 relative
relativedensity
density higher
higher thanthan 0.20, although
0.20, although thehigher
higher
the higher therelative
relative
the density,
relative density, thehigher
higher
the higher theVon
VonMises
the Mises
relative
relative
relative
stress due
stress
density
density
density
relative to
duedensity
the
to
higher
higher
higher
the higher
higher
than
than
higherthan 0.20,
0.20,
0.20,
than
stiffness.
stiffness.
although
although
although
0.20,
Thus, although
Thus,the
the
the
theVon
Von
the higher
higher
the
Mises higher
Mises
the
the
thestress
stress relative
relative
the density,
density,
density,
relative
distributions density,
distributions in
the
the
the
the
in higher
higher
the the
the
higher
lattice
the VonVon
theVon
the Mises
Mises
Von
materials
lattice
Mises
Mises
with
materials with
stress
stress
stress
stress
stress due
due
stress
due
due
due to
due
to
to tothe
to the
the
the
the higher
higher
to higher
the
higherhigher
higher stiffness.
stiffness.
stiffness.
stiffness.
stiffness.
stiffness. Thus,
Thus,
Thus,
Thus,
Thus, the
Thus, theVon
the
thethe VonVon
the
Von
VonVon Mises
Mises
Mises
Mises
Mises Mises stress
stress
stress stress
stress
stress distributions
distributions
distributions
distributions
distributions
distributions in
in
in inthe
in the
the
the lattice
lattice
in lattice
the the
lattice materials
materials
lattice
lattice materials
materials
materials
materials with
with
with
with
with with
stress
stress due
due
stress
relative to
to
due
density
relative the
the
to
density higher
higher
the
of 0.20
of stiffness.
higher stiffness.
are
0.20 stiffness.
presented
are Thus,
Thus,
presented the
Thus,
inthe Von
Von
the
Table
in Mises
Mises
Von
4.
Table It Mises
can
4.canstress
stress
It canbe
can distributions
distributions
stress
found
be distributions
that
found in
in
lattice
that the
the
in lattice
lattice
the materials
materials
lattice
materials
lattice materials with
with
materials
deform
deformmore with
more
relative
relative
relative
relative
relative
relative density
density
density
density
density
density of
of
ofof
of 0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
of
0.20 are
0.20 are
are
are
are presented
presented
presented
presented
are
presented presented in
in
in in
in Table
Table
Table
Table
in
Table 4.
4.
Table
4.4.
4.It
ItIt
It
4. can
can
can
ItIt4.can
can It be
bebe
be
be found
found
found
found
be
found foundthat
that
that
that
that lattice
lattice
lattice
lattice
that
latticelattice materials
materials
materials
materials
materials
materials deform
deform
deform
deform
deform
deform more
more
more
more
more more
relative
relative density
density
relative
uniformly density
and of
of 0.20
0.20
of 0.20
collectively are
are presented
presented
are
at presented in
in Table
Table
in 4.
4. It
Table can
It Inbe
beaddition,
can found
found that
that
beaddition,
found lattice
lattice
that materials
latticematerials deform
materialsdeform more
deformmore more
uniformly
uniformly
uniformly
uniformly
uniformly
uniformly
uniformly and
and
and
and
and
and collectively
collectively
collectively
collectively
andcollectively
collectively
collectively at
at
atataaaaaat
at higher
aat aa higher
higher
higher
higher
higher
higher
higher
relative
relative
relative
relative
relative
relative
density.
relative density.
density.
density.
density.
relativedensity.
density.density. In
In
In In In
Inaddition,
addition,
addition,
addition,
addition,
In addition,the
the
the
the
shear
the
theshear
the shear
shear
shear
shear
the shear
shearband
band
band
band
band
band
disappears
banddisappears
disappears
disappears
banddisappears in
disappears
in
in
disappears
