International Journal of Water Resources Development

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An assessment of the effects of Africa's water

crisis on food security and management

Hany Besada & Karolina Werner

To cite this article: Hany Besada & Karolina Werner (2015) An assessment of the effects of
Africa's water crisis on food security and management, International Journal of Water Resources
Development, 31:1, 120-133, DOI: 10.1080/07900627.2014.905124

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2014.905124

Published online: 02 Jun 2014.

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International Journal of Water Resources Development, 2015
Vol. 31, No. 1, 120–133, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2014.905124

An assessment of the effects of Africa’s water crisis on food security

and management
Hany Besadaa* and Karolina Wernerb
a
Centre on Governance, University of Ottawa, Canada, and Institute of African Studies, Carleton
University, Ottawa, Canada; bIndependent researcher, Waterloo, Canada
(Received 3 February 2013; accepted 4 March 2014)

Food security remains one of the most pressing concerns of this century. This article
explores the often overlooked role of water scarcity in food security. This is
particularly important within the African context, because most states on the continent
rely heavily on agriculture. The article therefore focuses on Africa, discussing triggers
and practices related to water usage currently in place, as well as their impact on
development. The authors offer various recommendations on how to improve and
streamline policies to encourage efficient water use.
Keywords: water scarcity; food security; Africa; development

Introduction
Food security1 remains one of the most pressing developmental concerns of the twenty-first
century (Ludi, 2009). More than 900 million people – approximately one in seven world-
wide – remain undernourished, while rising food prices are causing greater numbers of
people to fall into extreme poverty (Bachelet, 2001). For well over a decade, the
international community has discussed the problem of establishing food security in the
developing world at length. One of the most distinguished forums for these discussions has
been the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), which established the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000, following the Millennium Summit
(United Nations, 2000).2 In total there were eight pillars established, the first of which is to
end poverty and hunger. Since the establishment of these goals in 2000, substantial progress
has been made in all eight categories, including environmental sustainability and maternal
and child health. Food security, however, is still a matter of great concern. At present, there
are still 1.2 billion individuals living on less than USD 1 per day (UN Global Issues, 2012).
Between March 2007 and March 2008, global food prices increased an average of 43%
(Eglin, 2008). More recently, on 3 March 2011, the Food and Agricultural Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) reported that its food price index had hit a record high in
February 2011, following rising prices for a period of 8 months, driven mostly by price
increases in cereals, meat and dairy products (FAO, 2011). This increase in prices caused a
significant decrease in the progress made worldwide with regard to food security. While
global food prices are slowly declining (FAO, 2012), the unpredictable shifts and increases
in food insecurity have an impact on all nations; but the threat to food security is

*Corresponding author. Email: hbesada@uottawa.ca

Hany Besada is now also at the Department of Politics and International Studies, University of
Warwick, Coventry, UK.

