Applied Thermodynamics

Module – V, Chapter - 1
Reciprocating Air Compressors
An air compressor is a power absorbing machine which takes in atmospheric air, compresses it
and delivers to a storage vessel.

Applications of Reciprocating Air Compressors

The compressed air is
1. Used in operating tools in factories
2. Used in operating drills and hammers in road buildings
3. Used in starting Diesel engines
4. Used in operating brakes of buses, trains and trucks
5. Used in air conditioning and drying
6. Used in tunneling, mining and Ventilation fields

Working of Reciprocating Air Compressors

It is a positive-displacement compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver
gases at high pressure. The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the
compression cylinder. It gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a
crankshaft, discharged at higher pressure.

Air Compressor Terminology

1. Single Acting Compressor: Suction, compression and delivery of air takes place on one side
of the piston.
2. Double Acting Compressor: Suction, Compression and delivery of air takes place on both
sides of the piston.
3. Single Stage Compressor: Compression of air takes place in one cylinder.
4. Multi stage Compressor: Compression of air takes place in more than one cylinder.
5. Compression ratio or Pressure ratio: Ratio of absolute discharge pressure to absolute inlet
Pressure.
6. Free Air Delivered (FAD): Actual volume of air delivered at the stated Pressure expressed
3
in m /min.

Work Done without Clearance

 4 – 1 : Volume V1 of air enters into Compressor, at
P1 and T1.
n
1 – 2 : Air compressed according to PV = Const.
from P1 to P2.

→ Temp increase from T to T2 1

2 – 3 : Compressed air at P2 and V2 with
temperature T2 is delivered.
Work = Area under p-v diagram
I
1-2 = Adiabatic Compression =
Maximum Work
1-2 = Polytropic Compression
1-2” = Isothermal Compression
= Minimum Work

(i) Work Done for Isothermal Compressio n :

W  Area 4 - 1 - 2"-3 - 4 - 1
W  Area under 2"-3  Area under 1 - 2" - Area under 4 - 1
V
W  p V  p V ln  p V
2 2 1 1
1

1 1
V 2

But for Isothermal process, p V  p V 1 1 2 2

V
W  p V  p V ln
1 1 1 1
 pV
1

1 1
V 2

V V p p
W  p V ln 1
 p V ln
 V  p 
2 1 2

 
1 1 1 1
V2
p 1 2 1

V p
W  mRT ln  mRT ln
1
1

1
2

V p 2 1
(ii) Work Done for Polytropic Compressio n :
W  Area 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 1  Area under 2 - 3  Area under 1 - 2 - Area under 4 - 1
p V  pV p V  pV  1 
W  p V  2
 pV  p V  pV 
2 1
  p V  p V 1 
1

2 2 1 1

n 1 n 1  n  1
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1

W   p V  p V 
n  1  1  n   n mR T  T    n  p V  p V  1
  p V  p V         2 2

 n  1   n  1  n  1  n  1  pV 
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1

1 1

For Polytropic Compressio n process,

1 1


V p  p 
n n

pV  p V       
n n 2 1 2

V p  p 
1 1 2 2

1 2 1

 p  p    n   p  
1 1
 1

 n 
n n

W    p V     1    p V    1
2 2 2

 n  1  p  p    n  1   p  
1 1 1 1

1 1 1

 p    n   p  
n 1 n 1

 n 
n n

W    p V    1   mRT    1
2 2

 n  1  p    n  1   p  
1 1 1

1 1

(iii) Work Done for Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compressio n :

W  Area 1 - 2'-3 - 4 - 1  Area under 2'-3  Area under 1 - 2' - Area under 4 - 1
p V  pV p V  pV  1 
W  p V  2
 pV  p V  pV 
2 1
  p V  p V 1 
1
 2 2 1 1

2 2
 1  1    1
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1

   1  1           pV 
W   p V  p V    p V  p V    mR T  T     pV   1 2 2

   1     1    1    1  pV 
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1

1 1

For Isentropic Compressio n process,

1 1


V p  p 
 

pV  p V       
  2 1 2

V p  p 
1 1 2 2

1 2 1

 p  p       p  
1 1
 1

  
 

W    p V     1    p V    1 2 2 2

   1  p  p      1   p  
1 1 1 1

1 1 1

 p       p  
 1  1

  
 

W    p V    1   mRT    1 2 2

   1  p      1   p  
1 1 1

1 1
Work Done without Clearance

At the end of delivery stroke, the high pressure air is left in the clearance volume and suction for
second cycle starts only when air pressure falls to atmospheric pressure and the air in the
clearance volume gets expanded. This is represented by the expansion curve 3-4.

