Impe ial Mechanic : So h Ame ica' Hemi phe ic In eg a ion in he Machine Age

A ho ( ): Rica do D. Sal a o e
So ce: Ame ican Q a e l , Vol. 58, No. 3, Re i ing he "Na ion": The Place of
Technolog in Ame ican S die (Sep., 2006), pp. 662-691
P bli hed b : The John Hopkin Uni e i P e
S able URL: h p:// .j o .o g/ able/40068388
Acce ed: 20-08-2017 17:18 UTC

REFERENCES
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facili a e ne fo m of chola hip. Fo mo e info ma ion abo JSTOR, plea e con ac ppo @j o .o g.

Yo e of he JSTOR a chi e indica e o accep ance of he Te m & Condi ion of U e, a ailable a

h p://abo .j o .o g/ e m

The John Hopkin Uni e i P e i collabo a ing i h JSTOR o digi i e, p e e e and

e end acce o Ame ican Q a e l

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 663

I e ia Mecha ic :
S h A e ica' He i he ic
I eg a i i he Machi e Age
Rica d D. Sa a e

The a i a a ai

O c i g, i h hei a e ed f ee ;
The a e Re b ic , each i e S a e,
A d d he d, f Me ic Chi i,
The ai a a c e ce h d a e.
- F. D. Ca e e , "F Z e Z e," i H. R. He e ,
The Th ee A e ica Rai a (1881), 284, 286

The ai a e, e ha a he ea f a a i , ha e c e La i A e ica
ge g a h . I a he ai a e ha fi a c e ed he e i g ai , b e
a , a d de e j ge . M e ha ai ad i e , a e he ed e
eighb a a i be .
- De ia G e , Neighb he S h (1941), 1 16

i e f he achi e a he d i a e e e a i f U.S. e i-
i a d e ac i he We e He i he e c e ded i h
he a i i i he f f c ce ai i g e i e: f Ma ife
De i i he id- i e ee h ce Be e e I f a E i e (G d
Neighb P ic ) i he f h decade f he e ie h ce . The ai ad,
he a bi e, a d he ai a e e e e diffe e e i he e i
f U.S. ech g a d e e ed, a each e , de U.S. c ai
ech gica a d c a e i i . I addi i affi i g U.S. d i a ce,
he e ech gica " a e " e e c cia e -
Fig e 1.
The Ki f he Ocea ca d, ca.
i i i g a f i eg a i g Ce a a d S h
191 1 B e La e S di /C bi . A e ica i he he e f U.S. c e ce a d
i f e ce. S b e e i agi a ie f a -
a i e i i g he h ee A e ica - he Pa -A e ica Rai ad, he
Pa -A e ica High a , a d Pa A e ica Ai a - c i ed jec i
f U.S. achi e ci i i a i i he e ai f i e - A e ica ea i . I ca
he e i i " a a i U ia " e ha i e hei fic i a a d c e-

2006 The A e ica S die A cia i

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664 I A e ica Q a e

he i e a ea da de c e he di ace e f achi e agic

he ace f "Pa -A e ica," a i a ace c ea ed a he c j c e f
f eig ic i ci e , b i e e a i i ,a d edge e e i e .
"I e ia echa ic " efe he i e ea i hi be ee i agi a ie
fe i ea dc ce i f achi e-ci i i a i .M e f hi c ce
e d he ece i c ec he i i a a ha a a
be e de a di g f U.S. hege ic c ce i a d icie i h ega d
La i A e ica. "I e ia echa ic " i a c g i i e a d he ica di ace e
f "ha d achi e " ( ai ad , a bi e , ai a e , ca a ) i he e ai
f Pa -A e ica i a di f a e i e, a fie d a a cia ed i h he
" f achi e" f i e - A e ica c fe e ce , i ica ce e ab
eace a d ec i ,b ea c a ic ba gai i g, a d he i he ic aga da. Thi
e a h he e e hich U.S. i i f he i he ic i eg a i e e
b i i fc ec i i , ci c a i ,a d de i ha e
a d ic a e c ide ed e bedded i achi e .
The c c i f he Pa a a Ca a (1904-1914), a e gi ee i g
achie e e f ga ga a i , a ed he a ce f he U i ed S a e
a i i fi e a i a eade hi . A He c ea echa ica f ce ha
e a a ed he c i e i , c ea i g a a age be ee he Ca ibbea
Sea a d he Pacific Ocea , ga e he U i ed S a e e ha ced a a c f
he "A e ica Medi e a ea " a d heigh e ed he i e i fi e a i a
a iga i a dc e ce b ed ci g a a i di a ce a d c . Pa a-
d ica , hi e gi ee i g a e a e e ed a a e he i he ic
i a dc e a i . Di aced i he e ai fi e - A e ica ea i ,
he Pa a a Ca a a e ec ed e de a addi i a e ice: e e
he La i A e ica eighb U.S. ech gica e i i a a echa ica ,
i ib e fac . I a a ec ac a achi e ha a h i ed he U i ed S a e
ea a he e he i he ic hege .
Thi e a e a i e he e f he e c cia echa ica c c -" ec-
ac a achi e " a d " a a i U ia " - i he a i g f i agi a ie
f he i he ic i eg a i ha f c i ed a he f da i f Pa -A e ica -
i . The e e e fab ade e f "ha d achi e " ec -
fig ei e -A e ica ea i ,a a i ei hich U.S. f eig - ic a e
e b aced a i f he i he ic hege ba ed ac bi a i f
e ec i e i e e i i Ce a A e ica a d he Ca ibbea (f a e i e)
a d he e a i f U.S. i e e ,c e ce, a d i f e ce h gh
e e i ei S h A e ica (i f a e i e). I he fi ec i ,I e e
he Pa a a Ca a a a e e i e i ec ac a i ic ha a e ec ed
each bjec i e e i g e a ce a d de e e he e b ic f

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 665

Ce a a dS h A e ica. I he ec d ec i , I e a i e he h ee " a -
a i U ia " ha , be ee 1890 a d 1945, i a ed he fic i fa
i ed he i he e i e i hich he c ie f La i A e ica agged
behi d i a a i de e e .I he fi a ec i ,If c he 1942
j e f A e ica i i S h A e ica a d e hi j e
ef ec he e i be ee he d ea fc i e a a i abi i a d
he ea i f i ica f ag e a i a d ec ic bac a d e .

Ha d a d S f Machi e i U.S. He i he ic P ic

The U.S. i f a e i ei La i A e ica ca be ee a a" f achi e,"

i e i ei e e e a i -a achi e ha d ced, ce ed, a d di -
e i a ed e a d i age i de acc da e de i f ef
a d he he e c di i f ca i a i acc a i ( a c e
ca i a i a di ech gie f e e e a i ).2 I a hi c e e e-
e a i a achi e ha ge e a ed a " edi c e " f he egi - fi ba
a dc e de i , fi a i i , fi "I dia e ," f i abe a
cia i e ai .W d fai , fi , h g a hic e hibi , a e a a i e ,
ge g a hic a a ,a d he e e e a i b gh i he U.S. he e f
i ibi i a bc i e ha had e ai ed i he ea i e .
Thi f achi e fe i e ga i ed ac ice a d ech gie f
b e a i a d e e e a i ( h g a h , a e i i g, a i ica ha d-
b ,c e e , e c.) a e a ai ab e he "A e ica b ic"
he di e i a d diffe e ce f "S a i h A e ica." Re e e a i a achi e
e ef da e a f he c c i f e edge ab S h/La i
A e ica. I deed, he c c i fa i f a e i ei S h A e ica a
ac ec i e e e i e de e de e e e a i .I S h A e ica i
a ic a , he e ii a i a i , e i ia a e a i , a d di ec c i a-
i e e iab e a e a i e , he i e a i e fc e had be e aced
b e a i ea g e ab e e i e, ech g ,a d a e .
Si ce he S a i h-A e ica Wa (1898), U.S. c i i f "S a i h
A e ica" g e i e e ia fa hi . Ea i he 1890 he I e a i a
B ea f he A e ica Re b ic ge he a e ie f ha db , a-
i ica a a , a d ge g a h eade ha b gh he Ce a a dS h
A e ica e b ic he a e i f U.S. eade . S a i gi 1909, J h
Ba e , di ec f he Pa -A e ica U i , di e i a ed he idea f S h
A e ica a a "c i e f i ie ." He a f ed b a a f
b i e ec ,j ai , a e i e , S a i h eache , a chae -
gi , ge g a he , a d hi ia ,a eage i i hei i e i f