q 2014 Taylor & Francis

 International Journal of Water Resources Development 121

experienced “most severely by countries that are the most vulnerable to rapid population
growth, drought, social upheaval and economic stagnation” (FAO, 2012).
The largest proportions of such vulnerable populations are invariably found on the
African continent. As a matter of fact, Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region on the planet
where chronic food insecurity, including the threat of famine, as well as malnourishment
remain endemic (Baro & Deubel, 2006). According to a recent report, more than one in
four Africans – almost 218 million people between 2006 and 2008 – were undernourished
(United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2012). The risk is particularly acute
amongst rural populations, where agrarian sensitivity to climate fluctuations is greater
(Baro & Deubel, 2006). With Africa experiencing more than a third of the global share of
climatological disasters between 2005 and 2010, rainfall volatility threatens the
production of the 93% of African agriculture that is rainfed (UNDP, 2012). At the same
time, the absence of social safety nets and reliable transportation for the distribution of
emergency relief present further obstacles to ensuring food security throughout Sub-
Saharan Africa (Baro & Deubel, 2006).
And while emergency relief is sometimes necessary, it could also have undesired effects,
such as a drop in food prices, which negatively affects farmers, who often do not qualify for
relief because they have food, though they are unable to sell their surplus at reasonable prices.
Indeed, food insecurity has already resulted in millions of new environmental refugees in
East African countries like Somalia, Ethiopia and Djibouti, which has had a devastating
impact on the host countries and the regions (FAO, 2012). For example, in specific reference
to the refugee camp in Kakuma, Kenya, which holds more than 100,000 individuals, the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and partners noted a series of
concerns surrounding the potential for conflict between host communities and refugees over
scare resources and basic facilities, including water and accommodation (United Nations
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs [OCHA], 2012).
The FAO lists several factors that contributed to the rapid spike in global food prices
(FAO, 2008). Increased consumer demand, underpinned by global growth in population
and per capita income, as well as increased per capita world consumption of animal
products, has put continual upward pressure on food prices over the past decade. Lower
crop yields also contributed to price spikes, due to short-term shocks from weather-related
production shortfalls and slow growth in agricultural productivity. Biofuel production and
energy prices have also increased worldwide, reaching 105 billion litres in 2010 (World
Watch Institute, 2011), diverting food supply from human consumption and adding to
input costs of agricultural production (Trostle, Marti, Rosen, & Westcott, 2012).
Absent from the FAO’s list, however, is rising water scarcity. As the world’s
population continues to grow at an average of 80 million people per year, water shortages
threaten to reduce the global food supply even further (World Health Organization, 1998).
By 2025, the world’s population will include an additional three billion people, requiring
20% more water than is currently available (Svadlenka, 2007). With the impact of water
scarcity now being realized in actual terms, the UNDP predicts that water security, and not
a lack of arable land, will be the largest contributor to food insecurity in years to come
(Du Toit, 2011).

Water scarcity and food security in the African context

It has been predicted that the population of Africa will double within the next 30 years
(Mulira, 2010), reaching 2 billion people (2.6 times the current population) by 2050
(Shapley, 2008). On a continent where more than half the population relies on agriculture,
122 H. Besada and K. Werner

water scarcity is a formidable challenge, closely associated with achieving food security.
Africa currently suffers from food insecurity, with 30% of its population living in chronic
hunger, which is amongst the highest rates in the world (Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, 2010). By comparison, Asia and the Pacific, the region with the
second-highest rate of malnourishment and the greatest absolute number of undernourished
people, has a rate of 16% (World Food Program, 2010). In 2011, the World Food Programme
noted that, among the 10 countries worldwide which suffered rates of “acute hunger or
starvation” above 35% of the population, all 10 were located in Sub-Saharan Africa.3
Pastoral communities, estimated to comprise over a quarter of the continent’s population
(Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture, 2010), are also affected by the lack of stable
water sources for their livestock. With the population steadily increasing, it is expected that
the situation will continue to decline as food production levels remain the same.
Notably, a number of African countries have taken steps towards eradicating extreme
hunger and poverty. In Ghana, the number of food-insecure people has decreased from
34% to 8% of the population over the past 15 years, thanks in part to policies such as the
country’s school nutritional programme. Sierra Leone reduced the proportion of
undernourished people by 10% since the end of its civil war in 2002, largely thanks to the
increased amount of available arable land. Even drought-prone countries such as Ethiopia
have made progress towards reducing food insecurity: Ethiopia reduced nation-wide
malnutrition by 32% in recent years (Gathigah, 2012). These successes have been
attributed to, among other factors, a stronger political commitment on the part of African
governments to improve agricultural output, including investments in small-scale farming
operations, which account for more than 90% of Africa’s food production (Gathigah,
2012). The Rwandan government, for instance, allocated over USD 112 million to its
agricultural budget in 2011, providing fertilizer subsidies and training in modern
technologies to improve production (Gathigah, 2012). While this was a positive action by
government, an equally compelling argument has been made for biofertilizers produced by
farmers themselves, which can be as cost-effective as the subsidized fertilizer produced by
chemical companies. Biofertilizers provide farmer support and are also more
environmentally friendly.
Despite these notable achievements, over 270 million Africans continue to suffer from
hunger. Among the most important challenges facing the future of Africa’s agricultural
sector and food security is the increasing pressure on scarce water resources. It is
suggested that while on average the rest of the world will be meeting the MDG water
targets as scheduled by 2015, the African continent will not. Despite efforts by African
governments to meet their UN MDG targets, nearly 51% of the people in sub-Saharan
countries (300 million) do not have access to safe water. By 2030, more than 50% of the
continent’s population (expected to reach 1.45 billion by that date) will not have access to
drinkable water (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, DANIDA, 2010).
Sanitation targets also constitute a challenge, which is exacerbated by rapid
urbanization and a lack of adequate infrastructure, with only a handful of African countries
– Angola, Egypt, Libya, Algeria and Morocco – projected to meet these targets by 2015
(United Nations Environment Programme, 2010). According to International Assessment
of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD, 2009),
13 African states are currently experiencing severe water shortages, and another ten states
are expected to join them by 2025. Even relatively economically well-developed South
Africa is facing water struggles, primarily due to poor management practices and
inadequate public investment in water infrastructure. The South African Environment and
Conservation Association goes so far as to say that by 2015 some 80% of the country’s
 International Journal of Water Resources Development 123