disappears inin the
in
inthe
the
the
in the
thethe
the
uniformly
uniformly
uniformly
VC-CI and
and
lattice collectively
collectively
and collectively
when its at
at a
relativea higher
higher
at a relative
higherrelative
density density.
density.
relative
is higher density.
than InIn addition,
addition,
In
0.20. the
addition,the shear
shear
the band
shearband disappears
disappears
band in
in
disappears the
the
in the
VC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI lattice
VC-CI lattice
lattice
lattice when
lattice when
when
when its
when its relative
itsrelative
its relative
relative
relative
its relative density
density
density
density
densityis
isis higher
ishigher
higher
higher
higher
is higherthan
than
than
than 0.20.
0.20.
0.20.
than 0.20.0.20.
VC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI lattice
lattice
VC-CIlattice when
when
when
lattice its
its
whenitsrelative
relative
its relative density
density
density is
is
densityishigher
higher than
than
is higherthan 0.20.
0.20.
0.20.
than 0.20.
Metals 2020, 10, 491
Table 4.4.
Table Deformation
4. features of lattice materials with 𝜌̅𝜌̅𝜌̅======0.20
𝜌̅𝜌̅𝜌̅ 0.20
𝜌̅0.20 atatdifferent compressive strains. 8 of 16
Table
Table 4.
Table
Table 4.
Table
Table 4. 4. Deformation
Deformation
4.Deformation
Deformation
Deformation
Deformation
Deformation
Deformation features
features
features
features
features
featuresof
of
features
ofof of
of lattice
lattice
oflattice
lattice
lattice
lattice
lattice materials
materials
materials
lattice
materials
materialswith
materials
with
materials
withwith
with
with
with 0.20
𝜌̅ == 0.20
0.20
0.20 at
at
0.20
at at
at different
different
atdifferent
different
different
different compressive
compressive
compressive
compressive
different
different compressive strains.
strains.
strains.
strains.
compressive
compressive strains.
strains.
strains.
Table
Table
Table
Table 4.4.Deformation
4.
4.
Table Deformation
Deformation features
features
features
features
4. Deformation of
ofof
of
features lattice
lattice
lattice materials
materials
materials
materials
of lattice with
with
with
with
materials 𝜌̅𝜌̅𝜌̅𝜌̅====0.20
with 0.20
0.20
𝜌̅0.20 atatdifferent
at
at
= 0.20 different
different compressive
compressive
compressive
compressive
at different strains.
strains.
strains.
strains.
compressive strains.
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice
Lattice 𝜺= == 𝟎.𝟎.
=𝜺𝜺𝟎.=𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝟎.
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝜺𝜺𝜺=
== 𝟎.𝟎.
=𝜺𝜺𝟎.=𝟏𝟓𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝜺𝜺𝜺=
== 𝟎.𝟎.
=𝜺𝜺𝟎.=𝟑𝟓𝟎.
𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝜺𝜺𝜺=
== 𝟎.𝟎.
=𝜺𝜺𝟎.= 𝟓𝟎
𝟎.
𝟎. 𝟓𝟎
𝜺𝜺𝜺𝜺𝜺=
Table 4. Deformation = 𝟎.
𝟎.
𝟎.= 𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝟎𝟏𝟓
features
𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝜺𝜺
𝟎𝟏𝟓of lattice materials
𝜺𝜺𝜺=
=
= 𝟎.
𝟎.
𝟎.=𝟏𝟓
𝟏𝟓
𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓 ρ = 0.20
𝟎. with
𝟏𝟓 𝜺𝜺
𝜺𝜺𝜺=
=
at
= 𝟎.
𝟎.
𝟎.=𝟑𝟓
𝟑𝟓𝟑𝟓
𝟑𝟓
different
𝟑𝟓 𝜺𝜺
𝟑𝟓 compressive
𝜺𝜺𝜺=
=
= 𝟎.
𝟎.
𝟎.=𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟎
𝟓𝟎
𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎
strains.
𝟓𝟎
materials 𝜺𝜺==𝜺𝟎.
materials
materials
materials
materials
materials
materials
𝟎.=𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 =𝜺𝟎.𝟎.=𝟏𝟓
𝟏𝟓
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 =𝜺𝟎.𝟎.=𝟑𝟓
𝟑𝟓
𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 =𝜺𝟎.𝟎.=𝟓𝟎
𝟓𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓𝟎
materials
materials
materials
materials
Lattice Materials ε = 0.015 ε = 0.15 ε = 0.35 ε = 0.50

FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO
FCC-TO FCC-TO

FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CIFCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI
FCC-CI

ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO
ECC-TO

ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
ECC-CI
Metals
Metals 2020,
Metals
2020, 10,
2020,
10, xFOR
x FOR
10,
FORFOR PEER
xx FOR
FOR
PEER REVIEW
PEER
REVIEW
REVIEW 9ofof 16
Metals
Metals
Metals
Metals2020,2020,
2020,
2020, 10,xxx10,
10,
10, FOR PEER
PEER
PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
REVIEW
REVIEW 9999of
of 16
9916
of16
of 16
of
16
16

VC-TO VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO
VC-TO

VC-CI VC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI
VC-CI

4.2.
4.2.
4.2.
To study
4.2.
4.2. Stress‐Strain
4.2.
Stress‐Strain
Stress‐Strain
Stress‐Strain
the effectCurves
Stress‐Strain
Stress‐Strain Curves
CurvesCurves density, the deformation features of lattice materials with a relative
Curves
of relative
Curves
density rangingTheThe
The
The
The from
stress‐strain
The 0.10 to
stress‐strain
stress‐strain
stress‐strain
stress‐strain
stress‐strain (((
( --)(-)
(--0.30 ))curves
curves
)are
)curves
-curves
curves carefully
curves extracted
extracted
extracted
extracted
extracted
extracted examined.
from
from
from
from
from fromthethethe
the
the
the impactThe
impact
impact
impact
impact
impact stress
simulation
simulation distributions
simulation
simulation
simulation
simulation on
on
on onthe
on the
on thethe
the
the are similar
designed
designed
designed
designed
designed
designed lattice
lattice for a
lattice
lattice
lattice
lattice
materials
materials
materials
relative density
materialshigher
materials
materials with
with
with
with with
withvarious various
various
various
thanrelative
various
various relative
relative
0.20,
relative
relative relative densities
densities
although densities
densities
densities
densitiesare areare
the
are shown
shown
are shown
higher
shown
areshown
shown in in
inin Figure
Figure
in
the Figure
Figure
inFigure
Figure 6. 6.
relative
6.6. Additionally,
Additionally,
6. Additionally,
density,the
Additionally,
6.Additionally,
Additionally, thethe
the
the initial
initial
the initial
higher
initial
theinitial
initial compression
compression
compression
the Von Mises
compression
compression
compression
stage
stage with 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀<𝜀<<
<<𝜀5‰5‰
< 5‰ isisenlarged.
enlarged. The stress and strain arecalculated
calculated inaccordance
accordance with theinitial
initial
tostage
stage
stage
stress duestage with
with
with
the
withwith
higher 5‰ 5‰
5‰ isis
is
stiffness. enlarged.
is
enlarged.
enlarged. enlarged.
Thus, The
The
The The
the
The stress
stress
stress
Von
stressstress
and
and
and
Mises
and and
strain
strain
strain strain
are
are
are
stress
strain are calculated
are calculated
calculated
distributions
calculated in
inin
in accordance
in
inaccordance
accordance
the lattice
accordance with
with
with
with with
the
the
the initial
the initial
initial
materials
the initial with
cross-sectional
cross-sectional
cross-sectional
cross-sectional
cross-sectional
cross-sectional area
area
area
area
area and
area
and and
and
and length
and length
length
length
length lengthof
of
of of
of each
each
of
each
each
each specimen,
specimen,
each specimen,
specimen,
specimen,
specimen, respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
relative density The
ofcurves
0.20 are are
presented
similar to
in of
those
Table
common
4. Itporouscan beorfound cellular
that lattice
materials [52],
materials
which
deform
exhibit three
more
The
The
The
The curves
The
curves
curves
curvescurvesare
are
are
aresimilar
aresimilar
similar
similarsimilar to
toto
tothose
to
those
those
those of
those
of
of common
of common
common
ofcommon
common porous
porous
porous
porous porousor
or
or cellular
or
cellular
orcellular
cellular materials
cellular materials
materials
materials
materials [52],
[52],
[52],
[52], which
[52],
which
which
which exhibit
whichexhibit
exhibit
exhibit three
exhibit three
three
three
three
uniformly and
ideal collectively
regimes under at a
uniaxial higher relative
compression, density.
i.e., In addition, the shear band disappears in the
ideal
ideal
ideal regimes
ideal
ideal regimes
regimes
regimes
regimes under
under
under
underunder uniaxial
uniaxial
uniaxial
uniaxial uniaxial compression,
compression,
compression,
compression,
compression, i.e.,
i.e.,
i.e.,
i.e., aaaaapre-collapse
i.e., pre-collapse
pre-collapse
a pre-collapse
pre-collapse
pre-collapse regime
regimeregime
regime
regime
regime (including
(including
(including
(including
(including
(including thethethe
the
the
the linear
linear
linear
linear
linear elastic
elastic
linear elastic
elastic
elastic
elastic
VC-CI lattice
stage),
stage),
stage),
stage),
when
stage), followed
followed
stage),
followed
followed
followed
its relative
followed by
by byaaby
by
by a density
aaaplateau
plateau
plateau
plateau
plateau plateau regime
regime
regime
regime
is higher
regime
regime with
with
with
with
with
than
approximately
with 0.20. constant
approximately
approximately
approximately
approximately
approximately constant
constant
constant
constant
constant stress
stress
stress and
stress
stress
stress and
and
and
and aaaaafinal
and final
final
a final
final
final densification
densification
densification
densification
densification
densification
regime
regime