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666 I A e ica Q a e

S h A e ica. B a ce f acc a i , he b i he e a a d i a
f da i f U.S. e gage e i h he bc i e .
The e e i fi f a e i e he a d be d he "A e ica
Medi e a ea " e i ed a i e e acc a i f e e e a i . Be d
di a ic , Pa -A e ica c fe e ce , c a , he Pa
A e ica a e i ed i a , ai i g , ge g a h b , e ,a d a a
hi e hibi .3 The b i di g f i f a e i e a a ce fc a
e gage e ha c c ed i a e he bjec f de i e a d he ea-
f e a e i ia i f e ce. B i e -ba ed echa ica e a h e e
i a i f a i g ea - e ie h-ce i i f he i he ic i e-
g a i . The i f Pa -A e ica i e ae i he e i d 1906-1925
e ai ed a " echa ic fc e cia e e a i " ha i eg a ed U.S. b i e
a dg e e f ce i ac di a ed eff c e S h A e ica
a e a d ead he "A e ica a f ife" a g he e e b ic .4 The
" ac ica Pa -A e ica i " edica ed b J h Ba e e e ed i e - A e i-
ca ea i a a g ea achi e i hich A e ica fi a dg e e a
age cie c e a ed - a diffe e de a e f a big c a i d -i
di a i g a i-A e ica i , di e i a i g U.S. ech gie , a d c ea i g
he i i i a f a e i hich he f ce f ade a d i e e c d
be f c i .
B i e e a d he eade f he Pa -A e ica i e e ag eed:
c e S h A e ica a e a a c e cia a d c a ffe -
i e a eeded, e edica ed be e edge f he egi a d
he de a i f he A e ica a f ife S h A e ica .A he
1919 Pa -A e ica C e cia C fe e ce, ea e e e ed he eed
di e i a e a g La i A e ica he e i i f U.S. ad-b i di g
e h d , d a ici a f he effec i e e f" b ici fi " e e
U.S. fi a d d c e effec i e S h A e ica ,a di f ed
he b ic f he e ab i h e f he dica ed e age cie (U.P. a d A.P.)
ha di eg a e he e a e f he egi .5 "Pa -A e ica" a i
ac ai a e ha ced e i f he f ee f fg d , ech ica a i a ce,
e ,a db i e i i a ha ed ide d d di a ic
c ce i f he Pa A e ica a.
I ici i he e age f Pa -A e ica i a a i e a i e a i
La i A e ica he e i i f U.S. ech g a d a c e. I hi
e e, i c d be aid ha he f achi e fe i e e ed di e i a e
"A e ica," a a i -c e e f- fa hi ed i e fi c a d f "ha d
achi e ." The hege f he U.S. i f a e i e de e ded c cia
he a i i f "A e ica a da d " f j ai , adi b adca i g,

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 667

fi a i g, a d ad e i i g, a e a he c ea i f i i a i e de a d
f a bi e , ef ige a , h a e, a d e i e .
I hi e a , I f c he "ha d achi e " ha ga e he i agi-
a ie fi e -A e ica i eg a i .I a i h he a a i f a "c a
achi e" b i e a dc e ce a d ge e a e a e a g he U.S. he
eighb . The Pa a a Ca a d a he b f he e U.S. i i
i he da e a a ec ac a " bjec i e e " ab g e a ce a d
de e e .I a e ec ed ha , i ie f hi e gi ee i g a e , he
La i A e ica e b ic d a a e i ha hei de i e had
a a d d ac acc di g . The e age a c ea : a he i e i hich
E e a e ba i gi a de a a i g a a , he U i ed S a e a a -
i g e he ba e f "We e ci i i a i ." La i A e ica a i had
de a d hi e ca i i he eade hi f We e ci i i a i a d acce
i g d e ha he U.S. had ffe : i e e f d , e d c i
a d a a i ech gie , a i a i a d ed ca i a e e i e, ec ic
ad ice, a d he eacef a bi a i f (La i A e ica ) di e .
Thi ec ac a achi e, I gge , fai ed i e La i A e ica .
M e e d i g a d a ea i g e e i agi a ie f he i he ic i eg a i
b i e ea f a a i . Machi e e b e a ic f U.S. -
de i ( he ai ad, he a bi e, a d he ai a e) e e e d ed i h
he ca aci fi eg a i g he A e ica , e c i g he b ac e i ed
b ge g a h . Pa -A e ica ai a , high a , a d ai a e e ed he
ibi i f i c ea ed c e cia a d c a i e ac i a g ci ie ,
a i , a d e e f he U i ed S a e a d La i A e ica. B echa ica
ea , U.S. e ied h e he i e a d di a ce ha e a a ed
he cie ie a d c e .

C a a d S ec ac a Machi e ( he Pa a a Ca a )

F he a , he Pa a a Ca a a c cei ed a a ech gica a e ha

d e he ga e fS h A e ica, a egi ha i he had e ai ed
a ed i he E ea he e f i f e ce. Th gh hi " a h be ee
he ea ," a a e ia a df d ff df fS h A e ica a d
each U.S. a d E ea a e . The Pacific c ie i a ic a d
g a i a ei he bi f U.S. c e ce a d a iga i . The ca a a a
"A e ica " achie e e f e ic i , a e gi ee i g i he
f -ce ie - d ea ch f a "i h ia e" ac Ce a A e ica.6
The Pa a a Ca a a e f he g ea e e gi ee i g fea fa i e. The
hee i ea dc e i f he jec beda ed c e a b e e . The

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668 I A e ica Q a e

Fig e 2. c cha be c d c ai hi a ge
G f i i f f Pa a a Ca a , ha he Ti a ic. Each c a a e ha
Ga , Pa a a, ca. 1910 U de d&
U de d/C bi . a i - b i di g. N b idge da b i
i he U i ed S a e had ed ch a e
f ei f ced c c e e.7 The e gi ee i g de ig a ecede ed. The ga e
e ed a d c ed i h a e ec ica e e a ed f a gia i chb a d.
The ca a ed he e f fa i g a e ge e a e he e ec ic e e g eeded
b i a d i g c i e . The gia chai ha ed hi
bef e he ga e a i e i e, a e e he e e ge c da .8
The ca a a a e e i e a i g d f "A e ica ech g ." I a
a e f he e i a ce f gia c c e e c e , f he efficac f ce a
c ed e ec ic e , f he eci e e f h d a ic ca c a i , f he
afe a d d c i e e f c bi a i - achi e e ca a e he ea h,
c c e e, a d e a e ia . I a a i e he e e a e ia ( he a e ee
a ) a d e de ice (a gia e ec ic i chb a d, he g ea c ) c d be
i e e ed e e i e a . A d i a he ace f fi e- i g b ic hea h
ech gie f he c f a a ia a d e fe e .
P e f he ca a e ec ed he h e i g f a a i i e
a ac ade f he Pacific a e a d di e affic e i ca ied

