UNIT 2 Algebra

___________________________________________

Overview
In this unit we will review some of the basic algebraic concepts that you will need to know.
We will also learn the Remainder and Factor Theorems and use them to solve cubic and
quartic equations.

Unit Objectives
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. Add, multiply and factor polynomials and rational expressions
2. Solve linear and quadratic equations
3. Use the Remainder and Factor Theorems
4. Solve cubic and quartic equations.

1
Polynomials

In the Unit 1 we generalized some of our results by using letters to represent actual numbers.
These letters are called variables or unknowns. Any collection of variables and numbers
arranged in some way by using addition, subtraction, division, multiplication and radicals is
called an algebraic expression. Examples of algebraic expressions are

7x - 2
6 x 2 - 7 x + 1, 4 x - 6, 7 x + 5xy and .
9y

One of the simplest, most common and most useful type of algebraic expression is the
polynomial. Examples of polynomials are

2 x + 3, x 2 - x + 3, 2 x 3 - 5x 2 + 9 x and t 2 .

In polynomials all the variables have nonnegative integers as exponents. The following
algebraic expressions are not polynomials because the variables have negative integers and
fractions as their exponents:

3x - 2 + 7 and 2 x - 8.

The parts of the polynomial that are separated by + or – are called the terms of the
polynomial. For instance, the polynomial 2 x 2 - 3x + 7 has three terms. They are 2 x 2 ,
- 3x and 7. Since there are no variables in the term 7, we call this term a constant term.
This means that whatever value the variable x takes on, this term will always be 7. The
numbers (including the sign) that multiply the variables in each term are called the
coefficients of the term. Thus, in the polynomial 2 x 2 - 3x + 7 , the coefficient of x 2 is 2
while the coefficient of x is –3.

Polynomials consisting of one, two or three terms are called monomials, binomials and
trinomials respectively. So, 5x and t 2 are monomials, x - 8 and y + 1 are binomials and

x 2 - 5x + 2 and 1 + t - t 2 are trinomials.

2
Example Classify the following polynomials as monomials, binomials or trinomials.
(i.) x2 - 1
(ii.) 9y3
(iii.) 3 y 2 - 2 y + 12

Solution
(i.) Since x 2 - 1 has two terms, x 2 - 1 is a binomial.
(ii.) Since 9 y 3 has only one term, 9 y 3 is a monomial.

(iii.) Since 3 y 2 - 2 y + 12 has three terms, 3 y 2 - 2 y + 12 is a trinomial.

Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

When adding /subtracting polynomials we add/subtract terms that look alike. These terms are
called like terms. For instance, in the polynomials 2 x 2 + 6 x - 7 and 5x 2 - x + 10 , the
following terms are like terms:

2 x 2 and 5x 2 ,
6 x and - x,
- 7 and 10.

We add like terms by adding their coefficients. For example,

2 x 2 + 5x 2 = 7 x 2 .

Example Find the following sums and differences.

(i.) (2 x 2 + 6 x - 7) + (5x 2 - x + 10)

(ii.) (3x 2 - 4 x + 2) - ( x 2 - 5x + 1) .

Solution
(i.) We find the sum as follows:

3
(2 x 2 + 6x - 7) + (5x 2 - x + 10)
= 2 x 2 + 6x - 7 + 5x 2 - x + 10 (remove the parentheses)
= (2 x 2 + 5x 2 ) + (6x - x) + ( - 7 + 10) (group like terms)
= 7 x 2 + 5x + 3 (combine like terms)

(ii.) We find the difference as follows:

(3x 2 - 4 x + 2) - ( x 2 - 5x + 1)
= 3x 2 - 4 x + 2 - x 2 + 5x - 1 (remove parentheses)
= (3x - x ) + ( - 4 x + 5x) + (2 - 1)
2 2
(group like terms)
= x + x+1
2
(combine like terms)

With practice you should be able to add/subtract polynomials without putting in the step
where we group the like terms.

Math Tip: You have to be very careful when you remove the parentheses in (ii). Notice
that we need to multiply each term inside the parentheses by –1. This changes
the sign of each term inside the parentheses. For instance, a very common
mistake is to write
- (2 x 2 - 4 x + 7) = - 2 x 2 - 4 x + 7.
This is not true. The correct removal of the parentheses is
- (2 x 2 - 4 x + 7) = -2 x 2 + 4 x - 7.

Multiplying Polynomials
In this section we will concentrate on the multiplication of two binomials. However, you
should be aware that we can multiply any two polynomials. The resulting product is also a
polynomial.

Consider the two binomials: x - 2 and x + 5. We use the distributive property (see unit 1 to
review the distributive property) to multiply the two binomials. If we imagine x + 5 as a
single quantity, we get

4
( x - 2)( x + 5) = x( x + 5) - 2( x + 5)
= x( x) + x(5) - 2( x) - 2(5)
= x 2 + 5x - 2 x - 10
= x 2 + 3x - 10 (combine like terms)

The following diagram simplifies the multiplication of two binomials. The arrows indicate
how the multiplication of the terms takes place.