regime
regime
regime with
with
regime
with
with
with steeply
steeply
with steeply
steeply
steeply
steeply increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing stress.
stress.
stress.
stress.
stress.
stress. The
The
The
The
The linear
linear
The
linear
linear
linear elastic
elastic
linear
elastic
elastic
elastic regime
regime
elastic
regime
regime
regime isisis
isis
regime characterized
characterized
is
characterized
characterized
characterized by
characterized
by byelastic
by
by elastic
elastic
by modulus
modulus
elastic
elastic
elastic modulus
modulus
modulus
modulus
4.2. Stress-Strain
(E(E
(E
(E
(E LL),),
LL),
L(E L), Curves
),which
which
which
which
L),which
which
L is isisdriven
isis driven
driven
is driven
driven
driven bybythe
by
by
by thethe
the
by
the
the bending
bending
bending
bending
bending
bending ororstretching
or
or
or stretching
stretching
or stretching
stretching
stretching forthe
for
for
for
for thethe
for
the
the
the inclined
inclined
inclined
inclined
inclined
inclined ororvertical
or
or
or vertical
vertical
or vertical
vertical
vertical cellcell
cell
cell
cell
cell struts/walls,
struts/walls,
struts/walls,
struts/walls,
struts/walls,
struts/walls,
respectively
respectively
respectively [53].
respectively
[53].
[53]. The
[53].
The
The plateau
The
plateau
plateau regime
plateau
regime
regime due
regime
due
due totothe
due
to theplastic
to
the plastic
the hinges
plastic
plastic hinges atatsections
hinges
hinges at sections
at orjoints
sections
sections or
or joints
or can
joints
joints can
cancan
bebemeasured
be measured
be measured
measured
Therespectively
respectively[53].
stress-strain
byplateau
plateau
[53].The
(σ-ε)
stress
The
(σ
plateau
curvesplateau
).The
plThe
regime
regimedue
extracted
densification
due totothe
from the
the
regime
plastic
plastic
impact hinges
starts
hinges atatsections
simulation
from onor
sections orjoints
the joints can
canbe
designed measured
belattice measured
materials
by
by
by
by plateau
by plateau
plateau
plateau stress
stress stress
stress
stress (σ
(σ
(σ(σ pl).
).
plplpl
(σ
pl).
pl
). The ). The
The
The
pl densification
densification
densification
densification
densification regimeregime
regime
regime
regime starts starts
starts
starts
starts from
from
from
from aaaaadensification
from densification
densification
a densification
densification
densification strain
strain
strain
strain
strain (ε(ε(ε
strain
(ε
(εcd
cd
cdcd
cd ),),where
),),cd),
(ε where
where
), where
where
cd
cdwhere thethe
the
the
the
the
with various relative
individual
individual cell
individual
individual celldensities
cell strut/wall
strut/wall
cell strut/wall
strut/wall are shown
comes
comescomes
comes into
into
into in
into Figure
contact
contact
contact
contact with
with6.
with
with Additionally,
each
each
each other,
other,
each
other, and
other, and
and the initial
exhibits
exhibits
and compression
dramatically
dramatically
exhibits
exhibits dramatically
dramatically stage
increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing with
individual
individualcell
cellstrut/wall
strut/wallcomes comesintointocontact
contactwithwitheach eachother,
other,and andexhibits
exhibitsdramatically
dramaticallyincreasing increasing
ε < 5% is enlarged.
strength
strength
strength
strength
strength [53].
[53]. The
[53].
[53].
strength[53].
[53]. stress and strain are calculated in accordance with the initial cross-sectional
area and length The
The
The
The
Theofmodulus
modulus
The each
modulus
modulus
modulus
modulus EE
E ELLLELLis
specimen, is Eis
Lis
is defined
defined
is
LLdefined
defined
defined asas
as
as
as the the
respectively.
defined as
the
the
the slope
slope
the
slope
slope
slope of
slope of
of
of
of the
the
of
the
the
the initial
initial
the
initial
initial
initial linear
linear
initial
linear
linear
linear elastic
elastic
linearelastic
elastic
elastic region;
region;
elastic
region;
region;
region; the
region; the
the
the
the initial
initial
the highest
initial
initial
initial
initial highest
highest
highest
highest highestpeak
peak
peak
peak
peakpeak
stress
stress
stress
stress
stressisisis
isis
stress defined
defined
is
defined
defined
defined as
defined as
as
as
asthethe
as
the
the
the strength
strength
the
strength
strength
strengthσσσσbbbσ
strength ;and
;;bb;;and
bandand
σand the
the
bb; and
the
the
the plateau
plateau
the
plateau
plateau
plateau stress
stress
plateau
stress
stress
stressσσσσplplplσplplis
stress isσis
plis
is calculated
calculated
is as
calculated
plcalculated
calculated
pl calculated as
as
as
as the
the the
as
the
the arithmetical
arithmetical
the mean
mean
arithmetical
arithmetical
arithmetical
arithmetical mean
mean
mean ofof of
mean
of
of
of
the
the
the
the stress
stress
the
stress
stress at
stressat
at
at a
aaa strain
strain
at a
strain
strain interval
interval
strain
interval
interval between
between
interval between
between
between 20%20%
20%
20% and
and
20%
and
and and40%
40%
40%
40% 40%according
according
according
according
according
the stress at a strain interval between 20% and 40% according to ISO 13314: 2011 [54]. to
toto to
ISOISO
to
ISO
ISO ISO13314:
13314:
13314:
13314:
13314: 2011
2011
2011
2011 2011[54].
[54].
[54].
[54].
[54].
ε ε ε
εεε2ε22 2 ε22
1 1 1 22
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 =
𝜎== =111 ∫ ∫∫∫ σ(ε)dε
σ(ε)dε
∫ ,, ,, , ,
σ(ε)dε (5)(5)
(5)
𝑝𝑙
𝑝𝑙
𝑝𝑙
𝑝𝑙 =
𝑝𝑙=𝑝𝑙
𝑝𝑙
𝑝𝑙 εε2ε− ε−
2−
ε2ε222−− ε∫
εε22ε1ε11−
σ(ε)dε
σ(ε)dε
σ(ε)dε
11ε1 εε11 ε
(5)
(5)
(5)
ε1 ε 1
ε1εε111 11

