Uts Module

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Objectives………………………………………………………. 6
Instruction to the Learner……………………………………...……... 7
Pre- Test……………………………………………………………………. 8
Pre- Test Feedback………………………………………………………. 10
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LESSON 1 From the Perspective of Philosophy………………………. 12
LESSON 2 From the Perspective of Sociology……………………………. 21
LESSON 3 From the Perspective of Anthropology……………………… 31
LESSON 4 The Self from the Perspective of Psychology………………. 38
LESSON 5 The Self in Western and Eastern Thought…….…………. 47
LESSON 6 THE PHYSICAL SELF: The Self as Impacted by the
Body…………………………………………….……………………………. 54
GNED 08 - UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
LESSON 7 The Sexual Self…………………….…………………………. 63
LESSON 8 The Material / Economic Self………………………………… 69
LESSON 9 The Spiritual Self…...………………………………………... 75
LESSON 10 Political Self………….……………….………………………. 84
LESSON 11 Digital Self…………………………….………………………. 91
LESSON 12 Learning to Be A Better Student…….…………………… 97
LESSON 13 Taking Care of One’s Health………....……………………
103
Post-Test……………………………………...…………………………….
107
Post-Test Feedback……………………………………………………….
113
SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS………………….………………………. 117
REFERENCES......................................................................... 139
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COURSE OBJECTIVES
I. Objectives
A. Program Educational Objectives (based on the CMO)
1. Articulates and discuss the latest developments in the specific field of
practice.
2. Effectively communicate orally and in writing using English, Filipino, mother
tongue language, and an appropriate Foreign Language required by the
industry.
3. Work effectively and independently in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural
terms.
4. Act in recognition of professional, social and ethical responsibility; and
5. Preserve and promote “Filipino historical and cultural heritage” (based on
RA No. 7722)
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INSTRUCTIONS TO THE LEARNER
In every lesson of this module, you will be able to assess yourselves in
various ways in the subject Understanding the Self, the students need to answer the
Preliminary trial as of new product. The test will be given to determine if you are
sufficiently prepared to begin a new course of the study. The test that you are going
to take for practice and assessment will serve as a basis in comparing the outcome
of this module.
In every lesson, there are processing questions to apply the knowledge that
you have learned.
Furthermore, to help curate the learner there are supplementary materials
where they can browse for better understanding, links on videos are attached
already as a reference for your activity.
At the end of this module, you need to take the post-test for completion of
instructional material or segment and often used in conjunction with the pretest to
measure their achievement and the effectiveness of this module.
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PRE-TEST
NAME: __________________________________ SCORE: ________
COURSE YR AND SECTION: _______________
CORRECTED BY: ________________
Part I. DIRECTIONS: Please read all the questions carefully. Any form of alteration,
erasures, using of friction pen and pencils are strictly prohibited. Please use BLACK INK
only.
Write the letter of the BEST answer on the space provided. Please use UPPER CASE
LETTER only.
______ 1. Athenians settle arguments by discussion and debate, these people were called?
A). Sophist C). Mentor
B). Teacher D). Philosophers
______ 2. Who is the mentor of Plato?
A). Socrates C). Freud
B). God D). Aristotle
______ 3. This method involves the search for the correct/proper definition of a thing.
A). Socratic/dialectic method
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B). Allegory of the cave
C). Looking glass self
D). bystander effect
______ 4. He also introduced to the West the existence of two realms.
A). Plato C). Descartes
B). Socrates D). None of the above
______ 5. He was the only one who knew that he did not know
A). Plato C). Descartes
B). Socrates D). None of these
______ 6. It is the rational and is the motivation are for goodness and truth
A). The Reason C). The Soul
B). The Spirited D) The Appetites
______ 7. It seeks the true goal of a man which is to see things in their true nature.
A). Appetites C). God
B). Reason D). Philosophers
______ 8. He illustrated the “Allegory of the Cave”
A). Aristotle C). Descartes
B). Socrates D). None of the above
______ 9. For him, “love is the way of knowing and realizing the truth.
A). Socrates C). Aristotle
B). ST. Augustine of Hippo D). Plato
______ 10. He stated that love is a process of seeking higher states of being.
A). Plato C). St. Augustine of Hippo
B). Socrates D). None of these
Part II. Think of someone you know who you think is a really good person. What
makes that person a good person?
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The Self from Various Perspectives
LESSON 1: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PHILOSOPHY
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to identify different philosophers
regarding views about self and compare it with your own beliefs in life. You should be able to
establish facts on the given principles by the philosophers and consider the applications of
these values to your own self-assessment.
II. Topic Contents
The Greeks in search of knowledge came up with answers that are both cognitive
and scientific in nature (Price, 2000). For instance, Greek philosophers in Miletus choose to
seek natural explanations to events and phenomena around him instead of seeking natural
explanations from the gods as what was passed down through the generations. These
philosophers observed changes in the world and wanted to explain these changes by
understanding the laws of nature. Their study of change led them to the idea of
permanence (Price, 2000).
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▪ SOCRATES
Of the many ancient Greek philosophers, none can surpass the popularity of the ‘big
three.’ These were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. All three shared a philosophical academic
bond. Socrates was the mentor of Plato, and Plato was the mentor of Aristotle.
Athenians settle arguments by discussion and debate. People skilled in doing this were
called Sophists, the first teachers of the West. Their arguments were usually about practical
things and not with metaphysical speculations. Socrates did not write anything; he was not a
writer. A lot of his thoughts were only known through Plato’s writing.
The Socratic Method – Socrates’ method for discovering what is essential in the
world and in people is what is known as the Socratic/dialectic method. This method involves
the search for the correct/proper definition of a thing. In this method, Socrates did not
lecture, he instead would ask questions and engage the person in a discussion. He would
begin by acting as if he did not know anything and would get the other person to clarify their
ideas and resolve logical inconsistencies (Price, 2000). The goal is to bring the person closer
to the final understanding. “I cannot teach anybody anything. I can only make them
think.”
Socrates’ influence was reflected in his famous statement which he fully lived
by, ´the unexamined life is not worth living.’ He believed that his mission in life was to
seek the highest knowledge and convince others who were willing to seek this
knowledge with him. His Socratic method allowed him to question people’s beliefs
and ideas, exposing their misconceptions and get them to touch their souls. He then
realized why he was the wisest. It was because he was the only one who knew that
he did not know. According to Socrates, real understanding comes from within the
person. His Socratic method forces people to use their innate reason by reaching
inside themselves to their deepest nature. There may be times when this method
would not give answers. This may be expected but what is important is the process
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made the person wiser than before. The aim of the Socratic method is to make
people think, seek, and ask again and again.
▪ PLATO
Aristocles (428-348 BCE) was born in Athens to one of Greece’s aristocratic
families. He was nicknamed Plato because of his physical built which means
‘wide/broad’. Plato left for Athens for 12 years after the death of Socrates. When he
returned, he established a school known as ‘The Academy’. Socrates left a strong
influence on Plato. Both believed that philosophy is more than analyses but rather is
a way of life.
Theory of Forms. Plato explained that Forms refer to what is real. They are not
objects that are encountered with the senses but can only be grasped intellectually. Plato’s
forms have the following characteristics:
1. The Forms are ageless and therefore eternal.
2. The Forms are unchanging and therefore permanent.
3. The Forms are unmoving and indivisible.
In connection with the Forms, Plato also introduced to the West the existence of two realms.
This is known as Plato’s Dualism:
1. The Realm of the Shadows is composed of changing, ‘sensible’ things
which are lesser entities and therefore imperfect and flawed.
2. The Realm of Forms is composed of eternal things that are permanent
and perfect. It is the source of all reality and true knowledge.
He believed that the knowledge lies within the person’s soul (Socrates’ dialectic method).
In his Republic, Plato described the soul as having three components:
1. The Reason is rational and the motivation is for goodness and truth.
2. The Spirited is non-rational and is the will or the drive toward action. This
part of the soul is initially neutral but can be influenced/pulled in two directions.
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3. The Appetites are irrational and lean towards the desire for pleasures of
the body.
Reason seeks the true goal of man which is to see things in their true nature.
Usually, however, the Spirited and the Appetites want worldly pleasures and can influence
reason by making it believe that sensual pleasures are the source of happiness.
Plato’s Theory of Love and Becoming
Plato further illustrated his philosophy of the search for knowledge using the ‘Allegory
of the Cave’ – what people in the cave see are only shadows of reality which they believe
are real things and represent knowledge. What these people fail to realize is that the
shadows are not real, for according to Plato, ‘only the Forms are real.’
Once these people get out of the cave and into the light, what they will see are the
Forms which is what real knowledge is. In knowing the truth according to Plato, that person
must become the truth. The more the person knows, the more he is, and the better he is.
“To know for Plato is to be”.
▪ ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
Christianity’s influence dominated Western thought after the fall of the Hellenistic-Roman
eras. Christian philosophers of the medieval era were also theologians. Their concern was
with God and man’s relationship with God.
Plato and the other Greek philosophers see man as basically good and become evil
through ignorance of what is good. Christianity, on the other hand, sees man as sinners who
reject/go against a loving God’s commands.
St. Augustine of Hippo initially rejected Christianity for it seemed to him then
that Christianity could not provide him answers to questions that interested him. He
wanted to know about moral evil and why it existed in people, his personal desire for
sensual pleasures, and questions about all the sufferings in the world.
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After all his internal and worldly personal battles, Augustine became a priest and a
bishop of Hippo. His thoughts focused on two realms:
1. God as the source of all reality and truth
a. According to him without God as the source of all the truth, man could never
understand eternal truths. So God means that those who know most about
God will come closest to understanding the true nature of the world.
2. The sinfulness of man. According to St. Augustine, the cause of sin or evil is an act
of man’s free will.
The Role of Love
Problems arise because of the objects humans choose to love.
1. Love of physical objects leads to the sin of greed.
2. Love for other people is not lasting and excessive love for them is the sin
of jealousy.
3. Love for the self leads to the sin of pride.
4. Love for God is the supreme virtue and only through loving God can man
find real happiness.
▪ RENE DESCARTES
Rene Descartes is known as the ‘Father of Modern Philosophy.” He introduced what is
known as the Cartesian method and invented analytic geometry. In his method, he asked
himself ‘is there anything I can know with certainty?’ In his search for answers, nothing
satisfied him for he saw that there were always differences in the facts, ideas, and opinions.
In his search for an answer to his question, he had three dreams. These dreams instructed
him to construct a system of knowledge using the power of human reason. Through math,
he discovered that the human mind has two powers:
1. Intuition or the ability to apprehend the direction of certain truths and,
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2. Deduction or the power to discover what is known by progressing in an
orderly way from what is already known. Truths are arrived at using a step
by step process.
‘I think, therefore I am.’ (Cogito Ergo Sum) This phrase is Descartes’ legacy. He
believes that to doubt is to think. What is a thing that thinks? He deduced that a thinker is a
thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses and that also imagines and
feels. The cognitive aspect of human nature is his basis for the existence of the self.
The body, according to, is like a machine that is controlled by the will and
aided by the mind.
▪ JOHN LOCKE
Contrary to what Descartes proposed, Locke believed that knowledge results
from ideas produced a posteriori or by objects that were experienced. The process
involves two forms; sensation wherein objects are experienced through the senses
and reflection by which the mind ‘looks’ at the objects that were experienced to
discover relationships that may exist between them. Locke contended that ideas are not
innate but rather the mind at birth is a ‘tabula rasa’. Locke stated further that, “nothing exists
in the mind that was not first in the senses
Since there are no innate ideas for Locke, morals, religious and political values must
come from sense experiences.
Moral good depends on conformity or nonconformity of a person’s behavior towards
some law. There are three laws according to him:
1. Law of opinion – where actions that are praiseworthy are called virtues and those
that are not are called vice.
2. Civil Law – where right actions are enforced by people in authority (i.e., courts and
police)
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3. Divine Law – set by God on the actions of man. This is deemed to be the true law for
human behavior. The divine law is eternally true and the one law that man should
always follow.
4. DAVID HUME
At the time he was enrolled at the University of Edinburgh, he lost his faith. He
became cynical about almost everything except philosophy and general learning. After
reading the philosophy of Locke, ‘he never again entertained any belief in religion’.
As he examined the process of how ideas are formed, he discovered the limitations
of the mind and his optimism turned into skepticism.
Hume’s analysis proceeded this way: the mind receives materials from the senses
and calls its perceptions. Two types of perceptions according to Hume:
1. Impression is the immediate sensations of external reality. These are more vivid
than the ideas it produces.
2. Ideas are recollections of these impressions.
These two together make up the content of the human mind. It all begins with
impressions. Without impressions, there will be no formation of ideas. Self is simply “a
bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other with an inconceivable
rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement”. There is no permanent/unchanging self.
▪ IMMANUEL KANT
Kant argued that the mind is not just a passive receiver of sense experience but rather
actively participates in knowing the objects it experiences. The self is not just what gives one
personality. In addition, it is also the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human persons.
Kant held that those bundles of sensory impressions (as seen by Hume) imply a unity of the
self without which there would be no knowledge of experience. Therefore, a self must exist,
according to Kant or there could be no memory or knowledge. The term he used for this
experience of the self and its unity with objects is transcendental apperception.
▪ SIGMUND FREUD
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Freud’s then-revolutionary ideas of the probable factors that determine human behavior
pave the way for science to look into the workings of the unconscious mind. Repressed
thoughts and memories have enough psychic energy to impose their control on the person’s
consciousness. Kept hidden and unexpressed, these repressed memories resurface and are
manifested as some form of psychopathology (hysteria).
Freud made use of methods like free association and dream analysis.
Structures of the Mind
Freud presented the topography of the mind. He made use of a typical iceberg to
show how the mind works based on his theorizing. The tip of the iceberg represents
conscious awareness which characterizes the person as he deals with his external world.
The person’s observable behavior, however, is further controlled by the workings of
his unconscious/subconscious mind.
o Id – The structure that is primarily based on the pleasure principle. It demands
immediate satisfaction and is not hindered by societal expectations.
o Ego – The structure that is based on the reality principle. This structure mediates
between the impulses of the id and the restraints of the superego.
Superego – The last structure to develop and is primarily dependent on learning the
difference between right and wrong. The morality of actions is largely dependent on
childhood upbringing, particularly on rewards and punishments.
Freud also presented two kinds of instincts that drive individual behavior. These are
eros or the life instinct and Thanatos or the death instinct. The energy of eros is called libido
and includes urges necessary for individual and species survival like thirst, hunger, and sex.
There are cases, however, wherein man’s behavior is directed towards destruction in the
form of aggression and violence. Such according to Freud are manifestations of the
Thanatos.
Freud’s psychoanalysis sees man as a product of his past lodged within his
subconscious. Man’s behavior by his pleasure-seeking life instinct and his destructive death
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instinct is said to be born with his ego already in conflict. The man then lives his life
balancing the forces of life and death – opposing forces that make mere existence a
challenge.
▪ GILBERT RYLE
An English philosopher whose ideas contradicted Cartesian Dualism. In his book
entitled, The concept of the Mind, Ryle argues that dualism ‘involves category mistakes and
is philosophical nonsense,
Gilbert Ryle also touched on two types of knowledge. He distinguished between
‘knowing-that and knowing-how.’ The former refers to knowing facts/information and the
latter to using facts in the performance of some skill or technical abilities. Just ‘knowing that’
is considered as empty intellectualism. What is more important is how to make use of these
facts. A person may acquire a great bulk of knowledge – but without the ability to use it to
solve some practical problems to make his life easier, it will be deemed worthless.
▪ PATRICIA AND PAUL CHURCHLAND
Modern scientific inquiry looks into the application of neurology to age-old problems in
philosophy, one of which is the mind-body problem. This brought about the study of what is
now known as neurophilosophy. This term was coined by Patricia Churchland, a philosopher
who claims that man’s brain is responsible for the identity known as the self, together with
husband Pail, a Canadian philosopher, was dissatisfied with the particular approach of
philosophers and instead sought to guide scientific theorizing with philosophy and guide it
with scientific inquiry.
The biochemical properties of the brain are really responsible for man’s thoughts,
feelings, and behavior. Contentions that are forwarded by neurophilosophy resulted from
cases where individuals’ deviant thoughts, feelings, and actions stemmed from anomalies
and aberrations in the brain’s anatomy and physiology. It seems that what and who the
person is – how he makes decisions, control impulses, and how he sees himself is largely
determined by his neurons, hormones, and overall genetic make-up.
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▪ MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of body-subject and contended that perceptions
occur existentially. Thus, the consciousness, the world, and the human body are all
interconnected as they mutually perceive the world.
III. Learning Activities
Questions to ponder:
1. Why do philosophers differ in their explanations of the self?
2. How has the concept of the so-called ‘self’ changed over the centuries when human
nature remained basically the same?
IV. Readings / Video
Powerpoint presentation
V. Topic Requirements
Answer questions to ponder as activity
LESSON 2: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to differentiate concepts
of interaction of an individual in society, trace the origin of sociological ideas in the
development of self, and analyze human behavior in different settings.
II. Topic Contents
What is the self?
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It is commonly defined by the following characteristics: “separate, self-contained,
independent, consistent, unitary, and private”.
● By separate, it is meant that the self is distinct from the other-selves. The self is
always unique and has its own identity. One cannot be another person. Even twins
are distinct from each other.
● Second, the self is also self-contained and independent because in itself it can
exist. Its distinctness allows it to be self-contained with its own thoughts,
characteristics, and volition. It does not require any other self for it to exist.
● It is consistent because it has a personality that is enduring and therefore can be
expected to persist for quite some time. Its consistency allows it to be studied,
described, and measured. Consistency also means that a particular self’s traits,
characteristics, tendencies, and potentialities are more or less the same.
● Self is unitary in that it is the center of all experiences and thoughts that run through
a certain person. It is like the chief command post in an individual where all
processes, emotions, and thoughts converge.
● Finally, the self is private. Each person sorts out information, feelings, and emotions,
and thought processes within the self. This process is never accessible to anyone but
the self.
This last characteristic of the self-being private suggests that the self is isolated from
the external world. It lives within its own world. However, we also see that this potential clash
between the self and the external reality is the reason for the self to have a clear
understanding of what it might be, what it can be, and what it will be.
What is the relationship between external reality and the self? In the famous Tarzan
story, the little boy named Tarzan was left in the middle of the forest. Growing up, he never
had an interaction with any other human being but apes and other animals. Tarzan grew up
acting strangely like apes and unlike human persons. Tarzan became an animal, in effect.
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His sole interaction with them made him just like one of them. Disappointedly, human
persons will not develop as human persons without intervention. We may be gifted with
intellect and the capacity to rationalize things but at the end of the day, our growth and
development, our selves are truly products of our interaction with external reality.
From this perspective then, one can see that the self is always at the mercy of
external circumstances that bump and collide with it. It is ever-changing and dynamic,
allowing external influences to take part in its shaping.
The Self and Culture
Remaining the same person and turning chameleon by adapting to one’s context
seems paradoxical. However, the French Anthropologist Marcel Mauss has an explanation
for this phenomenon. According to Mauss, every self has two faces: personne and moi. Moi
refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his biological
givenness. It is a person's basic identity. Personne, on the other hand, is composed of the
social concepts of what it means to be who he is. It has much to do with what it means to live
in a particular institution, a particular family, a particular region, a particular nationality, and
how to behave given expectations and influences from others.
“The self is capable of morphing and fitting itself into any circumstances it finds itself
in.”
The Self and the Development of the Social World
So how do people actively produce their social worlds? How do children growing up
become social beings? How can a boy turn out to just be like an ape? How do twins coming
out from the same mother turn out to be completely different when given up for adoption?
More than his givenness, one is believed to be in active participation in the shaping of the
self. Most often, we think the human persons are just passive actors in the whole process of
the shaping of selves. That men and women are born with particularities that they can no
longer change.
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GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
During the span of his career, he wrote and published many articles and book reviews
but did not publish any book.
MEAD’s SOCIAL SELF
o Social Behaviorism is the approach used to describe the power of the environment
in shaping human behaviour.
o He described the self as a ‘dimension of personality that is made-up of the
individual’s self-awareness and self-image’ (Macionis, 2012).
According to Mead, the self cannot be separated from society. This, he explained
through a set of stages which the person undergoes in the course of his development:
1. The PREPARATORY STAGE
o Mead believed that a self-did not exist at birth. Instead, it develops over time. Its
development is dependent on social interaction and social experience.
o At this stage, children’s behaviour is primarily based on imitation. It was observed
that children imitate the behaviours of those around them. As these children grow,
they become familiar with the symbols (verbal and non-verbal) that people use in
their interactions. The symbols are the bases of communication.
o At the first stage, knowing and understanding the symbols are important for this will
constitute their way of communicating with others throughout their lives. (Schaefer,
2012).
2. The PLAY STAGE
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● At this stage, skills at knowing and understanding the symbols of communication are
important, for this constitutes the basis for socialization. Through communication,
social relationships are formed.