( x + 4) ( x - 7) = x 2 - 7 x + 4 x - 28

= x 2 - 3 x - 28 (combine like terms)

Example Find the following products

(i.) ( x + 6)( x - 4)
(ii.) (2 x + 1)(3x + 10)
(iii.) ( x + 3)( x - 3)

(iv.) ( x + 4) 2 .
Solution
(i.)
( x + 4)( x - 6) = x 2 - 6 x + 4 x - 24
= x 2 - 2 x - 24

(ii.)
(2 x + 1)(3x + 10) = 6 x 2 + 20 x + 3x + 10
= 6 x 2 + 23x + 10

(iii.)
( x + 3)( x - 3) = x 2 - 3x + 3x - 9
= x 2 - 9.

5
 (iv.)
( x + 4) 2 = ( x + 4)( x + 4)
= x 2 + 4 x + 4 x + 16
= x 2 + 8x + 16.

Math Tips:
1. Part (iii.) in the above example is an instance of a product resulting in a difference
of two squares. In general, (a + b)(a - b) = a 2 - b 2 . Try to verify this result.

2. Part (iv.) illustrates the perfect square pattern. Notice that ( x + 4) 2 ¹ x 2 + 16 , as

we might instinctively expect. There is a middle term 8x which is twice the product
of the terms of the binomial, that is 8 x = 2( x )(4). In general, we have the following
patterns
a) (a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2

b) (a - b) 2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2 .
Try to verify these results.
Example Find the following products
(i.) ( x + 6)( x - 6)
(ii.) (2 x - 1)(2 x + 1)

(iii.) ( x - 3) 2

(iv.) (3x + 5) 2 .

Solution
(i.) ( x + 6)( x - 6) = x 2 - 6 2 = x 2 - 36

(ii.) (2 x + 1)(2 x - 1) = (2 x ) 2 - 12 = 4 x 2 - 1

(iii.) ( x - 3) 2 = x 2 - 2( x )(3) + 32 = x 2 - 6 x + 9

(iv.) (3x + 5) 2 = (3x ) 2 + 2(3x )(5) + 52 = 9 x 2 + 30 x + 25

Exercises 2.1
In Exercises 1 – 13, write your solutions in the spaces provided.

6
In Exercises 1-6 add/subtract the given polynomials.
1. ( x + 7) + (5 x - 2)
____________________________________________
2. ( x 2 + 6 x - 1) + (3 x 2 - 2 x - 4)
_____________________________________________
3. ( x 2 + 7 x) + 2( x 2 - 6 x)
_____________________________________________
4. ( x + 8) - (2 x + 6)
_____________________________________________
5. (4 x 2 + 3 x - 4) - ( x 2 - 13 x + 5)
_____________________________________________
6. 5( x 2 + 6 x + 5) - 3( x 2 - 3 x + 2)
_____________________________________________
In Exercises 7-13, multiply the given polynomials
7. ( x + 6)( x - 4)
_____________________________________________
8. (2 x + 1)( x - 1)
_____________________________________________
9. ( x + 7)( x - 7)
_____________________________________________
10. (3 x + 1)(1 - 2 x)
_____________________________________________
11. ( x + 4) 2
_____________________________________________
12. (2 x - 1) 2
_____________________________________________
13. (2 x + 3)(2 x - 3)
_____________________________________________

7
Factoring Polynomials
In the previous section we learnt how to multiply two polynomials. In this section, we will
reverse directions and show how to rewrite a polynomial as a product of two polynomials.
This process is called factoring (or factorizing) a polynomial. Factoring is a very useful tool
in the simplification of algebraic expressions and the solutions of equations.

Common Factors
Consider the task of factoring the binomial 9 x + 6. If we look at 9, the coefficient of x, and 6,
the constant term, we see that the highest common factor of these numbers is 3. Now
applying the distributive property in reverse, we get
9 x + 6 = 3(3x + 2).
Notice that we can check if our factorization is correct by removing the parentheses to see if
we get back the expression we wanted to factor initially.

Example Factor the following.

(i.) 8 y 2 - 12 y

(ii.) 7 x 4 - 3x 3 + x 2
(iii.) 3x 2 y - 9 xy 2
(iv.) 4( x + 6) - x ( x + 6).

Solution
(i.) Here 4y is the highest common factor, so we write
8 y 2 - 12 y = 4 y (2 y - 3)

(ii.) In this case, x 2 is the highest common factor, so we write

7 x 4 - 3x 3 + x 2 = x 2 (7 x 2 - 3x + 1)
(iii.) Now 3xy is the highest common factor, so
3x 2 y - 9 xy 2 = 3xy ( x - 3 y )
(iv.) The binomial term ( x + 6) is now the highest common factor, so
4( x + 6) - x ( x + 6) = ( x + 6)(4 - x )

8
Difference of Two Squares
Do you remember the difference of two squares pattern that you were asked to verify in the
last section? Now we are going to write that pattern in the reverse order:
a 2 - b 2 = (a + b)(a - b).
Now once we recognize that a polynomial can be written as a difference of two squares, we
can use the above pattern to come up with a factorization.
Example Factor the following
(i.) x2 - 4
(ii.) 9 y 2 - 16