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 669

h gh he Mage a S ai .9 F ede ic Ha i a he Pa a a Ca a a a
e e i f he Mi i i i Ri e affic a d i agi ed he da he he ee
d c f Pi b gh a d he g ai f Ka a d each a f
he d.10 De i e he c i ici f ai ad e a d a a i e ia i ,
he jec ga a i ed b ic , beca ei i ed i a gai
i e f ec ic g h, a i a defe e, a d i e a i a i age f
he U i ed S a e .11
Wi h i e, he e a i f he ca a a ed he i i ic e -
ec a i i e f a e f affic. B i fai ed i eg a e he
ec ie f he A e ica he i he e. The ca a be efi ed he U i ed
S a e e ha i did he e f he A e ica .12 I 1934-1935, 60 e ce
f he ca g a ed ac he ca a c e ded U.S. acc ,a d
e 33 e ce f a affic c i ed f c e ce i e a he U i ed
S a e .^ The A a ic c ie f S h A e ica did a e ch e f
he ca a . O he Pacific a i fS h A e ica, h di g de ha e
f he egi i -e ade, be efi ed f he e a age.14 Th ,
he ai ec ic effec f he ca a a b i gc e he c a f he
U i ed S a e .15 Shi e ac he ca a ef ec ed he i c ea i g ecia i a-
i f La i A e ica a i a e e f a a e ia . Th gh he
ca a a ed c ffee a d bbe f B a i, i a f Y ca a , i a e f
Chi e, i f B i ia, ga f C ba, a d i f Pe .16
The a egic a e f he ca a he U i ed S a e a c ea b-
e e . Beca e he ca a e ed e hi f he Pacific he A a ic
Ocea e a id ,i i ed ig ifica he ca aci f he U.S. Na
a he ea . The Ca a Z e a , af e a , a U.S. i i a ba i . I
had ab 8,000 , a di g fie d , a d i e e a i , a d c d be
ed a hi i h c a , f d, a d edici e . D i g WWI, c -
cia ie he a ied a ie e h gh he ca a , i c di g i a
e f Chi ea i a e ed f e i e .17 P aced de he j i dic i
f he Wa De a e , he Ca a Z e e ed d i g WWII a a e U.S.
ii a e c a e.18
The ca a a a giga ic a a a i f "i d ia A e ica" i he
Ce a A e ica j g e. I a age e a d de ig be efi ed f he U.S.
e e ie ce i ai ad b i di g a d he g ea e gi ee i g jec . The e -
ca i fi d ia -age ech g d ced ec ac e f echa ica e
ha a ed c e a b e e .C a e gi he ai e b c e
f ce e ; a ge ea h e de i ed f a e ia i ai , e e -
fi e f he i g dai ; he fi i g f Ga La e 26 i i ga
f a e . The cab e a , he i g c i e -a ided ec ac e f
e he i g de i .

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670 I A e ica Q a e

The ca a c ea ed a e ca i f i g ce e ab U.S.
ech gica e i i . He e a ac c e ee a e f A e ica ech -
g be ee a d ad i ed b La i A e ica ,a e gi ee i g ha
ided a bjec i e e i i ic a d de e e , a i ib e e f he
e fa achi e ci i i a i i he T ic . U.S. i i he egi
e e ed he ca a a a aj f ce ha c d ac i a e he d a ec ie
fS h A e ica.19 T J h Ba e , di ec f he Pa -A e ica U i ,
he ca a a a ca a f a "c e cia a a e i g" f S h A e ica.20
B i e ec a dj ai Ja e A. C i a ib ed he "ca a
effec " a i a i i e e , ai ad b i di g, he de e e f ,
a d he ei e i ee i a i f a a e ce .21 Be ide eei g e
ec ic i ie , C i a ici a ed a f d cha ge i he e a-
i fS h A e ica :

I i he Ca a i e f. Tha i big a d i e i ei i e gi ee i g a d e a i .A
he La i A e ica ide h gh, a d ee hi e - h a d- i e if ed a d c ed
d b he c i ea b a , ca fee he e a cha ge a i g ace i ide hi .
Bei g e e i i e i e i ,i i a a f a i b de i g he i i a .22

S ec ac a i ic a he de f e f-fa hi i g f he i f a A e ica
e i e. Whe , f Wa hi g , P e ide Wi e ed he b ha
ac i a ed he de a ha b e ff he a iece f ea hc ec i g he
e a C eb a C , he a a de a i g a ba ic c ec i
be ee ech g a di e ia g e a ce. F he di a ce, he c d
fi a i e a ha d gi e hi a i he e fa ad a ced i d ia
e , ca ab e f c a e gi ee i g . The ca a ided a echa ica
"e a e" de ig ed i e he La i A e ica eighb . W. B a cha d,
ge g a h fe a he U i e i fI i i , ei 1937:

The f a g ea e ia i e ade e i a a igab e a e a , f a g ea -

ai idge g ed a d b idged b a g ea a ificia a e, f a e h e a f ed i a
hea hf d e i g ace, f a hi acc i hed i h he ea ici f g af
c i - ch a acc i h e i e f hich a a i a e be d. . . .
I addi i , i ha bee a i e i e e f La i A e ica eighb -a e a e
f ha a be acc i hed f eacef i e c ea g he a i .23

The c e i f he ca a a ce eb a ed a a a i a achie e e a he
1915 Pa a a- Pacific E i i i Sa F a ci c . F. Ha i a ici a ed hi
fai a a e fc i i hich A e ica d ga he ce eb a e
hei a i ' i ge he i h he c e i fC b ' e .24 U.S.
ech g had c he c i e i i de i e he d h gh

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 671

c e ce. Fai ga i e ffe ed i i a i ia e e i f he Pa a a

Ca a , be ga ed f a e e a ed i i . The e i i ' "ae -
c e" a ed e e ee he ech gica achie e e i he j g e a if
i e e i hi each.25
The ca a a a a e i g e e .I he id f WWII, he
c a achi e i he j g e beca e he e e i fa i ica i ci e:
he i e i ab e i h f de c ac e dic a hi . I e a i a a e e
N a Pad ef d a he ca a a a de a i ha de c acie e e ab e
ca ech gica achie e e ha e i ed a ca e f c e a i
ge e a a cia ed i h a i a ia egi e a d c e ci e ab .26 The ca a
di a ed he e (ca i a , a age e , cia ab , cie ce) ge e a ed
b a de c ac i he hi e a d fe i e.
I addi i , he ca a a c cei ed a a e gi ee i g ha c d
ge e a e "g d i ," a a c g i he a ge achi e f i e - A e ica
c e a i . I Feb a -Ma ch 1912, Sec e a Phi a de K i i ed he
c ie ha d be i edia e affec ed b he ca a b i g he
g d e f e ha ced c e ce, eace, a d c e a i .27 T K , he
ca a ig a ed he da fa" e da " ha d e e Ce a A e ica
a d Ca ibbea a i f hei "i a i ," e e ce i a c e cia
ibi i ie , a d b i g ge e a e i he a ea. Thi d a e d
he " a ad f e i a d fi a cia c a e" ha had ag ed he egi
i ce i i de e de ce.28
T he e e ha he agic f hi achi e ed, he i e e i h ea
e bedded i he R e e C a d ge be eeded. Wi h he
e d f he c c e f e i a d ec e deb c i e , he Ca ibbea a d
Ce a A e ica a i d fi a e ca e f he e ace f E ea
i e ia i . The echa ica e c a e di hi a e ea e he U i ed
S a e f ac ce ha had e cc ied i a e e i ce he i e f
Jeffe . Ra he ha a a ife a i f "d c e ce" fS i h ia
i i ab he e f a e ,K ' eeche e ea ed he be ief ha
a iece f e gi ee i g c d ac a a ci a f eig ic .
The Pa a a Ca a a a he a e i e a a e ia e e i f he igi a
M eD c i e, a d a a ida i f he i d f ha d c i e. I a a
achi e i ha ide gica e.29 Be ide e i g he ga e Pacific-
A a ic a iga i , he ca a d ei f ce he ide ia a da e ha
had e i ed he U i ed S a e ea f La i A e ica, i e e i gi
c ai f eace a d e i a d ca i g he i effec . Thi e cia-
ca aci a edica ed he e f achi e ci i i a i .I a
hi a a ge e f edge a d ech g ha ga e Sec e a K he
ibi i f e e he e g he i g f he i he ic c e a i .

