History of Industrial Psychology

James Cattell (1860-1944)

- recognized individual differences when tryna predict human behavior
- founded a psychological consulting company, now called Psychological Corporation

Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916)

- published Psychology and Industrial Efficiency covering employee selection,
employee training, and effective advertising.

Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955)

- one of the firsts to apply psychology in advertising, management,
and personnel selection
- published Theory of Advertising and Psychology of Advertising
- published Influencing Men in Business and Increasing Human
Efficiency in Business
- was hired to conduct applied research on employee selection

Robert Yerkes (1876- 1956)

- organized group under Surgeon's General Office (SGO) that developed methods
for screening and selecting enlisted men.
- developed Army Alpha Test to measure mental abilities
- Army Beta Test: developed for illeterate and non english speakings

Lilian Gilbreth (1878-1972)

- works in time-and-emotion studies quantified the factors affecting workplace
efficiency: number of motions in task and time to perform it.

Frederick W. Taylor (1911)

- founder of Scientific Management

> Time-and-Motion Studies

- procedures in which work tasks are broken down to simple component
movements timed to develop a more efficient method to perform tasks.

> Scientific Management

- begun by Frederick Taylor
- method using scientific principles to improve the efficiency and
productivity of jobs

George Elton Mayo (1880-1949)

- discovered Hawthorne experiment
- Job satisfaction increases through employee participationin decisions
rather than through short-term incentives
- Hawthorne Effect = Observer bias effect
- helped lay foundation for the human relations movement
- human relations movement: emphasizes the importance of social factors in
influencing work performance.

Organizational Downsizing
- a strategy of reducing an organization’s workforce to improve
organizational efficiency and/or competitiveness

Outsourcing
- contracting with an external organization to accomplish work tasks

~~~

> During cold war years of 1950s and 1960s engineering psychology was developed.
 Eng Psych = human factprs psychology/ ergonomics

> 1960s-1990s: research practice in i/o psych flourished.

~~~

CHAPTER 2

Social Science Research Methods

Objectivity
- the unbiased approach to observation and interpretations of behavior
- studying a speecific issue without bias

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Formulation of the Problem

2. Generation of Hypotheses
3. Choosing an Exeprimental Design
4. Collection of Data
5. Statistical Analysis of Data
6. Interpretation of Results and Drawing of Conclusions

Variables
- the elements measured in research investigations

Hypotheses
- statements about the supposed relationships between or among variables
- testing hypotheses might lead to the development of theory or model

Theory/ Model
- the organization of beliefs into a represeantation of the
factors that affect behavior

Sampling
- the selection of a representative group from a larger
population for study

Random Sampling
- research participants are chosen from a specified population in such a
way that each individual has an equal probability of being selected.

Stratified Sampling
- the selection of research participants based on categories
that represent important distinguishing characteristics of a
population.

MAJOR RESEARCH DESIGNS

Two Most Commonly Used:

> Experimental Design
> Correlational Design

Meta-Analysis
- allows researchers to “combine” results from different studies.

Experimental Method
- most commonly used in research done in laboratories
- can also be applied in actual work setting, then called field method
- designed to give the researcher a very high degree of control over
the research setting.
- manipulates INDEPENDENT VARIABLE, measures DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Independent Variable
- in the experimental method, the variable that is manipulated by the researcher

Dependent Variable
- in the experimental method, the variable that is acted on by the
independent variable; the outcome variable

> This comparison of treatment and control groups allows the researcher to
determine the magnitude of the effect produced by the manipulation of
the independent variable (the treatment).

> The comparison of treatment and control groups gives the researcher greater
confidence that the treatment was (or was not) effective.

Treatment Group
- the group in an experimental investigation that is subjected to the change
in the independent variable

Control Group
- a comparison group in an experimental investigation that receives no treatment

Extraneous Variables
- variables other than the independent variable that may influence the
dependent variable
ex. Hawthorne Effect

Random Assignment
- a method of assigning subjects to groups by chance to control for the
effects of extraneous variables

TWO EXAMPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: A LABORATORY AND A FIELD EXPERIMENT

Quasi-Experiment
- follows the experimental design but lacks random assignment and/or manipulation
of an independent variable
- researchers often try to measure as many possible extraneous variables as they
can in order to statistically control for their effects
- quite frequent in I/O Psych

Correlational Method
- also referred to as the observational method
- no manipulation of variable
- a research design that examines the relationship among or between variables as
they naturally occur

TWO EXAMPLES OF CORRELATIONAL DESIGN

Complex Correlational Designs

Multiple Regression Design

- examines the relationship between a particular outcome variable and
multiple predictors

> Mediation Model

- the relationship between two variables is hypothesized to be
 explained by, or mediated by, a third variable—the mediator variable

Meta-Analysis
- a technique that allows results from several different research studies to
be combined and summarized.