W  Area 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 1
W  Area 1 - 2 - 6 - 5 - 1 - Area 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 3
 p    n   p  
n 1 n 1

 n 
n n

W   p V    1    p V    1
2 3

 n  1  p    n  1   p  
1 1 4 4

1 4

But p  p , p  p
3 2 4 1

 p    n   p  
n 1 n 1

 n 
n n

W    p V    1    p V    1
2 2

 n  1  p    n  1   p  
1 1 1 4

1 1

 n   p  
n 1
n

W       1 p V  V 
2

 n  1   p  
1 1 4

But, V  V  V  Volume of Free Air delivered

a 1 4

 p    n   p  
n 1 n 1

W  
n 
n n

 p V     1    mRT  2
  1 2

 n  1         
1 a 1
p n 1 1
p 1
Different Efficiencies of Air Compressor
1. Isothermal Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of Isothermal work to the polytropic work.

W
 
Iso
Iso

W Poly

p  p 
mRT ln   ln   2 2

p p
1

   1 1

 p   n  p  
Iso n 1 n 1
n n
n
mRT    1    1
2 2

n 1     p 
1

 p  n 1 1  1

2. Adiabatic Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of Adiabatic work to the shaft work.

W
 Adiabatic
 Adiabatic

Shaft Power
 p  
n 1


n

p V    1 2

 1  p 
1


1


 
1

Adiabatic
BP
 p  
n 1


n

mRT    1 2

 1  p  
1

 
1

Adiabatic
BP

3. Mechanical Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of Indicated power of the compressor to the shaft power.
 IP
 
m
BP
where
WN
IP  kW
60
 p   N
n 1

 n 
n

IP    p V    1  kW
2

 n  1  p   60
1 a

4. Volumetric Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of volume of free air delivered to the swept volume.
 V V V
   a 1 4

V V V
v

s 1 3

V  V   V  V 
  1 3 3 4

V V
v

1 3

V V
  1 3 4

V V
v

1 3

V V
  1  3 4

V V V V
v

1 3 1 3

V  V V  V  V V
  1    c 4
 3
  1     
c 3 4

V V V    V
v

s 1 3
V 3
V V V s 1 3 3

V V V 
  1      c c 4

V V V 
v

s s 3

But for Polytropic expansion process 3 - 4,

p V  p V : But p  p , p  p
3 3
n

4 4
n

3 2 4 1

V p 
n

 p V  pV  n n
  4 2

V p
2 3 1 4

3 1

V  p  
1
n
V
  1  c
     c 2

V  p  
v
V s s 1

 p   p  
1 1
n n
V V
  1  c
1        1  2 c
   1
2

  p    p  
v v
V s
V 1 s 1

 p  
1
n
V
  1  k    1 ; k  2 c

 p  
v
V 1 s
 Volumetric Efficiency at ambient conditions

Voume of free air delivered at ambient conditions V

 
vo
 o

Swept Volume V s

Applying characteristic gas equation between suction and ambient conditions ,

pV p V pT
1
 V 
a
V o o

o
1 o

a
T T 1
pT o o 1

pT
V 1 o

p T V p T V V
a
pT
     o
 1 1 o a 1 o 1 4

p T V p T V V
vo
V s o 1 s o 1 1 3

pT   p  
1
n

   1  k    1
1 o 2

pT   p  
vo

 o 1 1

Problems
0 1.2
1. An air compressor takes in air at 1 bar and 20 C, compresses it according to the law pv = c.
Air is delivered to a receiver at a constant pressure of 10 bar. Determine the temperature at
the end of compression, work done and heat transferred during compression / kg of air.
Neglect clearance. Take R = 0.287kJ/kgK.
Data: p1 = 1 bar, T1 = 20+273 = 293K, p2 = 10 bar, Vc = 0, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, m = 1 kg, n = 1.2,
T2 = ?, W = ?, Q = ?
 n 1 1.2 1
T2  p2  n
 10  1.2
   T2  293   T2  430 K
T1  p1  1
 n 1
  1.2 1

n   p2  n
 1.2  10 
1 0.287  293   1  236.02kJ / kg
1.2
W mRT1    1 
n 1   1.2  1 1 
 1 
p
  
Q  W  E  E  mcv T2  T1   1 0.717430  293  98.23kJ / kg
Q  236.02  98.23  137.79kJ / kg