● Now children begin to role play and pretend to be other people. Role-taking in the
play stage according to Mead, is the process of mentally assuming the perspective of
another person to see how this person might behave or respond in a given situation.
(Schaefer, 2012)
● The play stage is significant in the development of the self. It is at this stage where
the child widens his perspective and realizes that he is not alone and that there are
others around him whose presence he has to consider.
STAGES EXISTENCE OF SELF CHARACTERISTICS
Preparatory Stage None Imitates another
Play Stage Developing Role-taking
Game Stage Present Generalized other
3. The GAME STAGE
● Age: about eight or nine years and does more than just role-take
● The child begins to consider several tasks and various types of relationships
simultaneously. Through the learnings that were gained in stage two, the child now
begins to see not only his perspective but at the same time the perspective of others
around him.
● The child now has the ability to respond not just to one but several members of his
social environment.
‘generalized other’
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● The term Mead used to explain the behaviour of the person when he sees/considers
other people in the course of his actions.
● Through the generalized other, the person realizes that people in society have
cultural norms, beliefs, and values which are incorporated into each self. This
realization forms the basis of how the person may evaluate himself (self-evaluation).
MEAD’s Theory of the Self
● The self is not present at birth but begins as a central character in a child’s world.
Children see themselves as the center of their ‘universe’ and are having difficulty
understanding others around them.
● As they grow and mature, there is a change in the self. Begins to see other people
and is now concerned about people’s reactions. People around him, particularly his
family, play a major role in the formation of the self. They are the significant others
who strongly influence his development (Schaefer, 2012).
The “I” and “ME”
● He explained that the person’s capacity to see the self through others implies that the
self is composed of two parts, the I self and the Me self:
● I Self – When the person initiates or performs a social action, the self functions as a
subject. This subjective element of the self is I.
Ex. I will go on a date. I will cook dinner tonight.
● Me Self – When the person takes the role of the other, the self functions as an
object. The objective element of the self is Me.
Ex. The choice for the best drawing was awarded to me.
● The formation of the self is not the end of the process of socialization.
● It continues for as long as the person is alive.
● The self may change based on life circumstances that have a strong impact on it.
Events such as the death of a loved one, disease, or disability may reshape the self.
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● Though a person may have no control over such events, he has control over how he
reacts and deals with it which is still an important aspect of the self (Macionis, 2012).
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY (1864-1929)
● an American sociologist
● made use of the socio psychological approach to understanding how societies
work.
● Earned his doctorate at the University of Michigan and taught at the same university
as a sociology professor.
● Discussed the formation of the self through interaction (Human Nature and the Social
Order, 1902)
● People learn who they are through their social interaction with other people. Although
seeing oneself is based on contemplating one’s personal qualities, the view of the
self is also significantly influenced by the impression and perception of others.
He called this the looking-glass self or the self that is a product of social interaction. Cooley
believed that the process of developing a self has three phases:
1. People imagine how they present themselves to others.
ex. You dress-up elegantly for the prom.
You greet your teachers politely in the school’s hallway.
2. People imagine how others evaluate them.
ex. Others will see you as pretty and attractive by the way you fix yourself.
Others will see you as courteous and well-bred.
3. People develop some sort of feeling about themselves as a result of those
impressions.
ex. You may see yourself as confident or inferior.
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It is noticed that Cooley in his three phases made use of the word imagine. This may
mean that there is a possibility that people develop self-identities based on the wrong
perception of how others see them. Wrong perceptions, however, can still change based on
positive social experiences.
I am not what I think I am
I am not what You think I am
I am what I think You think I am
ERVING GOFFMAN (1922-1982)
● A Canadian-American sociologist
● Known for his role in the development of Modern American Sociology
● In his work, The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life, he wrote how he observed
that people early in their social interactions learned to slant their presentation of
themselves in order to create preferred appearances and satisfy particular people.
● Impression management – the process of altering how the person presents himself
to others.
● He sees similarities in real social interaction with a theatrical presentation. This is the
reason for the label dramaturgical approach to his view.
● Face-work – a phrase used to describe another aspect of the self. This was usually
observed in situations where face-saving measures are resorted to in the
maintenance of a proper image of the self in frustrating or embarrassing situations.
Self in Families
Human beings are born virtually helpless and the dependency period of a human
baby to its parents for nurturing is relatively longer than most other animals. Learning,
therefore, is critical in our capacity to actualize our potential of becoming humans. In trying to
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achieve the goal of becoming a fully realized human, a child enters a system of
relationships, the most important of which is the family.
● Imitation of Language and Behaviour
Without a family, biologically and sociologically, a person may not even survive or
become a human person. One is who he is because of his family for the most part.
Gender and the Self
Gender is one of those loci of the self that is subject to alteration, change, and
development. We have seen in the past years how people fought hard for the right to
express, validate, and assert their gender expression. Many conservatives may frown upon
this and insists on the biological. However, from the point of view of the social sciences and
the self, it is important to give one leeway to find, express, and live his identity. This forms
part of selfhood that one cannot just dismiss. One maneuvers into the society and identifies
himself as who he is by also taking note of gender identities.
Oftentimes, society forces a particular identity unto us depending on our sex and/or
gender. In the Philippines, husbands are expected to provide for the family. The eldest man
in a family is expected to head the family and hold it in. Slight modifications have been on
the way due to feminism and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) activism but for
the most part, patriarchy has remained to be at work.
Nancy Chodorow, a feminist, argues that because mothers take the role of taking
care of children, there is a tendency for girls to imitate the same and reproduce the same
kind of mentality of women as care providers in the family. The way that little girls are given
dolls instead of guns or any other toys are encouraged to play with makeshift kitchen also
reinforces the notion of what roles they should take and the selves they should develop. In
boarding school for girls, young women encouraged to act like fine ladies, are trained to
behave in a fashion that befits their status as women in society.
Men on the other hand, in the periphery of their own family, are taught early on how
to behave like a man. This normally includes holding in one’s emotion, being tough, fatalistic,
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not to worry about danger and admiration for hard physical labor. Masculinity is learned by
integrating a young boy in a society. In the Philippines, young boys had to undergo
circumcision not just for the original, clinical purpose of hygiene but also to assert their
manliness in society. Circumcision plays another social role by initiating young boys into
manhood.
Gender has to be personally discovered and asserted and not dictated by culture and
society.
III. Learning Activity
Answer the following questions cogently but honestly. Write your answer in the space
provided.
1. How would you describe yourself?
2. What are the influences of the family in your development as an individual?
3. Think of a time when you felt you were your “true self”. What made you think you
were truly who you are during this time of your life?
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4. Following the question above, can you provide a time when you felt you were not
living your “true self”? Why did you have to live a life like that? What did you do about
it?
5. What social pressures help shape yourself? Would you have wanted it otherwise?
6. What aspects of yourself do you think maybe changed or would you like to change?.
Answer questions in the learning activity
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LESSON 3: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to differentiate concepts
of an individual's interaction in society, trace the origin of sociological ideas in the
development of self and analyze human behavior in different settings.
II. Topic Contents
ANTHROPOLOGY
A field of social sciences that focuses on the study of man. This does not pertain only
to one aspect of man (i.e. his mind or his environment) but rather on the totality of what it
means to be human.
This field looks into man’s physical/biological characteristics, his social relationships,
and the influences of his culture from the dawn of civilization up to the present.
“What man is now, is a product of his past”
Everything in anthropology is interconnected and a complete understanding is
necessary to achieve the goal of man understanding himself better. Four subfields of
anthropology:
● Archaeology;
● Linguistics;
● Biological Anthropology; and
● Cultural Anthropology,
which suggests that human beings are similar and very different at the same time. For
instance, people have the same need for food, water, and shelter but they differ on the
ways/means of how to acquire these for their satisfaction.
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It is through these studies that people learn about themselves and about others
around them. Lately, people have come to realize that the similarities and diversities among
them are what makes life so interesting.
As one learns the facts/information that makes him similar to others, he will also
know the different characteristics that set him apart. This knowledge aims to further highlight
the beauty and uniqueness of each person thus making him value his life and existence
even more.
THE FIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
❖ Archaeology
Archaeologists’ focus on the past and how it may have contributed to the present
ways of how people conduct their daily lives. As a result, what archaeologists have so far
discovered are the unique ways in which human beings adapted to changes in their
environment in order for them to survive.
Man’s big brains have allowed them to think and look for ways to prolong their
existence. Their thoughts enabled their hands to fashion tools and weapons from the objects
they find in their environment. The tools and weapons that proved effective are used
repeatedly and when further improved made their life easier.
Archaeological data suggest that in many places around the world, the species
homosapiens did not become extinct because of their ability to think, use tools and learn
from experience. They have adapted and gained dominance over all of earth’s creatures.
These discoveries of archaeologists made people realize the important aspect of
human nature, which is survival. All around the world, people have struggled to survive and
up to the present, human behaviour, according to the School of Functionalism continues to
adapt in order to survive.
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In this aspect, human beings are similar. The manner, however, that they choose to
survive differs. Some men would use power and strength, declare wars, conquer and even
try to annihilate races, while others would offer their services, knowledge, resources and
even their lives just to ensure that a few deserving human beings would survive. Indeed,
people are so similar and yet so different.
❖ Biological Anthropology
Focus primarily on how the human body adapts to different earth environments. They
look at the probable causes of disease, physical mutation and death. They also want to
know how human beings might have evolved from their early forms.
Biological Anthropologists also do comparative studies on human beings both dead
and living and other primates (apes and monkeys). They are interested in explaining how the
biological characteristics of human beings affect how they lived their lives. By studying
people in different places around the globe, these scientists have discovered that while
human beings do vary in their biological make-up and behavior, there are a lot more
similarities among them than there are differences.
Human beings at present still share the same biological strengths and vulnerabilities.
Ex. Eating the right balance of nutrients from food and intake of minerals
is beneficial to all human beings while what may be lethal for one will most likely have the
same effect on others.
Biological characteristics human beings share may earn for them complete dominion
over all earth creatures and at the same time be the cause of their extinction.
Ex. A cure during a pandemic (a cure effective for one may have similar
effects on others)
The virus, Anthrax (which is lethal for one will be as lethal for many).
❖ Linguistic Anthropology
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Human survival is primarily linked to their ability to communicate. This is another
capability that resulted from big human brains. The brain comes equipped with specialized
areas specifically for the purpose of communication. In addition, an essential part of human
communication is language.
Language identifies a group of people. The words, sounds, symbols, writings and
signs that are used are reflections of a group’s culture. Linguistic anthropologists’ interest
focuses on using language as a means to discover a group’s manner of social interaction
and his worldview. These scientists want to discover how language is used to create and
share meanings, to form ideas and concepts and to promote social change.
Linguistic anthropologists also study how language and modes of communication
change over time. From the story of the Tower of Babel which provided an alternate view on
how language originated, it can be attested that through the centuries, the man had been
searching for ways in order for people of different languages to understand each other. This
resulted in a consensus of having a universal language which is English.
In contemporary society, other forms of language have evolved which represent the
subculture of a particular group. Examples of these are the terms used in social media and
the language of the LGBTs.
Looking at language from the perspective of an anthropologist shows how it is
reflective of the time and mode of thinking of the people using it. A language adapts to the
existing conditions in the society. As societies change and technologies develop so do the
symbols and meaning people attach to objects and events as expressed through the
language that they use and their manner of communicating.
❖ Cultural Anthropology
Culture is described as a group of people’s way of life. It includes their behaviours,
beliefs, values and symbols that they accept that are socially transmitted through
communication and imitation from generation to generation.
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Cultural anthropologists are interested in knowing what makes one group’s manner
of living particular to that group and forms an essential part of the member’s personal and
social identity. Whether the individual admits it or not, he is a product of his culture.
The contention that culture has a strong impact on how the individual views himself is
known as the Theory of Cultural Determinism – Human nature is determined by the ideas,
meanings, beliefs, and values learned as members of society.
This is tantamount to saying that who or what a person is may be determined by the
kind of culture he is born into and grew up in. With the different cultures that exist not only in
society but all over the world, anthropologists suggest that there is no universal or right way
of being human. The right way is always based on one’s culture. Since culture varies, there
is no one way of understanding human nature.
This theory has positive and negative implications:
(+) suggests that human beings can be shaped/formed to have the kind of life they
prefer. It further means that there is no limit placed on the human ability to be or to do
whatever they set their minds and hearts into.
( – ) it may mean that people have no control over what they learn. They blindly
accept the learning their cultures expose them to. Human beings are seen as helpless and
do only what their culture instructs them to do. This places human nature under the mercy of
his culture
Cultural diversities are manifested in different ways and at different levels of depth.
Symbols are considered the most superficial level of culture and values belong to the
deepest level or are considered the core of culture.
The following are the ways in which culture may manifest itself in people:
1. Symbols
o Are the words, gestures, pictures or objects that have a
recognized/accepted meaning in a particular culture. Symbols can be
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shared or copied by other cultures who find them also fitting for their own
culture.
Ex. Rings signify commitment
Colors have meanings that are similar in many cultures
2. Heroes
o Are the persons from the past or present who have characteristics that are
important in a culture? They may be real or fictitious and are models for
behavior.
Ex. Jose Rizal,
Andres Bonifacio
Spiderman
Darna
3. Rituals
o Are activities (maybe religious or social) participated in by a group of
people for the fulfillment of desired objectives and are considered to be
socially essential.
Ex. Religious ceremonies like baptisms and
weddings
Social ceremonies like birthdays and
graduations
4. Values
o Are considered to be the core of every culture. Values are unconscious
and can neither be discussed nor be directly observed but can only be
inferred from the way people act and react to circumstances and situations.
Ex. Respect for elders
Hospitality
Nationalism
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In summary, the field of anthropology is yet another way by which a person can view
himself. To be added to his repertoire of perspectives, anthropology makes the person
aware that what he is may be determined by his past and present condition, his biological
characteristics, the way he communicates, the language that he uses, and the manner in
which he chooses to live his life.
III. Learning Activity:
Answer all the following based on what you have learned on the attached documentary
video “BINUKOT”. (https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=binukot)
1. Do you think that we should preserve our culture? Why or Why not?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. Do you agree to Emily that she needs to have a modernization?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
3. Are you willing to sacrifice your love just to preserve your culture?
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
4. What saying have you learned to Dr. Alicia P Magos? And how will you apply it to
modernization?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
5. In line with cultural anthropology, how was it different as time goes by?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
PowerPoint presentation, YouTube documentary
Watch “Binukot” documentary and answer activity questions
LESSON 4: THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PSYCHOLOGY
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to differentiate “self-
esteem” from “self-concept”, develop a better understanding of people as a reflection of a
good self- concept towards self-regulation.
II. Topic Contents
Psychology is the field of the social sciences that deals with the description,
explanation, prediction, and control of behaviour (Ciccarelli and Meyer, 2006). Evolving into
science only in the late 19th century from the disciple of philosophy, the field assumed the
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existence of the states of consciousness in human beings. Psychology believes that the
world of material things including people exists independently of the perceiving human mind.
The mind-body problem of philosophy is one issue in the field of knowledge. Another,
specifically for psychology is the famous Nature-Nurture Controversy. Over the years,
experts in the field of human behaviour have sought for ways to best explain the causes of
human behaviour only to discover that both nature and nurture influence behaviour, each
one to a greater or lesser degree.
WILLIAM JAMES
● An American Philosopher and Psychologist.
● A professor of psychology and philosophy at Harvard University
● Known for being one of the great pragmatists.
● Known for his Theory of the Self.
William James in his studies of human thoughts concluded that thoughts have five
characteristics:
1. All human thoughts are owned by some personal self.
2. All thoughts are constantly changing or are never static.
3. There is a continuity of thoughts as its focus shifts from one object to another.
4. Thoughts deal with objects that are different from and independent of consciousness
itself.
5. Consciousness can focus on particular objects and not others.
As mentioned in the list of thought characteristics above, thoughts are
associated with the existence of the self. Further, James believed that the self is
made up of two parts: the ‘ME self’ and the ‘I self’. The self can be viewed as an
object of thought or as the subject of thought. The former is the empirical self or
“me,” while the latter is a pure ego or “I.”
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James believed that the pure ego was similar to what we think of as the soul
or the mind. The pure ego was not a substance and therefore could not be examined
by science. The Pure Ego comprises the totality of the person’s identity. It takes into
account the past, present, and future selves of the individual. This perception of
identity arises from a continuous stream of human consciousness.
The dimensions of the empirical self (“me”) include the “material” self
(comprised of one’s body and such extensions of it as one’s clothing, immediate
family, and home), the “social” self (or significant interpersonal relations), and the
“spiritual” self (one’s personality, character, and defining values).
1. THE MATERIAL SELF – consists of the things or objects that belong to the
person or entities that a person belongs to. The body is the core of the material
self and everything that is attached or associated with it identifies the person. For
instance, you can identify the person by the style of clothes he wears, the type of
books he reads, the culture of his family and the amount of money that he has.
The more attached and identified the person is to his material things, the more he
will be affected if any of the changes.
For example, a death in the family or being a victim of fire would
cause changes in the material self. Our immediate family is a part of ourselves.
Our father and mother, our wife and babies, are bone of our bone and flesh of our
flesh. When they die, a part of our very selves is gone. If they do anything wrong,
it is our shame. If they are insulted, our anger flashes forth as readily as if we
stood in their place. Our home comes next. Its scenes are part of our life; its
aspects awaken the tenderest feelings of affection; and we do not easily forgive
the stranger who, in visiting it, finds fault with its arrangements or treats it with
contempt.
2. THE SOCIAL SELF – refers to who the person is in a particular social situation.
Changes in behaviour usually result from the different social situations the person
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finds himself in. Properly speaking, a man has as many social selves as there are
individuals who recognize him and carry an image of him in their mind. To wound
any one of these his images are to wound him. But as the individuals who carry
the images fall naturally into classes, we may practically say that he has as many
different social selves as there are distinct groups of persons about whose
opinion he cares. He generally shows a different side of himself to each of these
different groups.
From this there results what practically is a division of the man into
several selves; and this may be a discordant splitting, as where one is afraid to let
one set of his acquaintances know him as he is elsewhere; or it may be a
perfectly harmonious division of labor, as where one tender to his children is stern
to the soldiers or prisoners under his command.
3. THE SPIRITUAL SELF – refers to the self that is more concrete or permanent
when compared to the material and social selves. This self is the most subjective
and intimate part of the self. It includes aspects like the individual’s personality,
values, and morals that are usually stable and constant. The spiritual self is
always engaged in the process of introspection (self-observation).
This is a method that includes reflecting or looking inward to study and
understand the how and why of the self. According to James, this looking inward
is more important than satisfying the needs of either the material or the social
self. If there is conflict in the spiritual self then it will be very difficult for the person
to have peace of mind.
GLOBAL AND DIFFERENTIATED SELF MODELS
The global self represents the overall value that a person places upon himself. This
affects how he views and feels about himself. It is inevitable for a person to be born and to
grow up in the presence of other people. The groups of people he interacts with every day of
his life strongly influence him. These people are who he turns to when he needs advice,
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someone to talk to, or just to be with. He turns to them for support and seeks their approval
in the journey of finding himself. His global self is the product of all experiences that he had
in the society which accounts for the kind of person he presently is.
MURRAY BOWEN
● He came up with the concept of differentiated self-based on his
observation of the family
● In his theory, he observed that there are two forces affecting the person; the
first is togetherness and the second is individuality.
● A balance should be maintained between these two forces for: too much