(iii.) 20t 2 - 5
(iv.) ( x + 8) 2 - 9
Solution
(i.) Using the difference of two squares pattern we write
x 2 - 4 = x 2 - 22
= ( x + 2)( x - 2)
(ii.) Here we write
9 y 2 - 16 = (3 y) 2 - 4 2
= (3 y + 4)(3 y - 4)
(iii.) In this case, we first remove the common factor, 5, and then use
the difference of two squares pattern to get
20t 2 - 5 = 5(4t 2 - 1)
= 5[(2t ) 2 - 12 )]
= 5[(2t + 1)(2t - 1)]
(iv.) Here we write
( x + 8) 2 - 9 = ( x + 8) 2 - 32
= [( x + 8) + 3][( x + 8) - 3]
= ( x + 8 + 3)( x + 8 - 3)
= ( x + 11)( x + 5)

Math Tips:
1. When factoring an algebraic expression, we should first remove all common factors
before using other factoring techniques.
2. It does not matter if we factor x 2 - 9 as ( x + 3)( x - 3) or ( x - 3)( x + 3). Why?

9
Trinomials
How can we factor x 2 + 6 x + 8 ? Before answering this question let us look more closely at
the multiplication of two binomials to see if we can find a useful pattern. Consider the
following product
( x + 3)( x + 4) = x 2 + 4 x + 3x + 12
= x 2 + 7 x + 12.
Let us take a closer look at the coefficient of x, 7, and the constant term, 12. Notice that
7 = 4 + 3 and 12 = 4 ´ 3 , where 4 and 3 are the constant terms in the binomial factors.
Let us now try to factor x 2 + 6 x + 8 . The factorization will have the form
x 2 + 6 x + 8 = ( x + ___ ) (x + ___ ).
To fill in the blanks we need two numbers whose sum is 6 and whose product is 8. A little
thought reveals that 4 and 2 will work since 4 + 2 = 6 and 4 ´ 2 = 8. So,
x 2 + 6 x + 8 = ( x + 2)( x + 4).
You should check that your factorization is correct by multiplying the binomial factors on the
right to see if you get x 2 + 6 x + 8.

Example Factor the following trinomials.

(i.) x 2 + 5x + 4
(ii.) x 2 + 2 x - 15
(iii.) x2 - x - 6
(iv.) x 2 - 7 x + 10.

Solution
(i.) Here we need to find two numbers whose sum is 5 and whose
product is 4. The numbers 4 and 1 will work. So, we write
x 2 + 5x + 4 = ( x + 4)( x + 1)
(ii.) In this case, we need two numbers whose sum is 2 and whose
product is –15. The product of –15 indicates that the two numbers we
seek must have different signs. Why? The numbers 5 and –3 will
work. So,
x 2 + 2 x - 15 = ( x + 5)( x - 3).
(iii.) Here we need two numbers whose sum is –1 and whose product

10
 is –6. Again, the product of –6 indicates that the numbers must have
different signs. The numbers 2 and –3 will work. Thus,
x 2 - x - 6 = ( x + 2)( x - 3).
(iv.) We need two numbers whose sum is –7 and whose product is 10.
The product of 10 indicates that both numbers must have the same
sign. So, since the sum is –7, both numbers must be negative. The
numbers –2 and –5 will work. Thus
x 2 - 7 x + 10 = ( x - 2)( x - 5).

Notice that, in all the previous examples the coefficient of x 2 is 1. If the coefficient of x 2 is
not 1, then the factorization becomes a bit more interesting.

Example Factor 2 x 2 + 7 x + 3.
Solution
Notice that the factorization will have the form
( x + D)( x+ D),
where the ’s are factors of 2 and the product of the D’s is 3. Also, the product of 3 indicates
that the D’s must have the same sign. The only factors of 2 are 2 and 1 and 3and 1 will work
for the D’s. So, we try the following factorization:
2 x 2 + 7 x + 3 = (2 x + 1)( x + 3).
By multiplying the binomials, we see that this factorization works. If the factorization did not
work, we would switch the position of the constant terms, 3 and 1, multiply the binomials and
check if the factorization works.
Math Tips:
1. Factoring trinomials whose leading coefficient (the leading coefficient of a
polynomial is the coefficient of the highest power of the variable) is not 1 requires
some trial and error at times. The key is to always multiply the binomials to check
your answer and to switch around the numbers, if necessary, until you get a
factorization that works.
2. Not all trinomials can be factored as “nicely” as the above examples. For instance,
there is no “nice” factorization of x 2 + 3x + 1. Can you say why?

11
Grouping
Sometimes we need to factor a polynomial that has four terms. This can be done by grouping
the terms into pairs and removing common factors.