2. Determine the size of the cylinder of a double acting air compressor of 45 kW in which air is
1.25
taken in at 1 bar and compressed to 16 bar according to the law pv = c. Assume speed of
the crank as 300 rpm and piston speed = 180 m/min, Volumetric efficiency = 80%, Stroke
length = 30 cm.
Data: IP = 45 kW, p1 = 1bar, p2 = 16 bar, n= 1.25, N = 300 rpm, ηv = 80%, Vp = 180 m/min,
L = 0.3 m
 V 180
V  2 LN  L    0.3m p

2 N 2  300
p

2WN
IP 
60
 p   N
n 1
n
n
IP  2  p V    1  2

n 1  p   60
1 a

1.25 1 10  V  16   300
1.251
5 1.25

45  2     1 
a

1.25  1 1000  1   60
V  0.0121m
a
3

V 0.0121
   0.8 
v
a
 V  0.01518m s
3

V s
V s

D 2
D 2

V 
s
 L  0.01518   0.3
4 4
 D  0.2538m

3
3. A single stage double acting compressor has a free air delivery of 14m /min measured at
0
1.013 bar and 15 C. The pressure and temperature in the cylinder during induction are 0.95
0
bar and 32 C. The delivery pressure is 7 bar and the index of compression and expansion is
1.3. The clearance is 5% of stroke. Calculate: (i) Indicated power required (ii) Volumetric
efficiency at ambient conditions.
Data: Cylinder = Double acting, Vo = 14m3/min, p1 = 0.95 bar, p0 = 1.013 bar, T1 = 32+273
= 305K, T0 = 15+273 = 288 K, p2 = 7 bar, Vc = 5% Vs, Vc / Vs = k = 0.05, n = 1.3, IP = ?,
ηv = ?

p V pV p T
 o
 V   V
o 1 a

a
o 1

o
T T o
p T 1 1 o

1.013 305
V  a
  14 V  15.8m / min a
3

0.95 288
 p  
n 1

 n 
n

IP    p V    1
2

    p  
1 a
n 1 1

1.3  0.95 10  15.8  7  

1.31

IP  
5 1.3

    1
 1.3  1  1000  0 . 95  
IP  3808.2kW
p T   p  
1
n

   1  k    1
1 o 2

p T  p  
v

 o 1 1

0.95 288   7  
1
1.3

   1  0.05   1
1.013 305    
v

 0 .95
  72.4% v
 0
4. Air at 1 bar and 27 C is compressed to 7 bar by a single stage reciprocating compressor
1.3 3
according to the law pV = C. The free air delivered was 1m /min. Speed of the compressor
is 300 rpm, stroke to bore ratio is 1.5:1, Mechanical Efficiency is 85% and motor
transmission efficiency is 90%. Determine: (i) Indicated Power and Isothermal efficiency (ii)
Cylinder dimensions (iii) Power of the motor.
Data: p1= 1bar, T1 = 27+273 = 300 K, p2 = 7 bar, n= 1.3, Va = 1m3/min, N = 300 rpm, L = 1.5D,
ηm = 0.85, ηt = 0.9, n = 1.3, IP = ?, BP = ?, L = ?, D = ?
Since clearance percentage is not given, it is assumed that there is no clearance in the
compressor.

(i) Indicated Power and Isothermal Efficiency :

 p    1.3  110 1  7 
n 1


1.31

 n 
n 5 1.3

IP    p V     1 
2
   1
 n  1  p    1.3  1  60 1000  1 
1 1

1 
IP  4.1kW
IP 4.1
P    4.55kW
transmitted
 t
0. 9
 p  110 1  7  5

W  p V ln    ln    3.24kW
2

   1
Iso 1 1
p 60 1000 1

W 3.24
 
Iso
100  100  79.1%
Iso

W 4.1poly

D 2
D 2

(ii) Cylinder Dimensions : V  1

LN  1  1.5 D  300  D  0.1415m
4 4
L  1.5 D  1.5  0.1415  0.2123m
P 4.55
(iii) Power of the Motor : P  transmitted
  5.35kW
motor
 m
0.85
5. A single stage, single acting air compressor delivers 0.6 kg of air per minute at 6 bar. The
0
temperature and pressure at the end of suction stroke are 30 C and 1 bar. The bore and stroke
of the compressor are 100 mm and 150 mm respectively. The clearance is 3% of the swept
volume. Assuming the index of compression and expansion to be 1.3, find: (i) Volumetric
efficiency (ii) Power required if the motor efficiency is 85% (iii) Speed of the compressor.
Data: p1= 1 bar, T1 = 30+273 = 303K, D = 0.1 m, L = 0.15 m, k = 0.03, ma = 0.6 kg/min, p2 = 6
bar, n = 1.3, ηm = 0.85, ηv = ?, Pmotor = ?, N = ?

