Fiber Optic 2018

University of Sciences & Technology (UST)
Electronic Engineering Department
Optical Communications
By: Eyas Aref Alyousfi
4/14/2018 By: Eyas Aref Alyousfi 1

Preface
• Intended audience for this course includes
4th year undergraduate Electronic and
Communication Engineering.

References
• Fiber Optic Communications, Joseph C. Palais,
Fifth Edition.
• Fiber-Optic Communication Systems, Govind P.
Agrawal, Third Edition.
• Optical Fiber Communications, Gerd Keiser,
Second Edition.
• Fiber Optic Telecommunication, Nick Massa
, University of Connecticut

‫…‪Continue‬‬
‫• مبادئ انظمة االتصاالت الضوئية‪ ،‬د‪.‬م‪ .‬صباح هاوار البزاز‪-‬‬
‫جامعة العلوم والتكنولوجيا‪.‬‬
‫• خطوط النقل وااللياف الضوئية‪ ،‬المؤسسة العامة للتدريب‬
‫المهني والتقني‪.‬‬
‫‪4/14/2018‬‬ ‫‪By: Eyas Aref Alyousfi‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

Course Specification
Optical
Communications
Vs.
Fiber Optic
Communications
Distribution of Marks
• 50 Final Exam.
• 20 Mid Exam.
• 10 Assignment.
• 20 Lab.

Part1
Introduction to Fiber Optic

Communications
Contents
• Types of Transmission Lines.
• Transmission Lines Applications.
• Main Parameters of Transmission Lines.
• Evolution of Fiber Optic Communications.
• Elements of Fiber Optic Communications System.
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Optic

Communication(Why Fiber Optic!!).
• Areas of Application
Types of Transmission Lines

Continue…
1- Two -Wire Lines
 Low Pass Filters -LPF
(0Hz-200MHz)
 Uniform
At rA=rB Go” Line
LA=LB
D : constant
The same material
 Balanced Lines
IA=IB (>><<) Return” Line

Continue…
Types of Two -Wire Lines
1- Open Two-Wire Line
- High losses Why?
2- Shielded Pair Transmission Line

Electromagnetic interference
between two lines

Continue…
3- Twisted Pair Transmission Line
-UTP
-STP
- Low losses why?

Continue…
UTP Categories:

Continue…
2- Coaxial Cable
Basic Construction
Dielectric
Jacket
Inner Conductor
Outer Conductor

Continue…
Types of Coaxial Cable
1- Rigged or Air Coaxial Cables
2- Flexible Coaxial Cables

Continue…
Advantages and Disadvantages of Coaxial
Cables
- Advantages:
- Distance longer than two -wire lines (500m).
- Electromagnetic interference less than two -wire
lines.
- The life longer than a two -wire lines(High reliability
from 12-15 years).
- Bandwidth wider than two -wire lines ( to 3GHz).
- Simplicity in installation.

Continue…
- Disadvantages:
- High Insertion Loss

- Power Limitations
Note:
- cable diameter
Cost
- Loss
Weight
- Power Handling
Applications
Two -Wire Lines Coaxial Cables
- PSTN - CTVD
- LAN - LAN
- Building installations - Transmission lines for
far distance & high capacity

Main Parameters of
Transmission Lines
1- Operating Frequency
2- Electrical Equivalent Circuit
3- Characteristic Impedance ”Zc”
4- Attenuation and Line Loss
5- Reflection Coefficient
6- Power Handling
7- Input and Output Impedance
8-Impedance Matching
Continue…
1- Operating Frequency
Operating Frequency
Bandwidth - Two -Wire Lines to 200MHz

- Coaxial Cables to 3GHz
- Fiber Optics 10^14 Hz

Continue…
2. Electrical Equivalent Circuit
For two -wire lines and a length (dx)

Continue…
For Coaxial Cables and a length (dx)

Continue…
3. Characteristic Impedance ”Zc”
Calculated in two ways:
1- Mathematical Determination.
The general formula

Continue…
for Two wire Cables
d:Diameter.
x: The distance between two wires.
εr: Dielectric constant
for Coaxial Cables

εr: Dielectric constant.
d:Inner Conductor Diameter.
D: Outer Conductor Diameter.
In practice (Zc = 50 Ω , Zc = 75 Ω)
Continue…
problems:
Calculate the characteristic impedance ”Zc” to a transmission line

with the following specifications:
Calculate the characteristic impedance ”Zc” to a transmission line

with the following specifications:

Continue…
2. Practical Determination

Continue…
Note: Current (Ii) and voltage (Vi) measured

using Multimeter

Continue…
problems:
Calculate the characteristic impedance ”Zc” for the transmission line

shown below:

Continue…
4- Attenuation and Line Loss
Conductors loss. Heat emission

Dielectric Constant loss. εr
Reflection loss. Impedance mismatching
Radiation Loss. Exit portion of the
electromagnetic field to the off-
line (Shielding)

Continue…
5- Reflection Coefficient
ZL= load impedance
Standing Wave
The ideal situation:
Г= 0 & SWR = 1
Impedance Matching

Continue…
problems:
Calculate the reflection coefficient ” Г ” for Coaxial Cable

75 Ω connected to satellite receiver 70 Ω.

Continue…
6- Power Handling
• The value of electric power borne by the
transmission line without damage.
• It depends on the material manufacturing &

Transmission line size

Cable Size Table

Continue…
7- Input Impedance

Continue…
8- Output Impedance

Continue…
9-Impedance Matching
When the transmission lines connect with each
other and with the sources and loads must be
observed: Impedance Matching
This produces:
Maximum electric power transmission
Minimizing loss
Reducing the Reflection

Continue…
Ways to impedance matching :
1. λ/4 Transformer (Resistive Load).
2. Shunt Stubs Method (Inductive Load).
3. Series Stubs Method (Capacitive Load).