where
where
where
where
where εεε1ε111ε11and
where andandεεεε22ε2 2equal
εand
11 and
and equal
equal
εequal
2 2 equal
0.2
0.2
22 equal
0.2
0.2
0.2andand
0.2
and
and
andand 0.4,
0.4,
0.4,
0.4,
0.4, respectively.
respectively.
0.4, respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
The
The
The
The Theεε ε
cd
cd
cdisε
is
cd is identified
identified
is identified
identified
cd
Theεεcdcdisisidentified
cd identifiedby byby
by using
using
by
using
byusing
usingthe the
the
using
the energy
energy
the energy
energy
theenergy
energy absorption
absorption efficiency
efficiency
absorption
absorption
absorption
absorption (
((
efficiency
efficiency
efficiency
efficiency ())))method.
( method.
()method.
method.
) method.
method.
𝜀𝜀𝜀 𝜀 𝜀𝜀
1 1 𝜀1𝜀
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
Metals 2020, 10, 491 9 of 16

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure
Figure6.6.Stress‐strain
Stress-straincurves
curvesofoflattice
latticematerials
materialsgenerated
generatedfrom
fromtwo
twomethods
methodswith
withvarious
variousrelative
relative
densities:
densities:(a)
(a)FCC;
FCC;(b)
(b)ECC;
ECC;(c)
(c)VC.
VC.

The curves are similar to those of common porous or cellular materials [52], which exhibit three
ideal regimes under uniaxial compression, i.e., a pre-collapse regime (including the linear elastic stage),
followed by a plateau regime with approximately constant stress and a final densification regime with
steeply increasing stress. The linear elastic regime is characterized by elastic modulus (EL ), which
is driven by the bending or stretching for the inclined or vertical cell struts/walls, respectively [53].
The plateau regime due to the plastic hinges at sections or joints can be measured by plateau stress (σpl ).
The densification regime starts from a densification strain (εcd ), where the individual cell strut/wall
comes into contact with each other, and exhibits dramatically increasing strength [53].
The modulus EL is defined as the slope of the initial linear elastic region; the initial highest peak
stress is defined as the strength σb ; and the plateau stress σpl is calculated as the arithmetical mean of
the stress at a strain interval between 20% and 40% according to ISO 13314: 2011 [54].

Zε2
1
σpl = σ(ε)dε, (5)
ε2 − ε1
ε1
Figure 7. The 𝜂(𝜀) − 𝜀 curves of FCC-TO lattices with various relative densities.
 (b)
Metals 2020, 10, 491 10 of 16

where ε1 and ε2 equal 0.2 and 0.4, respectively.

The εcd is identified by using the energy absorption efficiency (η) method.

Zε
1
η(ε) = σ(ε)dε. (6)
σ(ε)
0

The onset of densification is given by using the following equation:

dη(ε) 

= 0, (7)
dε (c)

ε=εcd

Figure 6. Stress‐strain curves of lattice materials generated from two methods with various relative
for which the η(ε) reaches a maximum on the η(ε) − ε curve. For example, the η(ε) − ε curves of the
densities:
FCC-TO (a)lattices
FCC; (b)are ECC; (c) in
depicted VC.Figure 7.