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672 I A e ica Q a e

E e , i i a g ea b d be ee .I he f e I e cei e i i be a c
he i age bi di g ge he he a i f hi he i he e i haf ce e ca b ea ,
a d hi e i ha i P ide ce bee gi e f he N h a ea di e e i [ he
M eD c i e], i ha e e bee i ed he de i e f he e e f he S h
e a ed hei h .30

A e a echa ica i he i d ff he ide g f Ma ife

De i ,a h i i g e a a i e fi e -A e ica a i abi i , a
edge, a d c e a i .I he face f a ech gica de e e ha
had c he c i e i , i i agi a ie fi e ia e e a i
ac ai a d e a i e e . The de b e i i h e e a i g he b-
c i e h gh i " i e a e ie " eceded i he bac age f i e ia
a egie .
I i e f he e h ia c e ed b a U.S. c e a ,i a
c ea ha a La i A e ica a ed h gh he ca a e fi
e i e ce.31 Acc ed a ei g E e, he a d da gh e f La i
A e ica "high cie " had i e cha ce ee ei he he Pa a a Ca a
he Ca a Z e.32 Leadi g e ca i e h e i S h A e ica c i ed
e he adi i a A a ic e E e. The U.S. e did a i c d
e he e i g f he ca a a a aj a i a achie e e ,b he
a i a e begi i g f he a i E e di aced he a e i
f eade , b h i he U i ed S a e a d i La i A e ica.33 S e ab e
fig e f he La i A e ica i e a ei e h ed c a d U.S. c e
a d a e ia i . The Nica ag a a g a di c i ici ed he Pa a a Ca a a
he e b di e fi e ia i de ig a d fa a e ia i ic c e.34 H -
e e , b a d a ge, he ca a a ed ad e ed he he eighb . The
C a Machi e fai ed i e La i A e ica , i beca e i
a fa f igh . B c a , echa ica c c ha b i ed
a i abi i a d he i f a f ag e ed bc i e c da ea
S h A e ica e effec i e .

T a a i U ia

I he age f Pa -A e ica i , h ee " a a i U ia " d i a ed U.S.

h gh ab he i he ic i eg a i .A h ee e ded he i e a i e
fe i g La i A e ica i a i i a a i ha had b gh
ab ec ic g e a d a i a i eg a i i he U i ed S a e . The e
a e achi e ( he ai ad, he a bi e, a d he ai a e), i a
e ec ed, c dc ec La i A e ica U.S. a e a d, i hi a , ca
he de e ed e b ic he c f a d de i ha c ed

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 673

A e ica ife. T a e e , he e " a a i U ia " de e ed f

di e cha e i ha ea ie jec ( e ai i g he e a f Ma ife De -
i ) ha c ide ed e e a i g he e -S a i h c ie h gh a e a .
The achi e-age d ced i agi a ie f he i he ic ( e a d) i eg a i
b i a d ecific "ha d" achi e . The e achi e , i a a ed, d
b i g g ea e c ec i i , a i abi i , a d i ibi i he egi . "T a -
a i U ia " e e a f he i e ia i i ha jec ed de
achi e he i f be ha d a , di ac , a d g b a had
bee ab e e.

Ri e A e ie fE i e

I he id- i e ee h ce , a e ie f a a e a i gh e e d
he f ie f U.S. c e ce. Th e de i ed S h A e ica i e ded
e he fea ibi i f e i g he bc i e h gh i " i e a e ie ."
Wa e a e ec ide ed a a a e e f he e e a i f" g e "
i e cha ed e i ie . T e he a igabi i f he g ea S h
A e ica i e , he U.S. Na ca ied e i he 1850 . Lie e -
a He d a d Gibb e ed he A a Ri e ba i i 1 85 1-52, hi e
Lie e a Page a iga ed he Ri e P a e a d Pa a a Ri e i 1853- 55. 35
The e e b gh bac fa ab e e ec a i ab he egi g e ,
a e a g ea i gi i g ab he b ac e e c e.
I he A a ba i , he de e e f ade de e ded c cia
i ed a a i . He d a d Gibb i agi ed "a a i e a
a e a e aced h gh he T ic , a ai i g f eed f a iga-
i , ea b a f ee , e e e e ,a dc e cia e e i e."36 I hei
a a i U ia, U.S. ech g a de e i ec db i g" g e "
he A a , i i g he egi di ec i h U.S. he G f f Me ic
a di he Mi i i i Va e . A a a c e e f he U.S. ec ,
S h A e ica da e c e he e e e e f he a a i
e . The Ri e P a e e edi i a b gh bac i e ec a i
ab egi a de e e . Page e ed he e a i fc a a hi i g
a d he e ab i h e f ea - a i g a a g he Pa a a Ri e a d he
ibe a i i ha a i a ed he e g e .37
G ea b ac e , h e e , e e ed a a id de e e fi e a i a
ade a d a a i i he A a a d he Ri e P a e egi . The
B a i ia a e bjec ed he idea f dec a i g he A a a di ib a ie
i e a i a a e a a d, c a e ec a i ,g a ed e c i e a i-
ga i i i ege a B a i ia c a f hi ea . I he P a e-Pa a a

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674 I A e ica Q a e

i e e , he a igabi i f a ea i he A ge i a
a d B i ia a d he e h ii f he Pa ag a a e ide ade ea
a iga i i e diffic .38 O i a a ec i f he P a a- Pa a a i e ,
ea a iga i c bi ed i hE ea i ig a i i ed b i g
ab "de e e ."39 Wi h i e, e b de ed b i i i a a d a -
a h d e , he " i e a e ie " he fc e cia i eg a i ga e a
echa ica e a h .

The Pa -A e ica Rai a

The fi g ea echa ica U ia ibi i e e ge f he Pa -A e i-

ca i e e a he idea f a i e c i e a ai a .40 The jec f
c ec i g a he ca i a f he A e ica c i e h gh ai a a fi
e ed a he 1889-90 ee i g f he A e ica e b ic i Wa hi g .
Sec e a B ai e g e d ed he idea, ca i g La i A e ica a i
c e a ei he de ig a dc c i f ch a ai a e .I hi
ec i g eech he de ega e f he fi Pa -A e ica C fe e ce,
B ai e aid:

We be ie e ha e h d be d a ge he ec e b he high a f he ea a d
ha a di a da he ai a e f he N ha dS h i ee he I h
a dc ec b a d e he i ica a d c e cia ca i a fa A e ica .41

La e , he U.S. C g e e ab i hed a I e a i a Rai a C i i ,

headed b He Ga a a Da i , a i f e ia ai ad b i de , a d a ed
f d f he e he jec e i ed. The A C f E gi ee ca ied
he e , he e e e b i hed i fi e e d i g he ea
1895 h gh 1899. I 1901, i h he f La i A e ica de ega e ,
Da i a aged c ea e a e a e Pa -A e ica Rai a c i i
ha i c ded hi a h i A d e Ca egie a d h ee e e e a i e f
Me ic , Pe , a d G a e a a.42
I 1903, Cha e Pe e , j a i a d C ba e e , a c i i ed
a e S h A e ica e a a e he fea ibi i f he Pa -A e ica
Rai a . Hi e a i e i i ic. Pe e f d Me ic e e di g i
ai a he b de i h G a e a a a d A ge i a b i di g a ai a i
B i ia e i . The Chi ea c g e had a ed he c c i fa
a -A dea ai a ha d i e Va a ai B e Ai e . Pe had
ea a ed e fi ca e ce f ai ad de e e .A d e e a S h
A e ica e b ic e ei he ce f e i g hei b da di e ,
e hi g Pe e c ide ed c cia f he c e i f he a c i e a
ai ad.43

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 675

Pe e i i ic e ec a i ed ea i ic. Fi a cia c ai a d
i ica ici ade La i A e ica g e e a he c c i f
e i i he e .44 I U.S. f eig - ic ci c e he jec g ad a
.45 B he i e f he B e Ai e ee i g (1910), Da i c d
h eage e . The Me ica ec i a i f ie h
f he G a e a a b de . Ce a A e ica a i had ade a
eff i ai ad b i di g. S h f Pa a a he ec e e be e ;
Pe , Ec ad , a d A ge i a had ade e g e , b i 4,200 ie
e ai ed be b i .46
Lac i g c cia c ec i ,47 he e i i g ai a c d e i eg a e
he A e ica . D i g WWI e i a i i ie hed he jec f
a Pa -A e ica Rai a he bac age.48 E e e h ia ic e
f he jec had ad i ha he d ea f a ei g ai f Ne
Y B e Ai e had be aba d ed. The ha he Ne Y a -
e ge c d e ec a each Pa a a.49 B he i e f he 1928 Ha a a
c fe e ce, a de ega i a ed aba d he idea f a a c i e a
ai a , fa i g i ead he c c i f high a .50 Li e he achi e ,
he Pa -A e ica Rai a had bec e b e e.
F a f ea , hi a a i U ia had ai ed he e ec a-
i f a N h-S h he i he ic i eg a i .51 A ea a 1907, J h Ba -
e , e f he i e e f c e cia Pa - A e ica i ,
i agi ed ha a i a i a d ai ad c d adica a f he ea i
f La i A e ica. I he ea f e, he h gh , a Ne Y e c d a e
b ai a Ce a A e ica ca i a . If ade a e a fe f A e ica
ech g e e i e ed, e e he a a ia-i fe ed a d i a ed a ea f
Ce a A e ica c d bec e i e f ec ic g e .52