Evolution of Fiber
• 1880 – Alexander Graham Bell (photo –phone)
• 1930 – Patents on tubing
• 1950 – Patent for two-layer glass wave-guide
• 1960 – Laser first used as light source
• 1965 – High loss of light discovered
• 1970s – Refining of manufacturing process
Corning factories (20-4-0.5-0.16dB/Km).
• Bell Laboratories LED small area and life
span (3-7-100000 h).
• 1980s – of technology becomes backbone of
long distance telephone networks in NA.
Fiber-optic communication
is a method of transmitting information

from one place to another by sending
light through an optical fiber.
The light forms an electromagnetic
carrier wave that is modulated to carry
information.
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Elements of Fiber Optic
Communications System.

Continue…
The process of communicating using fiber-
optics involves the following basic steps:
 Creating the optical signal using a
transmitter.
 Relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring
that the signal does not become too
distorted or weak, and receiving the optical
signal and converting it into an electrical
signal.
Advantages of Optical
Fiber(Why Fiber Optic!!).
• Large Transmission Capacity (bandwidth up to 2 Gbps, or more)
• Immunity to interference
• Low Loss amp-regen.gif, amps-regens1.gif
• Small Size and Weight
• Greater Security
• Flexibility
• Greater Safety
• Longer Life Span
• Ease of Expansion System Capability
• High Quality Transmission
• Low Installation and Operation Cost
• Non-Flammable
• Basic manufacturing crude available and cheap

Disadvantages of fiber optics
 Disadvantages include the cost of

interfacing equipment necessary to
convert electrical signals to optical
signals. (optical transmitters, receivers)
Splicing fiber optic cable is also more
difficult.
 expensive over short distance
 requires highly skilled installers
 Optical fiber does not transmit electricity.
Areas of Application
Long Distance Telecommunications.
Local Telephone Networks.
Cable TV.
CCTV.
Optical Fiber Sensors.
Military Communications.
internet and data communications.
Assignment
Search for:
History of optical communications

Part2
Nature of light.
Contents
• Wave Nature of light (Wave theory).
• Particle Nature of light ( Quantum theory).
• Snell’s Law.
• The types of materials.
• The properties of light.

Nature of light
• The Light has a three

models:
 Wave Nature of light
(Wave theory).
 Ray Nature of light
(Light Ray theory).
 Particle Nature of
light(Quantum theory).

Wave Nature of light (Wave theory)
- Sometimes light behaves like a wave, which explains how

light bends (or diffracts) around an object
- Light is a high frequency wave.
- Its speed in a vacuum is equal
C=300000Km/s.
- λ=v/f
- v=C/n >>> n: Refractive index

Continue…

Continue…

Continue…
Problems:
Calculate the propagation speed of light in all media in the
previous table.

Particle Nature of light (Quantum theory).
Photons (light “particles”)
light represented by tiny bundles of energy

(or Photons ), following straight line paths
along the rays.

Continue…
PLANCK’S LAW
Wp =hf
Where,
Wp – energy of the photon (joules)

h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10 -34 J-s
f – frequency o f light (photon) emitted (hertz)
Note: Electron Volt (eV) >>>> 1eV=1.6X10^-19 J

Energy of photon vs.
wavelength

Snell’s Law
Refracted Angle
Second middle
Refracted Ray
Incident Angle Reflected Angle
First middle
Reflected Ray
Incident Ray
Note: θi’=θr & θr= θt
Continue…
1- Φi = Φ'i
2-
3- (n1 > n 2)>>>>>>>> (Φi < Φ r)

(n1 < n 2)>>>>>>>> (Φi > Φ r)

Continue…
Critical Angle " θc"
θ i>>>>>> θr=90
n2 / n1≤1
why?
>>n1>n2

Continue…
Total Internal Reflection
• Φi > Φc & n1>n2

The types of materials
1- Transparent materials 1- smooth surfaces

2- Semi-transparent materials 2- non-smooth surfaces
3- Opaque materials

The properties of light
• Light Transmission.
• Light Reflection.
• Light Refraction.
• Light Diffraction
• Light Scattering
• Light Absorption

Problems
Problem 2.1: Find the number of photons incident on a
detector in 1s if the optic power is 1µW and the wavelength
is 0.8µm .if we reduced our observation time to as little as 1
ns. Find the number of photons incident on a detector.
Problem 2.2: Compute the energy of a photon at 0.6,0.82
and 1.3 µm. which has more energy, a visible or an infrared
photon?
Problem 2.3: There are 10^10 photons per second incident
on a photodetector at wavelength 0.5 µm. Compute the
power incident on the detector .if this detector converts light
to current at a rate of 0.65 mA/mW, what current is
produced?
Continue…
Problem 2.4: How many photons are arriving per second
at a receiver if the power is 1nW at wavelength 1.3 µm.
Problem 2.5: Assume that a digital system can be
operated at a data rate that has a value equal to 1% of the
carrier frequency. Compute the allowed bit rates by using
carriers having the frequencies 10KHz,1MHz,100MHz and
10GHz and one having the wavelength 1 µm.
Problem 2.6: How many voice channels can be modulated
onto a carrier at wavelength 1.06 µm. Assume a system
bandwidth equal to 1% of the carrier frequency.

Continue…
Problem 2.7: A light ray proceeds from air (n1=1) into glass
(n2=1.5).Find the transmission angles when θi=0º and when
θi=15º.
Problem 2.8:The last ray in
problem 2.7 now travels from glass
back into air. assume that this
second boundary is parallel to the
first one. The new incident angle is
9.94º,as can be determined from
figure below. Find the direction of
the transmitted ray.