Figure 7. The η(ε) − ε curves of FCC-TO lattices with various relative densities.
Figure 7. The 𝜂(𝜀) − 𝜀 curves of FCC-TO lattices with various relative densities.
Figure 6 shows that the slopes and initial peak stresses of the σ-ε curves go up as the relative density
increases and all the curves reach the maximum strength value at about 1%~5% overall deformation.
The plateau regime is steady at lower relative density. However, a nearly linear hardening phenomenon
is observed in lattice materials with higher relative density due to an increasing stiffness and hardening
effect of base material. With an increasing relative density, the onset of densification also occurs earlier,
resulting in a decreasing εcd (Figure 7). Comparing the two lattice generation methods, topology-guided
lattices generally produce higher σ-ε curves than manually generated structures. Specifically, the gap
between TO- and CI- lattices is larger at a higher relative density, although the difference is not obvious
at a lower relative density. This is because of the cell walls formed in topology-optimised lattices at
high mass fraction, as shown in Table 2. In general, σpl of optimised structures is higher than that
of manually designed structures, especially for FCC (see Table 5). However, three cases (i.e., ECC
with ρ ≈ 0.15, VC with ρ ≈ 0.15 and 0.20) are excepted, which may be attributed to the slightly lower
relative density of topology-optimised lattices comparing with the corresponding crystal-inspired
lattices. For example, the ρ of VC-TO is 0.147, while that of corresponding VC-CI is 0.150 (see Figure 6).
Metals 2020, 10, 491 11 of 16

Table 5. Plateau stress, σpl /[MPa], of the as-designed lattice materials with various relative densities.
¯
Relative Density, ρ [-] FCC-TO FCC-CI Difference ECC-TO ECC-CI Difference VC-TO VC-CI Difference
0.10 20.63 15.59 32.33% 11.43 10.70 6.78% 32.19 28.36 13.49%
0.15 33.69 28.08 19.98% 18.45 21.24 −13.13% 52.96 60.08 −11.84%
0.20 65.43 45.05 45.24% 36.76 34.16 7.63% 90.26 93.16 −3.12%
0.25 110.53 69.13 59.89% 61.00 52.64 15.89% 127.66 124.92 2.19%
0.30 156.75 100.09 56.60% 86.66 80.37 7.82% 190.38 158.42 20.18%

4.3. Mechanical Properties and Energy Absorption

In general, the compressive strength and elastic modulus of lattice materials would increase if
the relative density increases because there is a larger amount of material withstanding the impact
force. This relationship could be fitted by a power law proposed by Gibson and Ashby [55]. The elastic
Modulus, EL , and collapse strength, σb , scale with relative density,ρ, according to the relationships:
σb
= C1 (ρ)n1 , (8)
σy

EL
= C2 (ρ)n2 , (9)
E0
where n1 and n2 represent the structural bending/stretching dominated mode. For bending-dominated
structures (e.g., body-centred lattice), n1 = 1.5, and n2 = 2; for stretching-dominated structures
(e.g., Octet-truss lattice), both n1 and n2 are equal to 1. C1 and C2 are constants related to the lattice’s
architecture as well as the base material properties.
The power law and simulation data are plotted in Figure 8, reflecting that the results of this study
are fitted very well with the formulae. The coefficients of constant C (C1 and C2 ) and exponent n (n1
and n2 ) are tabulated in Table 6. It is noticed that the exponents, n1 and n2 , of the as-designed lattice
materials are respectively close to 1.50 and 1.70, which indicates a bending-dominated behaviour mixed
with a light stretching mode. Montemayor and Greer [46] pointed out that the FCC lattice behaves as a
bending-dominated structure due to the rotation between and within unit cells, although the unit cell is
a stretching-dominated structure. This phenomenon can be observed in Table 3. Gross et al. [13] made
it clear that the ECC lattice is also a bending-dominated structure. Compression tests were carried out
on the VC-CI lattices by Mei et al. [2], where the power law with n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 2 was used to fit the
experimental data.

Table 6. Values of the parameters of the power laws used in fitting mechanical properties and
energy absorption.

Collapse Strength, Elastic Modulus, Toughness, Strain Energy,

Lattice Material σ b [MPa] EL [GPa] UT [MJ/m3 ] WV [MJ/m3 ]
C1 n1 C2 n2 C3 n3 C4 n4
FCC-TO 1.048 1.548 2.369 1.707 205.554 1.773 566.801 1.782
ECC-TO 1.165 1.482 2.807 1.611 154.456 1.849 354.951 1.849
VC-TO 1.242 1.453 3.512 1.691 147.402 1.438 884.025 1.719
FCC-CI 0.830 1.418 2.106 1.705 107.533 1.502 183.828 1.241
ECC-CI 0.935 1.397 2.613 1.603 103.767 1.625 126.143 1.230
VC-CI 1.250 1.353 3.614 1.608 105.342 1.292 499.610 1.449