Thi i e c e e da . . . he h e M i C a a d he e f he Ca ibbea
h e f Ce a A e ica i be b i h e c e cia e e , hich, i ,
i be c ec ed b ai ad i h a a f he hi he i e e ab e j g e, a e a
i h he ai ca i a a d . I fac , I ee, d i g he e e ea ,
a a f a i i Ce a A e ica hich i a i h he d a d a e i diffic
ea i e ha , i 1907, i a c ega ded a a e a i c g i a.53

The d ea f ai ad a a i g a d a La i A e ica e faced af e he

c e i f he Pa a a Ca a .54 I ac ai , ai a a i fai ed
c ec a c ie f he egi . Ba e i i f " e c e cia
e e " i he j ge e ai ed i . Whe ai ad c ec ed he a d
f Ce a A e ica, i a f he be efi f he U i ed F i C a . B
he ec f ai ad i i g h a d i h i ab e a d had ig ifica
eigh i he i agi a i f A e ica a e e a d b i e e .

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676 I A e ica Q a e

Va i a e ca hi U ia jec - ai ad i he j -
g e - e ded i f idab e fai e . The f he Madei a-Ma e Rai a
i a ca e i i . The ea a e ade b Phi i a d C i i 1 878 had
be aba d ed d e he a agi g effec f a a ia he ab f ce.55 A
Ba d i c i e i gi he j ge da he a ie e hi
fai e.56 F 1909 1912, P. Fa ha e he jec a d, i h he
he f ica edici e, i ed ab e , a d a ia ce i h ca ibe , a
ab e c e e he jec . B Fa ha ' i agi ed b i e -e i ei he
j ge e e ca e f f i i . Ma a ia c i ed de a a e he egi ,
a d he dc i i f bbe i 1913-14 ade Fa ha fi a ce e b e.
W b ega i e b ici i he B a i ia e , he A e ica e e e-
e ga e hi c ce i i 1930.57 Wi h i e, hi ec ac e f di aced
de i g ad a i i he B a i ia i agi a i a a echa ica
gh ( e fa a d) ha e ed de c i a d decade ce.58

The Pa -A e ica High a

The idea f a e f high a c ec he h ee A e ica e e ged f

he Pa -A e ica C fe e ce a Sa iag , Chi e, i 1 923. 59 The f i g ea
e gi ee f i e ee La i A e ica a i ga he ed i Wa hi g
d he be a d gge iab e a e a i e f he jec . C g e e
high a i B e Ai e (1925), Ha a a (1928), a d Ri de Ja ei (1929)
e fec ed he a , a i g La i A e ica g e e e ib e f he
e a d he i e e ha d a e he i e c ec i ib e.60
Si ce i i ce i , hi ad U ia i a ed a e ie f d ea ca e
ab c e cia i eg a i , he e e i f U.S. i , he e a i
f U.S. c e, a d he ibi i fa ehe di g he egi ' ea i ie a d
be .A i e c i e a ad c ea ed he i e i ha a ge a e
f U.S. a fac e d e i La i A e ica a d ha he egi ' a
a e ia df i he U i ed S a e . Th gh de high a , he
c f f A e ica ife df i La i A e ica. Wi ia R d h
ei 1943:

The Pa A e ica High a a di feede h d ide a e a d d ba i f i e -

cha ge be ee e A e ica a i a da he , be ee he fa a d he ci , be ee
he i e fa i he ai a d he d ide, be ee he de e hich ha a
a d he ica fa a d hich ha e a a ie ie ff d. I i a ea b ;i i a
di i c ad a ce, hich h d ide he e i g- ef e e di g he c f f
de ife a a f he A e ica c i e .61

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 677

Whe he a c ed E e c e ce, i beca e ece a ee e

ce f a a e ia a d a e a e a a e a i e de i a i f
U.S. i . C ba a d he Ha aiia I a d e e a ead i c a ed i
he A e ica i agi a i a ace f e a ea e a d e e ai e .62
De e i g a e a i e i ecca i Ce a a d S h A e ica e i ed
i a i e e i e a d a a i .63 G d ad c d a e
acce ib e bea if beache , a e e j g e , I ca i , a d S a i h c ia
a chi ec e. The ibi i f a i e c i e a high a he ed i g ea
e ec a i . M i a d h g a he H. La e i 1939:

I i e ib e f Pa a a bec e a g ea Ri ie a, a ac i g ea e ee e f
a e he d. S e i i bec e a g ea Mecca f A e ica i a a he
Pa A e ica High a i e ed h gh Me ic a d a Ce a A e ica. The , he g ea
idd e c a A e ica i ca e e ie ce f eig a e a d c f ab e ad e e f
hi ca e he 3,305 ie f he A e ica b de he Ca a .64

Pe e a i g La i A e ica h gh ad a f c i a a i e ia i-
i ha e e ed ech g a a i e f he i he ic i eg a i .
Se i g ca a d b i di g ad e e ea e hibi La i A e ica he
achie e e f a ech gica e i cie .65 He ce he jec f a
i e c i e a high a e ca a ed b h f eig - ic d ea a d b i e
bjec i e . I jec ed i a echa ica ac age (a bi e + high a )
he e ec a i f he A e ica idd e c a a d he i ica d ea f i
eade hi . A a , "La i " a d "A g -Sa " A e ica c d be i ed b a
ech g ha a e e e a i e f A e ica a c e c e.66
Li e he e i a a i U ia, he Pa -A e ica High a e e
a i c e i . Whi e he ad f he U.S. Mid e a d Ca if ia
he b de f La ed a d N ga e e e c e ed b 1936 a d 1940,
a ed ad i Me ica e i ed 750 ie h f Me ic Ci .67
The a e a e f Ce a A e ica ad , he e he f e a i c ed
he ea f a a i . I he 1940 , La i A e ica g e e i -
e ed e i d e ic ad , b did a ch a e i c e i g
he Pa -A e ica High a .68 R ad b i de ' i i ab a e gi ee i g
jec ha d i e a f ag e ed c i e c a ed i h he ac a
ibi i ie f La i A e ica g e e fi a ce he e ad .
Thi a a ca e f c a e i a ce agai hi e be f U.S. -
de i , he a bi e. O he c a , he B a i ia a d A ge i e idd e
c a e had de e ed b he 1920 a g affec i a d he a bi e.
Ca ace , a bi e c b , a d ca e hibi i ig a ed he ea de e -

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678 I A e ica Q a e

e f a "ca c e" i he S he C e.69 The ac f ad c ec i i

i S h A e ica a he e f e e egi a de e e .I 1942
Pa P ei a d He be La d e hei ca a dS h A e ica e
he fea ibi i fc e i g he Pa -A e ica High a .70 Thei j e
de a ed ha he idea f a Pa -A e ica High a a fa f bei g a
ea i : a i e i e e ed he a ee f e e ci c e i g
he bc i e . The A e ica i c c ded ha he "ad e -
i " h d e ica e hei fea . The "hea fS h A e ica"
a i eachab e b ca .