togetherness creates fiction and conflict and prevents the development of the
person’s sense of self; too much individuality on the other hand results in
distant and estrange feelings towards family and other people.
A differentiated self, though still affected by the presence of others, has the ability to
separate feelings and thoughts. The person recognizes that he has his own personality and
therefore endowed with unique characteristics not dependent on the opinion of other people.
With this knowledge, he realizes that for him to attain self-fulfillment, he should separate
himself from other groups to live and fulfill his destiny.
The differentiated self enables the person to develop and sustain his unique
personality, make his own choices and accept his responsibility for his behaviour without
interrupting the emotional connection with his family and friends.
REAL AND IDEAL SELF-CONCEPTS
CARL ROGERS
● An American psychologist who proposed the personality theory known as the
Person-Centered Theory.
● He stated that the term self-concept is used to refer to how a person thinks about or
perceives himself.
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● There are two types of self-concept: the real self-concept and the ideal self-
concept.
The real self-concept refers to all information and perception of the person about
himself. The first question that can be answered is “Who am I?”
The ideal self-concept refers to the idealized view carried by experiences, standards,
and demands of society. The ideal self is what a person aims for himself to be. The first
question that can be answered is “What do I want to be?”
Rogers stated that there should be congruence between the real self and the ideal
self in order for the person to be happy and be satisfied in life.
If the ideal self is different from the real self this would lead a person to experience
dissatisfaction and may see himself as a failure (Feist & Feist, 2008)
According to the Self-Discrepancy theory of Higgins (1987), people use internalized
standards to which they compare themselves. These are called self-guides which provide
directions for how a person should present himself. Self-discrepancy arises when the self is
found to be deviating from these guides and may lead to emotional discomfort. Self-
discrepancy may cause emotional discomfort to the individual and can be manifested as guilt
or the worst indifference.
MULTIPLE AND UNIFIED SELVES
The Multiple Selves Theory suggests that there exists in the individual different
aspects of the self. It makes sense that the self is a whole made up of parts. These parts of
the self may manifest themselves when situations call for it. The psychologically healthy
individual can make sense of the sometimes confusing and conflicting aspects of themselves
to be integrated into a single or unified self.
A unified being is essentially connected to consciousness, awareness and agency.
To be considered as a well-adjusted person should be able to deal with and accept
complexities and the perceived unfairness that exist in life. They can manifest content with
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the present state of affairs and continue to adjust, adapt, evolve and survive as an individual
with integrated, unified multiple selves.
TRUE AND FALSE SELVES
DONALD WOODS WINNICOTT
● An English pediatrician and psychoanalyst who studied child development.
● He looked into the significance of play in child development. It is also through play
where he observed children/people as having true and false selves.
● The true self in individuals is one in which self is seen as creative, spontaneously
experiencing each day of life, appreciating being alive, real, integrated and
connected to the whole existence. It is further characterized by a high level of
awareness in the person of who he is, what he is capable of and is not afraid to let
others know his weakness and imperfections. The true self is the individual who
recognizes his strengths and accepts his limitations, enjoys winning and success and
learns from mistakes and failures.
● The false self may be manifested as a form of defense. It is the mask that hides the
true person for fear of rejection and failure. It arises when the person is forced to
comply with existing social norms and standards. At times false selves enable the
person to form superficial but productive social relationships.
● True and false selves are present in all individuals. For the two to exist in a healthy
individual, they should be functional for the advantage of both the person himself and
society. A person that struggles to fit in but still experiences the feeling of being
forced to comply rather than adapting gracefully to the situation is a person whose
self is maladjusted and unhealthy.
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC
ALBERT BANDURA
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● The proponent of the personality theory known as The Social Cognitive Theory.
● In his theory, the person is seen as proactive and agentic which means that he has
the capacity to exercise control over his life.
● In his Triadic Reciprocal Causation Paradigm, he explains further how human beings
are affected by the interaction among environmental events, behavior and personal
factors.
● In his theory, the basic principle involved in human learning is learning through
observation. A large portion of human behavior resulted from modeling in which the
behavior of the model is consciously acquired for in the mind of the person; this
process will help him achieve his goals. Human nature as described by Bandura is
plastic and flexible.
● The Social Cognitive Theory suggested that human beings are proactive, self-
regulating, self-reflective and self-organizing. People have the ability to influence
their own behavior which may lead to desired outcomes. This human agency
involves the active process of exploration and manipulation in order to influence the
environment and achieve the desired consequences.
Features of Human Agency
In the Social Cognitive Theory, Bandura discusses the four features of human
agency:
1. INTENTIONALITY refers to the actions performed by the person intentionally or with
full awareness of his behaviour. This feature involves planning with an awareness of
the possible consequences of actions.
Ex. Kenneth went online to apply for a passport because he wants to travel
outside his country.
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2. FORETHOUGHT refers to the person’s anticipation of likely outcomes of his
behaviour. This allows him to select from a repertoire of behaviours and determine
which one will most likely lead to a positive outcome.
Ex. Kenneth chose an interview date for his passport application where most
likely he will be on leave.
3. SELF-REACTIVENESS refers to the process in which the person is motivated and
regulates his behavior as he observes his progress in achieving his goals. The goals
that the person wants to reach should be clear and specific. It should also be within
his ability to achieve. The person should be realistic, aware of his potentials and
capabilities to fulfill his goals.
Ex. Kenneth saves a larger portion of his salary in the bank so he can have
enough cash to travel to Japan.
4. SELF-REFLECTIVENESS refers to the person looking inward and evaluating his
motivations, values, life goals and other people’s effect on him. An important aspect
of self-reflectiveness is self-efficacy which is the person’s belief that he is capable of
behaviour that will produce the desired positive results.
Ex. Kenneth believes that he has to enjoy and experience life a little while still
able and capable.
SELF REGULATION
The person engages in self-regulated behavior when he reactively attempts to
minimize the discrepancies between what he has already accomplished and what he still
wants to achieve. After seeing that he is on the right track in achieving his goal he will also
proactively set new and higher goals for himself.
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It allows the person to set goals that are better and higher than the former,
challenging his capabilities to become wiser and self-actualized individuals (Feist & Feist,
2008).
Answer the following based on what you have learned in the lesson.
1. How will you apply the U-CURVE in your life?
2. What should we do if we reach the peak of the U-CURVE?
3. Give your own experience with the same scenario of BOBO Doll of Bandura and how
did you deal with those experiences.
PowerPoint presentation
Answer activity questions
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LESSON 5: THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHT
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to differentiate the
behavior of people in different cultures, understand their views and beliefs and apply how
they must behave if they encounter someone that has a different culture.
II. Topic Contents
Individualistic Self
Human beings have gone through a lot of challenges since their existence was
recorded about 200,000 years ago. These challenges involved not only the physical
and mental aspects which they initially thought were the essence of their existence,
but particularly of issues of a deeper level. Through the process of introspection and
reflection, the man begins to search for clues as to the probable purpose of his
existence and the role he plays in the general order of the things of the world.
As a result of his introspection, he decides that since he has only one life to live
and that death is inevitable, he should make the most of this life he was given. So he
goes into the world with the intention of living the life that he chooses, making
decisions, acting upon these decisions and taking responsibility for consequences.
This is an example of a person manifesting his individualistic self. Although he
is aware that he is not alone and that he exists with others in society, he sees himself
as being capable of living his own life, doing the things that he would love to do,
making his own mistakes and learning from his experiences. This is the individual who
is aware of his rights and the limitations of his freedom in the extant society. He sets
goals and works hard to achieve them. He knows that he is the one who will suffer the
most if he wastes his chance to live a life that he and his family can be proud of.
Something that would define him and inspire others that being in the world meant
making it better not only for himself but also for others. Thus, his legacy.
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There are many cultures particularly in the West that encourage individualism.
The development of an individualistic self begins after birth and is observed in the
child-rearing practices of parents in the West. Independence and self-reliance form
the development of the self in Western cultures. In the United States, for instance, off-
springs who reach the age of eighteen years are expected to ‘move out’ of the house,
support themselves and make their own decisions. Though the family is important,
individual freedom and the ability to stand on his own is expected.
Collective Self
Needless to say, not all cultures encourage/ or practice individualism. In the
cultures of the East, the development of a collective self is ingrained into the
individual. The identity of the individual is lost and does not exist except as a part of
the group. The family and the society control how the group members should think,
act and generally conduct themselves in society.
It is observed that strong bonds of unity are formed and developed in
collectivism. In an extreme sense, all decisions are group decisions. When the
group decides every member should follow. Group members depend on each
other, individual thinking and decision making are frowned upon.
Collectivistic culture gives birth to individuals who develop collective selves.
Such individuals establish strong bonds, particularly with their families. They are
bound by the customs, beliefs and traditions of the group. Every phase of their
existence is always referred back to the group’s customs, beliefs and traditions. Some
examples of issues decided upon by the group are gender roles, marriage practices
and patriarchy. In such cases, individual freedom is sacrificed for the benefit of the
group.
In society, collectivism fosters a nationalistic attitude as long as this is what the
group believes. The individual members are non-entities and there is no sense of self
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but what is present is a collective self. This means that the collective self is the group
self to which the person belongs to. It is how the group thinks, behaves and achieves
its goals. There are only group decisions and group goals and the essence of
existence is group survival.
In contemporary society, both the individualistic and the collective self may exist
in a single individual. This is the result of influences and intermarriages between
people from the East and West. The sharing of knowledge and influx of information
from mass media and social media have recently taken the positive aspects of
individualism and collectivism and blended them into one that will enable the individual
to fully exercise his freedom without sacrificing his family and the positive values
provided by his culture.
By valuing the individual, Westerners may seem to have loose associations or
even loyalty to their groups. Competition is the name of the game and they are more
likely straightforward and forceful in their communication as well as decision-making.
Eastern or oriental persons look after the welfare of their groups and values
cooperation. They would also be more compromising and they tend to go around the
bush explaining things, hoping that the other person would ‘feel’ what they really want
to say.
Westerners also emphasize more on the value of equality even if they see that
the individual can rise above everything else. Because everyone is on their own
competition, one can say that they also promote ideals that create ‘fair’ competition
and protect the individual. Asians, with their collectivistic culture, put more emphasis
on the hierarchy as the culture wants to keep things in harmony and order.
The Self in Western Thought
From the beginning of the chapter, the construct that is the self plays a central
role in almost all perspectives of intellectual inquiry. To recall, the self has been an
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area of interest by the French and English philosophers and an entity whose proof of
existence is most challenging as is ascertained in the early Greek philosophies of
Socrates and Plato.
In the seventeenth century, Descartes emphasized the self through his dictum
“I think, therefore I am.” The person/self in Descartes’ view exists regardless of his
environment. In other words, for Descartes the cognitive basis of the person’s
thoughts is proof for the existence of the self. Kant, on the other hand, is believed that
the self is capable of actions that entitle it to have rights as an autonomous agent.
This then inspired the recognition of human rights as important in the expression of
individual freedom.
More recently, the West introduced the ecological self which sees the self as a
process that is undergoing development. Human biological and environmental
characteristics like race, gender, social status, education, and culture are factors that
influence self-development. The self here is seen as dynamic, different and unique in
each individual and is constantly exposed to an ever-changing world.
The Self in Confucian Thought
Confucius was the name for which Kong Zhongni of China was known in the
West. He was born in the period of the Zhou dynasty in 551 BCE in the small state of
Lu. Confucius grew up poor even though he descended from a scholarly family. The
Zhou dynasty was characterized by political, social and moral disintegration in China.
Through all of this unrest, Confucius’s family made sure that he received a proper
education. Through scholarly study, Confucius came to be known as ‘Master Kong’
and as ‘Great Sage and Teacher’ (Koller, 2007).
Confucius’ experiences in politics made him focus on social reforms. His
philosophy came to be known as a humanistic social philosophy. This philosophy’s
primary focus is on human beings and the society he finds himself in. As such he
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considers the society and its communities as the main sources of values of both
human beings and society in general.
The philosophical concept of Confucianism is centered on the ren which can
be manifested through the li (propriety), xiao (filiality) and yi (rightness). The ren can
be understood as human goodness. It is this which makes human beings different
from a beast. It involves feelings and thinking which serves as the foundation of all
human relationships. Ren further signifies Chinese culture’s emphasis on feelings or
the heart as the most important instead of the head in human nature.
Ren is a reflection of the person’s own understanding of humanity. It is
something found within each person and can be realized in one’s personal life
and relationships. Ren guides human actions and to go against the ren means
abandoning what is truly human, for it is the ren that makes life worth living. It
can only be realized through the li, xiao and yi.
1. Li (Propriety)
Such rules involve adherence to the rituals of the community. These are the
customs, ceremonies, and traditions that form the basis of li which persisted and are
strengthened by human practice through generations. Self-mastery includes self-
development. It rejects selfish behaviour and instead cultivates the inner qualities of
humanity.
Self-mastery is characterized by self-control and the will to redirect impulses and
change these to socially accepted expressions of human nature. Li conforms to the
norms of humanity. Confucius believed that everyone has duties and responsibilities,
hence the five relationships (father and son; ruler and subject; older and younger
brothers; husband and wife; friend and friend). These acts and rituals whether
religious or cultural highlight the social and public character of human actions.
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2. Xiao (Filiality)
It is the virtue of reverence and respect for the family. Parents should be
revered for the life they have given. Children show respect to their parents by
exerting efforts to take care of themselves. Keeping themselves fit and healthy
through proper diet and regular exercise are examples.
Reverence for parents and family is further demonstrated by bringing honor to
the family, making something of himself to earn the respect of others.
The family is a reflection of the person.
3. Yi (Rightness)
It is the right way of behaving. Yi is unconditional and absolute. Right is right and
what is not right is wrong. There are no gray areas. Actions must be performed and
carried out because they are the right actions. Obedience to parents, for instance, is
expected of children because it is morally right and obligatory to do so.
In addition, Confucius emphasized that actions should be performed because they
are right and not for selfish benefits that they provide. Confucianism can be seen as a
code of ethical conduct, on how one should properly act according to their relationship
with other people; thus, it is also focused on having a harmonious social life.
Please answer the following question based on the documentary video of
EKANG (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxP7P_QDWlQ).
1. Do you think Ekang can also be a drug addict?
2. Do you think Ekang should respect and obey her family since inlined to YI of
Confucius?
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3. Do you think Melay is a bad mother? If so , what is your definition of bad/how
do you define bad?
4. In line with xiao, is ekang a reflection of a bad person? (kung ano ang puno
sya ang bunga?)
5. If Confucius is alive, what question should u need to ask him? and why? or is
there any question that pops up on your mind?
6. Do you believe in the word "tadhana"? if so, is it their tadhana/ trajectory? if
not what should they do to make their life in line with Confucius?
7. Do u think ekang needs to know the line of work of her family? why or why
not?
8. Who do you think we should blame for their way of living? justify your answer.
Powerpoint presentation, youtube video documentary
Answer activity questions derived from the documentary film
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LESSON 6: THE PHYSICAL SELF: The Self as Impacted by the Body
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to explore the self and
identity, demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and
identity and value their own physical self and its importance.
II. Topic Contents
SELF-UNDERSTANDING – is the individual’s cognitive representation of the self which
consists of the substance and the content of self-conceptions. The development of self-
understanding in adolescence can be described from simple to perplex and involves a
number of aspects of the self. It differs from the child’s understanding of self which
changes throughout the life span as the person grows older (Santrock, 2014).
GROWING UP – as children advance in age, their interest changes and with these come
changes in their bodies. The changes are rapid and before parents notice it, they no longer
have babies but unpredictable teenagers. It is at this stage that parents should respect
their teenagers’ privacy and allow them enough space to grow but at the same time let
them know that their parents are always there ready to LISTEN and to provide SUPPORT.
An obvious change in teenagers is the changes in their physical selves. The
physical self refers to the concrete dimensions of the body, it is the tangible aspect of the
person which can be directly observed and examined. Physical characteristics are the
defining traits or features of the person’s body. The first thing a person sees when he looks
at another could be their facial features, hairstyle, clothes, or figure. These physical
characteristics can easily be distinguished with the naked eye. They encompass everything
that one can describe a person or group of people, by just looking.
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Erik Erikson believed in the importance of the body from early development because
the physical, as well as intellectual skills, will somehow serve as a basis for whether a
person has achieved a sense of competence and be able to manage and face the
demands of life complexities.
When children reach 10-12 years of age, puberty begins and they are now in the
adolescent period. This transition period in the human life span lasts from 18 to 22 years of
age. The age bracket of the period of adolescence, however, may vary across different
groups.
In the Philippines, the Youth in Nation-Building Act (1994) defined youth according to
ages that cover between 15-30 years. This age range was created by the National Youth
Commission.
PUBERTY: A PERIOD OF RAPID PHYSICAL CHANGES
Girls Boys
1. Ovaries increase the production of estrogen and 1. Testes increase the production of testosterone and
progesterone androgen
2. Uterus and vagina begin to grow larger 2. Increase of size of testes and penis
3. Weight and height spurt 3. The appearance of pubic hair
4. Muscle and organ growth 4. Weight spurts begin
5. Menarche (the first menstrual period) 5. Peak height spurts
6. First ovulation 6. Peak muscle and organ growth
7. Breast growth 7. Voice lowers
8. The appearance of facial hair
According to Santrock, puberty is the most essential marker of the beginning of
adolescence. The changes that are experienced during puberty are different for girls and
boys and experience menarche which is her first menstrual flow. Boys, 2-3 years later,
experience spermarche or semenarche which is his first ejaculation / nocturnal emission.
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The pituitary gland controls growth and regulates the functions of all other
endocrine glands, including the gonads (ovaries for girls and testes for boys). Chemical
substances (hormones) are secreted by the gonads (sex glands) are distributed by the
bloodstream throughout the body. These hormones (estrogen for girls, and testosterone and
androgen for boys) promote physical changes in an individual’s body.
These rapid changes would either be classified as primary sexual changes
(physical characteristics) or secondary sexual changes (reproductive organs).
It is to be remembered that although human development is a progressive process,
variations occur because of individual differences in such factors as health, nurture and
heredity.
BODY IMAGE – refers to the way one sees himself/herself or the way he/she imagines how
he/she looks. How they see themselves can either be positive or negative. In general, girls
are less happy with their body images than boys throughout puberty. Moving towards the
end of puberty, however, both girls and boys feel positive about their body images.
Adolescents with poor body images have negative thoughts and feelings about their
appearance which can either be true or not. A healthy boy image is made up of positive
thoughts, feelings, and acceptance of one’s body and overall physical appearance.
Young adolescents usually experience an imaginary audience which refers to an
egocentric state where the individual imagines and believes that many people are actively
listening or watching him or her. In social psychology, this phenomenon is called spotlight
effect which refers to the belief that others are paying more attention to the person’s
appearance and behaviour than they really are.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT PERCEPTION OF THE PHYSICAL SELF
1. Personal Factors
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a. Introspection and Self-reflection. Looking inward is one of the simplest
ways to achieve self-knowledge. Introspection is the process by which
one observes and examines one’s internal state (mental and emotional)
after behaving in a certain way. Studies, however, show that introspection
is limited because people are commonly motivated to keep unwanted
thoughts and experiences out of memory and consciousness. This means
that people have a low self-insight on aspects of the self where they wish
were not true and many people tend to overestimate their positive
aspects.
b. Self-Perception Theory. Explains that since one’s internal state is
difficult to interpret, people can infer their inner states by observing their
own behaviour – as if they are an outside observer. Physical perception
includes all aspects of a person’s perception of his physical self.
c. Self-concept. A cognitive representation of self-knowledge which
includes the sum total of all beliefs that people have about themselves. It
is a collection of all individual experiences involving one’s characteristics,
social roles, values, goals and fears. Thus, it pertains to all characteristics
the person enumerates when asked to describe who he is.
d. Personal Identity. This is the concept a person has about himself that
develops over the years. This includes aspects of his life that he was born
into like family, nationality, gender, physical traits as well as the choices
he makes, such as what he does for a living, who his friends are and what
he believes in.
2. Social Factors
a. Attachment Process and Social Appraisal. According to Bowlby,
people learn about their value and lovability when they experience how
