Resistor

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. This constant of proportionality is called conductance, G. The reciprocal of the conductance is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Practical resistors include a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or preamp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Color coding
The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, very commonly for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, and others. A separate code, the 25pair color code, is used to identify wires in some telecommunications cables. The electronic color code was developed in the early 1920s by the Radio Manufacturers Association (now part of Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)), and was published as EIA-RS279. The current international standard is IEC 60062.[2] Colorbands were commonly used (especially on resistors) because they were easily printed on tiny components, decreasing construction costs. However, there were drawbacks, especially for color blind people. Overheating of a component, or dirt accumulation, may make it impossible to distinguish brown from red from orange. Advances in printing technology have made printed numbers practical for small components, which are often found in modern electronics.

It is sometimes not obvious whether a color coded component is a resistor, capacitor, or inductor, and this may be deduced by knowledge of its circuit function, physical shape or by measurement. Resistor values are always coded in ohms (symbol ), capacitors in picofarads (pF), and inductors in microhenries (H).

One decade of the E12 series (there are twelve preferred values per decade of values) shown with their electronic color codes on resistors.

A 100 k , 5% through-hole resistor.

A 0 resistor, marked with a single black band.

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.
y y y y

band A is first significant figure of component value (left side) band B is the second significant figure band C is the decimal multiplier band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)

For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is 5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms. Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-HDBK-199 for further details. Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, and/or an additional band indicating temperature coefficient, in units of ppm/K. All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are optional (italicised below).

The standard color code per EN 60062:2005 is as follows: Significant Multiplier figures 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10-1 10-2 Temp. Coefficient (ppm/K) 250 U 100 S 50 R 15 P 25 Q 20 Z 10 Z 5 M 1 K

Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold Silver None
1. 2. 3.

Tolerance

1% 2% ( 5%) 0.5% 0.25% 0.1% 0.05% (10%) 5% 10% 20%

F G

D C B A J K M

Any temperature coefficent not assigned its own letter shall be marked "Z", and the coefficient found in other documentation. For more information, see EN 60062. Yellow and Gray are used in high-voltage resistors to avoid metal particles in the lacquer.[3]

A resistor which (read left to right) displays the colors yellow, violet, yellow, brown. The first two bands represent the digits 4, 7. The third band, another yellow, gives the multiplier 104. The value is then 47 x 104 , or 470 k . The brown band shows a tolerance of 1%. Resistors use Preferred numbers for their specific values, which are determined by their tolerance. These values repeat for every decade of magnitude: 6.8, 68, 680, and so forth. Zero ohm resistors are made as lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-shaped body which can be substituted for another resistor value in automatic insertion equipment. They are marked with a single black band.

The 'body-end-dot' or 'body-tip-spot' system was used for radial-lead composition resistors sometimes found in very old equipment; the first band was given by the body color, the second band by the color of the end of the resistor, and the multiplier by a dot or band around the middle of the resistor. The other end of the resistor was colored gold or silver to give the tolerance, otherwise it was 20%

Extra bands on ceramic capacitors will identify the voltage rating class and temperature coefficient characteristics. A broad black band was applied to some tubular paper capacitors to indicate the end that had the outer electrode; this allowed this end to be connected to chassis ground to provide some shielding against hum and noise pickup. Polyester film and "gum drop" tantalum electrolytic capacitors are also color coded to give the value, working voltage and tolerance.