Pa A e ica Ai a

The a a a i U ia, ce e ed he ai a e, e ed f he
c bi a i f i a ee e e e hi a d a i a defe e icie . The
i a be ee he U i ed S a e a d Ge a i he fie d f c e cia
a ia i e a ed he e ai f he e e ge ce f a a c i e a f i g
c a . U.S. ic a e , c ce ed ab Ge a i f e ce i La i
A e ica, c ide ed he e a i f SCADTA, a Ge a a ia i c a
ba ed i C bia, a a ec i h ea he Pa a a Ca a . C e e ,
he ied hi f b i e . I 1927, he SCADTA gh a d-
i g igh i Pa a a ( he a e ea ha Li dbe gh c ed he A a ic i h
hi S i i fS .L i ), he U.S. Ai F ce decided gi e f a
A e ica a ia i c a ha c db c Ge a i f e ce. The a e
f hi c a a Pa A e ica Ai a .71
I 1928 J a T i ee e ed i he b i e . Wi h he f he U.S.
Ai F ce (f hich he g he ice e) a d he fi a cia bac i g f J. P.
M ga a d he eadi g ba e ,T i eb i a cce f ai i e c a
ha i ed he ca i a fS h A e ica.72 Hi cce f b i e a egie
d ced a c ec i i ha b h ai a a d ad had fai ed a ai . B
de i g ai c af i ad a ce f he c e i i , ec i g a di g igh f
La i A e ica g e e ,a d e e i g he e e ge ce f c e i i e
c a ie , Pa A e ica Ai a g e a id bec e he egi e ie
ai i e.73 B 1930, ea af e i a , Pa A c ed f -eigh
g d a i a d had f igh i e e 19,200 i e .74
S a i g i ha ai e ice be ee Ke We a d Ha a a, T i e
e a ded e ice ac a fS h A e ica. "Pa ag a," a b idia f Pa
A ,c ed he A dea e . The c a ' eg a i e a i a f igh
c ec ed a he ea e c a fS h A e ica (Pa a a, Q i ,G a a i,
Li a, A e i a, A faga a, a d Sa iag ). I addi i , he c a ffe ed

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 679

f igh f Sa iag B e Ai e a d f he a e ca i Sa a,
A ge i a, a d La Pa , B i ia. A he e c ec i b ai e ec e ed
bef e 1934.75 O he ea e ide f he c i e , Pa A ' B a i ia b-
idia (Pa ai d B a i ) ided c ec i a g he ea e c a f
Ri de Ja ei a he a Pa a a.
Pa A a a c ea ca e f a i h a ech gica edge. I a ge
"f i g b a ," a fi a i ef a a e e , beca e a c igh
i he a d ca e f S h A e ica ai . The e ec i fa hibia a e
a ba ed he i ha i de e c e he ai e ai
f A dea a i , ai a e had f a e e , a di g ag ,
i e , ea . Thi a a ic a e f he i e ched ed he
ea e c a . Pa A c ib ed a he ce f ech gica a fe ,
de e i g adi a d ea he a i a gi ched ed e .76 A ehic e
f de i i a a dc ica i , Pa A e ica Ai a e e-
e ed, e ha e ha he U.S. c a ie , he hege f U.S. ca i a
e he ie f Ce a a dS h A e ica. Th gh i b idia ie , Pa A
c ed f he egi ai affic, a i h c e i i .77
A h ca e f he ibi i fc d c i gf eig ic h gh i a e
e e i e, Pa A Ai a beca e a b fi e - A e ica g d i .
Ca i g edici e i i e f a , a i g de ega e he Pa -A e ica
c fe e ce , ee i g f igh ched e i he id f e i a dc ,
he c a ac i ed a e a i f e ai a di e a i a c e a-
i .I addi i , he c a c ab a ed i h U.S. cie ific e edi i
de a e he i a ce f ae ia h g a h i a chae g , ge g a h ,
a d he di ci i e . I 1930, f i a ce, Pa A e ica Ai a a i ed
he Ca egie I i i i a jec ha i ed a ae ia a i g f Ma a
i e .I fi e da aS i a hibia a ec a ded b Cha e Li d-
be gh e fe Ti a , Ua ac , Chiche I a, a d Pe e ea chi g f he
e ia a chae gica i e .78
Pa A e ica Ai a faci i a ed a d i e ified b i e c ec i . U.S.
c a e ec i e a d e gi ee a d e -c a La i A e ica a e ed
he c a ' ched ed e c d c b i e i he egi . Pa ag a
a e ca ied i -d i i g e i e i he id f he Ec ad ia j g e.
Ai a e , he i a e achi e, c d e c e he b ac e i ed b
S h A e ica' ge g a h - he A dea ai , he g ea i e , a d he
j ge -a d e e a ei he "hea " f he bc i e .F he e, he
ai a e e e ed La i A e ica b i e c i ie a d i gei e i h
a e ec ac e f de i a d i ha e e e fc f .79 B i fai ed

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680 I A e ica Q a e

i eg a e he h ee A e ica i he a ha Sec e a B ai e, J h Ba e ,
He G. Da i had e i i ed. Pa A e ica Ai a ea i ed he U ia
f i i g he c i e f he "ai a e e ," ea i g e ed he egi
a a i bac a d e .M f he egi ca g a d a e ge c -
i ed be ca ied ai , ad , a d hi , if a i a ' bac .

F ag e ed S h A e ica: A e ica M i he G d

O he g d, hi g i e diffe e . The U ia f i i gac i e

b echa ica de ice fa a a i e ea i i he face f e e egi a
de e e ,i fficie g e e fi a ce , a d di i c a i a i i ie
acc ded a a i i e e .O he g d, he f ag e a i f
S h A e ica ge g a h , ec ie a d cie ie di he c ec i i
a dc e a i e i i ed b he e gi ee f a a i U ia . The
f U.S. i a e i g ac S h A e ica de a e he
i a e fc i e a c ec i i a d he h b idi f he egi
a a i e .
O Ne Yea Da f 1942, Pa P ei a d He be La e ba ed a
g ca j e a dS h A e ica.80 Thei g a a cha a bi e
e i he egi a d ^ e he a i abi i f he e i i g ec i f he
Pa -A e ica High a . Thei j e , ed b he A e ica A bi e
A cia i , a gi e A e ica i a - -da e i e i f he
a e f he ad i S h A e ica, i h he ie fe a di g i a e -
i . Thei ca , "Si e ," ad ed i h f ag fa A e ica a i , a i efa
e age f i e - A e ica "g d i ." P ei a d La a e ed f Ca aca
(Ve e e a) G a a i (Ec ad )f i g he Si B i a high a .
F he he c a f Pe he eached La Pa (B i ia), a i g h gh
C c . Ne , he d ea g ide he Pacific C a he f Te c
i he Chi e, he c ed A ge i a, eached he he i f he
c i e (Ri Ga eg ), a d e ed h B e Ai e . F he e,
he d e M e ide a d P A eg e, a i i ga hei fi a de i a i ,
Ri de Ja ei , Ma 15, 1942.
Af e d i i g 13,600 i e , he A e ica i f d he Pa -A e ica
High a be i a de e ed jec . D i i g a d he bc i e
a ib e, b af e e c i g a b ac e a d da ge . Wide
a ed ad e e he i i ege f a fe c ie . Oi ea h a ed Ve e ea
he f ad-b i di g achi e , a ed high a ,a da ea i e a ge
be f ca .81 G d e che f a ed ad c da be f di he
iche c ie f he S he C e (A ge i a, Chi e, a d U g a )i a ea

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 681

Fig e 3. ha d ced ag ic a c di ie f E ea
Ma f he Pa -A e ica a e . The a e a e f he Pe ia c a , he e
High a S e , ca. 1942
Be a /C bi . ad c ec ed ga a d c hacie da .82 Wi hi
a d a d f eig e ca e a ee f d g d
a ed ad , b i b i i i g c a ie . Thi a he ca e i he i - ich
a ea f La e Ma acaib a d i he Pe ia he c a , ea Ta a a.83
O ide f he i di ic he ich e a ea , ad e e -
a ed, ea h c ida ed i h g a e . Rai ade he ad i e , g
i d c e ed he ca i h a d, e i e i e ed he d i e f da ,
a d gged e ai e ded he ca ' i g .84 I C bia, ai ad
e e a , i h e-di ec i affic. O he ad f Pe , i
had c a cie c b idge a d e i e , d i i g a a de
he e ace f idi g c . I high a i de , Si e ' hea ed i e
f e e . O dd ad a ee had ie chai a d he i e . I
B i ia, c -di che i e ded f d ai age f ced P ei a d La
f e e .85 I U g a , he i ed he c a a d d e a g
he beach beca e he ad a f ded.
O e e a cca i a g hei j e , he A e ica a ee had b a d
hei ca a hi , i beca e he ad e e i a ab e. Thi ha e ed