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their mothers or caregivers care for them and respond to their needs.
These earliest interactions are important in developing who they are.
b. Maintaining, Regulating, and Expanding the Self in Interpersonal
Relationships. The sense of self is continuously shaped through ongoing
interaction with others or with significant relationship partners. They act as
“private audiences” with whom people carry an internal dialogue.
Oftentimes, however, people are not aware that they are being influenced
by these private audiences.
c. The Looking-glass Self Theory. Charles Horton Cooley stated that a
person’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the
perceptions of others. The view of oneself comes from a compilation of
personal qualities and impressions of how others perceive the individual.
d. Social Comparison. Leon Festinger (1954) introduced another way of
understanding the self by comparing one’s traits, abilities, or opinions to
that of others. Social comparison is a process of comparing oneself with
others in order to evaluate one’s own abilities and opinions. There are two
types:
i. Upward social comparison happens when an individual
compares himself to others who are better than him.
ii. Downward social comparison happens when an individual
compares himself to someone who is in a worse situation than he
is especially when he is feeling so low.
For a person to have a healthy self-image, it is important to never compare oneself to
others. Rather one should set realistic standards for himself.
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e. Social Identity Theory. Formulated by Tajfel and Turner in 1979 which
provides a framework about how people achieve understanding about
themselves by being a member of their group. People have a need for a
positive social identity that is why they connect to a wider social network.
This idea assumes that as a member of the group they will not be
discriminated against by an out-group.
SELF IDENTITY
The person that someone truly is or the entire Is who a person believes he or she is,
person of the individual. representing a synthesis and integration of self-
understanding.
The total characteristics or qualities of a person The traits and characteristics, social relations,
both known and unknown to others but known to roles, and social group memberships that define
oneself. who one is.
A way of making sense of some aspect or part
of self-concept.
The self belongs to an individual level of analysis which includes self-esteem, self-
efficacy and the like. Identity is based on societal or cultural level analysis such as the
cultural concept of oneself and cultural makeup which makes a person who he is.
THE IMPACT OF CULTURE ON BODY IMAGE AND SELF-ESTEEM: THE IMPORTANCE
OF BEAUTY
Culture is defined as a social system that is characterized by the shared meanings
that are attributed to people and events by its members.
Beauty is defined as the quality of being physically attractive or the qualities in a
person or a thing that gives pleasure to the senses or the mind.
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It should be noted that in every culture and in every individual, the standards of
beauty may vary a lot. Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder.
The bottom line is, for a young adolescent who is awkwardly experiencing physical
changes, who is inexperienced and innocent of the complexities of the world, BEAUTY is
what social media dictates, what fashion models look like, and how his/her favourite celebrity
dresses and behaves.
The body image created by the adolescent which includes perception and feelings
about oneself could either be positive or negative. This is based on how the adolescent
measures up to the cultural standards of an ideal body image.
THE FILIPINO CONCEPT OF BEAUTY
Filipinos have a mixed heritage that can be traced back to Malay, Korean, Chinese,
and Spaniard origins, but the original inhabitants of the Philippines, called ‘Aetas’, were dark-
skinned and had tight, curly hair and flat noses. The Spaniards referred to these people as
Negritos because they resembled small native Africans.
Eurocentrism is defined as “a tendency to interpret the world in terms of European or
Anglo-American values and experiences”. Filipinos with Eurocentric features are seen
everywhere in the media. With their fair skin and tall noses, they grace the spotlight and
sweep Filipinos with flat noses and dark complexions under the rug.
Dark-skinned Filipinos tend to have a negative body image. They feel ashamed and
embarrassed of their bodies because they think they are valued less compared to those with
lighter skin. This proves the importance of visibility and representation in mass media.
The message that society gives is that flat noses and dark complexions do not define
beauty. This foreign standard strongly impacts the Filipino youth resulting in a fixed mindset
that what they physically are will not be enough until they meet the Western standards of
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physical attractiveness. They will be seen as lacking in beauty simply because of the
structure of noses and the color of their skin.
SELF-ESTEEM AND THE IDEAL BODY IMAGE
Self-esteem is defined as the overall evaluation that a person has of himself which
can be positive or negative, high or low. It is the measure of the person’s self-worth based
on some personal or social standard.
According to research, the level of self-esteem fluctuates across the life span and
may not always match with reality.
There are several factors that may affect a person’s self-esteem and physical
appearance is one of them. It was discussed that as children advance to the stage of
adolescence, they form a body image. Adolescent’s body image includes the following:
1. Perception of their physical self when they look in the mirror.
2. Feelings of like and dislike about the physical self that they see.
3. Their thoughts and how they relate to their physical self.
4. Perception of how other people view them physically.
A person with a positive body image will have high self-esteem and will often spend
more time taking care of their appearance. Also, the attention that he gets for his physical
beauty elevates the level of his self-esteem. On the other hand, when the person is not
satisfied with what he sees which affects how he perceives himself and feels that he does
not measure up to how his culture defines beauty then he will have a negative body image
and low self-esteem. Unfortunately, some adolescents resort to extreme negative behaviors
in order to meet the so-called status quo.
The following are some aspects of culture that may have led to the aforementioned
misconceptions:
Society’s ideals of the perfect physical form which are: for women: white perfect skin,
small waistline, big breast and behind, long straight hair, long manicured nails, slender and
tall; and for men: tall, tanned perfect skin, muscled physique, with 6-pack abs.
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Images of perfection adolescents see in all types of media i.e. print, television, film
and internet. Mass media is a powerful tool that reinforces cultural beliefs and values.
Though young people may initially disagree with the set ideals of beauty, repeated exposure
via media leads them to believe in the misconceptions.
Since a standard has been set by society and reinforced by the media, any
characteristic that does not conform to the standard is labeled as ugly. Body diversity in size
and structure due to genetic heritability is not tolerated. Being pretty and white-skinned or
tanned and muscular had become associated with the intelligent, successful, popular,
healthy, and disciplined. Opposite characteristics are associated with the dull, lazy, ugly, and
weak.
Yes, beauty is important, but being beautiful still depends on how a person defines
beauty and the standards he sets to meet his definition.
Define Beauty: Complete the sentence below.
1. For me, beauty means
2. A beautiful person is
3. I am beautiful because
4. List down names of people who are beautiful
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Answer activity questions about beauty
LESSON 7: THE SEXUAL SELF
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to understand the
behavioral and biological and psychological aspects of human sexuality; optimize the sexual
health and well-being of individuals in a positive manner and develop an appreciation for
diverse sexual values and beliefs.
II. Topic Contents
Human sexuality is influenced by physical, psychological, spiritual and cultural
factors. As sexual beings, people are identified by gender, role, assignment and perception.
Risky sexual behaviour that may lead to sexual diseases and unwanted consequences will
also be explored. Though some may feel uncomfortable with these topics, it is important to
keep in mind that discussing this objectively will help the individual deal with issues that are
usually considered taboo.
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PERSPECTIVES OF HUMAN SEXUALITY
Sexual selfhood is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself as a sexual
individual. Human sexuality is a topic that just like beauty is also culturally diverse.
1. HISTORICAL
a. Ancient Greece
● It is the male that assumes the dominant role. The male symbol,
the penis, is viewed as the symbol of fertility and how the male
body is structured is greatly admired.
● The wives are treated as an object to be possessed just like
property. Women are forbidden to own property and had no legal
and political rights. They are not allowed to read and write. The
only function was to bear children. (gyne – bearer of children)
b. Middle Ages
● Strong influence of the church. The church decreed that all sexual
acts that do not lead to procreation were considered evil.
● Women were labeled as either a temptress (like Eve) or a woman
of virtue (like the Virgin Mary).
c. Protestant Reformation
● Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other Protestant leaders initiated a
movement against the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church.
● Protestantism believed that sexuality is a natural part of life and
that priests should be able to marry and have families.
● Sexual intimacy was to strengthen the physical and emotional
bond between husband and wives and not just for procreation.
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d. 17th & 18th Century
● Puritans were discontented with the Church of England and rallied
for religious, moral and societal reformation. They had positive
views on marital sex and did not condone sex outside of marriage.
Premarital sex, therefore, was considered immoral.
e. Victorian Era
● Homosexuality and prostitution were rampant and considered to
be threats to social order. People in this era were not comfortable
in discussing breasts and buttocks, they used terms instead (like
white meat or dark meat).
● Sex for women was just a marital duty and it was assumed that
they were pure and asexual. Women should not enjoy having sex.
● Other beliefs: ejaculating more than once a month would greatly
weaken a man, masturbation leads to blindness, insanity and
death.
f. 20th Century
● Interest in sexuality became more evident and accepted in society.
The separation of state and church reduced the influence of the
church over sexual mores. This is the period when pregnancy can
be controlled by natural and artificial contraception.
● This period is marked by an increased incidence of sexually
transmitted infections because of high-risk sexual activities.
2. BIOLOGICAL
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Knowing the structures and functions of the reproductive system is essential
to the understanding of sexuality. In the nervous system, it is the brain that initiates
and organizes sexual behaviour. Through the process of sexual reproduction, the
next generation of human beings are created by the fusion of the egg cell and sperm
cell. At the start of puberty, changes that happen in the bodies of young males and
females are both secondary and primary sexual changes.
SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS
MALE FEMALE
Voice becomes much lower (breaks) Breast enlarge
Hair growth on chest, face, underarms, Hair growth under arms and pubic area
arms, legs, and pubic area
Increase in muscle size Hip widens
Skin becomes oily and pores enlarge Skin becomes oily and pores enlarge
PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS
MALE FEMALE
Testes Ovaries
Penis Fallopian tubes
Scrotum Uterus
Seminal vesicles and prostate glands Vagina
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3. SOCIOBIOLOGICAL/EVOLUTIONARY
This perspective studies how evolutionary forces affect sexual behaviour.
According to sociobiological theory, natural selection is a process by which
organisms that are best suited to their environment are most likely to survive. Traits
that lead to reproductive advantage tend to be passed on, whereas maladaptive traits
are lost.
On the basis of human sexual behaviour, it all begins with physical attraction.
Beauty is more than just a cultural standard. It is primarily an evolutionary standard
for attracting the best male and female in the lot to ensure that one’s genetic
characteristic will be passed on to the next generation.
4. PSYCHOLOGICAL
Sexuality is not a mere physical response. Rather, it also involves emotions,
thoughts and beliefs. According to Sigmund Freud, human beings are faced with two
forces – sex instinct and death instinct. Sex instinct does not only pertain to the
sexual act rather it could also mean anything that could give pleasure to the person.
A person’s libido or sexual energy is located in an area of the body at different
psychosexual stages. These areas of pleasure are called erogenous zones. It
includes the mouth, anus and genitals.
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5. RELIGIOUS
● JUDAISM – holds a positive and natural outlook toward marital sex which
they consider as blessed by God and pleasurable for both man and woman.
Sexual connection provides an opportunity for spirituality and transcendence.
● ISLAM – family is considered of utmost importance, and celibacy within
marriage is prohibited. Muslim men are allowed to have up to four wives but
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Muslim women can only have one husband. Sex is permitted only within
marriage and extramarital sex is penalized.
● TAOISM – sex is not only natural and healthy, but a sacred union necessary
to people’s physical, mental and spiritual being. The sexual union is a way to
balance male and female energy.
● HINDUISM – sexuality is seen as a spiritual force, and the act of ritual
lovemaking is a means of both celebrating and transcending the physical.
● ROMAN CATHOLIC – marriage is purely for intercourse and procreation.
Pope John Paul II confirmed the idea that married couples should engage in
intercourse only for the purposes of procreation. Homosexual orientation in
itself is not sinful, but homosexual acts are immoral and sinful. The use of
birth control is strongly opposed but they agree to natural family planning and
prohibit abortion.
Watch Kid’s Interview about Gender Roles
Powerpoint presentation, YouTube video
Reflection paper
LESSON 8: THE MATERIAL/ECONOMIC SELF
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to state the philosophical point
of view about material self; identify the wants and needs; reflect the role of consumer culture
in the sense of self and identity.
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II. Topic Contents
According to John Heskett, the design combines ‘need’ and ‘desire’ in the
form of a practical object that can also reflect the user’s identity and aspirations
through its form and decoration. For him, there is a significance and function behind
everyday things. He explains that there is a subconscious effect of design in
everyday life. This reflects the personal identity whether the person is at home, work,
at a restaurant or at a leisure place. Thus, design and presentation of food that
people eat, up to the bigger gadgets, equipment and cars.
Roland Barthes, was one of the first to observe the relationships that people
have with objects, and in particular, looked at objects as signs or things that could be
decoded to convey a message beyond their practical value. In 1950, he popularized
the field of Semiology (the study of objects as signs). A sign is anything that
conveys meanings. It was Barthes who revealed that everyday objects are not just
things but a complex system of signs which allows one to read meaning into people
and places. What people increasingly produce are not material objects, but signs.
In Semiotic analysis, objects function as signifiers in the production of
meaning. For example, clothes may have a simple functional meaning (to cover and
protect the body) but also double up as a sign. They construct meaning and carry a
message which as a member of a culture one can understand.
Semiotic examine how words, photographs, images and objects work as a
language to communicate a range of ideas, associations and feelings. According to
him, a sign has two elements:
1. Signifier – refers to its physical form (e.g. a diamond ring)
2. Signified – refers to the mental concept it refers to (e.g. engaged to be
married)
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Hence, objects are not just things but are reflections of the wider lives of
communications and individuals. All these suggest that objects act as a complex
system of signs which allow one to read meaning into people, places and purpose.
The things people use, own and surround themselves with might accurately reflect
their personalities. Not surprisingly, the clothes one wears, the car one drives and
the furnishing of one’s home, are all expressions of oneself, even when they act as
disguises rather than as reflection.
The theory of the meaning of material possessions suggests that material
goods can fulfil a range of instrumental, symbolic and affective functions.
1. Instrumental functions – relate to the functional properties of a product.
For example, a person bought a pick-up style of car for family and
business functions.
2. Social symbolic functions – signify personal qualities, social standing,
group affiliation and gender role. For instance buying an IPhone instead of
other mobile phones.
3. Categorical functions – refers to the extent to which material
possessions may be used to communicate group membership and status.
Example is buying or renting a condo unit in Makati City.
4. Self-expressive functions – reflects a person’s unique qualities, values
or attitudes. There are people who may represent themselves by collecting
objects with a Hello Kitty brand. Others may express their favourite colour
through the colour of their accessories.
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The purchase and use of material goods depend on its specific function and
oftentimes people may be reluctant to admit that material things fulfil symbolic and
affective rather than instrumental functions.
ECONOMIC SELF REPRESENTATION AND IDENTITY
Economics is defined as the study of things that a person is lacking, of how
people make use of the things that they have, and of making the right decisions. It is
the condition of the person, group or region as regards to material prosperity.
Economic self-sufficiency is the ability of individuals and families to consistently
meet their needs.
Economic consciousness is the result of socialization and
professionalization of the subject that acquires a particular significance in human
affairs. It includes social perceptions, attitudes, relationships and opinions of
persons/social groups about different economic objects and phenomena.
Economic Identity is a psychological phenomenon that results from social
categorization. For instance, a category of economic status is whether a person
belongs to the rich, sustainable or poor sectors of society. The factors that affect the
economic identity of the individual are professional development and self-
determination as well as the motivational and value sphere of his personality.
SYMBOLIC MOTIVES
1. Status – the extent to which people believe they can derive a sense of
recognition or achievement from owning and using the right kind of product,
can be an important motivator of behavior. Materialism is the importance
ascribed to the ownership and acquisition of material goods in achieving
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major life goals. In some cultures, a lady should wear expensive jewelry to
attract a wealthy man into marrying her.
2. Affective motives – people buy the goods not only because they think they
need it but more so because of the joy/happiness (affect) buying the goods
provided through the mere acquisition of it. Anticipated effect is when a
person is expecting to feel good or guilty when doing something. Anticipated
positive affect (excitement, pride and happiness) and negative affect (anger,
sadness and frustration) are important predictors of whether to buy or not to
buy the product. This can be a strong motivator or barrier for the buying
behaviour.
THE ROLE OF CONSUMER CULTURE ON THE SENSE OF SELF AND IDENTITY
Consumer identity is the pattern of consumption that describes the
consumer. People may no longer consume goods and services primarily because of
its functional satisfaction. This develops the consumer culture. Consumption has
become increasingly more meaning-based; brands are often used as symbolic
resources for the construction and maintenance of identity. Brands and products are
now being used by many consumers to express their identities. People may
construct their social identities through the consumption of commercial brands or
luxury commodities. This is one of the basic features of people in the modern era, a
behaviour that leads to consumerism.
Consumerism is the preoccupation with and an inclination towards the
buying of consumer goods. It is also based on the theory that an increasing
consumption of goods is economically desirable. This is made possible because of
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the availability of open market or technology-based market. High class consumption
is attached to the identities of people in the society and it legitimizes consumer
culture in the daily lives of people. By choice or compulsion, people respond to
goods and services based on people’s assumptions that are associated with their
social identities.
In buying commodities, there are instances when people tend to base their
buying behaviour on the function of goods. In most cases, how they think and feel
influence their decisions, causing them to behave in unpredictable and irrational
ways.
Behavioural Finance is a new field that combines behavioural and cognitive
psychological theory with conventional economics and finance to provide
explanations for why people make irrational financial decisions.
Debit Card Challenge
A very wealthy person gave you a debit credit card and told you to use it as
much as you want to make yourself happy. What are you going to do with it? Make a
list of what you want to have. Write as many as you want.
LIST
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Debit card activity
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LESSON 9: THE SPIRITUAL SELF
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to define spirituality; state the
concept of religion, belief and supernatural being and power; identify the different rituals and
ceremonies and expound its functions.
II. Topic Contents
BELIEF IN SUPERNATURAL BEING AND POWER
Belief in supernatural beings is one of the basic characteristics of religion. A
supernatural being is a being that is better and more powerful than any creature in
the natural world. The supernatural or above natural includes all that cannot be
explained by the laws of nature, including things with characteristics of or relating to
ghosts, gods, or other types of spirits and other non-material beings, or to things
beyond nature.
THE CONCEPT OF “DUNGAN” (SPIRIT OR SOUL)
The term animism is one of the oldest beliefs which is taken from the Latin
word anima, meaning breath or soul. Animism is a belief of our ancestors that
everything in nature has their own spirit or divinity, that souls are quasi-physical and
can exist outside the body (in dreams and in vision).
Animate or inanimate creatures have “souls” or “life force.” (Forget your
religious belief first.) Our ancestors believed in the spirit beings in the environment,
deceased ancestral souls, and forces in nature (wind, moon, stars) which are
invoked for help. This makes it clear that central to the tradition of our ancestors,
there is that belief for “soul” that is a “life force” and we would like to believe that the
belief still persists today.
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The ‘soul’ or spirit of a person is called:
● Kaluluwa by the Tagalogs
● Gimokud by the Bagobos
● Makatu by the Bukidnons
● Dungan by the Ilonggos when the person is alive; “kalag” or “detached”,
“free”, when he is dead.
● Ikararuwa by the Ibanags
● Kadkadduwa by the Ilokanos when the soul is in the physical body; and
karuruwa when it departs.
The Ibanags of the Cagayan Valley, according to Mariano Gatan, are aware
of the distinction between body (baggi) and soul (ikararuwa) but not in the Western
way. In Western philosophy, the soul is the principle of life in man. Body is the
matter, soul is the form. As long as body and soul are one unit, man is alive. Death is
the separation of the soul from the body. The body cannot stay alive without the soul.
But the soul lives without the body. Freed from the body, it ceases to experience
thirst and hunger, cold and heat. As spirit, the soul is the opposite of the body which
is matter.
The dungan or soul of the Ilonggos, according to Alicia Magos (1986), is
not normally seen by the human eye. Sometimes, however, it comes out of the body
and takes on a visible form such as that of an insect (a housefly or a moth) or a small
animal like a lizard. That is why lolas are always telling their children “to eat even just
a little before going to bed.” For if the child’s dungan “gets hungry at night, it might go
to the pot of rice in the kitchen and be mistaken for an insect” and be killed.
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The Bukidnons believe that the soul or makatu already exists before a
child’s birth but that is separate from its body. In a pregnancy ritual a miniature
cradle is hung over the place where the pregnant mother sleeps. This is where the
soul of the unborn baby is supposed to sleep before it joins the infant at birth (Unabia
1986).
The Bisayans believe the soul or is normally weak at the baby’s birth, that is
why attractive babies are said to be susceptible to usug, that is the unintentional
transfer of disturbing vapors of a strong body to a weak one by holding, talking or
looking at the weaker one (Magos 1986). For this reason the dungan needs
protection and nurture. Soul-nature, the folk believe, means the performance of age-
old spirit rituals many of which are still followed in the provinces today. Examples of
these are birth, illness and death rituals consisting of trances, prayers and animal
sacrifices. An adult person with a healthy dungan properly lodged in his physical
body should have bodily health and well-being, intelligence and good sense (Magos
1986).
The dungan may leave the body voluntarily as when the person is asleep,