freshwater resources could be irrevocably polluted and no longer be fit for human or animal
consumption (Times Live, 2010).
Africa’s water scarcity problem is driven by several factors. Firstly, climate change
and continental warming have induced more severe weather patterns, and these trends are
likely to accelerate in the coming decades. Africa is already one of the most arid
continents, and its varying climate has created hotspots around the continent where
drought has long been a feature of daily life. Other areas, meanwhile, experience abundant
rainfall and struggle with flash flooding. Climate change has put further pressure on these
communities, exacerbating the natural weather extremes. During the twentieth century,
temperatures on the African continent increased an average of 0.7 degrees Celsius, with
accelerated warming predicted in the coming decades. This will mean increased
precipitation in wet months and decreased precipitation in dry months; increased
desertification; reduced river flow, due to the disappearance of glaciers; an increased risk
of flash flooding; and a decline in long-cycle crop production.
Over the past number of years, many countries have experienced an increase in
droughts and floods due to climate change. Ethiopia and Kenya are expected to have
precipitation levels that will continually decline or remain at an historical low, as
temperatures are expected to keep increasing (Funk, Michaelsen, & Marshall, 2011).
Meanwhile, on the west coast of Africa, floods are increasing, with the coastline
experiencing an annual retreat of 20 to 30 m (United Nations Development Program, 2004).
In addition to the changing climate, African countries have not focused on developing
dry-land farming techniques so as to adapt to the drought conditions they regularly face.

Triggers and other factors

By 2025, parts of Africa will suffer prolonged droughts due to warming climates,
resulting in a lack of water for agriculture as well as for domestic consumption (Science
and Development Network, 2009). More specifically, droughts have increased
dramatically in the Horn of Africa most recently, precipitating an enormous
humanitarian crisis in mid-2011, in which an estimated 13 million people were directly
affected. Furthermore, as noted by the Overseas Development Institute, changes in the
net balance of cereal production potential in Sub-Saharan African countries would shift
to a net loss of up to 12%, and approximately 40% of Sub-Saharan African countries will
be “at risk of significant declines in crop and pasture production due to climate change”
(Ludi, 2009).
These changes in weather patterns are already taking a toll on the agricultural sector of
many African nations, resulting in loss of crops and consequently losses in revenues.
For example, in Malawi, severe flooding and droughts have become regular events.
On average, Malawi loses upwards of USD 12.5 million (1% of its GDP) each year to
drought, and USD 9 million (0.7% of its GDP) each year to flooding in the southern
regions of the country (specifically the Shire River basin) (Pauw, Thurlow, & van
Deventer, 2010).
In the Maradi Region of Niger, unreliable rainfall and recurrent drought have likewise
inflicted damage on the livelihoods of agro-pastoralist communities (Dazé, 2007). These
effects are hardest felt in areas where populations rely on subsistence agriculture as their
main source of livelihood, but the shortage of agricultural commodities also harms the
non-agrarian economy, because services linked to agriculture, such as trade and transport,
are less in demand during drought.
124 H. Besada and K. Werner