Effect Size
- an estimate of the magnitude of a relationship or effect found in a research
investigation

Case Study Method

Case Study
- a research investigation involving a one-time assessment of behavior

Operationalized
- clearly defining a research variable so that it can be measured

OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES

> One procedure for measuring research variables is through direct,

systematic observation.

Obtrusive Observation
- research observation in which the presence of the observer is
known to the participants.
- disadvantage: Observer Bias

Unobtrusive Observation
- also involves direct observation of behavior, but in this case participants
are unaware of the researcher’s presence and do not know that their
behavior is being studied (or may not know which behaviors are
being studied).
- Advantage: researchers would be confident of the recorded behavior.
- Disadvantage: ethical issues

SELF-REPORT TECHNIQUES
- measurement methods relying on research participants’ reports of their
own behavior or attitudes

Survey
- a common self-report measure in which participants are asked to report
on their attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors
- Disadvantage: the possibility of distortion or bias of responses

Reliability
- the stability or consistency of a measurement over time
- a measurement process is said to possess “reliability” if we can “rely” on
the scores or measurements to be stable, consistent, and free of
random error.

Validity
- the accuracy of inferences drawn from a measurement

Internal Validity
- the extent to which extraneous or confounding variables are removed

External Validity
- whether research results obtained in one setting will apply to another setting
Informed Consent
- a research participant is fully informed of the nature of the experiment
and has the right to not participate

STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF RESEARCH DATA

Quantitative (Measurement) Data

- data that measure some numerical quantity

Qualitative (Categorical or Frequency) Data

- data that measure some category or measurement quality

Descriptive Statistics
- arithmetical formulas for summarizing and describing research data

Frequency Distribution
- a descriptive statistical technique that arranges scores by categories

Measures of Central Tendency

- present the center point in a distribution of scores

Mean
- a measure of central tendency; also known as the average

Median
- a measure of central tendency; the midpoint of a distribution of scores

Variability
- estimates the distribution of scores around the middle or average score

Standard Deviation
- a measure of variability of scores in a frequency distribution

> If scores are widely dispersed across a large number of categories,

variability will be high. If scores are closely clustered in a few
categories, variability will be low.

Inferential Statistics
- statistical techniques used for analyzing data to test hypotheses

Statistical Significance
- the probability of a particular result occurring by chance, used to
determine the meaning of research outcomes

Normal Distribution (Bell-Shaped Curve)

- a distribution of scores along a continuum with known properties

T-Test
- a statistical test for examining the difference between the means of
two groups

Correlation Coefficient
- a statistical technique used to determine the strength of a relationship
between two variables

~~~
CHAPTER 3

Personnel Psychology
- the specialty area of I/O psychology focusing on an organization’s
human resources

Job Analysis
- the systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities
of a job and the qualities needed to perform it

Job Description
- a detailed description of job tasks, procedures, and responsibilities;
the tools and equipment used; and the end product or service

Job Element Method

- a job analysis method that analyzes jobs in terms of the knowledge,
skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs)
required to perform the jobs

Critical Incidents Technique (CIT)

- a job analysis technique that relies on instances of especially successful
or unsuccessful job performance

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

- a job analysis technique that uses a structured questionnaire to analyze
jobs according to 187 job statements, grouped into six categories
- Information input, Mental processes, Work output, Relationships with other
persons, Job Context, Other job characteristics

Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

- a structured job analysis technique that examines the sequence of tasks
in a job and the processes by which they are completed

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)

- a reference guide that classifies and describes over 40,000 jobs

O*NET
- The U.S. Department of Labor’s Web site that provides comprehensive information
about jobs and careers
- the Occupational Information Network (www.onetcenter.org)

Compensable Factors
-the job elements that are used to determine appropriate compensation for a job

Comparable Worth
- the notion that jobs that require equivalent KSAOs should be compensated equally

Exceptioning
- the practice of ignoring pay discrepancies between particular jobs possessing
equivalent duties and responsibilities

Glass Ceiling
- limitations placed on women and minorities preventing them from advancing
into top- level positions in organizations