according to the Bisayans. When a person can see himself in his dreams it means
that his “other self” has left the physical body. Among the ancient Filipinos it was
deeply impressed that a person who was asleep should not be awakened abruptly.
Thus a slumbering person is first called softly and gradually louder and louder to give
the soul a chance to return to the body. The dungan’s travel outside the body should
be free from accidents. It could get trapped in a jar or be poured out with liquid from
a vessel. Only when the soul has safely returned home would the owner be able to
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wake up. Whatever happens to the dungan happens to the physical body as well. It
is also believed that another cause for the voluntary withdrawal of the soul is when
the body is badly maltreated (Magos 1986).
From the point of view of the “babaylan,” inside the body of a living person
dwells the “dungan” (a companion that co-exists). This “dungan” gives life,
animation, and sensibilities to a person. It can temporarily leave the body at will
(during sleep). It is dangerous for “dungan” to leave the body when the person is
awake. The body would become like a robot that runs out of battery. There is
another spirit that resides in a person (same person). We call it “ginhawa” (breath
of life). It is the vital force. If “ginhawa” leaves the person, the body dies. There is no
more vital force that would be responsible for the throbbing of the heart and the
beating of the pulse. (If you bring the person to the hospital, the doctor will examine
him thoroughly and later would say, “Sorry, he is dead.”) “Ginhawa” and “dungan”
should be together. “Ginhawa” provides the vital life force while “dungan” provides
the intellect, emotion, and consciousness. We will make it clear. The two entities are
there together lodged in one person. “Dungan” can temporarily leave and the person
becomes unconscious or semi-conscious as in fainting or dreaming. If “dungan”
returns to a person, he becomes fully conscious again.
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RITUALS AND CEREMONIES
A ritual is a religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed
according to a prescribed order. It consists of a sequence of activities involving gestures,
words, and objects, performed in a specific place, according to a set sequence. Rituals are
formalized behaviours that are set aside from everyday life that allow communities to
explore their religious and/or cultural worlds through actions. Rites refer to the ‘spoken
word’ used in a ritual to convey meaning and value, to evoke an image through the use of
metaphor, or elicit commitment or loyalty to a cause, set of beliefs, community or person/s.
The functions of rituals include:
1. A symbolic expression of actual social relations, status, or roles of individuals in a
society.
2. A transcendent, numinous (spiritual) reality that shows the ultimate values of a
community.
3. A set of behaviours and beliefs that are symbolic of social, psychological, or
numinous realities (non-rational function)
Ceremony refers to movements or gestures expressing feelings or beliefs beyond
the limitations of speech. It can be elaborate or simple, formal or intimate. It is also a set of
formal actions performed as prescribed by a ritual or a custom such as in a wedding
ceremony. It may also be a conventional social gesture or act of courtesy.
RELIGION, SPIRITUALITY AND IDENTITY
Religion is an organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals and symbols that increases
an individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other (God, higher power, ultimate
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truth). It is the belief in a god or in a group of gods. It may also be referred to as an
organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to worship a god (Santrock, 2014).
Religiousness is the degree by which one is affiliated with an organized religion in
terms of the person’s participation in the prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its
beliefs, and involvement with its community of believers (Santrock, 2014).
Spirituality involves experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent
manner and living in a way that benefits others and society. It could also be related to a
search for the sacred. The term ‘sacred’ may signify a person, an object, a principle, or a
concept that transcends the self.
Spiritual identity is the persistent sense of self that addresses ultimate questions
about the nature, purpose and meaning of life. It results in behaviours that are consonant
with the individual’s core values. The definition of a sense of spiritual identity focuses on the
individual’s construction of a relationship to the sacred and ultimate meaning.
MAGIC AND WITCHCRAFT
Magic is the power of apparently influencing the course of events by using
mysterious or supernatural forces. It is the ability to use supernatural forces to make
impossible things happen, such as making people disappear or controlling events in nature.
A magician is the one who performs the magic like casting spells and summoning spirits.
A sorcerer is translated from the Greek word pharmakos, and carries with it the idea
of medicine, magic potions, drugs and poison. A wizard is one who is thought to be
acquainted with the secrets of the nonmaterial or unseen world while a necromancer is
one who is ‘seeking unto the dead’. It is a term that includes all forms of attempt to make
contact with departed spirits.
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Barang is the Filipino term for a sorcerer. It is used to describe malignant sorcery or
familiar spirits. In the Philippines, it means small invisible insects residing in bamboos that
enter the body through open space causing the stomach, intestine, lungs and liver to swell
during high tides and shrink during low tides. Mambabarang is a person who practices this
specific type of sorcery or witchcraft. Binarang is the target of sorcery or witchcraft.
Kulam is the Tagalog word for voodoo or witchcraft. It is one of the most well-known
aspects of Philippine folklore. The fear of kulam usually has an effect on how a person
conducts himself in the community and on how people treat each other in a community. A
mangkukulam is a person who uses black magic or spells on a victim.
Albulario/ mananambal is a Filipino practitioner of traditional medicine who is
capable of doing sorcery. A witchdoctor, folk healer or medicine man. When the person
feels that his ailments and misfortunes are caused by kulam, he consults an alburario who
performs rituals in order to defeat the spells of the mangkukulam.
Most Filipinos aside from being a superstitious people, believe in the mythical
creatures of local folklore which includes the aswang, manananggal, kapre, dwende, sirena,
syokoy, engkanto, sigbin, tikbalang, tianak, and many others.
FINDING AND CREATING MEANING IN LIFE
Logotherapy is a decades-old psychotherapeutic approach developed by Viktor
Frankl. ‘Logos’ is a Greek word which stands for meaning. The main idea behind
logotherapy is “that lack of meaning is the chief source of stress as well as anxiety, and
logotherapy aids the patients to reach the meaning of life”. In other words, logotherapy is a
type of psychotherapy that believes that lack of meaning causes mental health issues, so it
attempts to help people find meaning in order to help solve their problems.
THREE BASIC PRINCIPLES ON DISCOVERING MEANING OF LIFE
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1. Meaning in life. Frankl believed that life has meaning in all circumstances, even the
most miserable ones. This means that even when situations seem objectively
terrible, there is a higher level of order that involves meaning.
2. Will to meaning. Logotherapy proposes that humans have a will to meaning, which
means that meaning is our primary motivation for living and acting, and allows us to
endure pain and suffering. This is viewed as differing from the will to achieve power
and pleasure.
3. Freedom to will. Frankl argues that in all circumstances, individuals have the
freedom to access that will to find meaning. This is based on his experiences of pain
and suffering and choosing his attitude in a situation that he could not change.
People are given the freedom to make life choices which includes how they respond
to life events.
Art Recall
Recall:
When was the first time you realized that there is a higher being than yourself? How
old were you then? What made you believe that there is a higher being?
Draw:
Make a poster about the instance or situation that made you believe in the
existence of higher being.
Show:
Have a classroom Gallery Walk. showcasing the posters you and your classmates
have made. Observe similarities and differences in each other’s experiences,
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expressed in the artworks. Initiate discussions about beliefs on higher being based
on the showcased posters.
Art Recall activity
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LESSON 10: POLITICAL SELF
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to evaluate the social influence of an
individual; kinds of leadership and how it affects the members; and reflect its importance in different
settings.
II. Topic Contents
The word politics is derived from the Greek word Politiká: which is etymologically
defined as ‘affairs of the cities.’ Politics is the process of making decisions that applies to all
members of a group. It is the ability to govern and control over a group of people in a
community, state or nation. It can be inferred that a person’s ability to influence others by
making a decision for them is one of the essential qualities in one’s political self.
2 Types of social influence:
1. Normative Influence – this type of social influence is based on conforming to the
positive expectations of others; people tend to avoid behaving in ways that will
lead to social punishment or disapproval.
2. Informational Influence – this type of influence is based on accepting the
information obtained from others as evidence of reality.
An important aspect of politics is the capacity to influence and lead a group of
people. Leadership is the process by which certain group members motivate and guide the
group. It can be exercised in a small group (family, classroom, school organizations) and
may also be observed in a larger scale (government, international affairs). Leaders have
the authority and capability to monitor and guide the members to achieve the goals towards
the vision and mission of the organization. Thus, the leader has the power to make
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decisions that should benefit the members as well as the organization. Leaders may be
formally appointed or elected.
Studies revealed that effective leaders:
a. consistently stick to their goals;
b. have the self-confident charisma that influences their followers;
c. have the ability to communicate in clear and simple language; and
d. have enough optimism and faith in their group to inspire them to follow.
The human psyche is a political psyche. In everyday life, people need to adjust not
only to themselves but to their world, the forces in the environment that creates pressure,
ideas and interests. This leads to an interdependent and interactive nature of one’s psyche.
The political behaviour in general is not something separate from other forms of human
relationship.
Leadership style is a pattern of leadership behaviour which is repeatedly shown as
evident across a variety of situations. It can be classified as follows:
1. Autocratic leadership – leadership that is directive, non-participative and
domineering.
2. Democratic leadership – leadership that is participative, communicative and
egalitarian.
3. Laissez-faire leadership – is “hands-off” leadership, with few attempts made to
influence others.
With regards to what leaders and followers offer to one another, the following are the
leaders’ descriptions:
1. Transactional leaders – leaders who focus on the proper exchange of resources,
who give followers something in exchange for something the leaders want.
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2. Transformational leaders – leaders who focus on aligning the group or
organizational goals with the followers’ need and aspirations by developing an
appealing vision.
3. Laissez-faire leaders – leaders who engage in ‘non-leadership’, that is they avoid
making decisions, hesitate in taking actions and are often absent when needed.
Open Space Technology (OST) is an approach to purpose-driven leadership which
initially has no formal agenda but eventually leads to a specific or important purpose or
task. It is also a means of influencing others through techniques of persuasion. The manner
by which ideas are expressed is important when connecting to others.
Principles of OST:
1. Whoever comes are the right people.
2. Whatever happens is the only thing that could have happened.
3. Whenever it starts is the right time.
4. When it’s over, it is over.
THE LAW OF TWO FEET
“When you find yourself neither learning nor contributing, use your two feet and go to some
more productive place.”
The law of two feet creates ‘bumble bees’ who cross-pollinate ideas from one
discussion group to another discussion group and ‘butterflies’ usually do nothing but be
beautiful. They sometimes attract others to start new ideas and discussion.
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DEVELOPING A FILIPINO IDENTITY: VALUES, TRAITS, COMMUNITY AND
INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS
● Pakikipagkapwa-tao is the shared sense of identity and consciousness of the
‘other.’ It is treating others with respect and dignity as an equal, and not someone
that is beneath the individual.
● Family orientation is regarded as important among Filipino families. When Filipino
parents are old and cannot take care of themselves, they are very rarely brought by
their children to institutions like ‘Homes for the Aged.’ They are expected to care for
their old family members. When Filipinos turn 18 years old, they are not expected to
move out of their parents’ home unlike in Western countries.
● Filipinos are known for the trait of having the ability to find joy and humour in
everything. In spite of experienced adversities and struggles in calamities, flood and
in whatever situation, Filipinos are optimistic and always positive. Laughter and
humour could be a coping technique just like a child who trips and laughs at himself
to hide embarrassment.
● Studies have also shown that Filipinos are known for flexibility, adaptability and
creativity. Sometimes referred to as ‘diskarte’. They are aversive to standard rules
or procedures because they follow a natural clock or organic sense of time by doing
things in the time they feel is right. They are present oriented which means that what
they feel is right.
● Filipinos have learned to become resilient and acquired a good ability to survive.
Being hardworking, industrious, and resourceful, Filipinos are very determined and
persevering in accomplishing whatever they set their minds to.
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● Three main traits that underlie the Filipino values: (1) pakikipagkapwa-tao/smooth
interpersonal relationship, (2) being family-oriented and (3) mapagmahal (loving and
caring). These traits greatly influence Filipino behaviour and decision making.
● Bayanihan or the spirit of cooperation, which is also referred to as damayan. The
kinship or camaraderie values can be observed by extending a helping hand without
expecting remuneration or something in return.
● Filipinos are known for being hospitable to the point that they would do anything just
to have something for their visitors.
● Correcting another person in public or being corrected in public is not considered
acceptable behaviour for Filipinos for it may cause a person to ‘lose face’. For
instance, at a workplace, if one has committed something wrong, Filipino people
would usually find ways to save the face of the employee. They make use of
euphemism or using mild or indirect words to substitute for unpleasant words to
avoid being harsh.
● Filipinos being ‘onion-skinned’ or ‘balat sibuyas’ which is described as easily affected
by slight insults.
● When one is invited to join a family meal, it has to be refused. But when it is offered
the second time or being persistent, it is permissible to accept.
● Filipinos are not time-conscious and have poor time management. Sometimes
planned meetings are extended later, much later or never.
● Walking hand in hand or arm in arm in public with relatives and friends is a common
thing for Filipinos.
● Being conservative, women are usually advised not to wear shorts in public, smoke,
drink alcohol or even cross their legs.
● Greeting friends by lifting the eyebrows or using their lips to point direction.
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● The use of po and opo which in most places in the Philippines is a sign of respect.
Who is a Filipino?
Cut out pictures or illustrations from magazines and newspapers that show what
being a Filipino is about. paste them below.
Analysis.
1. How do the pictures remind you of your being a Filipino?
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2. Are you proud of being a Filipino? Why and why not?
3. Imagine that you were of a different nationality. What would change in you
aside from your citizenship and origin?
Who is a Filipino activity
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LESSON 11: DIGITAL SELF
I. Objectives
After successfully completing the lesson you should be able to define the advantages and
disadvantages of gadgets in daily lives; reflect the risk and benefits of presenting identities in
different ways online and demonstrate proper values and attitudes in presenting themselves online-
in a non- harmful manner.
II. Topic Contents
Today’s adolescents are exposed to a technology revolution with the prevalence of
computer use and accessibility, the internet and sophisticated mobile phones. The social
environment of present-day adolescents has increasingly become digitally mediated. The
amount of time these adolescents have increasingly become digitally mediated. The
amount of time that these adolescents spend online can have both positive and negative
outcomes.
● Philippines is the fastest-growing market of smartphones in the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) based on the report of a market research
company, International Data Corporation (IDC).
● A report indicated that about 3.5 million smartphones were shipped to the country
during the first quarter of 2016. In the last three years, overall smartphone usage
among Filipinos doubled.
Digital Literacy is defined as those capabilities possessed by individuals who are
living, learning and working in a digital society.
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In the real world, authority and status may be expressed by clothing and body
language but in virtual interactions, these markers are stripped.
In cyberspace, people are more willing to speak out and misbehave without fear of
disapproval and punishment from authority figures. Adolescents who speak out may believe
that they come from a position of authority just like others due to linkages and easy access
to communication. In cyberspace, authority is minimized.
The behaviour of people tends to be different in virtual spaces when compared to
face-to-face interactions. People feel more relaxed, less restrained and tend to express
themselves more openly. This phenomenon is known as online disinhibition.
Online disinhibition is the lack of restraint one feels when communicating online
in comparison to doing it in-person. This could have both positive and negative effects. In
the positive light, users can exhibit extraordinary acts of kindness or charity. They may have
felt inhibited from expressing it in real life for whatever reason so they express it through the
anonymity of cyberspace. However, this anonymity and altered psychological environment
may allow users to communicate more objectionable needs and desires onto others.
Oftentimes, many are deceived because of this anonymity.
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TWO CATEGORIES OF ONLINE DISINHIBITION
Benign Disinhibition
Not all disinhibition is a bad thing. Sometimes people share very personal
things about themselves. It could be a cathartic experience which gives opportunity
to reveal secret emotions, fears and wishes. They show unusual acts of kindness
and generosity, sometimes going out of their way to help others. On the benign side,
the disinhibition indicates an attempt to understand and explore oneself, to work
through problems and fine new ways of being.
Another benign disinhibition is to combat loneliness and depression through
online interaction. Social interaction may moderate negative moods. Online
disinhibition can also enhance self-esteem and self-confidence. Using the internet
could be an avenue to find satisfying relationships to provide emotional support.
Toxic Disinhibition
Disinhibition can also be ugly. People have witnessed rude language, harsh
criticism, anger, hatred, even threats online. Others may even go to the dark side of
the internet where they can access pornography, crimes and other forms of violence.
These are all toxic disinhibitions. People tend to go to virtual spaces which they are
not supposed to explore.
Not every person will be disinhibited in the same way or to the same level in
virtual interactions. Individuals can be predisposed to being more disinhibited based
on their personalities. The intensity of a person’s underlying feelings, needs, and
drives affects susceptibility to online disinhibition as well.
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Cyber bullying is bullying that takes place using electronic technology. It is
the wilful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, cell phones and
other electronic devices. It can be in the form of harassing, threatening, humiliating,
and hassling of peers, spreading rumours, creating web pages, videos and fake
social network profiles to make fun of others. It can also be through taking photos
and videos of others without their knowledge and distributing them online.
Cyber Harassment is the use of Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) to harass, control, manipulate or habitually disparage a child,
adult, business or group without direct or implied threat of physical harm. The adult
form of cyberbullying.
I, ME, MYSELF AND MY USER ID ONLINE IDENTITY
Digital identity (DI) refers to anything that describes a persona an individual
presents across all the digital spaces that he/she is represented in. Symbolic
markers express one’s identity to others and help them make sense of it
themselves. These are the signals that represent who the person is offline such as
hair, clothes and body modification. On the other hand, there could be another self-
presentation if a person goes online.
Internet disembodiment refers to the identity, soul or spirit separate from the
physical body. Social media allows people to adopt identities independent of bodies
and the markers it contains. People can be whoever they want to be.
User ID lets a person associate a persistent ID for a single user with that
user’s engagement data from one or more sessions initiated from one or more
devices. Username is also called login name, logon name, sign-in name, sign-on
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name which is a unique sequence of characters used to identify a user and allow
access to a computer system, computer network or online account.
Dissociative imagination – consciously or unconsciously, people may feel
that the imaginary characters they “created” exist in a different space, that one’s
online persona along with the online others live in a make-believe dimension,
separate and apart from the demands and responsibilities of the real world.
Solipsistic introjection – a notion that it’s only in their heads or minds.
When people don’t know what a virtual person looks or sounds like, people tend to
assign traits to those individuals which is an imaginary interaction with the introjected
character.
Dissociative anonymity – a person can have no name or at least not the
real name. People don’t have to own their behaviour by acknowledging it within the
full context of who “they” really are.
SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES AND IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
Self-Presentation is a range of strategies that people adopt to shape what
others think of them.
1. Self – promotion. The person is trying to show that he/she is competent,
effective or a winner. This person expects respect. He/she speaks proudly
about their experience, education or achievement.
2. Ingratiation. The person presenting oneself to others has a desire to be
likable. They expect affection. This person takes an interest in one’s personal
lives to show them that they are friendly.
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3. Exemplification. The person has an intention to achieve worth from others.
He/she expects others to feel guilty by their actions. This person tries to
appear like a hard-working dedicated employee to make others feel less
worthy than they are.
4. Intimidation. The person tries to appear dangerous or ruthless. He/she
expects others to be afraid of him. People do this when they are expecting
others to finish a task.
5. Supplication. The person would like to appear helpless (handicapped or
unfortunate). He/she aims to achieve nurturance from others. This person
would act as if they know less than others so people will help them out.
● Impact of online interactions on the Self
● Boundaries of the Self online (your space and their space)
● Private vs. Public
Watch The Effects of Social Media in Mental Health
Powerpoint presentation and YouTube
Watch YouTube vlog
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Unit III: Managing and Caring for the Self
Lesson 12: Learning to Be A Better Student
I. Objectives
After the completion of the chapter, you should be able to analyze study habits and
goals and identify objectives in achieving those goals. In addition, you should be able
to improve self-care strategies and apply it to your advantage.
II. Topic contents
It is only when a student looks back as he reaches College that he realizes just how much
time he had already spent in school. In the Philippines, a college 1 st year student devotes
approximately 13 years of his/her life to primary and secondary education.
What is Learning?
In the field of human behavior, learning may be defined as relatively permanent changes in
behavior brought about by practice and experience (Coon, 2001). As implied by the
definition, learning involves acquisition of information or mastery of skills that brought about
changes not only in how the person thinks and feels but more importantly in how he
behaves. direct the process of learning. Some of these factors are: the characteristics of the
learner (i.e. the learner's level of intelligence, physiological condition, mindset, and interest),
the information/ material to be learned (how interesting Learning does not always happen
automatically for there are many factors that ho comprehensive the material is) and the
situation in which learning should take of materials/resources). Hence, if these things are
considered, learning should proceed smoothly. This may seem quite simple and clear cut but