Example Factor
(i.) x 3 - x 2 + 6x - 6
(ii.) x 3 + 5x 2 - 2 x - 10

Solution
(i.)
x 3 - x 2 + 6x - 6 = ( x 3 - x 2 ) + (6x - 6) (group terms)
= x ( x - 1) + 6( x - 1)
2
(factor each group)
= ( x - 1)( x + 6)
2
(remove common factor)

(ii.)
x 3 + 5x 2 - 2 x - 10 = ( x 3 + 5x 2 ) - (2 x + 10) (group terms)
= x 2 ( x + 5) - 2( x + 5) (factor each group)
= ( x + 5)( x 2 - 2) (remove common factor)

Math Tip: Notice that we have to be careful when there is a minus sign between the two
middle terms. When we are grouping the terms in example (ii.), why do we have
x 3 + 5x 2 - 2 x - 10 = ( x 3 + 5x 2 ) - (2 x + 10)
instead of
x 3 + 5x 2 - 2 x - 10 = ( x 3 + 5x 2 ) - (2 x - 10) ?

Exercises 2.2
In Exercises 1 – 17, write your answers in the spaces provided.
In Exercises 1–4 remove the common factors.
1. 6 x 2 - 3 x
_____________________________________________
2. 5t 2 + t
_____________________________________________

12
3. 8t 3 - 12t 2
_____________________________________________
4. 3 x 2 - 6 x + 9
_____________________________________________

In Exercises 5–8 factor using the difference of two squares.

5. x 2 - 1
_____________________________________________
6. x 2 - 16
_____________________________________________
7. 9 y 2 - 25
_____________________________________________
1
8. p 2 -
9
_____________________________________________

In Exercises 9-14, factor the trinomial.

9. x 2 + 5 x + 6
_____________________________________________
10. x 2 + x - 12
_____________________________________________
11. x 2 - 3 x - 10
_____________________________________________
12. x 2 - 8 x + 7
_____________________________________________
13. 2 x 2 + 3 x + 1
_____________________________________________
14. 3 x 2 + 7 x + 2
_____________________________________________

In Exercises 15–17, factor by grouping.

15. 2 x + 8 + x 3 + 4 x 2

13
_____________________________________________
16. x 3 - 2 x 2 - 3 x + 6
_____________________________________________
17. 15 + 3 x 2 - 5 x - x 3
_____________________________________________

Fractional Expressions
Sometimes we encounter fractions that involve algebraic expressions. These fractions are
called fractional expressions. If both the numerator and the denominator are polynomials,
then the fractional expression is called a rational expression. For instance,

2 x 2 + 7 x - 1 3x + 9 5
, and 2
x- 4 3 x +3
are rational expressions.

Reducing to Lowest Terms

Recall the procedure for reducing numerical fractions to their lowest terms. This procedure is
6
sometimes called canceling. For example, if we want to reduce , by dividing the numerator
9
and denominator by 3 we get

6/ 2 2
= .
9/ 3 3

But cancelling actually is a two-step procedure using

(i.) factoring and
(ii.) the property a
a = 1, when a ¹ 0.
6
Applying this procedure to we get
9
6 3(2) 3 2 2 2
= = ´ = 1´ = .
9 3(3) 3 3 3 3

14
The key to reducing (simplifying) rational expressions lies in our ability to factor
polynomials.

Example Reduce to the lowest terms.

2x + 6
(i.)
2
2x + 4
(ii.)
x2 - 4
x 2 + 4x + 3
(iii.)
5x + 5
Solution
(i.)
2 x + 6 2/ ( x + 3)
= (factor numerator)
2 2/
= x+ 3

(ii.) Factoring both numerator and denominator

2x + 4 2( x + 2)
= (factor)
x - 4 ( x + 2)( x - 2)
2

2
=
x- 2

(iii.) Factoring both denominator and numerator

x 2 + 4 x + 3 ( x + 1)( x + 3)
= (factor)
5x + 5 5( x + 1)
x+ 3
=
5

Math Tip: In (i.) do not make the common mistake of trying to reduce by cancelling
terms.
2x + 6 2 x + 6/ 3
is not equal to or 2 x + 3.
2 2/
One other way to simplify (i.) is

15
 2 x + 6 2/ x 6/ 3
= + = x + 3.
2 2/ 2/
This method follows from the properties of the addition of fractions studied in
Section 1.1. In general,
a± b a b
= ± .
c c c

Adding/Subtracting
When adding or subtracting two fractional expressions, rather than using the Lowest
Common Denominator (LCD) method, it is usually easier to use the following property of
fractions:
a c ad ± bc
± = .
b d bd
This property was illustrated using numerical fractions in Section 1.1.

Example Perform the given operation and simplify

2 3
(i.) +
x- 3 x+ 4
5x 3
(ii.) -
x+1 x+ 2

Solution
(i.)
2 3 2( x + 4) + 3( x - 3)
+ =
x- 3 x+ 4 ( x - 3)( x + 4)
2 x + 8 + 3x - 9
=
( x - 3)( x + 4)
5x - 1
=
( x - 3)( x + 4)

16
(ii.)
5x 3 5x( x + 2) - 3( x + 1)
- =
x+1 x+ 2 ( x + 1)( x + 2)
5x 2 + 10 x - 3x - 3
=
( x + 1)( x + 2)
5x 2 + 7 x - 3
=
( x + 1)( x + 2)

Multiplication and Division

Multiplication and division follow the same rules for numerical fractions. We will use these
rules along with the simplification methods learnt earlier.