(i) Volumetric Efficiency :

 p    6 
1 1

  1  k    1  1  0.03   1  0.9109  91.09%

n 1.3

 p    1 
v

1 
(ii) Power of the Motor :
 p    1.3  0.6  0.287  303  6 
n 1


1.31

IP  
n 
n 1.3

 mRT     1 2
    1
 n  1  p    1.3  1   1 
1

1
60 
IP  1.93kW
IP 1.93
P    2.27 kW
motor
 0.85 m

(iii) Speed of the Compressor :

mRT 0.6  287  303
p V  mRT  V    0.5218m / min
1 3

110
1 a 1 a
p 1
5

V 0.5218
 
v
a
 0.9109   V  0.5728m / min s
3

Vs
V s

D 2
  0.1 2

V 
s
LN  0.5728   0.15  N  N  486.2rpm
4 4
 3
6. A four cylinder double acting compressor is required to compress 30m /min of air at 1 bar
0
and 27 C to a pressure of 16 bar. Determine the power of motor required and cylinder
dimensions given speed of compressor = 320 rpm, clearance volume = 4%, mechanical
efficiency = 80%, stroke to bore ratio = 1.2, compression and expansion index = 1.32. Air
0
gets heated by 12 C during suction stroke.
Data: Vo= 30 m3/min, po = p1 = 1 bar, To = 27+273 =300K, p2 = 16 bar, Pmotor = ?, D = ?, L = ?,
N = 320 rpm, ηm = 0.8, L/D = 1.2, n = 1.32, T1 = 12+27+273 = 312K

p V pV 1 30 1 V
 o
 o
  V  31.2m / min
1 a a

a
3

T T o
300 312 1

 p    1.32  110  31.2  16 

n 1


1.321

 n 
n 5 1.32

IP    pV    1       1  205.55kW
2

 n  1  p    1.32  1  1000  1 

1 a

1 
IP 205.55
 
m
 BP  P   256.94kW motor
BP 0.8
  p     16 
1 1

  1  k    1  1  0.04   1  0.7132  71.32%

n 1.32

  p     1  

v

V 31.2
   0.7132 
v
a
 V  43.75m / min s
3

V s
V s

43.75 1 43.75 1
V      0.0171m / min/ cylinder / stroke 3

2  320
s
No. of cylinder 2 N 4
D 2
D 2

V 
s
L  0.0171  1.2 D  D  0.2347 m
4 4
L  1.2 D  1.2  0.2347  0.2817 m
Multistage Compressors
Multi Stage compressor is one in which the compression of air takes place in more than one
cylinder
Advantages of Multistage Compression
 The air can be cooled at pressures intermediate between intake and delivery pressures
 Power required to drive a multi stage compressor is less than that of single stage for same
quantity of air at the same delivery pressure
 Multi stage compressor can have better mechanical balancing
 The pressure range may be kept within desirable limits
 Multi stage compressor may be lighter in construction

Work Done during Multi Stage Compression

(i) Without Intercooling :
 p    n   p  
n 1 n 1

 n 
n n

W  W W    p V    1   pV
2 '
   1
3

          p  
LPC HPC 1 1 2 2
n 1 p n 1 1 2

(ii) With Perfect Intercooling :