Hence, while climate change has conventionally been viewed primarily as an

environmental concern, its rising impacts in real terms highlight the importance of its role
as a developmental issue as well. Its effect on water scarcity or overabundance, and thus
food security and agricultural productivity, threatens the progress that has been made over
the past decade (OgunBufunmi, 2010).
Lack of proper infrastructure is also a major issue affecting water security in Africa.
In the Democratic Republic of Congo, a water crisis in March 2010 highlighted the lack of
reliable water sources when a landslide damaged the water supply in the town of Mbuji-
Mayi (United Nations Environment Programme, 2011.). When established, the water
supply was intended for a town of 500, 000 people which, today, houses more than three
million people. With their only source of water damaged, the residents were forced to
venture over 20 km out of town to find a new source. Such long trips in search of water are
often the responsibility of women and children, and their solitary way of travel remains
difficult and dangerous. These women and children are often exposed to violence or
serious accidents during their journeys.
Furthermore, over the past few decades, urbanization has increased dramatically in
developing countries. African cities in particular are regarded as having the fastest
growing urban populations in the world. This rampant increase in urbanization is expected
to hit 60% in 2050, with 1.23 billion people (of an expected population of 2 billion, as
noted above) living in major cities, compared to only a third of Africa’s one billion
inhabitants currently living in urban areas (UN Habitat, 2010).
Significantly, urbanization has also contributed to a shift in water resources and the
utilization thereof. With urban populations increasing, water demands and patterns have
changed in Africa, putting strain on agriculture (Banergee et al., 2008). What once was
agricultural land in rural African countries is now being bought up by urban dwellers for
residential purposes – thus further hindering the agricultural sector in Africa.
For example, in Ghana, every year it is estimated that 2600 hectares of land is converted
from agricultural to residential use (Matuschke, 2009). These changes mean that less water
is being allocated for agricultural purposes and more water goes towards the increasing
urban populations, as well as for industrial use (Matuschke, 2009). The expansion of urban
and peri-urban areas in Nigeria has also placed greater strain on rural infrastructure and
food distribution outlets, requiring thousands of tons of food per day to be redirected to
major cities (Matuschke, 2009). Nigeria is another example of such rapid urban growth
(Akiyode, 2010).
Urbanization is not only shifting demand for the utilization of the limited water supply
but is also diverting land resources from agricultural to residential usage. In addition,
infrastructure, in major city centres that are rapidly expanding, is not improving the
situation as the urban populations increase. Food security is, as a consequence, extremely
fragile. Somalia, for instance, was already relying on aid from the World Food Programme
to help feed approximately 50% of its population before the most recent drought-induced
famine. The failure of rain in late 2010 precipitated even harsher agricultural conditions,
with acute malnutrition rates rising to 16% nationally, and some areas surpassing 30% –
the statistical threshold for famine. The UN reports that up to 2.3 million Somalis continue
to require urgent assistance, as they face drought, conflict and record high food prices (UN
News Center, 2012). In the allocation of already scarce resources to uses other than
agriculture, further strain is being put on an already unmanageable situation.
Finally, foreign ‘land grabs’ taking place across Africa have also impacted
competition for water resources and food security, as land acquisition in African countries
has become a significant national security strategy for states facing environmental
 International Journal of Water Resources Development 125

scarcity. The International Food Policy Research Institute estimates that international
investments and acquisitions of land in Africa totalled between USD 20 billion and USD
30 billion between 2006 and 2009, mainly by investors from China, India, South Korea
and the Gulf States (Von Braun & Meinzen-Dick, 2009). These land acquisitions have put
even greater pressure on water and arable land resources, contributing to increased scarcity
and a greater risk of conflict escalation. In Mali, for example, recent land acquisitions by
Chinese and Saudi Arabian investors drew criticism from civil society groups and local
communities for increasing water scarcity in that country (Oakland Institute, 2011).