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682 I A e ica Q a e

a G a a i a d a e a Ri G a de d S .86 A he i f he j e ,
he ad i di a ea ed. The e f d hi i a i he b de
be ee Ec ad a d Pe , e -fi e ie h f Ri ba ba, a d agai
he b de be ee Pe a d Chi e, hf Tac a.87 I A ge i a,
af e c i g he Chi ea b de , he e a ad each Ba i che. S ,
he A e ica i d ea g e c , a i g h gh a i a e
hee a ch.88 I Pa ag ia, S h f La e B e Ai e , he ad dde
e ded, gi i g a ac ea i e a ed b he i d.89
O he g d, he c ec i i i ed b he Pa -A e ica High a ,
he g a d de ig fi e - A e ica ic , a fic i a . Wi h a
b ac e , i e i , a d diffic ie , he j e f La G ai a he
Mage a S ai did ee a ia e f he a e age A e ica ca e
a d i . The Pa -A e ica High a e i ed i he i d f a e -
e a di he b e i f ad b i de , a e hi g be ea i ed i he
f e. I he ea i e, S h A e ica e ai ed di c ec ed, f ag e ed
b bad e i e ad , ag ed b e ed b de di e ,a d
ed b g e e c ce ed i h high a de e e . The i i e -
a La a d P ei f ed - di g S h A e ica a g ad c e
he c a , a he ha e e a i g he i e i - ef ec ed S h A e ica'
bac a d e i e a d a a i . The e i i g ad - a e ec ec-
i f ac , ad , a d ca i - did c i ea i e c ec ed
e f a a i .90
The i i fS h A e ica c i c ed b A e ica - e ad a d -
i did iab e. E i i g ad did a f eig e e e a e
i he "hea " fS h A e ica. O he "ad e i "c d
each i he i e i f he O i c , a d h gh a "c bi a i f
ca ad , i e b a , a d a i e b e ."91 F Pe , a ee ied
e ei he aff e i e f he A a ,b he ac f ad ade hei
a e i ib e. The ad eadi g C c , he a chae gica ca i a f
S h A e ica, a e ceedi g diffic :i a a a d ade f e;
ide f c b c ed affic a e e a i .92 The a bi e, he i e -
e ia e e e a i e f U.S. c e c e, a f i e he i b i gi g
La i A e ica a ea dc ec e h e.
N e he e , he i 'j e aff ded a i e i f
ga gi g egi a " g e ." Li e i a e e , P ei a d La a i S h
A e ica a i ig i g i e f de
a d adi i , a egi i he e
A e ica echa ica de i di e i i h "S a i h" a d "I dia "
c a f a i .I a f "A e ica e " a ea ed he e a d he e. The
a ee e c e ed a fe i e f "a bi e c e" a g hei j e .I

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 683

A ge i a, de ga i e a i be gi g he A ge i eA bi e
C b (ACA) e e di ib ed a g he ad. Nea he B i ia b de he e
e e ig f ca ace ga i ed b he ACA. Si i a c b e a i gi Pe
a d Chi e ided a a di f a i i .A h i i g c -d i -
i gb i e had de e ed i Pa ag ia.93 I Pe a d Ve e e a, he e e e
e f e e i g ga i ea i e ea ab e ice . A d e ai h
a d e e i ga a c d be f de e he e.94
I a ea f ca i a i e ag ic e, achi e-ci i i a i had ade
g ea i ad . I he c a a a a i f Pe ,c , ga ca e a d ice
e ec i a ed i h he he f" a i a ea -e gi e " i ed f
E g a d.95 The a e a ea he i i ga d e e e c a e . Ta a a,
a i c a i he Pe , ed i e a he "A e ica
i d ia ," i hi c bi a i f achi e , hi e e , a d de
a ia de ig .96 A O a, P ei a d La f d he a ge c e e i g
a i he c i e . He e U.S. achi e a d a age e had e ded
a ace fS h A e ica diffe e ce. "A O a ef da i e A e ica,
i a ed i he ai , he e he A e ica e ee f Ce de Pa c
a d hei fa i ie i e, be ee e e h a d a d hi ee h a d fee
ab e ea e e ."97
B he a f he de ("S a i h adi i " a d "I dia e ")
e ea i e i ib e. "O d S ai " a ea ed ce a d agai , i he c c figh
a Ca ab b , i he gi c e ed i h a i a a Va e cia, a d i he ed-
i ed f f he Ve e ea . Si i a e a f "S a i h g "
c d be ee a Li a a d, a e e e e , a La Pa . B ei e i e
a d e a he he S h A e ica. A he a ee e e ed Ec ad ,
"I d -A e ica" beca e e e ide . I dige e e a ed a g ide
he ad, ac f a a c ed he ad , a d he e a d he e, i i ed
he e i e ce f a a cie c e. I Pe ia e i , he A e ica
ied a a i A dea a e , ic e f i dig-
e ea a , a d had a a e f A dea ic a d e igi ce i .
The ig f he c ia e e ie ce e e i ed i h he ig f "a i i ."
A he e e f Pachaca ac, he A e ica i ed i e a
a a i g ec ac e: ca eedi g a he ehi ic i ; agai he , he
ca ed i e a d .98 A cie i ade he i a a e ha he
had e e ed he e i f he T a i , a d hi i c ea ed hei e ec
f he Pe ia .99
The gj e a dS h A e ica ided e c e i h" i i-
i e" ech g a e a i i g e f echa i ed d c i a d
a i e e gi ee i g. I he Ve e ea high a d , La a d P ei f d he

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684 I A e ica Q a e

a cie e h d f e ace c i a i , e a ha ec ed he c f
he i e c , a d ea a h h e hed hei g ai i h he he fd e .
F he h, he a " a i e " i i g i a e b ea fh e ade
de achi e .100 I he Ec ad , ea a e e" i gi he
fie d , i g i h e i i g he g ai b ha d."101 S di g
La e Ti icaca e e i dige ea a i g he a d i ga ic i ha
b ade, i ce "I ca da ."102 The e " i i i e" e h d fh ba d
a d ag ic e c e i ed i h a e f "a cie " a chi ec e a d e gi ee -
i g, ch a he ad i he high a f I fie i (Pe ) a d he i gi g
b idge e ed a d e g he ed i h ee cab e .103 The a ee ' ai e
ed e a i ea he c e a i f I ca a chi ec e. The a e ed
a he " a he a ica eci i " f I ca a a C c a d Sac a h a a .104
C a i g i h he g ea e f Pe ia a ci i i a i e ec e -
a e i dige ea a , h i ed de i e" i i i e" a d " de"
c di i . The a d f he I ca i a a he e i fc e a
e a de e e cia i e ai .
La ' a a i e a e e ide he e ec a i a e a he i i a i f
hi a ic a a a i U ia ce e ed high a . We - a ed ad
e e ca ab e f b i gi g i edia e g e he di g a ea : e i g
a d, de e i g e i a ed e ce , a d c ea i g ea h. Thi
a a ic a i ib e i a ea he e U.S. c a ie had de e ed de
f "i d ia ." Thei j e a ade c ea ha A e ica achi e-
ci i i a i -a di c e di g a f ife - had a ead e e a ed he
ic , he A de , a d he a a .B he e e c a e c i ed e ce i
i he a d ca e f S h A e ica. P ei d ia e h d a d i i i e ad
i d i a ed i a ea f he bc i e , a i g he a e f he
A e ica i aj e i a e e a . "M i g" S h A e ica
ge e a ed he i e i fa a ageab e h b idi ,i hich e e e f
S a i h a d i dige c e c e i ed i e i i h e ec i e e e e
fE -A e ica de i . The e ac f Ce de Pa c - i g
he ai a d de i g he ege a i - da a e he i i
f A e ica ech g i he d fa a cie i dige c e. Pac
f a a c i g a Pe ia ai ad h ed c ea ha he g ea
a a i U ia ( he Pa -A e ica High a ) had b gh a
be efi he A dea ea a .I he e d, he diffic fc ec i i
i he A e ica a a be f e e de e e a de e e cia
i e ai .