Example Perform the indicated operations

2x + 6 x + 2
(i.) ´
x2 - 4 x + 3
x+1 x+ 2
(ii.) ´ 2
x - x - 6 x + 6x + 5
2

x - 5 3x - 15
(iii.) ÷
x2 - 9 x- 3

Solution
(i.)
2x + 6 x + 2 2( x + 3) x+ 2
´ = ´ (factor)
x - 4 x + 3 ( x + 2)( x - 2) x + 3
2

2
= (reduce)
x- 2

(ii.)

x+1 x+ 2 x+1 x+ 2
´ 2 = ´ (factor)
x - x - 6 x + 6x + 5 ( x + 2)( x - 3) ( x + 1)( x + 5)
2

1
= (reduce)
( x - 3)( x + 5)

17
 (iii.)
x - 5 3x - 15 x-5 x- 3
÷ = 2 ´ (invert and multiply)
x -9
2
x- 3 x - 9 3x - 15
x-5 x- 3
= ´ (factor)
( x + 3)( x - 3) 3( x - 5)
1
= (reduce)
3( x + 3)
Exercises 2.3
In Exercises 1 – 4, reduce the expression to the lowest terms.
5 x + 15
1.
5

2x + 6
2.
x2 - 9

x 2 + 7 x + 10
3.
2x + 4

x 2 + 4x + 3
4.
x 2 + 2x - 3

In Exercises 5-7, add/subtract and simplify the expressions.

3 5
5. +
x +1 x - 2

18
 2 6
6. -
x -1 x + 2

6x 3
7. -
x+4 x-5

In Exercises 8-11, perform the indicated operation and simplify the expression.

3x + 3 x + 2
8. ´
5 x + 10 x + 1

2x + 4 x + 4
9. ´
x 2 - 16 x + 2

4 2
10. ÷
x -4 x+2
2

19
 x+6 3 x + 18
11. ÷ 2
x + 5 x + 6 x + 3x + 2
2

20
Linear and Quadratic Equations

You should by now be very familiar with the solution of linear equations. We will leave those
equations for you to review and proceed to quadratic equations.

A quadratic equation in one variable say, x, is any equation in which the highest power of x is
two. The standard form for a quadratic equation is
ax2 + bx + c = 0
where a, b, and c are real numbers with a¹ 0. Why do we include the condition a ¹ 0 ? We
will look at two methods for solving quadratic equations namely, factorization, and the
quadratic formula.

Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring

Solution by factoring is based upon the following principle:
If ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.
This principle is true for all real numbers. However, later when you study matrices you will
find that this principle does not hold for matrix multiplication.

Example Solve x2 + x = 6 .

Step 1: If necessary, rewrite the equation in standard form.

x2+ x = 6
x2+ x – 6 = 0

Step 2: Factor into linear factors

(x + 3)( x- 2) = 0

Step 3: Set each factor equal to zero

x + 3 = 0 or x – 2 = 0
Step 4: Solve each linear equation to get solution
x = -3 or x = 2
Sometimes we write the solutions as x = -3, 2

21
Example Solve the following quadratic equations.

(i) 3x = 5x2 (ii) 4x2 + 4x + 1 = 0

Solution (i) 3x = 5x2

0 = 5x2-3x (Write in standard form)
5x2- 3x = 0 (Interchange sides)
x(5x - 3) = 0 (Factor)
x = 0 or (5x – 3) = 0 (Set factors equal to zero)
3
x = 0 or x = (Solutions)
5

(ii) 4x2+ 4x + 1 = 0 (Standard form)

(2x + 1)2= 0 (Factor)
2x + 1 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0 (Set factor equal to zero)
1 1
x=- or x = - (Solutions repeated)
2 2
Notice that both values of x are equal. These are called repeated solutions.

Example Solve x2 = 5 for x

Method 1: x2 = 5
x2– 5 = 0 (Standard form)
( x + 5 )( x - 5 ) = 0 (Factor)

x+ 5 = 0 or x- 5 = 0 (Set factors equal to zero)

x = - 5 or x = 5 (Solutions)

Method 2: x2= 5
x=± 5 (Take square root of both sides to get the
solution)
or x = + 5 , - 5

22
 From the above example we see that method 2 is a much more efficient way
for solving quadratic equations of the form x2 = d. The solution is thus
x=± d.

Example Solve the following quadratic equations:

(i) 3x2 = 9 (ii) (x+2)2 – 6 = 0
Solution
(i) 3x2= 9
x2= 3 (Divide by 3 to get in the form x2= d)
x=± 3 (Take square root)

(ii) (x + 2)2- 6 = 0
(x + 2)2 = 6 (Add 6)
x +2 = ± 6 (Take square root)

x = -2 ± 6 (Subtract 2)

Solving Quadratic Equations Using the Quadratic Formula

The quadratic formula can be used to solve any type of quadratic equation. All that we need
to do is plug the values of the coefficients from the equation into the formula and we will
have our solution.

The solutions of a quadratic equation in the standard form,

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (where a ¹ 0 )
using the quadratic formula, are given by:

- b ± b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a

Example Solve 2 x = 6 - x 2
Solution

23
Step 1: Write in standard form.
x 2 + 2x - 6 = 0

Step 2: Identify a, b, and c.

a = 1, b = 2, c = -6

Step 3: Plug into formula.

- 2 ± 2 2 - (4 ´ 1 ´ -6)
x=
2 ´1
- 2 ± 28
x=
2
- 2 + 28 - 2 - 28
x= or x =
2 2

Exercises 2.6
In Exercises 1–6, solve the quadratic equation by factoring.
1. x 2 - 2 x = 0

2. x 2 = 6 x

3. x 2 - x - 6 = 0

4. x 2 + 4 x + 3 = 0

5. x 2 - x = 2

24
6. x 2 + 7 = 8 x

In Exercises 7–10, solve the quadratic equation by taking square roots of both sides.
7. x 2 = 25

8. 2 x 2 - 32 = 0

9. ( x + 3) 2 = 1

10. ( x - 1) 2 - 4 = 0

In Exercises 11-13, write the quadratic equation in standard form and identify a, b and c.
11. 2 x 2 + 6 x = 4

12. 3 x - x 2 = 5

13. x 2 = x - 2

In Exercises 14-17, solve by using the quadratic formula.

14. x 2 - 3 x - 1 = 0

25
15. 2 x 2 + x = 4

16. 1 + x = x 2

17. 3 x 2 - 2 = 2 x

26
The Remainder Theorem

The remainder theorem provides us with a useful tool to aid us in the factoring of polynomial
functions. Since the factoring of polynomials is usually the first step in solving cubic
equation and higher order equations, the remainder theorem and the results, which follow
from it, will now enable us to solve a wider variety of equations. For instance, we will now
be able to solve equations like
𝑥 ! − 2𝑥 " − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0.
Before diving into the remainder theorem, we will illustrate the process of long division of
polynomials in the following example.

Example Divide the polynomial f ( x) = 6 x 3 + 11x 2 + 12 x + 8 by 2 x + 1.

Solution 3x 2 + 4 x - 1

2x + 1 6 x 3 + 11x 2 + 2 x + 8 (To start: 6 x 3 ÷ 2 x = 3x 2 )

6 x 3 + 3x 2 (Multiply 2 x + 1 by 3x 2 )
8x 2 + 2 x (Subtract and carry down 2x)
8x + 4 x
2
( 8 x ÷ 2 x = 4 x and multiply 2 x + 1 by 4 x )
2

- 2x + 8 (Subtract and carry down 8)

- 2 x - 1 ( - 2 x ÷ 2 x = -1 and multiply 2 x + 1 by - 1)
9 (Subtract)

Thus f ( x) = 6 x 3 + 11x 2 + 2 x + 8 = (2 x + 1)(3x 2 + 4 x - 1) + 9 .

In the above example we have

3
6%x" +"
11
"$ + 2"x"
x2 " +#8 = (2 x + 1)(3 x 2 + 4 x + 1) + 9! .
%$# %" "$"" # remainder
dividend divisor quotient

This set up is very similar to long division integers we learnt in primary school. For instance,
if we divide 57 by 5 we get a quotient of 11 and a remainder of 2. In other words,

57 = 5(11) + 2.

This leads to a statement of the division algorithm for polynomials:

If f (x) is divided by the non-zero polynomial d (x) , then there are unique polynomials
q (x ) and r (x) such that

f ( x) = d!
! ( x) + r!
( x) q! ( x) ,
dividend divisor quotient remainder

where r ( x) = 0 or the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of d(x).

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If we look closely at the long division procedure for polynomials in the last section, we see
that the set up contains a lot of superfluous information. When dividing by polynomials of the
form x - k , where k is a constant, the procedure can be simplified and condensed by using
the method of synthetic division.

To divide ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d by x - k we use the following pattern.

k a b c d

ka

a r

(r is the remainder)

Diagonal Pattern: Multiply by k.

Vertical Pattern: Add

Example Use synthetic division to divide 2 x 3 + 6 x 2 - 7 x + 1by x - 1 .

Solution The set up for synthetic division is as follows:

1 2 6 -7 1

2 8 1
2 8 1 2

The quotient is 2x 2 + 8x +1 and the remainder is 2. Notice, since the dividend was cubic, the
quotient will be quadratic – one degree less. Notice also that we change the sign on the -1 in
the divisor. This allows us to add instead of subtracting.
Hence 2 x 3 + 6 x 2 - 7 x + 1 = ( x - 1)(2 x 2 + 8 x + 1) + 2

Example Use synthetic division to divide x 3 + 1 by x + 1.

Solution First, we need to use some zeroes as space holders to rewrite x 3 + 1as

x 3 + 0 x 2 + 0 x + 1.

The synthetic division set up is then

-1 1 0 0 1

-1 1 -1

1 -1 1 0

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Hence x 3 + 1 = ( x + 1)( x 2 - x + 1) . Since the remainder is zero we have a factorisation of
x 3 + 1.

We are now ready to state and prove the Remainder Theorem.

The Remainder Theorem If the polynomial f(x) is divided by x - k then the remainder is
f(k).

Proof From the division algorithm,

f ( x) = ( x - k ) q ( x) + r ( x) .

