Week 1, Introduction

BEng Tech (Hons), Drainage & Stormwater 24 July 2022
Management
DRAINAGE AND STORMWATER MANAGEMENT (CDS8X02)

BEng Tech (Hons) in Civil Engineering
Dr G.K. Nkhonjera (Ext. 6854)
Department of Civil Engineering (Doornfontein Campus)
Timetable
Time Module Lecturer Room/

Venue
MONDAY Drainage and Stormwater G.K. (Blackboard)
15:00 - 18:00 Management Nkhonjera
(Lectures)
MONDAY Drainage and Stormwater G.K. (Blackboard)

13:00 – 14:00 Management Nkhonjera
(Consultations)
Property of Civil Engineering Department 2
Assessments
• Attendance.
• Class Test.
• Online Tests.
• Class Assignment.
Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 1

Management
Assessment Weightings
Assessment Weightings (%)

Attendance 05
Online Test 1 15
Online Test 2 15
Online Test 3 15
Class Test 20
Class Assignment 30
Prescribed reading/ text book

PRESCRIBE LITERATURE
CATEGORY AUTHOR TITLE PUBLISHER
BOOK/ MANUAL City of STORMWATER DESIGN MANUAL – June 2019 Draft City of Johannesburg
Johannesburg
BOOK/ MANUAL CSIR Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design (The RED CSIR (Free online)
BOOK). https://www.ukesa.info/library/view/red-book
https://www.csir.co.za/neighbourhood-planning-and-design-guide-red-
book
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
BOOK/ MANUAL B Woods The SUDS Manual (Version 5, 2016) CIRIA, London, UK
Ballard, et al https://www.ciria.org/CIRIA/Resources/Free_CIRIA_publications/Resour
ces/Free_CIRIA_publications.aspx?hkey=622b85b3-7d21-4e59-8093-
459571496a0a
E-BOOK Mohammad Urban Water Engineering and Management (Latest Edition) CRC Press, Taylor &
Karamouz, Ali Francis Group, 6000
Moridi, Sara Broken Sound
Nazif Parkway NW, USA.
E-BOOK Mackenzie L. Water and Wastewater Engineering – Design Principles and Practice. McGraw-Hill
Davis Publishers, Inc., USA
WEBSITE Class webpage
NOTES Additional notes online
5
Property of Civil Engineering Department
Background knowledge
• Hydraulics.
• Hydrology.
6

Management
Syllabus at a glance
• Urban Hydrology.
• Planning Considerations.
• Design Considerations.
CDS8X02 Honours Syllabus

Week Date Content Readings
Introduction: Environment, Climate Change,
Chapter 1, WRC:
1 18 July Separate stormwater systems, Combined
TT5813
stormwater systems, SUDS. ASSIGNMENT/PROJECT
Urban Hydrology: Introduction, Catchment, Chapter 3,
2 25 July
Precipitation. Karamouz
Urban Hydrology: Precipitation, Precipitation Chapter 3,
3 1 Aug
characteristics, Runoff. ONLINE TEST 1 Karamouz
Urban Hydrology: Runoff, Runoff estimation Chapter 3,
4 8 Aug
methods, Principles behind urban hydrology. Karamouz
Planning Considerations: Introduction, Natural
5 15 Aug Drainage System in Johannesburg, Stormwater RED BOOK: L.3
management vs the Environment. ONLINE TEST 2

continue …
Planning Considerations: Drainage systems under climate RED BOOK:

6 22 Aug
change, Stormwater Management Planning. L.3
Planning Considerations: Stormwater Management RED BOOK:
7 29 Aug
Planning. L.3
8 5 Sep MID BREAK
Planning Considerations: Stormwater Management RED BOOK:
9 12 Sep
Planning. ONLINE TEST 3 L.3
Design Considerations: Introduction, Stormwater RED BOOK:
10 19 Sep
management options. L.3
Design Considerations: Sustainable drainage systems RED BOOK:
11 26 Sep
(SuDS) L.3

Management

continue …

Design Considerations: Sustainable drainage systems RED BOOK: L.3
12 3 Oct
(SuDS)
Design Considerations: Review of ecological
13 10 Oct RED BOOK: L.2
processes in SUDS. CLASS TEST
Design Considerations: Design of major stormwater
systems.
Design Considerations: Design of major stormwater
systems.
16 31 Oct ORAL PRESENTATIONS
17 7 Nov GOOD LUCK TO YOU ALL!!!!!
10
Stormwater Management
• Introduction.
• Climate change.
• Urban hydrology (Precipitation, Runoff, Catchment).
• Stormwater and the Environment.
• Land use (urbanization).
• Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS).
• Natural drainage system in Johannesburg.
• Stormwater management planning.
• Examples of SUDS.
• Design considerations of SUDS.
• Major and minor stormwater.
11
Introduction
⚫National Water Act (1998).