Assignment
Search for:
Applications of fiber optics

Part3
Types and characteristics of

optical fiber

Contents
• Optical Fiber Construction.
• The spread of light inside the optical fiber
• Acceptance Angle " θa"
• Numerical Aperture (NA)
• Terms of total internal reflection
• Fiber Modes
• Normalized Frequency "V“
• Optical Fiber Types

OPTICAL FIBER CONSTRUCTION
Core – thin glass center of

the fiber where light
travels.
Cladding – outer optical
material surrounding the
core
Buffer Coating – plastic
coating that protects
the fiber. n2
OPTICAL FIBER CONSTRUCTION.gif
n1

The spread of light inside the optical fiber
• Optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a

protective outer coating, which guides light along the
core by total internal reflection.
• Φi > Φc & n1>n2
• Φi= Φr
• critical-angle.gif
• refraction1.gif
What will happen if.

Φc > Φi or n2>n1
Acceptance Angle " θa"
• θ < or = θa
θ :Angle of entry
light-through-refraction.gif

Numerical Aperture (NA)
Used to describe the light-gathering or light-collecting ability
of an optical fiber.
In practice lenses
are used to insert
the light from the
source to the
optical fiber and
optical fiber to the
optical detector.
𝞓: Relative difference cone-of-acceptance.gif
Total internal reflection
Total internal reflection conditions:
1) n1>n2 Angle of entry
2) θ < or = θa
3) Φi > Φc
total internal ref.flv

Fiber Modes
Types of basic modes spread inside the optical fiber:
• Transverse Electric Modes (TE – modes)
• Transverse Magnetic Modes (TM – modes)
• Hybrid Modes (HE or EH modes)
Examples of modes HE11, EH12, TE01,

TM02,...............
To modes spread within the core only,

must check the following condition:
2n2/𝜆 <  < 2n1/𝜆
: Propagation constant
Normalized Frequency "V"
• V-Number >>>> modes
a: radius of the core

Optical Fiber Types
According to the refraction index:
1- Step-Index Fibers
2- Graded-Index Fibers
step-vs-graded-index.gif
According to the number of modes:

1- Multimode Fibers
2- Single Mode Fibers
single-multi-mode1.gif
According to the manufacturing material:
1- Glass Optical Fibers (core + cladding)
2- Plastic Optical Fibers(core + cladding)
3- <<<>>>>

Step-Index Fiber

Step-Index Fiber
Fixed
Ms: Number of modes for SI
straight lines
Because light
travels in
straight lines
in the same
center

Graded Index Fiber

Graded Index Fiber
Unstable
Not fixed
Mg: Number of modes for GI
Curved
lines

Single Mode Fiber
Fundamental Mode HE11
Vc: Cutoff V-Number

Single mode spread condition V≤ Vc V: Normalized Frequency
λ >λc amax: Maximum radius of the core

a< or = amax a: radius of the core

Single Mode Fiber
Step-Index Fibers
Vc: Cutoff V-Number
Graded-Index Fibers

Single Mode Fiber
general
Step-Index Fibers
Graded-Index Fibers

Single Mode Fiber
Mode Field Diameter (MFD)???
Cutoff Wavelength "λc"
general
Step-Index Fibers
Graded-Index Fibers

Step Vs. Graded Vs. SM

MM Vs. SM

Plastic Optical Fiber ( POF )
Low-cost 200 dB/km

simplicity
All Plastic
NA=0.5
MMF
1000 μm
5 MHz.km 650 nm
Small distance

Problems
Problems 3.1: For glass optical fiber with Core Reflection Coefficient
equal to 1.48 and cladding Reflection Coefficient equal to 1.46.
a) Describe the conditions for light propagation correctly within the
fiber.
b) Assume that n1=1.46 and n2=1.48 Repeat (a).
Problems 3.2: For Multimode optical fiber with n1=1.5 and n2=1.47.
Find:
a) Critical Angle (θc)
b) Acceptance Angle (θa)
c) Numerical Aperture (NA)
d) Relative difference (𝞓) .

Continue…
Problems 3.3: For step index multimode optical fiber with n1=1.48,
𝜆=850nm,a=40um and 𝞓=1.5%. Find:
a) Normalized Frequency) V-Number( .
b) Number of modes.
Problems 3.4: Find amax for step index optical fiber with the
following specifications:
Δ = 1.5 %, n1 = 1.48, 𝜆 = 850 nm
Problems 3.5: Find amax for graded index optical fiber with the
Δ = 1 %, n1 = 1.5, 𝜆 = 1.3 um and g=2.
Problems 3.6: Find 𝜆c for step index optical fiber with the
Δ = 0.25 % ،a = 4.5 μm ،n1 = 1.46
Assignment
Search for:
Fiber optic manufacturing

techniques

Problems
• 1) Calculate the time required for the light to reach the end of a
fiber made of glass and length of 2 km.
• 2) Calculate the time required to reach the end of a fiber made
of plastic and a length of 200 meters.
• 3) In the following figure, find the values of the angles) θa , Φc ,
Φ2 , Φ1 ) if you know that ( λ = 1310nm ،Δ = 0.01, n2 = 1.48 )

Continue…
• 4) For optical fiber with the following specifications
( λ = 1300nm ،θa =30º, n1 = 1.47 and d=62.5µm (.Find:
a) Type of fiber.
b) V-number.
c) Number of modes.

( λ = 1550nm ،Δ =1%, n1 = 1.5 , mg=100 and g=2 ).Find:
a) Type of fiber.
b) Radius of the core (a).