Now r(x) is a constant because either r(x) = 0 or the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of
x - k (which is one). Let r(x) = r. Now
f (k ) = 0 × q ( x) + r
= r.

Hence, the remainder on division by x - k is f (k ) .

Example Find the remainder when

(i) f ( x) = x 3 + 3x + 1 is divided by x - 2 ,
(ii) g ( x) = x 4 + x 3 - 2 x 2 + 5 is divided by x + 1,
(iii) h( x) = x 3 - 2 x + 2 is divided by 2 x + 1.

Solution

(i) To find what number to substitute to obtain the remainder we set the divisor equal
to zero and solve for x. Thus, the remainder is f (2) = 8 + 6 + 1 = 15 .
(ii) In this case the remainder is g (-1) = 1 - 1 - 2 + 5 = 3 .
(iii) Here, the remainder is f (- 12 ) = - 18 + 1 + 2 = 238 .

Recall that if we divide 16 by 2 we get a quotient of 8 and a remainder of 0. In this case, we

say that 2 is a factor of 16. This leads to the Factor Theorem, a result that follows from the
remainder theorem.

The Factor Theorem The polynomial f(x) has a factor x - k if and only if f (k ) = 0 .

Activity Find out what the logical connective “if and only if” means and try to prove the
Factor Theorem.

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Example It is given that x + 2 is a factor of x 3 - 4 x 2 + 3x + a . Find the value of the constant
a.

Solution First let f ( x) = x 3 - 4 x 2 + 3x + a . Then, since x + 2 is a factor of f(x), the factor

theorem tells us that f(-2) = 0. But

f (-2) = -8 - 8 - 6 + a = -22 + a.
So
- 22 + a = 0
a = 22.

Another very useful tool which aids us in the factoring of polynomials function is the
rational root test (RRT). This test states that if f(x) is a polynomial with integer coefficients
then the possible rational roots of the equation f(x) = 0 are

Factors of the constant term

.
Factors of the leading coefficient

Example Find all the rational roots of f (x) = x 3 − 6x 2 +11x − 6 = 0 .

Solution First we list the possible rational roots. They are

Factors of - 6 ± 6, ± 3, ± 2, ± 1
= = ±6, ± 3, ± 2, ± 1.
Factors of 1 ±1

Next, we check to see which possible rational roots satisfy f(x) = 0. Observe that f(3) = 0, f(2)
= 0 and f(1) = 0. Thus, the rational roots of f(x) are x = 1, 2, 3. This means we can factor f(x)
as
x 3 - 6 x 2 + 11x - 6 = ( x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) .

Example Solve x 3 - 5 x + 2 = 0 .

Solution First we use the RRT to find a rational root (if there are any) of
f ( x) = x 3 - 5 x + 2 = 0 . The possible rational roots are ± 2, ± 1 . Only f(2) = 0. Thus x - 2 is
a factor of f(x). To find the other factors of f(x)we divide f(x) by x - 2 . Using synthetic
division, we get

2 1 0 -5 2

2 4 -2

1 2 -1 0

Thus x 3 - 5x + 2 = ( x - 2)(x 2 + 2 x - 1) .

30
Notice that x 2 + 2 x - 1 cannot be factored. Hence,

x - 2 = 0, in which case x = 2 ,
or
x 2 + 2 x - 1 = 0 , in which case x = -1± 2 .

So, the solutions to x 3 - 5 x + 2 = 0 are 2, - 1 ± 2 .

Let us now look at an example that requires us to use some of the tools that we learnt earlier.

Example The expression 𝑝𝑥 # − 5𝑥 + 𝑞 and 𝑥 # − 2𝑥 ! − 𝑝𝑥 " − 𝑞𝑥 − 8 have a common

factor (𝑥 − 2). Find the value of p and of q.

Solution Since we need to find two values, that of p and of q, we need to get two equations
involving p and q and then solve these equations simultaneously. We will use the Factor
Theorem to obtain the equations.

First, let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝𝑥 # − 5𝑥 + 𝑞 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 # − 2𝑥 ! − 𝑝𝑥 " − 𝑞𝑥 − 8.

Since 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(2) = 0. That is

𝑝(2# ) − 5(2) + 𝑞 = 0
16𝑝 − 10 + 𝑞 = 0
16𝑝 + 𝑞 = 10

And since 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑔(2) = 0. That is

2# − 2(2! ) − 𝑝(2" ) − 𝑞(2) − 8 = 0

16 − 16 − 4𝑝 − 2𝑞 − 8 = 0
−4𝑝 − 2𝑞 = 8

So, we have the following simultaneous equations

16𝑝 + 𝑞 = 10 … . . (1)
−4𝑝 − 2𝑞 = 8 … . . (2)

We will solve by elimination. We multiply Equation (1) by 2 to get

32𝑝 + 2𝑞 = 20 … . . (3)
−4𝑝 − 2𝑞 = 8 … . . (2)
Adding Equations (3) and (2) gives

28𝑝 = 28
𝑝 = 1

Substituting 𝑝 = 1 into Equation (1) gives

16(1) + 𝑞 = 10
𝑞 = −6

31
Exercises 2.8

In Exercises 1 – 4, use synthetic division to perform the given division.