⚫Climate change & Environment.
⚫Stormwater vs Runoff.
⚫Objectives.
⚫Practices.
⚫Pollution.
⚫Stormwater Design philosophy.
12

Management
National Water Act (1998)
⚫Ensures
that Nation’s water resources are PROTECTED, USED, DEVELOPED,
CONSERVED, MANAGED and CONTROLLED reasonably.
⚫Prevent pollution and ecological degradation.
⚫Promote conservation.
⚫Secure ecologically sustainable development.
13
Climate change and Environment
• Do you believe in climate change?

• Green House Gas (GHG) Emissions.
• Increasing regional and global temperatures.
• Impact on the environment.
• Can a 20-year rainfall become 5-year rainfall.
• Climate change impact on stormwater management.
14
Hydrology in general
• Definition of Hydrology
➢Occurrence, Circulation and Distribution of water on the Earth surface.
• Fundamental importance
➢ Civil Engineers,
➢ Environmental Engineers
➢ Hydrogeologists,
➢ Other Earth Scientists.
15

Management
Branches of hydrology
• Surface Hydrology.
• Groundwater Hydrology.
16
Application of Hydrology in Engineering
• Spillway, bridges, drainage & stormwater design, etc.

• Yield of the catchment for dam design.
• Flood, droughts, erosion, pollution control, etc.
• Irrigation, water supply, navigation.
17
Global Distribution of water

(K.R. Arora, 2002)
• Ocean: 97.2%
• Ice caps and Glaciers: 2.1%
• Groundwater: 0.61%
• Rivers and Lakes: 0.01%
• Soil water: 0.005%
• Atmosphere: 0.001%
18

Management
Hydrological cycle Ecclesiastes 1:7

All the rivers run into the sea, Yet the sea
is not full; To the place from which the
rivers come, There they return again.
19
Hydrological cycle
(Houghtalen, et al., 2010)
20
Hydrological cycle – what it is!
• The hydrological cycle is the central focus of hydrology.

• The cycle is complex and has no beginning or end.
• Its processes occur continuously.
• Hydrologic cycle – closed system.
• Hydrologic budget – quantitative accounting of the water within the
system.
• Hydrological Processes.
21

Management
Hydrological Processes
• Precipitation
• Evaporation
• Transpiration
• Infiltration
• Percolation
• Runoff
22
Hydrologic Budget (Water Balance)
- Runoff into reservoir.

- Groundwater discharge into
reservoir.
- Artificial water recharge.
- Runoff out of reservoir.

- Draw-off from reservoir.
23
Water Balance Equation
• P + Qi – Qo – R – I – E – T = ∆S
• Where,
• P = Precipitation
• Qi = Inflow to the reservoir
• Qo = Outflow in form of draw-off from reservoir
• R = Runoff out of the reservoir
• I = Infiltration
• E = Evaporation
• T = Transpiration
• ∆S = Change in Storage in a specified time period.
24

Management
Precipitation
• Definition of Precipitation.
• Fall of water from the atmosphere in
various forms.
• Forms of Precipitation
• Rain, Drizzle (liquid droplets).
• Snow (ice crystals).
• Hail (solid ice stones).
• Fog, sleet, dew.
• Rain (rainfall) most important.
25
Types of Precipitation
• Frontal - results from warm air passing over cold air.

• Cyclonic – cyclic air of high pressure moves in the ‘eye’ which is an
area of low pressure. (Also known as Hurricanes or Typhoons).
• Convective – caused by the sun heating the surface, thus resulting in
warm moist air rises.
• Orographic – caused by an air mass being forced from a low elevation
to a higher elevation. As the air rises it cools, and cannot hold the
moisture.
26
Rainfall
• Rainfall is sometimes referred to as Storm.

