MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

CHAPTER 1 – THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

1.2 FIBONACCI NUMBERS

Fibonacci observe numbers in nature. His most popular contribution perhaps is the number
that is seen in the petals of flowers. A calla lily has only 1 petal, trillium has 3, hibiscus has 5, cosmos
flower has 8, corn marigold has 13, some asters have 21, and a daisy can have 34, 55 or 89 petals.
Surprisingly, these petal counts represent the first eleven numbers of Fibonacci sequence. Not all petal
numbers of flowers, however, follow this pattern discovered by Fibonacci. Astoundingly, many of
flowers abide by the pattern observed by Fibonacci.

The principle behind the Fibonacci numbers is as follows:

 Let 𝑥𝑛 be the nth integer in the Fibonacci sequence, the next (n+1)th term 𝑥𝑛+1 is
determined by adding the nth and the (n-1)th integers.
 Consider the first few terms: Let 𝑥1 =1 be the first term, and 𝑥2 =1 be the second term,
the third term 𝑥3 is found by 𝑥3 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 1+1 =2.
 The fourth term 𝑥4 is 2+1 = 3, the sum of the third and second term.
 To find new Fibonacci number, simply add the two numbers immediately preceding
this nth number.

n = 3: 𝑥3 = 1+1 = 2 n = 7: 𝑥7 = 5+8 = 13
n = 4: 𝑥4 = 1+2 = 3 n = 8: 𝑥8 = 8+13 = 21
n = 5: 𝑥5 = 2+3 = 5 n = 9: 𝑥9 = 12+21 = 34
n = 6: 𝑥6 = 3+5 = 8

These numbers arranged in increasing order can be written as a sequence {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, 34, 55, 89, …}

Another interesting observation is the rabbit population beginning from a baby pair of the
first generation. Since it takes the first generation to mature before giving birth to an offspring,
there is an adult pair for the second generation, which is ready for reproduction. So, there are two
pairs, the parents and the baby pairs, of the third generation. Next, the adult pair begets a baby
pair but the previous baby pair simply matures, so a family of three rabbit pairs for the fourth
generation exists, and so on. The number of total rabbit pairs at each generation constitutes a
Fibonacci sequence. Denoting by 𝐹𝑛 the Fibonacci sequence of n generations is the set of Fibonacci
numbers {𝐹𝑛 }, that is:
{𝐹𝑛 } = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144,…}
In particular, denote 𝐹1 = 1 for the 1st generation, 𝐹2 = 1 for the 2nd generation, 𝐹3 = 2 for the
3rd generation, 𝐹4 = 3 for the 4th generation, and so on. It is interesting to point out that the
Fibonacci numbers 𝐹𝑛 obey the following relationship:
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 1
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 , n ≥ 3
That is, 𝐹𝑛 is given by the sum of the two previous Fibonacci numbers 𝐹𝑛−1 and 𝐹𝑛−2,
n ≥ 3.
For example: 𝐹3 = 𝐹2 + 𝐹1
𝐹3 = 1 + 1
𝐹3 = 2
It is also seen that, 𝐹4 = 𝐹3 + 𝐹2 = 2 + 1 = 3 and 𝐹10 = 𝐹9 + 𝐹8 = 34 + 21 =
55.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
CHAPTER 1 – THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

1.3. THE GOLDEN RATIO

The golden ratio, which is also referred to as the golden mean, divine proportion, or golden
section, exists between two quantities if their ratio is equal to the ratio of their sum to the larger
quantity between the two. With reference to this definition, if we divide a line into two parts, the
parts will be in the golden ratio if:

The ratio of the length of the longer part, say "a" to the length of the shorter part, say "b" is
equal to the ratio of their sum " (a + b)" to the longer length.

Refer to the following diagram for a better understanding of the above concept:

It is denoted using the Greek letter ϕ, pronounced as "phi". The approximate value of ϕ is
equal to 1.61803398875... It finds application in geometry, art, architecture, and other areas.
Thus, the following equation establishes the relationship for the calculation of golden ratio: ϕ =
a/b = (a + b)/a = 1.61803398875... where a and b are the dimensions of two quantities and a is
the larger among the two.

Golden Ratio Equation

From the definition of the golden ratio,

a/b = (a + b)/a = ϕ
From this equation, we get Substitute this in equation (2),
two equations: (bϕ + b)/bϕ = ϕ
a/b = ϕ → (1) b( ϕ + 1)/bϕ = ϕ
(a + b)/a = ϕ → (2) (ϕ + 1)/ϕ = ϕ
From equation (1), 1 + 1/ϕ = ϕ
a/b = ϕ 1 + 1/ϕ = ϕ
⇒ a=b
 Another method to calculate the value of the golden ratio is by solving the golden ratio
equation. We know,
ϕ = 1 + 1/ϕ
Multiplying both sides by ϕ,
ϕ2 = ϕ + 1
On rearranging, we get,
ϕ2 - ϕ -1 = 0
The above equation is a quadratic equation and can be solved using quadratic formula:
√𝑏2−4𝑎𝑐
ϕ = −𝑏 ± 2𝑎
Substituting the values of a = 1, b = -1 and c = -1, we get,
√(1+4)
ϕ = 1± 2
The solution can be simplified to a positive value giving:
ϕ = 1/2 + √5/2
Note that we are not considering the negative value, as ϕ is the ratio of lengths and it
cannot be negative. Therefore, ϕ = 1/2 + √5/2

The Golden Rectangle

What is a golden rectangle? A rectangle can be drawn of such a shape that if it is cut into a
square and a rectangle, the smaller rectangle will be similar to the shape of the larger rectangle.

This is the golden rectangle whose sides are in the “golden ratio” of 1 + x : 1, where x is a
non-ending decimal whose value can be calculated in a number of ways, including the construction
of a simple continued fraction. Since the two rectangles are similar, their sides are in the same ratio
as follows:
𝑥+1 1 1
= or =𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑥+1
Or simply x can be replaced on the right hand side by
1
𝑥= → (1)
𝑥+1
1
Or 𝑥= 1 → (2)
1+1+𝑥
If we continue replacing x by (1), we will get,
1
𝑥= 1 → (3)
1+ 1
1+1+𝑥

Continuing the process, we will arrive at the following eight iterations:

1
𝑓(… 𝑓(𝑥)) = 1 + 1
1+ 1
1+ 1
1+ 1
1+ 1
1+ 1
1+ 1
1+1+𝑥

Hence, by repeated iterations the multi-layer fraction is build-up as shown above. Iteration
means repeating a process over and over again. In mathematics, it means the repeated
application of an operation on a given function over and over again.