Continue…
( λ = 1310nm ،n2 =1.47, n1 = 1.5 and d=62.5µm(.Find:
a) Type of fiber.
b) Numerical Aperture (NA).
c) Maximum radius of the core (amax ).
( λ = 1300nm , n1 = 1.5 , Δ =1% and d=22.66µm(.Find:
a) Type of fiber.
b) The (g) value determines the shape of the
refractive index.
c) Maximum radius of the core (amax ) if g=1.
Continue…
( g =2 , n1 = 1.5 , Δ =1% and d=8µm(.Find:
a) Type of fiber.
b) Cutoff Wavelength "λc“.

Part4
Transmission Characteristics of
Optical Fibers
Contents
• Computing power levels in Decibels
• The main factors affecting the performance of
the optical communication system
• Attenuation
• Absorption.
• Scattering.
• Geometric Problems.
• Dispersion
• Fiber Bandwidth and Information Rate
dB
• Case1:
• Case2:
Power Level >>>>Reference Value

Continue…

Attenuation in optical fiber
• Loss of Optical Power
• Distance >>> Repeaters
• Input , output ,Connecting points, inside optical
fiber
FIBER OPTIC LOSS
CALCULATIONS
• The negative sign implies loss.

Attenuation for Systems in series
P2 P3
P1 P4
System System System
1 2 3
• (P4/P1)= (P4/P3)*(P3/P2)*(P2/P1)
• dB=10log(P4/P1)=10log[(P4/P3)*(P3/P2)*(P2/P1)]
• dB=10log (P4/P3)+10log (P3/P2)+ 10log (P2/P1).
Causes of Attenuation
1- Absorption
1- Intrinsic absorption
2- Extrinsic absorption
absorption.gif
absorption-vs-wavelength.gif
Continue…
2-Scattering
1- Rayleigh Scattering <𝜆/10
L=1.7(0.85/ 𝜆)^4 >>>> 𝜆: micrometer , L: dB/Km
2- Mie Scattering >𝜆/10
• scattering.gif
Continue…
3-Geometric Problems
“Minimum Bend radius”!!!
1- Micro bend
2- Macro bend
• macrobending.gif microbending.gif
Transmission windows
Distance
Distance
Bit rate
Bit rate
Less attenuation
Continue…
• These wavelengths were chosen because
they best match the transmission
properties of available light sources with
the transmission qualities of optical fiber

Factors Affecting Attenuation
• Type of fiber (MM,SM,GI,SI)
• Operating conditions
• Manufacturing
• wave length (1550,1310,850nm)
• Manufacturing material ( glass-
plastic)
Dispersion (pulse spreading)
• Dispersion Δt can be determined from Equation:
• and is measured in time, typically nanoseconds or

picoseconds. Total dispersion is a function of fiber length.
The longer the fiber, the more the dispersion. The flowing
equation gives the total dispersion per unit length.

Dispersion (pulse spreading)
Continue…
Dispersion
Limited Maximum Bit Rate
Limited Maximum
Broadening Transmission
Distance
Intersymbol Interference
Errors Bit Error Rate (BER)

Continue…
Types of dispersion
• Intramodal or Chromatic Dispersion - different
wavelengths (implies different frequencies)
traveling at different Speeds (problematic with
Single Mode fiber)
1- Material Dispersion
2- Waveguide Dispersion
• chromatic-dispersion.gif
• Intermodal or Modal Dispersion - different
modes (angles) traveling at different Speeds
(problematic with Multimode fiber)
• mode-dispersion.gif
1310nm Zero-
Continue… Dispersion
Wavelength
Dispersion Shifted
Dispersion Fibers (DSF)
Intramodal or Chromatic Intermodal or Modal

Dispersion Dispersion
(MMF,SMF) (MMF)
Narrow
Spectral
Linewidth
Material Dispersion Waveguide Dispersion

(MMF,SMF) (SMF)
Continue…
• Chromatic dispersion consists of two parts: material
dispersion and waveguide dispersion.
When considering the total dispersion from different

causes, we can approximate the total dispersion by
Δttot.

Fiber Bandwidth
The approximate bandwidth of a fiber can be related to
the total dispersion by the following relationship

Fiber Bandwidth and Information
Rate
Transmission Bit Rate
or
Bandwidth (BW) Information Rate (BR)
RZ- Code NRZ- Code

BW = BR/2 BW = BR
From data sheet

Maximum Transmission Bit Rate
RMS PWout/Km
Problems
 A fiber of 100-m length has Pin = 10 μW and Pout = 9
μW. Find the loss in dB/km.
 A communication system uses 10 km of fiber that
has a 2.5-dB/km loss characteristic. Find the output
power if the input power is 400 mW.
 A 3-km fiber optic system has an input power of 2
mW and a loss characteristic of 2 dB/km. Determine
the output power of the fiber optic system

Continue…
• A 2-km-length multimode fiber has a modal
dispersion of 1 ns/km and a chromatic
dispersion of 100 ps/km • nm. If it is used with
an LED of linewidth 40 nm,
(a) what is the total dispersion?
(b) Calculate the bandwidth (BW) of the fiber.
• A communication system uses 10 km of fiber
that has a 0.8dB/km loss characteristic. Find the
output power if the input power is 0.5 mW.

Continue…
• Complete the following table

Continue…
• Complete the following table

Continue…
• A fiber of 6-Km length has Pin = 2 mW and Pout = 200 μW.
a) Find the loss in dB/km.
b) If total attenuation equal (15dB), of fiber that has a
2dB/km loss characteristic. Find the length of the optical
fiber.
• You have a link with the following specifications:
- Link distance 8Km. - Pulley length 2Km.
- Loss at each welding point 0.5dB.
- Pin = 1 mW and Pout = 10 μW.
Find:1)The total attenuation.
2) Attenuation per kilometer.
• A fiber of 10Km length has Root Mean Square of optical
pulse (σ) equal 5 ns/km. Calculate the bandwidth (BW) of
the fiber.
Continue…
Suppose that the three elements in figure below have losses
of -11,-6 and -3dB ,respectively. Find the total loss of the
combination. Find the output power if the input power is
5mW.
System System System

1 2 3

Assignment
Search for:
• Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio
and the Q-Factor in Fiber-Optic
Communication Systems.