• Terms to consider
➢Rainfall depth.
➢Rainfall duration (storm duration).
➢Rainfall intensity (depth of rainfall divided by storm duration).
• Storm frequency (Describe the probability of occurrence) .
27

Management
Rainfall parameters
• Point Rainfall.
• Aerial Rainfall.
• Mean Annual Rainfall (MAR).
• Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP).
28
Hydrological Processes
• Precipitation
• Evaporation
• Transpiration
• Infiltration
• Percolation
• Runoff
29
Runoff
• Defined as a portion of precipitation which is not lost due to:

➢Interception.
➢Surface detention.
➢Evaporation.
➢Infiltration.
• Expressed either as an average rate of flow over a period or a depth
equivalent over the entire catchment.
30

Management
Runoff classification
• Surface runoff
• Subsurface runoff
• Groundwater runoff
31
Surface runoff
• Overland flow.
• Neither infiltrates the soil or trapped.
• Due to excess precipitation.
32
32
Overland flow
• Rainfall Intensity > Infiltration Rate.

• Flow is transported as sheet flow.
• There are detention sites located throughout
the catchment which may result in flow
infiltrating.
• Common in urban areas and natural areas
where the soil layer is thin and has a low
infiltration capacity.
• Semiarid to Arid Regions
33

Management
Saturated Overland Flow
• Soil is completely saturated.

• Flow is transported as sheet flow.
• Common near the bottom of hill slopes and
near channels.
• Due to continuous storm event
34
Subsurface runoff
• Sometimes called Interflow.

• Infiltrates upper layer of soil and moves laterally below soil.
• Reaches the channel shortly after storm.
• Does not reach the water table.
• Once in the stream, difficult to distinguish.
• Major source of runoff in arid regions.
35
Subsurface runoff
… continue
• Rainfall intensity < Infiltration rate.
• Flow is transported through pores in the soil.
• Results in lower flows except where root holes and animal holes are
present.
36

Management
Groundwater runoff
• Also known as base flow.

• Water that joins the water table.
• Takes a long period to reach the channel.
• Responsible for dry-weather flow of streams.
• Remain constant during a storm.
37
Hydrological cycle
38
Runoff components in broader terms
• Direct runoff.
➢Direct runoff = surface runoff + interflow.
➢Due to effective precipitation.
• Base flow.
➢Different from direct runoff because of time taken to reach the stream.
➢Takes longer to reach the stream.
39

Management
Catchment/Watershed
Input
Output
40
40
Catchment Delineation – Area
41
Catchment
• Catchment can be defined as a basin.
• A river basin separated by a ridge or watershed line where all surface water
originating in the area is discharged through the lowest point (outlet) in the basin.
• Thus, an area of land draining into a stream at a given location.
• The watershed divide is a line dividing land whose drainage flows toward the given
stream from land whose drainage flows away from that stream.
• Characteristics of a catchment are synonymous to the factors affecting runoff in that
catchment. So the two are basically the same.
• Chatchment characteristics can be broadly classified into two categories:
➢Climatic factors.
➢Physiographic factors.
42

Management
Climatic Factors
• Form of precipitation
• Rainfall intensity, duration, distribution.
• Direction of storm movement.
• Antecedent Precipitation Index (API) – this is a measure of soil moisture condition
before the occurrence of the storm. Runoff is more if the API is high.
• Meteorological factors (temperature and wind).
43
Physiographic factors
• Size of catchment.
• Land use.
• Soil type and Geology.
• Shape of the catchment.
• Slope of the catchment.
• Catchment orientation.
44
Physiographic factors
…continue
• Stream patterns or frequency.
• Storage characteristics of the catchment.
• Main stream length (MSL).
• Natural and artificial drainage works in the catchment.
45

Management
Estimation of Runoff
• Empirical methods.
• Deterministic methods.
• Probabilistic methods.
• Hydrograph Analysis.
46
Empirical Method
• Empirical formulas generally relate annual Runoff (R) to annual

Precipitation (P).
• Thus, runoff is estimated based on precipitation only.
• Usually of the form:
R = aP + b
R = cP n
47
Deterministic methods
• Runoff is predicted based on precipitation input and estimated

precipitation losses.
• Examples of deterministic methods include:
➢Rational method.
➢SCS method (applicable for rural and suburban catchments of <10 km 2.
➢Standard design flood (SDF) method (for this method, only catchment area, length
and slope of main stream, drainage basin are required).
• Rational formula most common and easy to use.
48

Management
Rational Method
• The Rational Formula is given by:

Q = 0.278CIA
• Where:
• Q = Maximum discharge in m3/s.
• C = Runoff coefficient.
• I = Rainfall intensity (mm/h).
• A = Area of catchment (km2)
49
Runoff Coefficient (C)
• Coefficient that depends on the characteristics of the catchment.