in reality people are different and these differences make teaching students a learning task
quite challenging. Imagine a class of at least twenty students, each one with different levels
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of intelligence, mindset, interest and acquisition place (conduciveness of the learning venue,
the teacher and availability of teaching resources.
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF LEARNING
The human brain is simply amazing. For a long time, scientists have tried to unravel and are
still unravelling the powers of the human brain. The brain, specifically the cortex, the
cerebrum, amygdala and hippocampus are in-tune with reality and everything else that
happens in the external world and internal world of the learner (Carlson, 1995). The following
are some functions of each parts:
LIMBIC SYSTEM
1. The Cerebrum, which is the biggest part of the brain (approximately 75%) is the most
highly developed part of the human brain. Its functions involve mental processes like
thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language. Most information processing
happens in the 1. higher brain center, the cerebral cortex.
2. The Cerebral Cortex, which covers the cerebrum, is involved in several functions
associated with learning including: determining intelligence. planning and organization, and
processing sensory information.
3. The Hippocampus which is a part of the limbic system is responsible for processing and
storing short-term memory.
4. The Amygdala, also of the limbic system, is responsible for emotions, survival instincts
and memory.
Types of Learning
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¨ Habituation: repeated exposure to something reduces the response, e.g. nursing
baby.
- Classical conditioning
- Observational Learning
- Operant conditioning
- Positive reinforcement
- Negative reinforcement
- Punishment
METACOGNITION
Metacognition was a concept that was introduced by John Flavell (1979). Metacognition
according to Flavell is the process by which a person is thinking about, monitoring or
observing his own thinking process. This involves mental strategies like planning, organizing
and adapting. Meta means 'beyond, therefore metacognitive skills involve thought processes
that are beyond ordinary thinking. Metacognitive thinking skills are employed when an
individual faced with a problem would analyze the problem by breaking it down into parts.
This person would likewise establish goals, observe his own progress, improvise his
techniques and make corrective changes along the way. Metacognition can be learned and
can help the person to smoothly adapt to situations in an intelligent way (Coon, 2001). The
metacognitive process is important for learning to be a success. Typically it involves self-
regulation, the awareness of one's strengths and weaknesses and the strategies a person
would use to overcome and handle life difficulties. There are three components of
metacognition (saylordotorg.github.io):
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1. Metacognitive knowledge. This component is about knowing how the person learns and
his beliefs about learning in himself and others. It also includes awareness of how the
person processes information and the strategies he uses to optimize his learning.
2. Metacognitive Experience. This component refers to the affective aspect of the learning
process. Feelings provide a feedback system to help the person understand his response to
the whole process of learning. Positive emotions can motivate the person to continue
learning and a positive attitude directs the person to accomplish the learning task.
3. Metacognitive Strategies. These are techniques used by the person to monitor his
learning progress. The aim of these strategies is to discipline the person by controlling his
thinking activities and keeping him on track towards the completion of his learning goals.
Being aware of the learning styles can aid the student in coming up with study strategies that
will help him get through the challenges of college life in particular and life in general. The
following discussions will provide students with an overview of some study strategies that
they can use. Students can choose which ones complement their unique learning style/s:
Learning Style?
1. Have a plan as to when is the best time to study and stick to this plan. A disciplined
learner knows his priorities and allots ample time for each of these priorities. This will allow
balance and time management. It is not wise to cram especially if an above average score is
targeted for a quiz or an exam. At the same time, family and social life and alone time should
never be sacrificed. Though spontaneity is desired, discipline in learning should be the rule.
2. Start reviewing the most difficult subject first. This, however, depends on the
student's learning style. Some would like to be done with the easier subjects first so they can
devote the rest of the time to the difficult subject. Their choice would be what is most
convenient for them.
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3. Have a specific place for studying. This place should allow the learner to concentrate
and not be distracted. If music is an aid in studying then there should be music. The study
area should be free from unnecessary noise, NO cellphones and NO internet access.
4. Outline and write notes. Doing these task allows for attention and familiarity with words
and concepts. At times it is easier to remember and understand data when the learner
himself writes it down. Borrowing the notes and outline of a classmate may not be good for
each to have their own way of making sense of written data.
5. Use mnemonics (memory aids), This technique will make memorizing data fun. Making
funny stories to connect ideas or forming sentences from first letters aids in the recall of any
material. This technique also allows the learner to use his imagination and be creative.
Example:
ROY G BIV (for the colors of the visible spectrum)
ABC (for Airway, Breathing and Circulation/for First Aid)
6. Take notes during lectures and review notes during weekends or if possible read through
them every day.
7. Study in groups. This, of course, depends on the students' learning style. Solitary
learners prefer to be alone. For others, however, studying in groups can make learning a
socially interactive experience.
OTHER TIPS IN STUDYING
• Make an outline
• Break down the task
• Integrate variation
Ø schedule
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Ø learning experience
• Incubate your ideas
Ø write your ideas
Ø do not look at it for a week
Ø go back to your draft
Ø review what you have written
• Revise, summarize, and take down notes
• Engage what you have learned
Class Discussion: “When is the best time for studying?”
Participate in classroom discussion
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Lesson 13: Taking Care of One’s Health
I. Objectives
After completing the chapter, you should be able to identify stressors and develop
effective ways to manage it to your benefits.
II. Topic Contents
STRESSORS AND RESPONSES
Life is a challenge. Each day people wake-up and face these challenges. This is no easy
task but that is how it is to survive and exist in an ever- changing modern world.
Unfortunately, as people carry on with their tasks and routines, they experience stress.
Stress is defined as a mental and physical condition that people encounter when they have
to adjust or adapt to environmental events. Stress is always accompanied by some kind of
physiological reaction that is triggered by the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Such
responses include changes in the functions of the major internal organs like the heart, lungs,
kidneys and liver which usually are life-threatening.
Although all stressors arouse physiological responses, not all stress is negative. Eustress or
positive stress is that type that challenges and motivates individuals to perform and to do
their best. Eustress is what is usually present in fun Competitions and work-out physical
activities. Eustress is a form of short-term stress that does or causes any psychological or
physiological damage to the person.
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The stress that is experienced for some time is physically and psychologically harmful. Long-
term stresses impact strongly on people's physical and mental health and their well-being.
Events, people and even objects that give stress are called stressors. A stressor is a
condition in the environment that is perceived by the person as threatening to him and
whatever he is associated with (e.g. schoolwork, family and relationships).
When people are faced with something they see as a threat or potentially harmful, two
things happen according to Richard Lazarus (1991):
1. Primary Appraisal. In people's mind, they figure out the event first in order to determine
how it may affect them or if it is harmful or threatening 1. to them in any way. If it is not then
the event is not a stressor.
2. Secondary Appraisal. If the event is seen as initially threatening then what follows is an
assessment of resources in order to come up with the best possible way to handle and face
the stressor. Events identified a stressors meet any one or more of the following criteria:
a. Unpredictability of the event. The stressor occurred without warning and the person is
unprepared for it. Examples are natural disasters, fire or sudden death of a loved one.
b. The event is intense and may happen again. The level of the threat cannot be denied and
it is bound to be repeated. Examples are theft, physical assault, bullying.
C. Uncontrollable. People have no information about when the threat is going to happen
again and how intense it will be and this lack of control makes it all the more frightening.
Examples are natural disasters like earthquakes, floods and storm surges.
d. Linked to pressure. Since people perceive that a threat will happen (they just do not know
when and how), they would just have to be prepared for it to at least lessen its impact.
Examples are illnesses, disease, unemployment, and violence.
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Ways on how to manage stress
1. Slow down. There are times when a person is faced with more than one life challenge.
These challenges may be considered as stressors by the person depending on how he
interprets it. Stress is self-generated. If the person perceives the challenge as a stressor
then it will be. Maybe the most practical way to handle stress is to slow down, move back
and look at the situation from an objective perspective.
2. Organize and Prioritize. Disorganization, no matter what form it may take, creates
stress. An organized and clean environment in the home and at the workplace can do magic
in the promotion of productive thoughts. Setting priorities based on importance and
deadlines is a significant aspect of being organized. To manage time better, it is always best
to keep it simple. Simple, practical attainable plans usually work best. The S.M.A.R.T.
acronym applies here.
3. Live a Healthy Life. Life goals should not be based on quantity, for chances are the
person may not accomplish most of them. Rather, focus on the quality of goals set and make
sure to strike a balance and have enough time for self and family. Spending time alone is
part of having a healthy lifestyle. 'Me Activities' allows the person to look at his life and find
his center. and Accept Limits.
4. Recognize and Accept Limits. Although a person can dream big, he still is human and
human beings have limitations. A person can only do so much in the time that he is given.
Great and amazing things were accomplished and new ones will still be accomplished by
607 men. But a person cannot be all things: intelligent, strong, healthy, rich
5. Seek Social Support. It is important to be reminded that strong family ties strengthens
the person's resolve enabling him to handle stress better. Simply talking it over with a parent
or a sibling is often enough to regain the person's confidence, making him stand and 'fight'
again There are, however, gender differences. Females frequently open un to family and
would not be shy to ask for help. Males, on the other hand, rarely disclose to family, they
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would try to handle the stress by themselves and if they cannot would often resort to high
risk behaviours as a way to cope (e.g. smoking, alcohol and drugs). This is a form of
negative coping behavior.
6. Writing it down. Emotionally drained and exhausted. Usually one hesitates to share.
Oftentimes talking about problems leaves one problems with loved ones because of not
wanting to add to their burden. If this is the case, it often helps to write it all down.
Expression of thoughts and feelings in writing offers a form of release and lets the person
see the problem in a new light.
Stress Management Plan
Stress Management Plan
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POST-TEST
Name:______________________________ Score:_______
Course/ Year and Section___________________
Write the letter of the BEST answer on the space provided. Please use UPPER CASE
LETTER only.
_________ 1. These are daily oral contraceptives. Some contain oestrogen and
progesterone. 99% effective if used according to instructions.
A. Pills C. Ring
B. Patch D. Implants
_________ 2. It refers to the avoidance of sexual intercourse.
A. Celibacy C. Vasectomy
B. Withdrawal D. Outercourse
_________ 3. Part of Material Self that refers to its physical form.
A. Signified C. Semiology
B. Signifier D. All of the above
_________ 4. It refers to the functional properties of a product
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A. Instrumental Function
B. Social Symbolic Function
C. Categorical Function
D. Self- expressive function
_________ 5. Signify personal qualities, social standing, group affiliation and gender role.
D. Self-expressive Function
_________ 6. Refers to the extent to which material possessions may be used to
communicate group membership and status
D. Self- expressive function
_________ 7. The extent to which people believe they can derive a sense of recognition or
achievement from owning and using the right kind of product, can be an important motivator
of behaviour
A. Status C. Affective Motives
B. Economic consciousness D. Economic Identity
_________ 8. It is the pattern of consumption that describes the consumer
A. Consumer Identity C. Behavioral Finance
B. Consumerism D. Economic Identity
_________ 9. It is a new field that combines behavioral and cognitive psychological theory
with conventional economics and finance to provide explanations for why people make
irrational financial decisions.
A. Consumer Identity C. Behavioral Finance
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B. Consumerism D. Economic Identity
_________ 10. It is a belief of our ancestors that everything in nature have their own spirit or
divinity, that souls are quasi-physical and can exist outside the body
A. Kaluluwa C. Animism
B. Consumerism D. Dungan
_________ 11. Refer to the ‘spoken word’ used in a ritual to convey meaning and value, to
evoke an image through the use of metaphor, or elicit commitment or loyalty to a cause, set
of beliefs, community or person/s.
A. Values C. Ceremony
B. Rituals D. Rites
_________ 12. Refers to movements or gestures expressing feelings or beliefs beyond the
limitations of speech.
A. Values C. Ceremony
B. Rituals D. Rites
_________ 13. It is the power of apparently influencing the course of events by using
mysterious or supernatural forces.
A. Magic C. Wizard
B. Magician D. Sorcerer
_________ 14. one who is thought to be acquainted with the secrets of the nonmaterial or
unseen world
A. Magic C. Wizard
_________ 15. Filipino term for a sorcerer.
A. Kulam C. Mananambal
B. Barang D. Karma
_________ 16. Tagalog word for voodoo
A. Kulam C. Mananambal
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B. Barang D. Karma
_________ 17. Person who uses black magic or spells on a victim.
A. Mangkukulam C. Mambabarang
B. Harry Potter D.Mananambal
_________ 18. Filipino practitioner of traditional medicine who is capable of doing sorcery.
A. Mangkukulam C. Mambabarang
B. Harry Potter D.Mananambal
_________ 19. Translated from the Greek word pharmakos
A. Magic C. Wizard
_________ 20. This type of social influence is based on conforming to the positive
expectations of others; people tend to avoid behaving in ways that will lead to social
punishment or disapproval.
A. Normative Influence C. Influencer
B. Social Influence D. Norms
_________ 21. This type of influence is based on accepting the information obtained from
others as evidence of reality.
A. Normative Influence C. Influencer
B. Social Influence D. None of the above
_________ 22. Leadership that is directive, non-participative and domineering.
A. Laisser- faire Leadership
B. Democratic Leadership
C. Autocratic Leadership
D. Transformational Leaders
_________ 23. Leadership that is participative, communicative and egalitarian.
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_________ 24. Hands-off” leadership, with few attempts made to influence others.
_________ 25. It is defined as those capabilities possessed by individuals who are living,
learning and working in a digital society.
A. Online Disinhibition C. Benign Disinhibition
B. Digital Literacy D. Toxic Disinhibition
II. Identification. Read the statements carefully then identify the word/words
being described
1. ______________The recognition and acknowledgement of oneself as a sexual
being.
2. ______________The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and
become capable of reproduction.
3. ______________Infections that are passed from one person to another through
sexual contact.
4. ______________Type of birth control that can be defined as any product,
procedure or practice that uses artificial or unnatural means to prevent
pregnancy.
5. ______________ The perception that a person has of their physical self and the
thoughts and feelings that result from that perception.
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6. ______________ Satisfaction with various aspects of one’s body such as waist,
hips, thighs etc.
7. ______________This is how much a person likes, accepts, and respects himself
overall as a person.
8. ______________Discontent with various aspects of one’s body such as waist,
hips, thighs etc.
9. ______________Type of birth control that can be defined as any action or steps
that people can naturally do to prevent pregnancy.
10. ______________Warts that show up on the skin around your genitals and anus
II. Explain or answer the following questions briefly.
1. Self is separate
2. self is also self-contained and independent
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SUPPLEMENTARY READING
LESSON 7: THE SEXUAL SELF
Human sexuality is influenced by physical, psychological, spiritual and cultural
factors. As sexual beings, people are identified by gender, role, assignment and
perception. Risky sexual behaviour that may lead to sexual diseases and unwanted
consequences will also be explored. Though some may feel uncomfortable with
these topics, it is important to keep in mind that discussing this objectively will help
the individual deal with issues that are usually considered taboo.
PERSPECTIVES OF HUMAN SEXUALITY
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Sexual selfhood is defined how one thinks about himself or herself as a
sexual individual. Human sexuality is a topic that just like beauty is also culturally
diverse.
6. HISTORICAL
a. Ancient Greece
● It is the male that assumes the dominant role. The male
symbol, the penis, is viewed as the symbol of fertility and
how the male body is structured is greatly admired.
● The wives are treated as an object to be possessed just like
property. Women are forbidden to own property and had no
legal and political rights. They are not allowed to read and
write. The only function was to bear children. (gyne – bearer
of children)
b. Middle Ages
● Strong influence of the church. The church decreed that all
sexual acts that do not lead to procreation were considered
evil.
● Women were labelled as either a temptress (like Eve) or a
woman of virtue (like the Virgin Mary).
c. Protestant Reformation
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● Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other Protestant leaders
initiated a movement against the corruption of the Roman
Catholic Church.
● Protestantism believed that sexuality is a natural part of life
and that priests should be able to marry and have families.
● Sexual intimacy was to strengthen the physical and
emotional bond between husband and wives and not just for
procreation.
d. 17th & 18th Century
● Puritans were discontented with the Church of England and
rallied for religious, moral and societal reformation. They had
positive views on marital sex and did not condone sex
outside of marriage. Premarital sex, therefore, was
considered immoral.
e. Victorian Era
● Homosexuality and prostitution were rampant and
considered to be threats to social order. People in this era
were not comfortable in discussing breasts and buttocks,
they used terms instead (like white meat or dark meat).
● Sex for women was just a marital duty and it was assumed
that they were pure and asexual. Women should not enjoy
having sex.
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● Other beliefs: ejaculating more than once a month would
greatly weaken a man, masturbation leads to blindness,
insanity and death.
f. 20th Century
● Interest in sexuality became more evident and accepted in
society. The separation of state and church reduced the
influence of the church over sexual mores. This is the period
when pregnancy can be controlled by natural and artificial
contraception.
● This period is marked by increased incidence of sexually
transmitted infections because of high risk sexual activities.
7. BIOLOGICAL
Knowing the structures and functions of the reproductive system is
essential to the understanding of sexuality. In the nervous system, it is the
brain that initiates and organizes sexual behaviour. Through the process of
sexual reproduction, the next generation of human beings are created by the
fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell. At the start of puberty, changes that
happen in the bodies of young males and females are both secondary and
primary sexual changes.
SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS
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MALE FEMALE
Voice becomes much lower (breaks) Breast enlarge
Hair growth on chest, face, Hair growth under arms and pubic
underarms, arms, legs, and pubic area
area
Increase in muscle size Hip widens
Skin becomes oily and pores enlarge Skin becomes oily and pores
enlarge
PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS
MALE FEMALE
Testes Ovaries
Penis Fallopian tubes
Scrotum Uterus
Seminal vesicles and prostate glands Vagina
8. SOCIOBIOLOGICAL/EVOLUTIONARY
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This perspective studies how evolutionary forces affect sexual
behaviour. According to sociobiological theory, natural selection is a process
by which organisms that are best suited to their environment are most likely to
survive. Traits that lead to reproductive advantage tend to be passed on,
whereas maladaptive traits are lost.
On the basis of human sexual behavior, it all begins with physical
attraction. Beauty is more than just a cultural standard. It is primarily an
evolutionary standard for attracting the best male and female in the lot to
ensure that one’s genetic characteristic will be passed on to the next
generation.
9. PSYCHOLOGICAL
Sexuality is not a mere physical response. Rather, it also involves
emotions, thoughts and beliefs. According to Sigmund Freud, human beings
are faced with two forces – sex instinct and death instinct. Sex instinct does
not only pertain to the sexual act rather it could also mean anything that could give
pleasure to the person. A person’s libido or sexual energy is located in an area of the
body at different psychosexual stages. These areas of pleasure are called
erogenous zones. It includes the mouth, anus and genitals.
10. RELIGIOUS
● JUDAISM – holds a positive and natural outlook toward marital sex
which they consider as blessed by God and pleasurable for both man
and woman. Sexual connection provides an opportunity for spirituality
and transcendence.
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● ISLAM – family is considered of utmost importance, and celibacy within
marriage is prohibited. Muslim men are allowed to have up to four
wives but Muslim women can only have one husband. Sex is permitted
only within marriage and extramarital sex is penalized.
● TAOISM – sex is not only natural and healthy, but a sacred union
necessary to people’s physical, mental and spiritual being. The sexual
union is a way to balance male and female energy.
● HINDUISM – sexuality is seen as spiritual force, and the act of ritual
lovemaking is a means of both celebrating and transcending the
physical.
● ROMAN CATHOLIC – marriage is purely for intercourse and
procreation. Pope John Paul II confirmed the idea that married couples
should engage in intercourse only for the purposes of procreation.
Homosexual orientation in itself is not sinful, but homosexual acts are
immoral and sinful. The use of birth control is strongly opposed but
they agree to natural family planning and prohibit abortion.
CLARIFYING SEXUAL TERMINOLOGIES
The word sex is derived from the Latin word secare which means ‘to
divide’ while the word sexuality means to ‘to unite’.
● Sexual identity – includes sexual orientation (either homosexual or
heterosexual), his ability to manage sexual feelings (such as sexual
arousal and attraction, activities, interest and style of behaviour) and
his capacity to regulate his sexual behaviour to avoid undesirable
consequences.
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● Gender – refers to characteristics of people as males and females.
● Gender role – a set of expectations that prescribes how females and
males should think, act and feel.
● Sex/ Sexual – refers to the biological indications of male and female or
having the capacity to reproduce.
● Gender assignment – (natal gender) refers to initial assignment as
male or females which usually occurs at birth.
● Gender Reassignment – denotes an official and usually legal change
of gender.
● Gender identity – is a category of social identity that refers to an
individual’s identification as male, female, or some category other than
male and female. A person’s subjective sense of being a man or
woman.
● Masculine – refers to the qualities and behaviors judged by a
particular culture to be ideally associated with or especially appropriate
to men and boys whereas Feminine can be described as qualities and
behaviors judged by a particular culture to be ideally associated with or
especially appropriate to women and girls.
● Androgyny – those who have both masculine and feminine traits,
feelings and qualities.
● Asexual – are persons who do not experience sexual drives or
attraction to either sex
● Hypersexual – are persons with an excessive interest in sex to the
point where it can cause problems in one’s life.
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THE PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE
1. HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE (Master and Johnson)
STAGE DESCRIPTION
This is the body’s initial physical response to