Impact on development
The worsening conditions of water access in Africa harbour a number of negative impacts
on security and development. Firstly, the declining availability of useable water has
coincided with an increase in demand – driven by growing populations and irrigation
usage – amongst communities and countries that share common water access points,
resulting in an increased risk of disputes and conflict over scarce water resources (Ruphael,
2004). During the 1960s, transboundary agreements were established between African
countries as the need for and potential of regional cooperation were recognized. However,
initial legislative instruments and a common long-term vision were not always clearly
defined, resulting in latent conflict and disagreements over water access rights (Ruphael,
2004). Drought-affected regions such as the Nile Basin and the Zambezi Basin have
already become flashpoints of water-related tension and inter-communal conflict. Africa
currently has 80 transboundary rivers and lake basins, as well as 17 large water catchment
areas that exceed 100,000 km2 each (Ruphael, 2004). Given these statistics, it is apparent
that regional cooperation and integrated water resource management will be vital in the
future, and these will be affected by the way in which African states deal with the water
crisis and its impact on food security.
The second and equally important reason why African nations need to be cautious
when developing strategies to deal with the water crisis is the detrimental effect that they
could have on the agricultural sector. Currently, agriculture is vital to the functioning of
many African nations. It is the largest contributing sector to the continent’s GDP (greater
than one-third in most individual countries); the biggest source of foreign exchange (over
40%); and the main generator of savings and tax revenue (Ludi, 2009). Agriculture is also
the greatest user of water in Africa (United Nations Environment Programme, 2010).
Coupled with Africa’s reliance on rainfed crops – which are the main source of income for
90% of the rural population – climate change –induced water stress, which is projected to
influence 75 million to 250 million people by 2020, could halve yields of rainfed crops
throughout Sub-Saharan Africa (UNDP, 2012).
Africa’s agricultural sector is already under stress “as a result of population increase,
industrialization and urbanization, competition over resource use, degradation of
resources, and insufficient public spending for rural infrastructure and services” (UNDP,
2012). As a consequence, agricultural output per capita in African countries continues to
lag far behind that of other developing regions. On average, Africa’s agricultural sector
would need to maintain an annual growth rate of approximately 6.2% to meet the MDG of
halving poverty by 2015 (Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa [FARA], 2006).
According to the World Bank, the growth rate in 2010 was only 4.3% (World Bank, 2010).
With the need for food driving water consumption, it is especially important that the
water used in food production is used as efficiently and effectively as possible. Poor
farming and irrigation methods, as well as poor land management practices, result in many
126 H. Besada and K. Werner

farmers’ struggling to produce sufficient quantities of crops. Proper irrigation is

particularly important for areas where rainfall is very low, and it can increase yields
significantly (100% to 400%) in the majority of cases. Currently, only 7% of farms in Sub-
Saharan Africa are irrigated (Bouzaher, Shantaynan, & Ngo, 2008). An increased focus on
dry-land farming techniques is equally important for those farmers without access to
proper irrigation (Chatterton & Chatterton, 2005). Without a more uniform
implementation of either irrigation or dry-land techniques, agriculture-based African
countries have a low capacity for effectively coping with the changes that climate change
brings and are thus at great economic risk.

Improving water management practices: current trends and issues

Considering the importance of water, particularly as it is connected to food security,
governments as well as regional and international organizations are taking steps to
mitigate the effects of water scarcity on the continent. Various United Nations agencies,
such as UNDP and UNEP, as well as the African Union via the New Partnership for
Africa’s Development (NEPAD), are working on policies and strategies to help remedy
the impending crisis.
African countries have increasingly identified and expressed the need for improved
water infrastructure, and some measures are being put in place. In 2005, the Commission
for Africa called for doubling the spending on irrigation infrastructure, and NEPAD
called for major upgrades to agricultural and irrigation infrastructures (Hanjra, Ferede,
& Gutta, 2009). In 2008, delegates attending a pan-African ministerial conference
organized by the FAO and the African Development Bank, 2014 sought to secure donor
assistance worth USD 30 billion a year for investment in crucial hydropower and
agricultural irrigation systems (UN News Center, 2008). Despite these initiatives, a
substantial funding gap remains. The African Development Bank, 2014 Group, for
instance, estimates that to meet the MDGs of universal water access, Africa would have
to spend USD 15 billion annually to improve basic infrastructure – far more than the
USD 3.6 billion it currently spends.
Other programmes, such as the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development
Programme (CAADP, 2012)4 led by NEPAD, are actively working to increase agricultural
productivity on the continent, thus increasing food security, while ensuring sustainable
water management practices. Key practices for sustainable water management include
water conservation (i.e. minimizing unproductive water losses due to runoff, evaporation,
conveyance losses and deep percolation) and increasing water utilization efficiency.
Measures to achieve conservation include physical structures, such as irrigation systems,
as well increased vegetation cover, which can help improve the ratio of productive to
unproductive water losses (Descheemaeker, Amede, & Haileslassie, 2010).
In support of improved agricultural water management practices, the Economic
Community of West African States implemented a three-year Regional Action Plan on
Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) beginning in 2008, supporting countries
that are in the direst need of assistance in implementing IWRM.5 An Permanent Framework
for Coordination and Monitoring of IWRM was established, and a list of strategic areas for
regional actions determined (Water Resources Coordination Unit, 2007).
Over the past 20 years, African countries also resumed efforts towards regional
cooperation. In 1992, during the UN Conference on Water that was held in Dublin, various
basic principles were adopted, including the recognition that the scarcity and misuse of
fresh water pose a “serious and growing threat to sustainable development” and that
 International Journal of Water Resources Development 127

“human health and welfare, food security, industrial development and the ecosystems on
which they depend, are all at risk, unless water and land resources are managed more
effectively” (Dublin Statement, 1992).
In 2000, the African Water Vision for 2025 was adopted by the African Union and
African Development Bank, 2014, which called for “partnership and solidarity between
countries that share common water basins” and for “fundamental changes in policies,
strategies and legal frameworks”, as well as calling on Africa’s development partners to
mobilize funding for sustainable management of water resources (UN Water/Africa,
2005).6 Moreover, initiatives such as the adoption of the Accra Declaration on Water and
Sustainable Development in 2002, NEPAD, and the First Pan-African Implementation and
Partnership Conference on Water in 2003 continued to emphasize the need to link national
with sub-regional efforts to manage water resources.
The Pan-African Implementation and Partnership Conference on Water, for instance,
recommended: “Regional economic communities overlapping river basin organizations
should work together to achieve the goals of the African Water Vision for 2025 and the
New Partnership for Africa’s Development” (UN Water/Africa, 2005). At an African
Union summit in 2008, African leaders further committed themselves to achieving water
security and sanitation by agreeing on a list of goals, such as national action plans,
transboundary water management and capacity development, as well as the strengthening
of the African Ministers’ Council on Water (NEPAD/CAADP, 2012).
In areas where cooperative water management has been effectively undertaken, there
are visible improvements. The Southern African Development Community (SADC), for
example, was instrumental in developing the Orange-Senqu River basin, encompassing
Lesotho as well as large tracts of South Africa, Botswana and Namibia, which constitutes
one of the most arid areas in Southern Africa, where sharing of water resources has been
relatively successful. The Orange-Senqu River Commission (ORASECOM), established
in 2000 in parallel with the regional ratification of the Revised Protocol on Shared
Watercourses in the SADC, promotes “the equitable and sustainable development” of the
Orange-Senqu River basin and provides a forum for consultation and coordination
between the riparian states. Management practices here include agreements on water
conservation, reuse and desalination programmes, and interbasin transfer schemes that
relieve water stress in the region. A key factor in the success of these management
practices is the flexibility of the treaties themselves, which have been adaptable to gradual
and sudden changes in shared basins and “incorporate mechanisms allowing parties to
adjust management practices to changing circumstances” (Kistin & Ashton, 2008).
ORASECOM has also benefited from strong linkages with international cooperating
partners, including the World Bank, the African Development Bank, 2014, UNDP, UNEP,
the EU and several bilateral donors.
On the other hand, the countries which share access to the Nile have been less
successful in cooperative management. With the large number of African countries that
rely on the Nile River and its basin as a major source of irrigation, as well as the great
diversity of ethnic, religious and cultural groups that cut across national boundaries with
neighbouring watersheds, the management of the Nile’s water resources presents a
daunting challenge.
The situation is further complicated by the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement, which
effectively divided all the Nile water between Egypt and Sudan, at the expense of other
upstream states, many of whom, including Ethiopia, refuse to recognize the legitimacy of
the agreement (Wolf & Newton, 2004). To date, “seven out of the eight remaining Nile
Basin countries [Rwanda, Eritrea, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and Sudan] have
128 H. Besada and K. Werner