• C is influenced mainly by:
➢Catchment slope.
➢Soil permeability.
➢Vegetation.
➢Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP).
➢Return period.
50
Rainfall intensity (I)
• Rainfall intensity is influenced by:

➢Return period ( I increases with longer return periods).
➢Duration or time of concentration (I decreases with increase in time of
concentration).
• Dependent on locality.
51

Management
Time of concentration (Tc)
• Defined as time taken for water to travel from the furthest point of the
catchment to the outlet.
• Discharge at the outlet is maximum when the duration of the storm is
equal to or greater than time of concentration.
• Depends on:
➢Hydraulic Length (L) of catchment.
➢Average slope (S).
52
Time of concentration (Tc)

…continue
• Two methods for estimating Time of Concentration.
➢Kirpich formula.
➢US Soil Concervation Services formula.
• Usually, Tc, is estimated by Kirpich formula:
Tc = 0.0195L0.77 S −0.385
• Where
➢Tc = time of concentration (minutes).
➢L = maximum length of travel (m).
➢S = slope of catchment.
53
Assumptions in Rational Method
• Rainfall intensity is uniform over the catchment.

• Storm duration is equal to the time of concentration of the drainage
area.
• Return period of the peak flow is equal to the return period of the
rainfall intensity.
54

Management
Example 1: Rational Formula
• You are required to analyse a catchment of 15 km2 for the design of a

small bridge near your area. After the desk study, you come up with the
information as shown in the table below. The hydraulic length of the
main stream in this catchment is only 4 km, slopping at an average of
2%. The catchment has well defined watercourse with about 30% to be
designated to urban development and the rest is just rural.
a) Calculate the peak runoff that will be passing through the bridge.
b) If the expected service life of the bridge is 30 years, determine the
hydrologic risk associated with this peak runoff.
55
Example 1: Rational Formula
Slope Permeability Vegetation Urban component

45% Vleis & Pans Sandy 50% (permeable) Farming 40% 5% Parks (city centre)
35% Flat areas Loam (semi-permeable) Grassland 35% Residential (flats)

45% 35%
15% hilly areas. Rocky mountain 10% Bare Land 20% industrial area
(impermeable) 5% (light).
5% Steep rocky 15% Tree 30% Residential houses.

mountains plantation
10% Streets
Return period 50 years
MAP 719 mm
56
56
Additional Readings:
• Urban hydrology.
• Climate change.
• Infiltration.
• Rainfall measurements.
• Hydrographs.
• Flood frequency analysis.
57

Week 1, Introduction

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BEng Tech (Hons), Drainage & Stormwater 24 July 2022

DRAINAGE AND STORMWATER MANAGEMENT (CDS8X02)

Time Module Lecturer Room/

MONDAY Drainage and Stormwater G.K. (Blackboard)

Property of Civil Engineering Department 2

Property of Civil Engineering Department 3

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 1

Assessment Weightings (%)

Property of Civil Engineering Department 4

Prescribed reading/ text book

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 2

Property of Civil Engineering Department 7

CDS8X02 Honours Syllabus

Property of Civil Engineering Department 8

CDS8X02 Honours Syllabus

Planning Considerations: Drainage systems under climate RED BOOK:

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 3

CDS8X02 Honours Syllabus

Week Date Content Readings

Property of Civil Engineering Department 10

Property of Civil Engineering Department 11

⚫National Water Act (1998).

⚫Stormwater Design philosophy.

Property of Civil Engineering Department 12

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 4

National Water Act (1998)

Property of Civil Engineering Department 13

Climate change and Environment

• Do you believe in climate change?

Property of Civil Engineering Department 14

Property of Civil Engineering Department 15

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 5

Property of Civil Engineering Department 16

Application of Hydrology in Engineering

• Spillway, bridges, drainage & stormwater design, etc.

Property of Civil Engineering Department 17

Global Distribution of water

Property of Civil Engineering Department 18

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 6

Hydrological cycle Ecclesiastes 1:7

Property of Civil Engineering Department 19

Property of Civil Engineering Department 20

Hydrological cycle – what it is!

• The hydrological cycle is the central focus of hydrology.

Property of Civil Engineering Department 21

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 7

Property of Civil Engineering Department 22

Hydrologic Budget (Water Balance)

- Runoff into reservoir.

- Runoff out of reservoir.

Property of Civil Engineering Department 23

Water Balance Equation

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 8

Property of Civil Engineering Department 25

• Frontal - results from warm air passing over cold air.

Property of Civil Engineering Department 26

• Rainfall is sometimes referred to as Storm.

Property of Civil Engineering Department 27

Prepared by Dr G.K. Nkhonjera 9

Property of Civil Engineering Department 28

Property of Civil Engineering Department 29

• Defined as a portion of precipitation which is not lost due to: