1

OBJECTIVE
To acquire fundamental concepts pressure and head

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:

i. Define and derive Pascal’s Law

ii. Derive pressure variation with height in a fluid at rest
iii. Determine the pressure at various locations in a fluid at rest
iv. Differentiate between absolute and gage pressure
v. Explain the concept of manometers
vi. Apply appropriate equations to determine pressures or
pressure difference using different types of manometers
vii. State advantages and disadvantages of manometer
viii. Convert pressure in terms of head and vice versa 2
2.1 PRESSURE

 Pressure is defined as a compressive stress, or compressive force per unit

area.
 In a stationary fluid (liquid or gas) the compressive force per unit area is the
same in all directions.
 In a solid or moving fluid, the compressive force per unit area at some point
is not necessarily the same in all directions.
Force exerted F
Pr essure or p
Area of boundary A

 Units: newtons per square meter (Nm-2 or kgm-1s-2)

 The same unit is also known as a Pascal [Pa] where, 1 Pa = 1 Nm-2 @ kPa =
103 Pa, MPa = 106 Pa
 Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where 1 bar = 105
Nm-2.

3
 2 (TWO) important principles about pressure;
 Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume of
fluid.
 In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts
perpendicular to the boundary.
 These principles, called Pascal’s Law,

Fluid surfaces

Figure 2.2 Pressure Figure 2.3:

acting uniformly in all Direction of fluid pressures
directions on boundaries
2.2 PASCAL’S LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT

 Considering the prismatic element again, ps is the pressure on a plane at

any angle , the x, y, and z directions could be at any orientation.
 The element is so small that it can be considered a point so the derived
expression ps = px = py indicates that pressure at any point is the same
in all directions. (The proof may be extended to include the z axis).
 Pressure at any point is the same in all directions. This is known as
Pascal’s law and applies to fluid at rest.
11
2.2 Absolute and Gauge Pressure
• Pressure measurements are generally indicated as being either
absolute or gauge pressure.
 Gauge pressure
• is the pressure measured above or below the atmospheric pressure
(i.e. taking the atmospheric as datum).
• can be positive or negative.
• A negative gauge pressure is also known as vacuum pressure.
 Absolute pressure
• uses absolute zero, which is the lowest possible pressure.
• Therefore, an absolute pressure will always be positive.
• A simple equation relating the two pressure measuring system can
be written as:
 Pabs = Pgage + Patm (2.2)
 Atmospheric pressure
• refers to the prevailing pressure in the air around us.
• It varies somewhat with changing weather conditions, and it
decreases with increasing altitude.
• At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa
(abs), 14.7 psi (abs), or 1 atmosphere (1 bar = 1x105 Pa).
• This is commonly referred to as ‘standard atmospheric
pressure’.
P(a) P(gage)

P(vac)
P(atm)
Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum

• Pressure in a vacuum is p = 0.
• Absolute pressure is referenced to perfect vacuum.
• Gage pressure is referenced to another pressure, typically atmospheric
pressure (most gages measure relative pressures).
 DIFFERENT IN PRESSURE

 Different in pressure between any points at different

level in a liquid is given by
 P2-P1 = (h2-h1)

= g = specific weight (unit weight) and

h2-h1= different in elevation

If point 1 is in the free surface of the liquid and h is

positive downward the above equation become

P= h
 Example 1
 What will be the gauge pressure and absolute pressure of
water at a depth 12m below the surface? Take ρwater = 1000
kg/m3 and Patm = 101 kN/m2

 Solution:
Pgauge = ρgh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12
= 117.7 kN/m2 (kPa)
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
= (117.7 + 101) kN/m2
= 218.7 kN/m2
Example
Example

Example
 2.3 VARIATION OF PRESSURE VERTICALLY IN A
FLUID UNDER GRAVITY
 In the figure we can see an element of fluid
which is a vertical column consists of constant
p2 A cross sectional area, A, surrounded by the same
Area A fluid of mass density ρ.
 The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is p1
at level z1, and at the top is p2 at level z2.
Fluid  The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all the
Density, ρ forces in the vertical direction sum to zero.
z2  The forces acting are
Force due to p1 on area A acting up = p1A,
Force due to p2 on area A acting down = p2A
z1
p1 A

Vertical elemental cylinder of fluid

20
 2.3 VARIATION OF PRESSURE VERICALLY IN A
FLUID UNDER GRAVITY

 Force due to weight of the element = mg

= Mass density x g x Volume
= ρgA(z2-z1).

 Taking upward forces as positive, in equilibrium we have

( ) F=0
p1A - p2A - ρgA(z2-z1) = 0
p1–p2 = ρg(z2-z1)…………………………….. (2.3)
Δp = ρg(z2-z1)

 Thus in any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure decreases with increase of
height z.

 Thus, in any fluid under gravity,

 an increase in elevation causes a decrease in pressure.
 a decrease in elevation causes an increase in pressure
21
2.3 VARIATION OF PRESSURE VERICALLY IN A
FLUID UNDER GRAVITY

Free surface
P2 = Patm

ya h

P1
y

 In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth h

measured from the free surface can be found by applying equation
(2.3) to the figure.
 From equation (2.3): P1 – P2= g (ya-y)
 But ya-y = h , and
 P2 = Patm (atmospheric pressure since it is at free surface).
 Thus,
 P1 – Patm= gh
 or P1 = Patm + gh (abs) (2.4)
 or in terms of gauge pressure (Patm= 0),:
 P1 = gh = h (2.5)
 From the above equations,
 the change in pressure is directly proportional to the specific weight of the
liquid,
 pressure varies linearly with the change of elevation or depth.
 The linear variation with depth below the free surface is known as hydrostatic
pressure distribution.


 Hydrostatic pressure increases with the depth of fluid. Notice that in

Figure 2.6 below, the reading on the pressure gauge of tank A is lower
than the reading of tank B. The gauges show the pressure created by the
depth and specific weight of the liquid.
Tank A Tank B

liquid
liquid

Figure 2.6:
Different pressure
due to different depth
 As g is assumed constant,
 gauge pressure can be given by stating the vertical
height, h, of any fluid density, , which would be
necessary to produce this pressure.
 This vertical height, h, is known as pressure head or just
head of fluid, and can be written as;
 h = P/ g (2.6)

 Note that when pressures are expressed as head, the

density of fluid must be given or the fluid is named.
2.3.1 Pressure Variations in a compressible liquid

 Pressure variation in a compressible fluid are usually very

small because of the small unit of weights and the small
differences of elevation being considered in hydraulic
calculations. Where such differences must be recognized
for small changes in elevation dh, the law of pressure
variation can be written
 dp = - h
 The negative sign indicates that the pressure
decreases as the altitude increases, with h positive
upward
2.4 EQUALITY OF PRESSURE AT THE SAME
LEVEL IN A STATIC FLUID

 Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid in the figure below, with
cross sectional area A, in a fluid of density ρ, pressure p1 at the left hand end
and pressure p2 at the right hand end.

Fluid density, ρ
Area A

p1 A p2 A

Face L Face R

Weight, mg

Horizontal elemental cylinder of fluid

26
 Fluid is at equilibrium, so the sum of forces acting on the x-direction is
zero.
 ( ) ΣF =0.
 PLA – PRA = 0
 PL = PR (2.7)

 This proof that pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.

 P Q

z z

L R

This result is the same for any continuous fluid. It is still true for two
connected tanks which appear not to have any direct connection, for
example consider the tank in the figure below

 We have show above that pL= pR and from the equation for a vertical
pressure change we have
pL = pP + ρgz and pR = pQ + ρgz
so pP + ρgz = pQ + ρgz
pP = pQ
 This shown that the pressures at the two equal levels, P and Q are the
same.
 Figure 2.8: Two tanks of
different cross-section
connected by a pipe

 Applying equation (2.4)

 PL = PP + ρgh ---------------- (1)
 and
 PR = PQ + ρgh ---------------- (2)
 Earlier, we have shown that PL = PR (refer equation 2.6), therefore
equating (1) and (2) will give
 Pp + ρgh = PQ + ρgh
 PP = P Q (2.8)
 This shows that the pressures at two equal levels P & Q are the same.
This is an important concept when dealing with manometers (see Section
2.4).
2.5 Pascal’s Paradox
 Earlier we have shown that the change in pressure depends
only on the change of elevation and the type of fluid, not on
the weight of the fluid present.
 Therefore, all the containers shown in Figure 2.9 would have
the same pressure at the bottom – no matter what the size or
shape of container and how much fluid they contained.
 This observation is called Pascal’s Paradox.

Figure 2.9:
h h
Illustration of
Pascal’s Paradox
Pressure is the same at the bottom of container: P= gh
2.5 Remember!!!
 The pressure change across a fluid column of height (h) is
P= fluidgh.

 Pressure increases downward in a given fluid and

decreases upward (Pbottom > Ptop).