threatened to build dams in their countries to improve their agricultural sectors and also to
address their own water needs” (Afrik-News, 2010). Large-scale water infrastructure
projects, such as dams, and the resulting political conflicts, may increase the impact of
floods and droughts on the neighbouring regions and, in so doing, further increase water
scarcity (WWF International).
In 1999, these states created the Nile Basin Initiative to establish a framework for
cooperative management and “equitable utilization of, and benefit from, the common
Nile Basin water resources” (Stetter, 2011). A permanent legal framework, A permanent
legal framework,7 based on negotiations under the initiative, was supposed to be
established in 2012. To date, however, only six upstream countries have signed the
agreement. Egypt, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo continue to oppose it,
mainly because they would lose their guaranteed water quotas. While the Egyptian
government has signalled its preference for the issue to be “amicably resolved”,
disagreement over the scope and scale of guaranteed water quotas for downstream
countries persists (Cooperative Framework Agreement, 2010). Moreover, the partition of
Sudan and the emergence of another competitor in the Nile Basin have added another
layer of complexity, given the high dependence of South Sudan on the White Nile Basin
and the possibility that the new SPLM government could abandon earlier commitments
made by the national Sudanese government (Salman, 2011). With the stakes extremely
high for the countries which rely on the Nile for survival, the potential for future conflict
escalation persists.
Beyond the level of interstate cooperation over water access, local-level community
participation, negotiation and access to formal water rights have also been highlighted as
necessary tools for the management of water-related tension and conflict. A recent study of
small-scale water users in the Olifants River basin in South Africa by Magombeyi, Rollin,
and Lankford (2008), for instance, found that education programmes which trained
farmers to become more active stakeholders in communal water-access decision making
produced improved outcomes for water management and conservation (Magombeyi et al.,
2008). The study indicated the particular importance of dynamic interaction amongst
different stakeholders in negotiations for limited water allocation, particularly the lowest
local water management institutions, such as irrigation committees comprising
smallholder farmers.
Another study of water users in Tanzania’s Upper Great Ruaha River catchment
identified the importance of providing access to formal water rights for local-level users,
including the use of licenses, permits and private user fees. These formal rights (1)
provided users a legal safeguard against infringement; (2) enabled them to undergo better
training in water management and agronomic practices; (3) provided access to financial
and technical assistance to improve irrigation infrastructures; and (4) enabled them to
access formal government organs and institutions to resolve disputes over water resources
(Rakabu & Mahoo, 2008). While these schemes continue to face implementation
challenges, there is a growing understanding that effective formal water rights systems are
needed to administer scarce water resources efficiently.
Finally, some traditional methods of preserving water that were developed in
communities across Africa, such as the use of tankas (small water tanks used to collect rain
water) and khadins (earthen embankments built across hill slopes to harvest surface runoff
water) are now being examined in greater detail, in hope of spreading and adapting this
knowledge to other regions. In South Africa, for instance, the failure of formal water
management systems to provide adequate water and sanitation has resulted in a larger
study of traditional and customary forms of water management as attractive and practical
 International Journal of Water Resources Development 129

alternatives (Malzbender, Goldin, Turton, & Earle, A. 2005). With the ongoing struggle
for clean drinking water and basic sanitation, as well as varying weather patterns and
recurring droughts, this type of local knowledge could lead to some of the most sustainable
types of solutions, adapted to the specific needs of the regions in which they are developed.