Comparing the six bending-dominated structures in Figure 8a,b, it is predicted that VC lattices are
stronger than ECC lattices, while ECC lattices are superior to FCC lattices. Additionally, the collapse
strength and elastic modulus of FCC-TO and ECC-TO are close to those of FCC-CI and ECC-CI
at lower relative density. However, the topology-optimised FCC and ECC obviously outperform
the corresponding crystal-inspired structures at a higher relative density. Interestingly, the inverse
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16
Metals 2020, 10, 491 12 of 16
CI at lower relative density. However, the topology-optimised FCC and ECC obviously outperform
the corresponding crystal-inspired structures at a higher relative density. Interestingly, the inverse
phenomenon is found in VC lattices where the collapse strength and elastic modulus of VC-CI are
phenomenon is found in VC lattices where the collapse strength and elastic modulus of VC-CI are
higher than those of VC-TO.
higher than those of VC-TO.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 8.8. The
The relationship
relationship between
between the
the mechanical
mechanical properties/energy
properties/energy absorption
absorption and
and relative
relative density
density
of
of lattice materials: (a) normalised collapse strength; (b) normalised elastic modulus; (c)
lattice materials: (a) normalised collapse strength; (b) normalised elastic modulus; (c) toughness;
toughness;
(d)
(d) energy
energy absorption
absorption per unit volume.
per unit volume.

The energy
Table absorption
6. Values ability, namely
of the parameters the energy
of the power absorbed
laws used in fittingper unit volume
mechanical of cellular
properties materials,
and energy
is defined by the area under the stress-strain curve up to the densification strain.
absorption.

Collapse Strength, Elastic Modulus,

Zεcd Toughness, UT Strain Energy, WV
Lattice
b [MPa] EWL [GPa]
V = σ(ε)dε [MJ/m ]3 [MJ/m3] (10)
Material
C1 n1 C2 n2 C3 n3 C4 n4
0
FCC-TO 1.048 1.548 2.369 1.707 205.554 1.773 566.801 1.782
Among which,
ECC-TO 1.165 the toughness
1.482 (UT2.807
) is defined as the amount
1.611 154.456of energy
1.849per unit volume up
354.951 to the
1.849
strain of 0.25 [50].
VC-TO 1.242 1.453 3.512 1.691 147.402 1.438 884.025 1.719
Zεa
FCC-CI 0.830 1.418 2.106 1.705 107.533 1.502 183.828 1.241
ECC-CI 0.935 1.397 U T =
2.613 σ(ε1.603
)dε, εa =103.767
0.25 1.625 126.143 1.230(11)
VC-CI 1.250 1.353 3.614 0 1.608 105.342 1.292 499.610 1.449
UT andabsorption
The energy WV are also be fitted
ability, by the
namely thepower
energy law.
absorbed per unit volume of cellular materials,
is defined by the area under the stress‐strain curve up to the densification strain.
UT = C 𝜀3
( ρ ) n3 (12)
𝑐𝑑

𝑊𝑉 =
W =∫
C4 (𝜎(𝜀)𝑑𝜀
ρ ) n4 (10)
(13)
V
0
 𝑈𝑇 = ∫ 𝜎(𝜀)𝑑𝜀 , 𝜀𝑎 = 0.25 (11)
0

The UT and WV are also be fitted by the power law.

Metals 2020, 10, 491 𝑈𝑇 = 𝐶3 (𝜌̅ )𝑛3 (12)
13 of 16

𝑊𝑉 = 𝐶4 (𝜌̅ )𝑛4 (13)