Part5
Fiber Optic Connections

Contents
• Connectors.
• Types of optical fiber connection.
• Losses of optical fiber connection.
• Connector Characteristics.
• Connector Types.
• Reading Data Sheet of Connectors.
• Couplers
Connectors
• Connectors>>>Passive Components
• Fiber>>>>Fiber
• Transmitter>>>> Fiber
• Fiber>>>> Receiver
>>>Easy, economical and less loss.

Types of optical fiber
connection
1) Splicing
>> Fusion Splicing ( Glass fiber)
>> Chemical Splicing (Plastic fiber)
2) Fiber Connectors
>>Mechanical Splicing
>> Removable Connectors

Losses of optical fiber
connection
1) Reflection loss
2) Fiber Misalignment loss
3) Preparing the end of the fiber
4) Mismatching between optical fibers
Loss(dB)=10 Log10(Pi/Po)

Continue…
1) Reflection loss>>Fresnel Reflection
R=[(n1-n0)/(n1+n0)]^2
Fresnel Loss=-10Log10(1-R)
• Fresnel.gif
Continue…
2) Fiber Misalignment loss Fresnel Reflection
>>>
A) Longitudinal Misalignment Index Matching
Gel
Loss(dB)=-10 Log10(1-Z.NA/4a.n0)
Continue…
b) Lateral Misalignment

Continue…
c) Angular Misalignment

Continue…
3) Preparing the end of the fiber

Continue…
4) Mismatching between optical
fibers>>Connection Internal Problems
• Different Core and / or Cladding Diameters
L=-10Log(a2/a1)^2
• Different Numerical Aperture
L=-10Log(NA2/NA1)^2
Different Refractive Index Profiles

Continue…

Connector Characteristics
1) Insertion Loss>>>Average Insertion
Loss 0.25dB>>Maximum Insertion Loss
0.5 dB
2) Return Loss
3) Durability

Connector Types
• Ex: ST,SC,FC,MTP,MU………..etc..
• Simplex or duplex
Reading Data Sheet of
Connectors
• Plug shape (ST, SC, FC…..)
• Manufacturer Brand Name
• Connector Compatibility
• Insertion Loss
• Return Loss
• Durability
• Operating Temperature Range

Couplers
• Passive Components
• Combine >>> Split

Continue…
• Combiner

Types of Couplers

Continue…

Continue…

Fraction of Output Power in each
Output
Number of Output Fraction of Output Loss in
Ports Power in each Output dB
2 0.5 3
4 0.25 6
5 0.2 6.99
8 0.125 9
10
15
20
50
100
400
1000
Continue…
• Fraction of Output Power in each Output = 1 /

Number of Output Ports
• Loss in dB = 10 Log ( Number of Output Ports )
Note: The power split does not have to be equal. The power
division is given in decibels or in percent. For example, and
80/20 split means 80% to port 2, 20% to port 3. In decibels, this
corresponds to 0.97 dB for port 2 and 6.9 dB for port 3
Coupler Characteristics
• Directionality of Light Transmission
• Number of Inputs and Outputs
• Wavelength Selectivity
• Type of Transmission: Single or Multimode
• Signal Attenuation
• Signal Splitting
• Polarization Dependent Loss

Coupler Applications
• Local Area Networks- LAN
• Cable Television Distribution – CTVD
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing - WDM

Continue…

Continue…

Continue…

Problems
An 8 × 8 star coupler is used in a fiber optic system
to connect the signal from one computer to eight
terminals. If the power at an input fiber to the star
coupler is 0.5 mW, find (1) the power at each output
fiber and (2) the power division in decibels.
A 10 × 10 star coupler is used to distribute the 3-dBm
power of a laser diode to 10 fibers. The excess loss
(Lossex) of the coupler is 2 dB. Find the power at
each output fiber in dBm and μW.

Assignment
Search for:
-Wavelength Selective Coupler.
- X-Coupler.
- Directional Coupler.
- Symmetrical Coupler.

Part6
Light Sources and Light Transmitters

Contents
• Introduction to Light Sources.
• Source Requirements.
• Light-Emitting Diodes (LED).
• Laser Diodes (LD).
• LED Versus Laser.
• Output Power and Light Coupling.
• Direct Vs. External Modulation.

Introduction to Light Sources
Basic function of the light transmitter:
Converting the electrical signals to light signals

Continue…
• The light transmitters contain:
 Interface circuit >> Makes the signal compatible with
the drive circuit.
 Source drive circuit>> Regulates and controls the
current inside the light source.
 Optical source>>Converting the electrical signals to
light signals

Continue…
Two basic light sources are used for fiber
optics:
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 Laser Diode (LD)

Source Requirements
• Operating Wavelengths.
• Emitted power >>>mW.
• Emission Linewidth, Spectral Width (σλ).
• Source Emitting Area>> Fiber Core Area.
• Stability and non-impact of temperature.
• Modulation Ability & Modulation Rate.
• The electronic circuits associated with the source
are less complex and expensive.

Emission Linewidth, Spectral
Width

Continue…
The wavelength and Spectral Width depends
on the:
• Type of semiconductor material.
• Operating conditions.
• Construction of light source.

Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)
• An LED is form of junction diode that is operated
with forward bias.
• The output spectrum of a typical LED is about 40
nm, which limits its performance because of
severe chromatic dispersion (Incoherent).
(Spontaneous Emission).
• Bit rate to125 Mbit/s.
• Wavelengths (850nm,1310nm,650nm).
• LEDs operate in a more linear fashion than do
laser diodes. This makes them more suitable for
analog modulation.
Continue…
• LEDs typically have large numerical apertures ,
which makes light coupling into single-mode fiber
difficult.
• LEDs are used in lower-data-rate, shorter-distance
multimode systems because of their inherent
bandwidth limitations and lower output power
(µW).
• Cheap and widespread.
• Typical applications are local area networks,
closed-circuit TV, and transmitting information in
areas where EMI may be a problem.
Continue…

Continue…
• Two basic structures for LEDs are used in
fiber optic systems: surface-emitting and
edge emitting

Specification and characteristics
of some types of LED

Laser Diodes (LD)
• “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation” >>>> Stimulated Emission.
• Laser diodes generate coherent.
• Laser diodes are constructed much like LEDs but

operate at higher current levels.
Continue…
• LD are used in applications in which longer
distances and higher data rates are required.
Because an LD has a much higher output power
(mW) than an LED, it is capable of transmitting
information over longer distances.
• LD has a much narrower spectral width (< 1nm) ,
it can provide high-bandwidth communication over
long distances. The LD’s smaller N.A. also allows
it to be more effectively coupled with single-mode
fiber.
Continue…
• They are also very sensitive to fluctuations in
temperature and drive current, which causes
their output wavelength to drift. In applications
such as wavelengthdivision multiplexing in which
several wavelengths are being transmitted down
the same fiber, the stability of the source
becomes critical. This usually requires complex
circuitry and feedback mechanisms to detect
and correct for drifts in wavelength.

Continue…
• The difficulty with LDs is that they are inherently
nonlinear, which makes analog transmission
more difficult.
• The benefits, however, of high-speed
transmission using LDs typically outweigh the
drawbacks and added expense.

Laser Characteristics
• Laser Quantum Efficiency "η "
• Threshold Current.
• Rise and Fall Time.
• Frequency Chirp & Mode Hopping.
• Dynamic Response.
• Reliability.

Laser Quantum Efficiency "η "
• Photons to electrons ratio.
• A value ranging from 0 to 1 >> η = 0.7

“good value for most types of laser”.
• η depends heavily on temperature.

Threshold Current
• It is the least current that makes the laser
work correctly and does not work as a
LED.
• Increases the threshold current by
increasing the temperature.
• In practice, a laser cooling system is
required

Rise and Fall Time
• It is one of the main indicators for
determining laser working speed and is
measured in nanoseconds and reaches
less than 0.1 ns

Frequency Chirp & Mode
Hopping
This condition occurs in direct modification, especially when
increasing the injection current, which leads to increased
temperature.
Dynamic Shift

Dynamic Response
Affects the operation of the system especially at
high speeds.
Delay

Reliability
• Laser is less reliable than LED because it
is more complex in design and is affected
by temperature.
• The operating life of the laser form 10^4 to
10^5 hours.
• Reliability>>>> Life span or working hours.

LED Versus Laser

Output Power and Light
Coupling
The light inside of the optical fiber depends
on:
• Radiation Angle
• Light Emitting Area
• Alignment of the Source and Fiber
• Fiber Numerical Aperture

Coupling Efficiency
Light Emitting Area Radiation angle
Angle of acceptance

Direct Vs. External Modulation
• Lasers and LEDs used in telecommunication

applications are modulated using one of two methods:
direct modulation or external modulation.
• In direct modulation, the output power of the device varies
directly with the input drive current.
• Both LEDs and lasers can be directly modulated using
analog and digital signals.
• The benefit of direct modulation is that it is simple and
cheap.
• The disadvantage is that it is slower than indirect modulation
with limits of less than approximately 3 GHz.
Direct Modulation

External Modulation
• In external modulation , an external device is used to
modulate the intensity or phase of the light source.
• External modulation is typically used in high-speed
applications such as long-haul telecommunication or cable
TV head ends.
• The benefits of external modulation are that it is much
faster and can be used with higher-power laser sources.
• The disadvantage is that it is more expensive and requires
complex circuitry to handle the high frequency RF
modulation signal.

Continue…

Assignment
Search for:
• Single-frequency laser diodes.

• Super-Luminescent Diode (SLD).
• Mach-Zehnder Modulator.

Part7
Fiber Optic Detectors & Light

Receivers (Photodetector)
Contents
• Introduction to Light Receivers.
• Photodetector Requirements.
• Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN).
• Avalanche Photodiode (APD).
• Photodetector Characteristics.
• Noise sources in optical fiber systems.
• Photodetector Noise.
• Types of Photodetector Noise.
• Typical Photodetector Characteristics.
• Output Power and Light Coupling.
Introduction to Light Receivers
>> Basic function of the Light Receivers:
Converting the light signals to electrical signals.
>> The light Receivers contain:
1) Optical Detector.
2) Amplifier.
3) Output Signal Processing.
4) Control Circuitry.

Continue…

Continue…
Two basic light detectors are used for fiber
optics:
 Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (PIN).
 Avalanche Photodiode (APD).