sexual arousal. It is characterized by an
Excitement
increase in heart rate and blood pressure as
well as heightened muscle tone.
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This is the period of sexual excitement prior to

orgasm. It is characterized by intensification
Plateau
of the changes begun during the excitement
phase.
This is characterized by waves of intense

pleasure (climax), often associated with
Orgasm
vaginal contractions in females and
ejaculation in males.
In this phase, the body returns to its non-

Resolution
excited state.
Rosenthal has included the stage of desire prior to excitement which is
a drive or motivation to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual
activities.
2. THE TRIAPHASIC MODEL OF SEXUAL RESPONSE (Helen Singer
Kaplan)
Includes only sexual desire, excitement and orgasm.
3. EROTIC STIMULUS PATHWAY THEORY (David Reed)
Focuses on the psychosocial aspects of sexual response.
a. Seduction – all actions that enhance attractiveness such as what
people wear and how they act.
b. Sensation – sound, touch and smell that affect arousal
c. Surrender – orgasm
d. Reflection – a positive or negative sexual experience that affects
future sexual patterns
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THE CHEMISTRY OF LOVE, LUST, AND ATTACHMENT
Attraction is a characteristic that causes pleasure or interest by
appealing to a person’s desires or tastes, and causes one to be drawn to the
other.
LOVE: EMOTION OR DRIVE?
Most romantic relationships begin with two individuals falling in love
with each other. The singer Robert Palmer compares love with an addiction.
This was verified in a study in which 17 participants who were madly in love
were asked to go to the lab and bring a picture of their loved one.
Their brain activity was recorded while they looked at the picture of
their loved one. The results revealed that when participants gazed at the
photo of their beloved, regions in the brain were activated. Those parts are
closely associated with the anticipation of reward and with focused attention.
This is the dopamine system in the brain which is the same system involved in
pleasure and addiction.
Fisher et al., (2016) concluded that, rather than defining love as an
emotion, ‘being in love’ can be considered a strong motivation – an addictive
craving to be with the other person. Thus early passionate love is not an
emotion in and of itself. Rather, it is best characterized as a “motivation or
goal-oriented state that leads to various specific emotions, such as euphoria
or anxiety.” Unlike many emotions, love is not associated with any specific
facial expression, and it is focused on a single reward. The emotions
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associated with love – elation, anxiety, joy, fear – may come and go, but the
motivation to be with the beloved – remains.
Stage Characteristics Hormones and Neural

Pathways Involved
Lust Phase This is described as an intense Androgen and

craving for sexual contact. oestrogen,
pheromones and the
senses.
Attraction It is the period of time during which High dopamine and

Phase couples are infatuated and pursue a norepinephrine; low
relationship. The energy and attention serotonin.
is focused on one particular person.
Attachment It is a long-term bond between Oxytocin, vasopressin