1. x 3 - x 2 + 3x - 5 by x - 2

2. 2 x 3 + 5x + 1 by x + 1

3. x 3 - 1 by x - 1

4. 3x 4 + 5x 3 - 2 x 2 + 2 by x + 2

In Exercises 5 – 9, solve the given equation.

5. x 3 - 7 x + 6 = 0

32
6. 2 x 3 + 3x 2 - 8 x + 3 = 0

7. x 3 - x 2 - 5 x = 3

8. x 4 - 3x 2 + 4 x + 4 = 2 x 3

33
9. x 3 + 2 x 2 = 1

10. (a) Given that 𝑥 + 3 is a factor of 𝑥 ! + 4𝑥 " + 𝑥 + 𝑚, find the value of 𝑚.

(b) Factorise 𝑥 ! + 4𝑥 " + 𝑥 + 𝑚 completely.

(c) Hence, solve the equation 𝑥 ! + 4𝑥 " + 𝑥 + 𝑚 = 0.

34
 11. The expression 2𝑥 # + 𝑝𝑥 ! − 𝑞𝑥 " − 45𝑥 − 18 is exactly divisible by 𝑥 " − 9.
Calculate the value of p and of q and factorise completely.
(Hint: Factorise 𝑥 " − 9 and you will get two factors of the expression.)

Some Common Algebraic Errors

35
Here are some common algebraic errors that you should look out for and AVOID.

Error Correct Form

𝟐 − (𝒙 − 𝟓)IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟐 − 2 − (𝑥 − 5) = 2 − 𝑥 + 5
𝒙−𝟓

(𝒙 + 𝒚)𝟐 IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 (𝑥 + 𝑦)" = 𝑥 " + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 "

𝟏 𝟏
=𝟒 𝒙> =𝟒 𝒚> IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟒 (𝒙𝒚)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 1 𝑥𝑦
? 𝒙B ? 𝒚B = (𝑥𝑦) =
𝟒 𝟒 16 16

(𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐)𝟐 IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟒(𝒙 + (𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐)𝟐 = [4(𝑥 + 3)]"

𝟑)𝟐 = 4" (𝑥 + 3)"
= 16(𝑥 + 3)"

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 IS NOT EQUAL TO (𝒙 + 𝒚)𝟐 Leave as 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 .

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 IS NOT EQUAL TO Leave as 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 .

(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 − 𝒚)

𝟐𝒙#𝟔 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟔 2𝑥 6
IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝒙 + 𝟔 = +
𝟐 𝟐 2 2
=𝑥+3

𝟐𝒙#𝟔 %('#()
OR =
𝟐 %
=𝑥+3

𝟐𝒙#𝟔 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟔 2𝑥 6
IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 = +
𝟐 𝟐 2 2
=𝑥+3

𝟐𝒙#𝟔 %('#()
OR =
𝟐 %
=𝑥+3

𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
IS NOT EQUAL TO Leave as .
𝒙#𝟒 𝒙#𝟐 𝒙#𝟒
𝒙
, - 𝒙
𝟐 " % 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝟐
IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝒙 𝟐 = × =
𝟐 2 2 4
𝒙 𝟑𝒙 𝒙 3 𝑥 3𝑥
𝟑 =𝟐> IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟑= > = × =
𝟔 𝟐 1 2 2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑦+𝑥
+ IS NOT EQUAL TO + =
𝒙 𝒚 𝑥𝑦
𝒙 𝒚 𝒙#𝒚

36
 𝟏 1 𝑥
(𝟏/𝟐)𝒙 IS NOT EQUAL TO (1/2)𝑥 =
2
× 𝑥 =
2
𝟐𝒙

−𝟑𝟐 IS NOT EQUAL TO 9 −3" = −1 × 3" = −1 × 9 = −9

(𝟐𝒙)𝟑 IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟐𝒙𝟑 (2𝑥)! = 2! × 𝑥 ! = 8𝑥 !

(𝒙𝟑 )𝟒 IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝒙𝟕 (𝒙! )# = 𝑥 !×# = 𝑥 +"

𝟐(𝟑𝟐 ) IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟔𝟐 = 𝟑𝟔 2(3" ) = 2 × 9 = 18

𝒙𝟐 × 𝒚𝟑 IS NOT EQUAL TO (𝒙𝒚)𝟓 Leave as 𝒙𝟐 × 𝒚𝟑 or write as 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟑 .

√𝟗𝒙 IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟗√𝒙 √9𝑥 = √9 × √𝑥 = 3√𝑥

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝒙𝟓 Leave as 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 .

K𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝒙 + 𝒚 Leave as K𝒙" + 𝒚𝟐 .

𝟏 𝟏
IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 Leave as .
𝒙#𝟐 #𝒙#𝟑 𝒙#𝟐 #𝒙#𝟑

√𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟔 IS NOT EQUAL TO 𝟒√𝒙 + 𝟒 √4𝑥 + 16 = K4(𝑥 + 4)

= √4√𝑥 + 4
= 2√𝑥 + 4

−√𝒙 − 𝟓 IS NOT EQUAL TO √−𝒙 + 𝟓 Leave as −√𝒙 − 𝟓.

37