Photodetector Requirements
• High Sensitivity.
• High Quantum Efficiency.
• Short Response Time.
• Minimum Noise Produced.
• Stability of Performance Characteristics.
• Low Bias Voltage.
• High Reliability.
• Low Cost.
• Detection Area>> The sensitive area of the detector.
PIN
• The most common optical detector used
with fiber-optic systems is the PIN diode.
• The PIN diode is operated in the reverse-
bias mode.
• The low junction capacitance of the PIN
diode allows for very fast switching.
APD
• The avalanche photodiode (APD) is also
operated in the reverse- bias mode
• APD has high gain due to self multiplying
mechanism ,used in high end system.
• This multiplying effect gives an APD very
high sensitivity.
• APD’s are costly and need high reverse
bias voltage ( EX:40V).
PIN Vs. APD
• PIN gives higher bandwidth and bit rate
• APD gives higher sensitivity
• Si works only up to 1100 nm; InGaAs up to
1700, Ge up to 1800
• InGaAs has higher  for PIN, but Ge has
higher M for APD
• InGaAs has lower dark current
Photodetector Characteristics
• Quantum Efficiency (η): the ratio of the number
of electrons generated by the detector to the
number of photons incident on the detector
Quantum efficiency = (Number of

electrons)/Photon

Continue…
• Responsivity "R“ : the ratio of the electrical
power to the detector’s output optical
power. [A/W]

Detector spectral response

Continue…
• Response time—the time required for the
detector to respond to an optical input.
The response time is related to the
bandwidth of the detector by
BW = 0.35/tr
• where tr is the rise time of the device. The
rise time is the time required for the
detector to rise to a value equal to 63.2%
of its final steady-state reading.
Continue…
• Bias Voltage-The PIN diode & APD are
operated in the reverse-bias mode.
• 5V-200V

Noise sources in optical fiber
systems
• Noise sources in optical fiber systems:
1) Source noise
2) Fiber noise
3) Photodetector noise

Photodetector Noise
• Dark Current Noise.
• Shot Noise.
• Noise Equivalent Power (NEP).
• Detectivity.
• Minimum Detectable Power (MDP).
• Excess Avalanche Noise Factor.

Continue…
• Dark current- the amount of current generated
by the detector with no light applied. Dark
current increases about 10% for each
temperature increase of 1°C and is much more
prominent in Ge and In GaAs at longer
wavelengths than in silicon at shorter
wavelengths.
• Shot Noise- Caused by current fluctuations for
example Dark Current Noise.

Continue…
• Noise floor—minimum detectable power
that a detector can handle. The noise floor
is related to the dark current since the dark
current will set the lower limit.
Noise floor = Noise (A)/Responsivity (A/W)

Continue…
• Noise equivalent power (NEP)—at a given
modulation frequency, wavelength, and
noise bandwidth, the incident radiant
power that produces a signal-to-noise ratio
of one at the output of the detector

Continue…
• Detectivity
• Specific Detectivity

Continue…
• Minimum Detectable Power (MDP).
• S/N in analog systems.

• BER in digital systems.

Continue…
• Excess Avalanche Noise Factor>>> only
in APD.
• A: Amplification factor for ADP.

• x: Constant coefficient depends on the
material manufacturing>>(0.3-0.5 for Si)
(0.7-1 for Ge).
Types of Photodetector Noise
1) Thermal noise
2) Shot noise
Is ISN² ITN²

Continue…
Is: Photodetector current.
ITN: Thermal noise current.
ISN: Shot noise current.
PTN: Thermal noise power.
PSN: Shot noise power.
η :Quantum Efficiency.
e: Electron charge=-1.6*10^-19 C.
P: Falling power on the detector.
K: Boltzmann constant=1.38*10^-23 J/K.
T: Absolute temperature.
Δf: The receiving bandwidth.
ID=Dark current.
RL: Load resistance.
Continue…
Signal to Noise Ratio:

Typical Photodetector
Characteristics

Typical Characteristics of P-I-N
and Avalanche photodiodes
Output Power and Light
Coupling
• Detection Area (S) >> The sensitive area
of the detector.
• (A) Surface area of light outside of the
fiber.
• If (S>A) lossless Coupling Efficiency
• If (S<A) loss

Assignment
Search for:
• PIN structure.
• APD structure.

Problems
A fiber optic communications system with the
• LED with P=10mW,λ=850nm.
• PIN with R=0.5A/W, ID =2nA,RL=50Ω , Δf=10MHz
T=27 Cº
• Fiber loss =20dB.
• Connection source loss=14dB
• Connection loss=10dB.
)

Continue…
Find:
1) Receiving power PR.
2) Current and power of the photodetector.
3) Shot noise power P SN
4) Thermal noise power PTN
5) Single to Noise ratio (SNR

Part8
Introduction to Fiber Optic System

Design
Contents
• Introduction.
• Design System Requirements.
• Optical Link Budget (Power Budget).
• Bandwidth Budget ( Rise Time Budget).

Introduction
• The design of optical fiber systems includes
the following calculation:
1) Optical Link or Power Budget.
2) Bandwidth or Rise Time Budget.

Design System Requirements
• Transmission Type
• The value of the receiving power required
• Total distance between transmitter and receiver
• Data transfer rate
• Type of fiber
• Type of light transmitter
• Type of optical receiver
• Additional components (connectors- Splitters ...)

Optical Link or Power Budget
• The power arriving at the detector must be sufficient to allow
clean detection with few errors. Clearly, the signal at the
receiver must be larger than the noise. The power at the
detector, Pr, must be above the threshold level or receiver
sensitivity Ps.
• The receiver sensitivity Ps is the signal power, in dBm, at the

receiver that results in a particular bit error rate (BER).
Typically the BER is chosen to be one error in 10^9 bits or
10–9.

Continue…
The received power at the detector is a function of:
1. Power emanating from the light source (laser
diode or LED)—(PL)
2. Source to fiber loss (Lsf)
3. Fiber loss per km (FL) for a length of fiber (L)
4. Connector or splice losses (Lconn)
5. Fiber to detector loss (Lfd)

Continue…
• The allocation of power loss among system components is
the power budget. The power margin is the difference
between the received power Pr and the receiver sensitivity
Ps by some safety margin Lm.
where Lm is the loss margin in dB

Pr is the received power
Ps is the receiver sensitivity in dBm

Continue…
• If all of the loss mechanisms in the system
are taken into consideration, the loss
margin can be expressed as next equation.
• All units are dB and dBm.