 Two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at

rest are at the same pressure.
 Example 2.1
 What will be the gauge pressure and absolute pressure of
water at a depth 12m below the surface? Take ρwater = 1000
kg/m3 and Patm = 101 kN/m2
 Solution:

Pgauge = ρgh
 = 1000 x 9.81 x 12
 = 117.7 kN/m2 (kPa)
 Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
 = (117.7 + 101) kN/m2
 = 218.7 kN/m2
 Example 2.2
 A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 200 kN/m2.
Express this pressure in terms of
 head of water ( =1000 kg/m3)
 head of mercury (SG=13.6)
 What would be the absolute pressure if the atmospheric
pressure is, Patm = 101.3 kN/m2.

 Solution:
 h= P/ g
 a) for water: h = 200x103/(1000x9.81)
 = 20.39 m of water.
 b) for mercury h = 200x103/(13.6x1000x9.81)
 = 1.5 m of mercury
 Absolute pressure = Patm + Pgauge
 = 101.3 + 200 = 301.3 kN/m2.
 Example 2.3
 Figure below shows a tank with one side open to the
atmosphere and the other side sealed with air above the oil
(SG=0.90). Calculate the gauge pressure at points A,B,C,D,E.

1m A

3m
Oil (SG = 0.90)

B D

2m
C
 Solution:
 At point A, the oil is exposed to the atmosphere
 thus PA=Patm = 0 (gauge)
 Point B is 3 m below point A,
 Thus PB = PA + oilgh E

 = 0 + 0.9x1000x9.81x3 1m A
 = 26.5 kPa (gauge)
3m
 Point C is 5 m below point A,
 Thus PC = PA + oilgh B D
 = 0 + 0.9x1000x9.81x5 2m
 = 44.15 kPa (gauge) C

 Point D is at the same level of point B

 thus PD = PB Oil (SG = 0.90)

 = 26.5 kPa (gauge)

 Point E is higher by 1 m from point A,
 Thus PE = PA - oilgh
 = 0 - 0.9x1000x9.81x1
 = -8.83 kPa (gauge).
 Pressure Transmission

Hydraulic Lift
Figure 3.0

In a closed system, pressure changes from one point

are transmitted throughout the entire system
(Pascal’s Law).
Hydraulic Press
A multiplication of force can be achieved by
the application of fluid pressure according
to Pascal's principle, which for the two
pistons implies

P1 = P2

This allows the lifting of a heavy load with a

small force, as in an auto hydraulic lift, but
of course there can be no multiplication of
work, so in an ideal case with no frictional
loss:

Winput = Woutput
Calculation
The formulas that relate to this are shown below: P1 = P2 (since the pressures are equal throughout).

Since pressure equals force per unit area, then it follows that F1/A1 = F2/A2

It can be shown by substitution that the values shown above are correct,

1 pound / 1 square inches = 10 pounds / 10 square inches

Because the volume of fluid pushed down on the left side equals the volume of fluid that is lifted up on
the right side, the following formula is also true.

V1 = V2 by substitution,
A1 D1 = A2 D2
A = cross sectional area
D = the distance moved
Example 3.1

A hydraulic press has an input cylinder 1 inch in diameter and an output

cylinder 6 inches in diameter.
Assuming 100% efficiency, find the force exerted by the output piston
when a force of 10 pounds is applied to the input piston.

If the input piston is moved through 4 inches, how far is the output
piston moved?
Hydraulic Levers
• Hydraulic levers can be
used to demonstrate
Pascal’s law:
– Pressure equals
force divided by the
sectional area on
which it acts.
– (P=F\A)
– Force equals
pressure multiplied
by area.
– ( F = P x A)
Hydraulic Levers
• One of the cylinders has a sectional
area of 1sq.” and the other 50 sq.”
• Applying a force of 2 lbs. on the
piston in the smaller cylinder would
lift a weight of 100 lbs.
• Applying a force of 2 lbs. on the
piston in the smaller cylinder
produces a circuit pressure of 2 psi.
• The circuit potential is 2 psi and
because this acts on a sectional area
of 50 sq.”, it can raise 100 lbs.
• If a force of 10 lbs. was to be applied
to the smaller piston, the resulting
circuit pressure would be 10 psi and
the circuit would have the potential
to raise a weight of 500 lbs.
2.6 Pressure Measurement
 Atmospheric pressure is usually measured by a
mercury barometer.
 A simple barometer consists of a tube more than
760 mm (30 inch) long inserted in an open container
of mercury with a closed and evacuated end at the
top and open end at the bottom with mercury
extending from the container up into the tube.
 A void is produced at the top of the tube which is
very nearly a perfect vacuum. Figure 2.10 below
shows an example of a barometer.
 Mercury rises in the tube to a height of
approximately 760 mm (30 in.) at sea level.
 The level of mercury will rise and fall as
atmospheric pressure changes; direct reading of the
mercury level gives prevailing atmospheric pressure
as a pressure head (of mercury), which can be
converted to pressure using the relation:

Patm = ρgh.
Figure 2.10: Mercury barometer
2.6.1 THE PIEZOMETER TUBE MANOMETER

 The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to the
top of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to
be measured. An example can be seen in the figure below.
 This simple device is known as a Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the
atmosphere the pressure measured is relative to atmospheric so is gauge
pressure.

Pressure at A = pressure due to h1

column of liquid above A h2
PA = gh1
A
Pressure at B = pressure due to
column of liquid above B

PB = gh2 B

A simple piezometer tube manometer

44
2.6.1 THE PIEZOMETER TUBE MANOMETER

Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid above A

pA = ρgh1
Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid above B

pB = ρgh2

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when
the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too
large and pressure changes must be detectable.

45
EXAMPLE 2.2 - PIEZOMETER

What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that can be measured by means
of a piezometer tube 2 m high?
And if the liquid has a relative density or SG of 8.5, what would the maximum
measurable gauge pressure?

46
2.6.2 THE “U”-TUBE MANOMETER
 Using a “U”-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be
measured with the same instrument.
 The “U” is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the
manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have
a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids
should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible.

D
Fluid P, mass density, ρ

h2
A
h1
B C

Manometric fluid Q, mass density, ρman

A “U”-Tube manometer

47
 Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,

 Pressure at B = Pressure at C

 PB = Pc (1)

 For the left hand arm: Pressure at B = Pressure at A + pressure due to h1

 PB = PA + ρgh1 (2)

 For right hand arm: Pressure at C = Pressure at D + pressure due to height h2

 PC = PD + ρmangh2 but

 PD = Patm (atmospheric pressure due to open end)

 As we are measuring gauge pressure, Patm = 0

 PC= ρmangh2 (3)
 But PC = PB, substitute in (3); will give;
 PB = ρmangh2 (4)
 Equating (2) and (4);
 PA + ρgh1= ρmangh2
 PA = ρmangh2 - ρgh1 (2.9)

48
2.6.2 THE “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

 If the fluid is being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very
low in comparison to the density of the manometric fluid i.e. ρman >> ρ.
In this case the term ρ can be neglected, and the gauge pressure is given
by

pA = ρmangh2

49
Example 2.5
Determine the pressure at point A in the figure below if
h1 = 0.2 m and h2 = 0.3 m. Use water = 1000 kg/m3.
Solution:
 P2 = P1 + Hggh2

But P1 = Patm (open to atmosphere) ==>P1 = 0 (gauge)

 P2 = Hggh2
 P3 = PA + waterg(h1+h2)


We know that P2 = P3 (same horizontal level)

Thus
 Hggh2 = PA + waterg(h1+h2) Points to be selected:

1 – at the open end of the manometer
 PA = Hggh2 - waterg(h1+h2) 2 – at the right leg of the manometer
3 – same level with point 2 but at left
 PA = 13.54x1000x9.81x0.3 – 1000x9.81x(0.2+0.3) leg of the manometer
 PA = 39, 848 - 4905 4 – same level as point A

 PA = 34.9 kPa (gauge) Pressure at the points:

P1=Patm
P2 = P3
P4 = PA

50
Solution:

P2 = P 1 + Hggh2

But P1 = Patm (open to atmosphere) ==>P1 = 0 (gauge)

P2 = Hggh2
P3 = PA + waterg(h1+h2)
We know that P2 = P 3 (same horizontal level)
Thus
Hggh2 = PA + waterg(h1+h2)

PA = Hggh2 - waterg(h1+h2)
PA = 13.54x1000x9.81x0.3 – 1000x9.81x(0.2+0.3)
PA = 39, 848 - 4905
PA = 34.9 kPa (gauge)
2.6.2 THE “U”-TUBE MANOMETER
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in figure is used to measure that
gauge pressure of a fluid P of density ρ = 800 kgm-3. If the density of the
liquid Q is 13.6 x 103 kgm-3, what will be the gauge pressure at A if,

(a) h1 = 0.5 m and D is 0.9 m above BC?

(b) h1 = 0.1 m and D is 0.2 m below BC?

D
Fluid P, mass density, ρ

h2
A
h1
B C

Manometric fluid Q, mass density, ρman

52
2.6.2 THE “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

53
EXAMPLE 2.4 - “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

Using a U-tube manometer to measure gauge pressure of fluid density ρ = 700

kgm-3 and the manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density of 13.6.
What is the gauge pressure if:

(a) h1 = 0.4 m and h2 = 0.9 m?

(b) h1 stayed the same but h2 = -0.1 m?

54
APPLICATION - “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

Figure 3.7 (p. 42)

U-tube manometer

Better for higher pressures.

Possible to measure pressure
in gases.
 APPLICATION - “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

Find pressure at center of pipe:

Can start either at open end
or inside pipe.

Here we start at open end:

p at Change Change p in
open in p from in p from pipe
end 1 to 2 3 to 4
APPLICATION - “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

The complete path from

point 1 to point 2 may
include several U-tubes.

In general:
2.6.3 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
USING “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

 If the “U”-tube manometer is connected to a pressurized vessel at two

points, the pressure difference between these two points can be measured.

Fluid density, ρ

hb

A h
ha
C D

Manometric fluid density, ρman

58
2.6.3 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
USING “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

 If the manometer is arrange as in the figure above, then

Pressure at C = Pressure at D
pC = pD
pC = pA + ρgha
pD = pB + ρg(hb- h) + ρmangh
pA + ρgha = pB + ρg(hb- h) + ρmangh

 Giving the pressure difference

pA - pB = ρg(hb- h) + ρmangh – ρgha

 Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a gas and
ρman >> ρ, then the terms involving ρ can be neglected, so
pA - pB = ρmangh

59
Differential Manometer
 In some cases, the different
between the pressures at two
different points is desired rather
than the actual value of the
pressure at each point.
 A manometer to determine this
pressure difference is called the
differential manometer (see figure
below).
P1 P2
 The liquids in manometer will rise
or fall as the pressure at either end
(or both ends) of the tube changes.

Figure 2.13:
Differential manometer
 In the above figure:
 P1 = PA + 1ga

 P2 = PB + 1g(b-h) + mangh

 But P1 = P2 (same horizontal level)

 Thus PA + 1ga = PB + 1g(b-h) + mangh

 or PA - PB = 1g(b-h) + mangh - 1ga

 PA- PB = 1g(b-a) + gh( man - 1)

(2.10)
EXAMPLE 2.5 - DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER

Fluid density, ρ
Fluid density, ρ

Two pipes containing the

same fluid of density ρ =
A
1000 kg m-3 are B
connected using a
differential manometer. E
What is the pressure h a= 1.5
m
between the two pipes if h = 0.5 m
h b = 0.75 m
the manometer contains
fluid of relative density
13.6?
C D

Manometric fluid density, ρman

62
PA- PB = 1g(b-a) + gh( man - 1)

= 9.81x103(0.75-1.5)+ 0.5(13.6 x 9.81x103 – 9.81 x 103)

= 9.81 x 103 (-0.75+0.5 x 12.6)

= 54.4 x 103 N/m2

Differential Manometer

Used for measuring pressure differences between

points along a pipe.
2.6. ADVANCES TO THE INVERTED
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
 The "U"-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the change in height of
the liquid in both sides must be read. This can be avoided by making the
diameter of one side very large compared to the other. In this case the side
with the large area moves very little when the small area side move
considerably more.

65
2.6.4 ADVANCES TO THE “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

 Assume the manometer is arranged as above to measure the pressure

difference of a gas of (negligible density) and that pressure difference is p1-
p2. If the datum line indicates the level of the manometric fluid when the
pressure difference is zero and the height differences when pressure is
applied is as shown, the volume of liquid transferred from the left side to
the right = z2 x (лd2 / 4)
 And the fall in level of the left side is

volume moved
z1 =
area of left side
z 2 ( πd 2 / 4)
=
πD 2 / 42
= z 2 (d / D )

66
2.6.4 ADVANCES TO THE “U”-TUBE MANOMETER

 We know from the theory of the "U" tube manometer that the height
different in the two columns gives the pressure difference so,

p1 - p2 g(z1 z 2 )
2
g z2 d / D z2
2
gz 2 d/D 1

 if D is very much larger than d then (d/D)2 is very small so p1 – p2 = ρgz2

 So only one reading need to be taken to measure the pressure difference.

67