Phase partners. It is a feeling of security,
comfort and emotional union.
Three Phases of Romantic Love (Helen Fisher and colleagues, 1998)
Love can be characterized by concern for other’s well-being, a desire for physical
presence and emotional support. According to a study in 1979, 95% of women and
91% of male respondents did not agree with the statement that “the best thing about
love is sex.”
JOHN LEE’s LOVE STYLES
1. Eros (EH-ros) – Love is based on strong sexual and emotional
components. This type of love creates initial excitement of a new
relationship. A romantic and passionate love which emphasizes
physical attraction and sexual desire. The Eros lover dreams of the
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ideal characteristics of a partner and usually experiences love at first
sight. The relationship, however, seldom lasts forever because they
tend to be quick to fall in and out of love.
2. Agape (AH-gah-pay) – This is the altruistic and selfless love. The
person shows his love without expecting to receive the same in return.
He considers the wishes of his partner as more important than his own.
He may not have a perfect partner but he will always be there to
support and offer his love. This type of love is more acceptable to
women than men.
3. Storge (Store-gay) – This is love-related friendship and based on
nonsexual affection. The person experiences love as a gradual and
slow process. When love is stored, love takes time. Storgic lovers do
not suddenly fall in love with an idealized lover. Commitment, stability
and comfort are their goals.
4. Ludus – for ludic lovers, love is just a game, something for fun or
entertainment. They do not experience jealousy. They do not value
commitment or intimacy. They manipulate their partners by lying,
cheating and deceiving.
5. Mania – this is characterized by an intense feeling which may lead to
obsessive and possessive love towards the loved one. Manic lovers
always check the partner’s whereabouts. They easily get jealous and
their experience of love is out of control. They are easily taken
advantage of by ludic lovers.
6. Pragma – This is a practical and business-like move. Pragmatic lovers
may plan the best time to get married, have children, and other future
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plans. Love is based on what is appropriate. It is not intense nor out of
control.
ROBERT STERNBERG’s TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE
The triangular theory of love holds that love can be understood in terms
of three components that together can be viewed as forming the vertices of a
triangle. The triangle is used as a metaphor, rather than as a strict geometric
model. These three components are intimacy, passion, and
decision/commitment. Each component manifests a different aspect of love.
a. Intimacy. Intimacy refers to the desire to give and receive feelings
of closeness, connectedness, and bondedness in loving
relationships. It thus includes within its purview those feelings that
give rise, essentially, to the experience of warmth in a loving
relationship.
b. Passion. Passion refers to the drives that lead to romance,
physical attraction, sexual consummation, and related phenomena
in loving relationships. This is the hot component of love which can
be described as intensely romantic or sexual desire for another
person usually accompanied by physical
c. Decision/commitment. Decision/commitment refers, in the short-
term, to the decision that one loves a certain other, and in the long-
term, to one's commitment to maintain that love.
Sternberg also described several types of love based on the above
components:
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1. Liking or Friendship (Intimacy) – When the intimacy or liking
component is present but feelings of passion or commitment in the
romantic sense are missing, then the type of love is referred to as
friendship love. This type of love can be the root for other forms of
Neurotransmitters that are involved in mood, motivation, attention and

Dopamine (DA) excitement. Brain areas that fire when people view a picture of their
and romantic partner are pathways rich with dopamine.
Norepinephrine Drugs such as cocaine, amphetamines, and Ritalin raise DA levels that
(NE) lead to physiological reactions such as increased attention, exhilaration,
pounding heart, loss of sleep and appetite, and anxiety.
Neurotransmitter associated with mood, obsession, sex and sleep. The

level of serotonin decreases during infatuation, which may cause the
obsession one feels during the early phase of love. It is also low in patients
Serotonin who have obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression. It is believed that
passionate romantic love generally lasts within 6-18 months based on a
study conducted which suggests that people who are madly in love have
increased the level of serotonin after this period.
A neurochemical that can increase the level of DA and NE especially in the

pathways involving mood and pleasure. This has been called the “love
Phenylethylamine
drug” because high level of this substance has been associated with love
(PEA)
and orgasm and to people who are happy with their relationship.
During breakup the PEA levels are low.
Neuropeptides released from the pituitary gland. The oxytocin causes the
uterus to contract during childbirth and allows the release of breast milk. It
is important in trust, empathy, emotional accessibility, pair bonding and
Oxytocin and close relationship. Also promotes positive judgments.
vasopressin Orgasm increases levels of oxytocin promoting a desire to be with their
partner and enhancing the pair bonding process.
Vasopressin is also important in pair bonding and social behaviour,
memory formation, as well as blood pressure.
Named for “endogenous morphine,” the body’s natural opiates. If PEA, DA

and NE are responsible for cocaine-like euphoria in the beginning of a
relationship, at some point in time it may drop losing the feeling of
Endorphins exhilaration. After the infatuation ends and if the long term relationship is
continuous, endorphin levels may increase. It gives a feeling of security,
euphoria and peace. Being separated from the beloved can make you
lovesick like an addict who needs drugs to maintain the feeling of euphoria.
2. love.
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3. Infatuation (Passion) – When the passion component is present,
but liking and commitment are absent. It is characterized by feelings
of lust and physical passion. There has not been enough time for a
deeper sense of intimacy, romantic love or consummate love at the
beginning of the relationship. The other forms of love may
eventually develop after the infatuation phase eases up.
4. Empty Love (Commitment) – is characterized by commitment but
without passion or intimacy. Couples only stay together for their
children or other important reasons. At times, a strong love
deteriorates into empty love. The reverse may occur as well. For
instance, an arranged marriage may start out empty but flourish into
another form of love over time.
5. Romantic Love (Passion and Intimacy) – Romantic love bonds
people emotionally through intimacy and physical passion. Partners
in this type of relationship have deep conversations that help them
know intimate details about each other. They enjoy a sexual
passion and affection. These couples may be at the point where
long-term commitment or future plans are still undecided.
6. Companionate Love (Intimacy and Commitment) – Companionate
love is an intimate, but non-passionate sort of love. The intimacy or
liking component and the commitment component of the triangle
make up companionate love. It is stronger than friendship because
there is long-term commitment. There is minimal or no sexual
desire. This is often found in marriages where the passion has died,
but the couple continues to have deep affection or a strong bond
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together. This may also be viewed as the love between very close
friends and family members.
7. Fatuous Love (Passion and Commitment) – In this type of love,
commitment and passion are present while intimacy or liking is
absent. Fatuous love is typified by a whirlwind courtship and
marriage in which passion motivates a commitment without the
stabilizing influence of intimacy. We hear a lot about this amongst
celebrities.
8. Consummate Love (Intimacy, Passion and Commitment) –
Consummate love is made up of all three components and is the
total form of love. It represents an ideal relationship. It is the sort of
love that we associate with "perfect couples."
THE CHEMISTRY OF LOVE
Why do we fall in love? From a biological perspective, there is a part of
the brain that is active when people are truly, deeply and madly in love. The
activity of the brain in the areas of positive emotions, motivational drives and
reward increases whereas brain activities in the areas related to negative
emotions, fear, aggression and social judgment decreases. The chemistry of
love explains how several chemical substances in the body have been found
to naturally influence the experience of love:
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The psychology of love shows that there are psychological theories

that would explain why people fall in love:
When someone receives a reward such as a free ride or other favours from
Behavioral Reinforcement another, a positive feeling may be experienced. The better the feelings
Theory associated with the behaviour of a person, the more likely it is for the
behaviour to be repeated.
This explains the most acceptable theories about emotions: the bodies
experience a physiological change first, then people assign an emotion to
that physical sensation. It is based on the interpretation of the brain. For
instance, when a big spider falls in front of an individual, the stress reaction
Physiological Arousal
would be: the person might gasp, the heart would pound faster, and
Theory
breathing would quicken. The brain would interpret an emotion associated
with this experience as the feeling of FEAR. In another situation, a girl who
happens to see her crush walking by will have the same experience but the
brain may have a different interpretation, a feeling of LOVE.
This explains that love arouses due to some sociobiological need. Males
tend to look for young, healthy female mates to carry their offspring.
Evolutionary Theories
Females prefer males who have the resources to support them and their
offspring.
Based on social psychological data, the factors that would determine
with whom people fall in love are:
1. Physical attractiveness
2. Reciprocity
3. Proximity
4. Similarities
DIVERSITY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Adolescence is not only a time of physical changes, it is also the period of
increased sexual behaviour such as preoccupation with sexual curiosity, fantasies,
masturbation and sexual experimentation. These sexual desires may lead to poor
social judgments, high risk behaviors and lack of discrimination.
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One of the necessary tasks of growing up is learning to cope with one’s
sexual arousal and to achieve some balance between when and where to properly
express and suppress it.
1. Sociosexual behaviour is sexual behaviour involving more than one person.
It is generally expressed in heterosexual and homosexual behaviour.
2. Solitary behaviour is self-masturbation or self-stimulation with the intention
of causing sexual arousal, a feeling of pleasure and often results in orgasm. It
involves only one individual which is commonly done in private.
According to Rosenthal, children may masturbate at a very young age which
may be spontaneously expressed unless or until the child is taught to repress or
inhibit these behaviors. It was explained that there are therapeutic benefits to health
in self-stimulation: sexual pleasure, relieves stress and lower blood pressure,
improves man’s fertility and lowers the chances of getting prostate cancer.
Erotic dreams are involuntary images that occur when people are asleep
which both male and female experience at some point in their lives. These may
result in vaginal lubrication or penile erection and orgasm. However not all erotic
dreams are wet dreams and not all wet dreams are erotic. The less often a man
masturbates, the more nocturnal emissions he will have.
There are, however, sexual behaviors that the majority of societies will always
consider wrong or deviant. Such as having intercourse indiscriminately with several
partners and engaging in paraphilic behaviour (exhibitionism, voyeurism, sexual
sadism and masochism).
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Sexual orientation is defined as a person’s predisposition or inclination
regarding sexual behaviour, emotional attachment or physical attraction to one or
both sexes.
1. Homosexual – refers to a person whose sexual orientation is toward
another of the same sex.
a. Lesbian is a term used to describe a woman whose sexual and
romantic attraction is toward women.
b. Gay is a man whose sexual and romantic attraction is towards other
men.
2. Heterosexual – is a person whose sexual orientation is toward others of
the opposite sex.
3. Bisexual – is a person who may be sexually oriented to both men and
women.
4. Pansexual – a new sexual orientation of persons who are sexually
attracted to people regardless of their sex or gender identity. The word
“pan” is a Greek word for “all or every.” Thus, they may also be called
“gender blind” for they believe that gender and sex are not determining
factors for getting sexually attracted to others.
Aside from men and women, they may also be attracted to transgender,
transsexuals, androgynous and other gender categories.
5. Transgender – refers to the broad spectrum of individuals who transiently
or persistently identify with a gender different from their natal gender. In a
clinical viewpoint, a person is suffering from gender dysphoria if there is
distress that may accompany the incongruence between one’s expressed
gender or gender identity and one’s assigned gender.
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SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STI’s)
1. Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome – HIV can lead to infections that attack and destroy the CD4
(Tcells) of the immune system which is the body’s natural defense
against such illnesses as tuberculosis, pneumonia and cancer.
The antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a combination of medications
that are used to prevent HIV from replicating however, it is not a cure.
The Philippines has the highest HIV infection growth in Asia-Pacific as
reported by the Health Ministry and the United Nation.
In March 2017, 315 (33%) cases were among youth aged 15-24
years old. Males represent the majority and reported modes of
transition were sexual contact males who have sex with males, needle
sharing among injecting drug users and other to child transmission.
2. Genital Herpes – a sexually transmitted infection caused by a large family of
viruses of different strains. These strains produce other non-sexually
transmitted diseases such as chicken pox and mononucleosis.
3. Genital Warts – this is an STI caused by the human papillomavirus; genital
warts are very contagious and are the most commonly acquired STI in the
United States in the 15 to 24-year-old age group.
4. Gonorrhea – an STI caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae which
thrives in the moist mucous membranes linings of the mouth, throat, vagina,
cervix, urethra, and the anal tract. Symptoms for males are discharge from the
penis and burning sensations during urination. For females, sometimes
irritating vaginal discharge. Complication may include prostate, bladder and
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kidney problems and sterility for males, while it may lead to infertility for
females.
5. Syphilis - This is an STI caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. If left
untreated, syphilis may progress into four phases:
a. Primary (chancre sores appear)
b. Secondary (general skin rashes occur)
c. Latent (a period that can last for several years with no overt symptoms)
d. Tertiary (cardiovascular diseases, blindness, paralysis, skin ulcers,
liver damage, mental problem and even death may occur)
6. Chlamydia – most common sexually transmitted infections, named for
Chlamydia trachomatis, an organism that spreads through sexual contact and
infects the genital organs of both sexes.
METHODS OF CONTRACEPTIONS (Artificial and Natural)
In 1930 the first mainstream Christian sect – The Angelican Church – officially
permitted certain forms of birth control. Nowadays, some religions, including the
Roman Catholic Church, a few Protestant denominations, and many Hinduism
condemned the use of contraception.
Contraceptives are medicines and other medicines and other devices that are
used to prevent unwanted pregnancy.
1. Hormonal method of contraception (prevents the release of an egg or
ovulation)
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a. Oral contraceptives (Pills) – These are daily oral contraceptives.
Some contain oestrogen and progesterone. 99% effective if used
according to instructions.
b. The patch – it is a small patch you stick on to the skin that releases
oestrogen and progesterone. It stops ovulation and is over 99%
effective if used according to instructions.
c. The ring – the contraceptive vaginal ring is a small plastic ring a
woman inserts into her vagina every month and releases hormones
to stop ovulation.
d. Implants – the contraceptive implant is a small flexible rod that is
placed under the skin of the upper arm by a health professional and
releases progesterone to stop ovulation.
e. Injectable – The contraceptive injection which is a long-acting
reversible contraception and does not depend on you taking it daily.
2. Barrier methods (methods that physically or chemically block the sperm
from reaching an egg and provide a barrier between direct skin to skin
contact)
a. Diaphragm – a soft dome made of latex or silicone and is used with
spermicide.
b. Cervical Caps – similar to diaphragm though generally always
made in silicone. It is placed into the vagina to cover the cervix.
c. Male and Female Condoms or spermicides – male condom is
made up of thin latex put over the penis to stop the sperm from
entering the vagina. The female condom is made up of thin
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polyurethane that loosely lines the vagina and stops sperms from
entering.
3. Behavioural methods
a. Rhythm or Calendar Method – a way to determine a woman’s
most fertile and infertile times by charting the menstrual cycle. It is
also known as natural family planning or fertility awareness.
b. Abstinence or celibacy – it refers to the avoidance of sexual
intercourse.
c. Outercourse – it is a sexual activity that does not include the
insertion of the penis into the vagina.
d. Withdrawal – it happens when a man removes his penis from the
vagina and ejaculates outside of the woman’s body.
4. Sterilization (procedures that make an individual permanently incapable
of conceiving or fertilizing a partner)
a. Tubal ligation/sterilization – it is the surgery for women in which
the fallopian tubes are tied to prevent eggs from travelling to the
uterus so a woman cannot get pregnant.
b. Vasectomy – it is an operation in which the surgeon makes a small
cut in the upper part of the scrotum then ties or blocks the vas
deferens. Men can still have orgasm or ejaculation after the
operation.
5. Intrauterine device (IUD) – it is a small device that is placed in the uterus
by a doctor to prevent pregnancy.
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6. Emergency Contraception (EC) – it is a measure that protects against
pregnancy after unprotected sex has already occurred.it could be through
IUD or higher dosage of pills.
REFERENCES
Porillo, et al. (2018). Understanding The Self. Panday- Lahi Publishing House, Inc.
Leonor and Ramirez. A Module on Understanding The Self.
Alata, et al. (2018). Understanding The Self. Rex Printing Company, Inc.
ELECTRONIC REFERENCES
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=binukot
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxP7P_QDWlQ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Instruction to the Learner……………………………………...……... 7

Pre- Test Feedback………………………………………………………. 10

LESSON 1 From the Perspective of Philosophy………………………. 12

LESSON 2 From the Perspective of Sociology……………………………. 21

LESSON 3 From the Perspective of Anthropology……………………… 31

LESSON 4 The Self from the Perspective of Psychology………………. 38

LESSON 5 The Self in Western and Eastern Thought…….…………. 47

LESSON 6 THE PHYSICAL SELF: The Self as Impacted by the

LESSON 7 The Sexual Self…………………….…………………………. 63

LESSON 8 The Material / Economic Self………………………………… 69

LESSON 9 The Spiritual Self…...………………………………………... 75

LESSON 10 Political Self………….……………….………………………. 84

LESSON 11 Digital Self…………………………….………………………. 91

LESSON 12 Learning to Be A Better Student…….…………………… 97

LESSON 13 Taking Care of One’s Health………....……………………

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS………………….………………………. 117

A. Program Educational Objectives (based on the CMO)

1. Articulates and discuss the latest developments in the specific field of

2. Effectively communicate orally and in writing using English, Filipino, mother

tongue language, and an appropriate Foreign Language required by the

3. Work effectively and independently in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural

4. Act in recognition of professional, social and ethical responsibility; and

5. Preserve and promote “Filipino historical and cultural heritage” (based on

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE LEARNER

In every lesson of this module, you will be able to assess yourselves in

you have learned.

Furthermore, to help curate the learner there are supplementary materials

already as a reference for your activity.

measure their achievement and the effectiveness of this module.

COURSE YR AND SECTION: _______________

CORRECTED BY: ________________

A). Sophist C). Mentor

B). Teacher D). Philosophers

______ 2. Who is the mentor of Plato?

A). Socrates C). Freud

B). God D). Aristotle

A). Socratic/dialectic method

B). Allegory of the cave

C). Looking glass self

D). bystander effect

______ 4. He also introduced to the West the existence of two realms.

A). Plato C). Descartes

B). Socrates D). None of the above

A). Plato C). Descartes

B). Socrates D). None of these

A). The Reason C). The Soul

B). The Spirited D) The Appetites

A). Appetites C). God

B). Reason D). Philosophers

______ 8. He illustrated the “Allegory of the Cave”

A). Aristotle C). Descartes

B). Socrates D). None of the above

A). Socrates C). Aristotle

B). ST. Augustine of Hippo D). Plato

A). Plato C). St. Augustine of Hippo

B). Socrates D). None of these

The Self from Various Perspectives

LESSON 1: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PHILOSOPHY

these values to your own self-assessment.

II. Topic Contents

permanence (Price, 2000).