Continue…
• In Analog System >>>> SNR
• Ex: A system to send video from one point to
another to get a clear picture we need to be SNR =
50dB.
• In digital System >>>> BER
• Ex: The APD needs to have a receiving power
equal to 40dB to obtain BER= (10^9)
Receiving signal power>>> Photodetector Sensitivity

Continue…

Example 1
A system has the following characteristics:
• LED power (PL) = 2 mW (3 dBm)
• LED to fiber loss (Lsf) = 3 dB
• Fiber loss per km (FL) = 0.5 dB/km
• Fiber length (L) = 40 km
• Connector loss (Lconn) = 1 dB (one connector
between two 20-m fiber lengths)
• Fiber to detector loss (Lfd) = 3 dB
• Receiver sensitivity (Ps) = –36 dBm
• Find the loss margin
Solution
Lm = 3 dBm – 3 dB – (40 km × 0.5 dB/km) –
1 dB – 3 dB – (–36 dBm) = 12 dB
• This particular fiber optic loss budget is
illustrated in next figure , with each loss
graphically depicted.

Continue…

Additional Equations
• SNR= [(m²/2)RL (RPR)²/(4KTeΔf)]
m: modulation index
Te: Equivalent temperature
Te=T*F
F:noise figure
• RL=(2πCdΔf)-1
• Cd: The electrical capacity of the optical detector
• R=ηeλ/hC
• Imin(sat)=VB/RL VB: bias voltage (Ex:5v for PIN)
Bandwidth and Rise Time
Budgets
The transmission data rate of a digital fiber optic
communication system is limited by the rise time of the
various components, such as amplifiers and LEDs, and the
dispersion of the fiber.
The cumulative effect of all the components should not limit
the bandwidth of the system. The rise time tr and bandwidth
BW are related by

Continue…
• This equation is used to determine the required system
rise time. The appropriate components are then selected
to meet the system rise time requirements. The
relationship between total system rise time and
component rise time is given by next equation:
• where ts is the total system rise time and tr1, tr2, ... are
the rise times associated with the various components.

Continue…
To simplify matters, divide the system into five groups:
• 1. Transmitting circuits (ttc)
• 2. LED or laser (tL)
• 3. Fiber dispersion (tf)
• 4. Photodiode (tph)
• 5. Receiver circuits (trc)
• The system rise time can then be expressed as

Continue…
• The system bandwidth can then be
calculated using next equation from the
total rise time ts :

Electrical and Optical Bandwidth
• Electrical bandwidth (BWel) is defined as the
frequency at which the ratio current out/current in
(Iout/Iin ) drops to 0.707. (Analog systems are
usually specified in terms of electrical bandwidth.)
• Optical bandwidth (BWopt) is the frequency at

which the ratio power out/power in (Pout/Pin )
drops to 0.5.

Continue…
Because Pin and Pout are directly
proportional to Iin and Iout (not I 2 in and I 2
out ), the half-powerb point is equivalent to
the half-current point. This results in a
BWopt that is larger than the Bwel as given
in next equation:

Continue…
• In Digital transmission (system):
• If using NRZ format:
BR=0.7/ts
BR: Bit Rate, ts: total rise time (system rise time)
• And if using RZ format:
BR=0.35/ts

Example 2
A 10-km fiber with a BW × length product of
1000 MHz × km (optical bandwidth) is used
in a communication system. The rise times
of the other components are ttc = 10 ns, tL =
2 ns, tph = 3 ns, and trc = 12 ns. Calculate
the electrical BW for the system.

Solution
• Because we are looking for the electrical BW, first
calculate the electrical BW of the 2-km fiber from the
optical BW and then calculate the rise time tr = tf.
• BWopt = (1000 MHz × km)/10 km = 100 MHz
• BWel = 0.707 × 100 MHz = 70.7 MHz
• The fiber rise time is
• tr = tf = 0.35/(70.7 MHz) = 4.95 ns
• The system rise time is
• ts = (102 + 22 + 4.952 + 32 + 122)1/2 = 16.8 ns
• System BWel is
• BWel = 0.35/(16.8 × 10–9) = 20.8 Mhz
Additional Equations
• tPD²= tTR²+tRC²
• tRC=2.19 RL Cd
• RL increase Ps increase but tPD decrease
• tf= L Mt Δλ >>
• Mt: total dispersion=Δtot
• Δλ: bandwidth

Assignment
Search for:
Optical Amplifier

Fiber Optic 2018

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University of Sciences & Technology (UST)

Electronic Engineering Department

By: Eyas Aref Alyousfi

4/14/2018 By: Eyas Aref Alyousfi 1

4/14/2018 By: Eyas Aref Alyousfi 2

4/14/2018 By: Eyas Aref Alyousfi 3

‫‪4/14/2018‬‬ ‫‪By: Eyas Aref Alyousfi‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

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Introduction to Fiber Optic

• Transmission Lines Applications.

• Main Parameters of Transmission Lines.

• Evolution of Fiber Optic Communications.

• Elements of Fiber Optic Communications System.

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Optic

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2- Shielded Pair Transmission Line

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2- Flexible Coaxial Cables

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- High Insertion Loss

Two -Wire Lines Coaxial Cables

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Bandwidth - Two -Wire Lines to 200MHz

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The general formula

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for Coaxial Cables

Calculate the characteristic impedance ”Zc” to a transmission line

Calculate the characteristic impedance ”Zc” to a transmission line

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Note: Current (Ii) and voltage (Vi) measured

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Calculate the characteristic impedance ”Zc” for the transmission line

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Conductors loss. Heat emission

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ZL= load impedance

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Calculate the reflection coefficient ” Г ” for Coaxial Cable

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• It depends on the material manufacturing &

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is a method of transmitting information

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 Disadvantages include the cost of

History of optical communications

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• Particle Nature of light ( Quantum theory).