Conclusions
Although Africa is the second-most arid continent (after Australia), and water scarcity is
becoming a critical issue as populations grow and climate change continues to affect rain
patterns, water management has only recently gained traction as a public policy priority
with African governments. While African countries have coped with water shortages thus
far, water scarcity in the future is likely to become a pervasive source of economic and
food insecurity for these countries’ populations, especially in rural areas. This challenge
will require a greater degree of coordination and foresight from decision makers than has
occurred previously.
The good news, however, is that Africa’s water crisis is, above all, a crisis of poor
management and inequitable distribution, rather than a crisis of ‘absolute’ security. With a
proper set of policies and more effective implementation, including increasing access to
water supply and sanitation, improved water resource management and increased
agricultural productivity, the effects of future water crises can be much better managed.
This, however, does not diminish the threat that the water crisis poses to food security and
development in general, with significant impacts already visible.
In light of the importance of water for sustaining life and promoting socio-economic
development, appropriate, comprehensive and community-driven policies are needed to
deal with the looming water crisis and its adverse effect on food security. African leaders
will need to take concrete steps to address population growth, start charging for resource
usage (with the profits returning to the community), consider economic incentives, and
undertake further research, if the capacity to meet the continent’s food security goals is to
be achieved over the medium and long term. Failure to deal with the looming water crisis
could result in serious conflicts across the continent during the coming decades as the
competition for food and water resources becomes even more intense. These would
undoubtedly undermine the development programmes currently underway in a number of
African states and exacerbate environmental degradation and poverty.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the work of Christian Tschirhart in his assistance on the
article.

Funding
This work was made possible through a National Priority Research Program, Qatar National
Research Fund, under Grant No. 6-1272-5-160.

Notes
1. For the purpose of this article, food security is defined as a “situation . . . when all people at all
times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets
their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (Lee & Collins, 2007,
p. 212).
130 H. Besada and K. Werner

2. The Millennium Summit, held in September 2000, was a defining moment for global
cooperation, as all 189 member states of the UN General Assembly adopted the Millennium
Declaration. The declaration establishes a single framework to address the key challenges facing
humanity in the twenty-first century. It comprises eight pillars: ending poverty and hunger;
universal education; gender equality; child health; maternal health; combatting HIV/AIDS;
environmental sustainability; and global partnership.
3. The 10 countries suffering from acute hunger rates of 35% or more are Chad, Ethiopia, Eritrea,
Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi,
Mozambique, and Sierra Leone. This statistic excludes countries for which reliable data were
not available, including Somalia, Afghanistan, Iraq and Oman.
4. Established in 2003, the CAADP focuses on improving and promoting agriculture across Africa,
with five specific objectives: (1) to increase agricultural market dynamism within and between
countries and regions in Africa; (2) to make farmers more active in the market economy and
encourage exports of agricultural products; (3) to increase equality of wealth distribution
amongst rural populations; (4) to increase Africa’s role as a strategic player in agricultural
science and technology; and (5) to ensure environmentally sound agricultural production and
sustainable management of natural resources. The CAADP aims to encourage African countries
to allocate 10% of their national budget to agriculture and achieve an agricultural growth rate of
6%. To date, 26 countries have signed the compact and incorporated it into their agricultural
agenda.
5. IWRM is a cross-sectoral policy approach designed to replace the fragmented, sectoral approach
to water resource management and focusing on government regulatory frameworks that foster
the sustainable development of water resources. Its goals include: (1) achieving equitable and
sustainable access to water; (2) the promotion of employment and income in related sectors; (3)
improvement of the quality of water, to improve health and sanitation; (4) contributing to
environmental management and recovery; (5) increasing water energy production; and (6)
promoting water education and awareness.
6. The African Water Vision for 2025, created by the Economic Commission for Africa, the
African Union and the African Development Bank, “is designed to avoid the disastrous
consequences of [environmental and human] threats and lead to a future where the full potential
of Africa’s water resources can be readily unleashed to stimulate and sustain economic growth
in the region’s economic development and social well-being” (retrieved 17 November 2012
from http://www.energybulletin.net/node/2177).
7. Agreement on the Nile River Basin Cooperative Framework. Retrieved 17 November 2012
from http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org/documents/regionaldocs/Nile_River_Basin_Coop
erative_Framework_2010.pdf

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