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 685

C c i

Sch a f U.S.-La i A e ica ea i ha e f e ea ed he d f

e gi ee , achi e , a d achi e-c e a di c ec ed f U.S. icie
a d he egi , a i g, e ha ha i , ha he e icie a e ba ed
idea a d i ci e ge e a ed i hi he g e e a d f eig - ic
c i ie . B i g he e "i e ia echa ic " I a gge ha
f eig - ic i ci e a d i agi a ie f he i he ic i eg a i e e
b i c ce i f achi e e e gi g f he e gi ee a d b i e
d . "T a a i U ia " a d " ec ac a e gi ee i g" c i e
e f a b ade e f achi e ec fig e i e -A e ica e a-
i . The e e e jec i f U.S. achi e-ci i i a i he e i
f he i he ic f eig ic .
"Ha d achi e " faci i a ed he c c i f i i f a he i he e
i ed de U.S. e ac . The Pa a a Ca a c i ed a g a di e
di a f A e ica ab , ech gica i ge i , a i a c , a d ab
a age e . I d f he achie e e f a g ea de c a ic e b ic
i g i i h i ab e e ai ( he "j g e"). The ca a e e e ed a
he ibi i f "S h A e ica g e " - he ec ic i ie
e ed b f f U.S. ade, i e e , a d ech gica a i a ce - a d,
c e e , a ehic e f he diff i f "g d i " a g he i e e b-
ic h f Pa a a. The eb f c e ce, i a e ec ed, c d acif
a i a i i , a e d ca e i , a d di i i h he a i i
agai he C f he N h. Thi a e ha he bigge agic f he
achi e: ac a a a ci a f eig ic , c fi i g i he e d he
i d f he M e D c i e a d he c ec e f "A e ica " e ec-
i e g e a ce a d de e e .
"T a a i U ia " he ed i agi e he i f a c i e
e a a ed b a i a i a ie , b da di e , a d i e di e e a i a
c i ie . B e i f i e c i e a ai a a d high a b gh
ab g ea e ec a i ab he a i abi i a d c ec i i f he he i-
he e. M de a a i e c d e c e he ba ie i ed
b a e ( ai , de e , j g e ) a d b i g he d c a d c e
f S h A e ica c e he U i ed S a e . A e ica jec ed i he e
achi e , h gh he i e ifica i f i a d c e ce, he ibi i
f h e i g he c a di a ce ha e a a ed "La i " f "A g " A e ica.
T ai , ad , a d ai a c d b i g e f e e c ac a g he
A e ica , ge e a i g he a de a di g ha a dee ed c cia f
he e ab i h e f i e - A e ica c e a i . The ai a e added he e

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686 I A e ica Q a e

i agi a ie he i f e ha ced, he i he ic i ibi i .F he ai , i a

ea ie ga ge he egi ' a a e ce , a i a chae gica i e ,a d
ge a c ehe i e i f he egi e ia i ie a d h c i g .
I ica ,i a a i a ee e e e (J a T i e) ed b U.S.
fi a cie a d he defe e e ab i h e ha ca ied i ac ice he g ea -
e d ea fa : e e a e he j ge , i e , a e , a d ci ie f he
bc i e i h a fe h f ai a ef i g. The ea i a i f he
hi d " a a i U ia" - i a he e fi a i e "f i gb a "
a d f he g ea e e iabi i f adi e age - ef he e i f e
a a i c a d egi a de e e ed. B i ei f ced
U.S. e f-a a e e ab i ech gica i ac . The a a i e f
U.S. i h ci c - ed S h A e ica i 1942 h he dif-
fic ie i ea i i g he idea fa A e ica c i e i ed b a e f
high a . Thei a bi e j e de a ed h he egi e ai ed
a a ch f diffe e a a i ech gie - a a ea i f ag e ed
b a ic a i ie , i a ie , a d fi a cia c ai .I i i ei e e i g ha
hi a a i e a b i hed af e J a T i e a aged c ec a S h
A e ica ca i a b ai . Whe ea P ei a d La j e e d f a
e he d ea ca e f a b c ed c e f he bc i e b
A e ica i a d i ,J a T i e cce f e e i e e ha ced
he i ibi i fi f a e i e.
The i a ei f A dea ca i g hei ca g e he bac f a a
a d idd e-c a La i A e ica f i gi ai a e hei ea e de i a-
i e i d f he i i a i f achi e i e c i g e e de e -
e a di e ai .B he efficaci e f" a a i U ia " h d
be ea ed b he deg ee hich he e eb gh i effec . F hei
chief ei he a i g f U.S. f eig ic a b ic: ai he
fic i fah ge e a d ca e (La i A e ica) ead "be c ec ed"
a e i ech gica ci i i a i ( he U i ed S a e ). M de a a-
i ech gie e ab ed he fic i ha he f fc e ce, i e e ,
a d ab d e ha ce e fa e a d ai i e -A e ica c e a i .
Li e he Pa a a Ca a , he i e c i e a ai a a d high a d
a a i ib e e e e a i f he ibi i ie fi e - A e ica c e a i
h gh de e e . E bedded i he e ef eig ic i ci e . I
he 1930 FDR i a e a Pa -A e ica i a ea ed a a ibi i he
ai i e c ec i ade S h A e ica ie a f he U.S. hi e a d.
T i e e i e f he ie ade he igi a ( ia e a)M eD c i e
b e e, e ab i g i e ace e f a e be e e a d a ici a
c ce i fe i e: he G d Neighb P ic .

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 I e ia Mecha ic I 687

C ea , he a i i ia e ai a d he i he ic c de-
fe e e e he e f e ge i ica i e a i e c ea ed b he i ac f
he G ea De e i a d he e e ge ce f Na i .B i he ea i e,
" a a i U ia " he ed ai ai he fic i fa i ed he i he e,
c ec ed b ai , ad , a d ai a e . O he ech gie a ed a i -
a ei he de e e f U.S. icie a d La i A e ica. M de
ea fc ica i , ch a he adi a d e e ice , e e c cia i
he c c i f "he i he ic c e a i "d i g he ea f he G d
Neighb P ic . Ph g a h a d i ic e c ib ed a ace
La i A e ica de he he e f U.S. i ibi i a d c i .
The e "i e ia echa ic " c ec he di c ec ed d ff -
eig ic , b i e e e i e, a d ech g , gge i g ha i f
"ha d" a d " f " achi e i f ed U.S. f eig icie i La i A e ica.
Pa -A e ica i a he " f achi e" edica ed he a i f
e i i achie ed i he e ai f "ha d achi e ." Ba e " ac ica Pa -
A e ica i " a e a f de a di g a d b i di g he achi e f
i f a e i e. Thi i i ia i e ca ed f f f he i he ic i eg a i ha
did de e d c e cia c ag ee e . Si i a , a a-
i U ia jec ed a i eg a i ha e ed he a i f
U.S. ech gica e i i a d he i i g e f La i A e ica e b ic
j i U.S. a a i i i ia i e . The Pa -A e ica i ha de e ed
i he fi f decade f he e ie h ce c bi ed he jec i f
he e e f achi e he i agi ed a d f a i ed he i he e.
If d i i e he ea a a he c e f he c c i f he B i i h
E i e, he U.S. hege e S h A e ica a i agi ed a d i i
i he fie d f ech g a d e e i e ha d e a c i e a
f fg d , ca i a , a d i f a i e a a d a i eg a ed b ad ,
ai a ,a dc e cia f igh . Th ,S h A e ica i eg a i i ha
e ad a ced achi e-ci i i a i a ed g idi g i ci e : fi ,
he i ha U.S. ech gica a fe S h A e ica c da a e
he ec ie a d cie ie f he egi ; ec d, he idea ha a a d a ,
f ag e ed b ce ie fc ia i a d a i a i ica i a ie c d
be i ed b de a a i ech gie . Wha Si B i a had
fai ed achie e i 1826 a d Ja e B ai e jec ed a a i i i 1889 - he
idea f he i he ic i eg a i - a e aced b e echa ica i agi a ie
ha i ed c ec i i , ci c a i ,a d de i a egi b de ed
b e e de e e a d f ag e a i .

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