As shown in Figure 8c,d, the toughness and energy absorption of all materials rise with an
As shown
increasing relativein Figure
density.8c,d, Thethe toughness among
relationship and energy threeabsorption of all materials
kinds of lattice materials keeps
rise with
as VCan
> FCC > ECC, and the differences become more distinct at a higher relative density. In addition,
increasing relative density. The relationship among three kinds of lattice materials keeps as VC >
FCC > ECC, and the
topology-optimised differences
lattices become more
are characterised distinct at a higher
by performances relative
better than thosedensity. In addition,
of crystal-inspired
topology-optimised
lattices latticesalso
and the differences arebecome
characterised by performances
more distinct better than
with an increasing thosedensity.
relative of crystal-inspired
lattices and the differences
Engineering applicationalso become
generally more distinct
requires that an withenergyanabsorber
increasing relative
ought density.
to absorb impact energy
Engineering
as much as possible application generally requires
while maintaining a low maximumthat an energy absorber
stress [55]. oughtmaterial
Cellular to absorb withimpact
high
porosity produces low plateau stress; however, the quantity of absorbed energy may also be with
energy as much as possible while maintaining a low maximum stress [55]. Cellular material low.
high
In porosity
contrast, produces
a dense low isplateau
material able tostress;
absorbhowever,
a large amount the quantity of absorbed
of energy, but a highenergy
plateaumay also
stress maybe
low. In the
exceed contrast,
stressalimitation
dense material is able
[55]. The plottoof
absorb
energy a large amountinofFigure
absorption energy, 8dbut a high
misses theplateau stress
information
may exceed the stress limitation [55]. The plot of energy absorption
of the maximum allowable stresses. Therefore, Figure 9 shows the diagrams of FCC-TO, ECC-TO, in Figure 8d misses the
information
and VC-TO, of in the
whichmaximum
the WV allowable
is plotted stresses.
with respectTherefore, Figure(σ)
to the stress 9 shows the diagrams
to simplify of FCC-TO,
the relationships of
ECC-TO,compressive
different and VC-TO, in which
stages. the WV is allowable
The maximum plotted with stressrespect certain(energy
to theastress
(σmax ) under ) to simplify
absorptionthe
relationships
ability can alsoofbedifferent
obtained. compressive
This curve helps stages.
toThefindmaximum allowable
a cellular material bears(the
stress
that max)required
under a σcertain
max by
energy absorption
maximising the energy ability can also capability
absorption be obtained. [56].This
Ancurve helps to find
energy-efficient a cellular
structure givesmaterial
a high that bears
envelope.
the required  by maximising the energy absorption capability [56].
In Figure 9, VC-TO lattice is able to absorb more energy than others with the same allowable stress.
max An energy-efficient structure
gives
For a high envelope.
instance, if the σmax In Figure
is 300 MPa, 9, the
VC-TO lattice
values of Wis able to absorb more energy than others with the
V for FCC-TO, ECC-TO, and VC-TO with ρ = 0.196
same
are 64allowable
MJ/m , 47stress.
3 MJ/m For
3 , andinstance,
80 MJ/m if the
3 max is 300 MPa, the values of WV for FCC-TO, ECC-TO, and
, respectively.
VC-TO with 𝜌̅ = 0.196 are 64 MJ/m3, 47 MJ/m3, and 80 MJ/m3, respectively.

9. The energy absorption diagrams of topology-optimised

Figure 9. topology-optimised lattice
lattice materials.
materials.

5.
5. Conclusions
Conclusions
Three
Three types
types of
of lattice
lattice materials,
materials, i.e., FCC, ECC,
i.e. FCC, ECC, and
and VC,
VC, have
have been
been separately
separately designed
designed based
based on
on
two different methods: topology optimisation and crystal inspiration. Numerical compression
two different methods: topology optimisation and crystal inspiration. Numerical compression tests tests
have
have been
been conducted
conducted to to comparatively
comparatively characterise
characterise their deformation modes,
their deformation modes, mechanical
mechanical properties,
properties,
and
and energy absorption capability. The main conclusions and contributions are summarisedas
energy absorption capability. The main conclusions and contributions are summarised asfollows:
follows:
a) Topology optimisation-guided lattice materials are highly similar to the corresponding
crystal-inspired lattice materials, especially at a low relative density. The topology
optimisation-guided lattice materials are generally non-uniform in terms of strut thickness
and joints shape, while the crystal-inspired cells are uniform.
b) Formulae relating the relative density (ρ) and aspect ratio (d/l1 ) of crystal-inspired lattices are
presented, which has been well validated by CAD predictions.
c) Comparing the topology-guided and manually generated structures, FCC-TO and ECC-TO exhibit
a highly similar bending-dominated deformation mode to FCC-CI and ECC-CI, respectively.
Metals 2020, 10, 491 14 of 16

However, differences are found between VC-TO and VC-CI lattices. Shear band is observed in
VC-CI structures at a low relative density while the VC-TO lattice deforms stably.
d) In terms of collapse strength and elastic modulus, the VC lattice is stronger than the FCC and
ECC lattices because its struts are arranged along the loading direction. On the other hand,
topology-generated lattices outperform the corresponding crystal-guided lattices in aspects of
toughness and energy absorption per unit volume.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.Y., K.X. and S.X.; methodology, C.Y. and S.X.; software, C.Y. and
K.X.; validation, C.Y. and K.X.; formal analysis, C.Y. and S.X; investigation, C.Y., K.X. and S.X.; data curation, C.Y.
and K.X.; writing-original draft preparation, C.Y.; writing-review and editing, K.X. and S.X; project administration,
S.X.; funding acquisition, S.C.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51775558) and the
Nature Science Foundation for Excellent Youth Scholars of Hunan Province (No. 2019JJ30034).
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to Ping Xu and Shuguang Yao at CSU for insightful discussion.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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