 p    n   p 
n 1 n 1

 n  
n n

W   p V    1  
2
 p V 
3
  1
 n  1        p  
1 1 2 2
p 1
n 1 2

But, for perfect Intercooling, T  T i.e. p V  2 1 1 1

pV 2 2

 p    n   p  
n 1 n 1

 n 
n n

W    p V    1  
2
 p V    1
3

 n  1  p    n  1   p  
1 1 1 1

1 2

 p   p  
n 1 n 1

 n 
n n

W    p V       2
2 3

 n  1  p   p  
1 1

1 2
 Condition for Minimum Work :
 p   p  
n 1 n 1
n n

d       2 2 3

 p   p  
0 
dW
0
1 2

dp 2
dp 2

n 1 n 1

 1   n  1  n  1  1   n  1  n  1
n n
 n 1  n 1   n 1   n 1 n  n 1   n 1 n 

    p  (1)  0       p  (1)  0
  1   1    

p p p p
 n  n  n   n  n  n 

p  n   n  p  n   n 
2 3 2 2 3 2

1 1

n 1

 1   n  1  n  1 1  n  1  n  1
n
n 1   2 n 1  n 1   2 n 1 

    p  p  (1)  0    p  p 
1 1
     

p p
n n  n  n n  n 
n 1

      p  n   n 
2 3 2 2 3 2
p 1
n n 1
n

1


1 p
 p p 
n
n 1   2 n 1  n 1

p  p p 
1
  
n n  n  2 n
n 1   2 n 1 
2 3 2   1 3

p1
n
p  n 

p p
 p p   p  p p   p  p p  p  p p 
 1 2 n 1  n 1  n 1  n 1

p 
  2 
 n  n  n  n 2 2 3

2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3
p p
1 2

For a two stage compressio n, with perfect intercooling,

 p   p  
n 1 n 1

 n 
n n

W   p V       2
2 3

 n  1  p   p  
1 1

1 2

p p
But for perfect intwercooloing,  2 3

p p 1 2

 p   p    p  
n 1 n 1 n 1

 n   n 
n n n

W    p V       2  W    p V 2   2
2 2 2

 n  1           p  
1 1 1 1
p p n 1 1 1 1

 p  
n 1

 2n 
n

W    p V    1
2

 n  1  p  
1 1

1
But, p  p p  p p 
1
2

2 1 3 1 3

  p p  
n 1

 p  
n 1


1

 2n   2n 
n 2n
2

W    p V  
  1  W    p V    1
1 3 3

 n  1  p   n  1  p  
1 1 1 1

1  1

Similarly, for three stages,

 p  
n 1

 3n 
3n

W    p V    1
4

 n  1  p  
1 1

Similarly for N stages,

 p  
n 1

 Nn 
Nn

W    p V    1 N 1

 n  1  p  
1 1

Problems
1. Air at 103 kPa and 270C is drawn in LPC of a 2-stage compressor and isentropically
compressed to 700 kPa. The air is then cooled at constant pressure to 370C in an intercooler
and is then again compressed isentropically to 4 MPa in HPC and delivered at this pressure.
Determine the power required to run the compressor if it delivers 30m3/hr of air measured at
inlet condition. Assume no clearance.
Data: p1 = 103 kPa, T1 = 27+273 = 300 K, p2 = 700kPa, T2I= 37+273 =310K, p3 = 4 MPa = 4000
kPa, V1 = 30m3/hr, IP = ?
Since T  T , intercooling is not perfect.
1 2
'

For Isentropic compressio n 1 - 2,

 1  1 1.4 1

T p  p 
    T  T    T  300
700 
  1.4

2 2

2
 518.69 K
T p p  103 
2 1 2

1 1 1

For the isentropic process 2  3, '

 1  1 1.4 1

T p  p   4000 
  1.4

3
  T T 3 '
   T  310
3
  510.07 K
T p  p   700 
' 3 2 3

2 2 2

From gas equation,

p V 103 10  30 3

p V  m RT  m    35.8kg / hr 1 1

287  300
1 1 a 1 a
RT 1

 p       p  
 1  1

  
 

IP  W  W   m RT    1   m RT 2 '
   1
3

 
LPC
 1   
p   
HPC
 1 
a 1

1
a 2

 p 
2 
1.4  35.8  287  300  700    1.4  35.8  287  310  4000  
1.4 1 1.4 1

 IP  
1.4 1.4

    1       1
 1.4  1  3600 1000  103    1.4  1  3600 1000  700  
 IP  4.15kW

2. A two stage compressor compresses air from 150C, 100 kPa to 6000 kPa. The air is cooled in
the intercooler to 300C and the intermediate pressure is steady at 733 kPa. The LPC is 10 cm
in diameter and the stroke for both the cylinders is 11.25 cm. Assuming a compression law
pv1.35 = c and that the volume of air at atmospheric conditions drawn in per stroke is equal
to LPC swept volume, find the power of the compressor when running at 250 rpm. Find also
the diameter of HPC.
Data; T1 = 15+273=288, p1 = 100kPa, p3 = 6000 kPa, T2I= 30+273 = 303K, p2 = 733 kPa, D1 =
0.1 m, L1= L2 = 0.1125 m, n = 1.35, N = 250 rpm, IP = ?, D2 = ?
Since T  T , intercooling is not perfect.
1 2
'

For Polytropic compressio n 1 - 2,

n 1 n 1 1.35 1

T p  p   733 
n n 1.35

2
    T  T    T  2882
  482.7 K
2

T p p  100 

2 1 2

1 1 1

D   0.1 2 2

V V 
1
L s1
 0.1125  8.84 10 m 1

1
4 3

4 4
From gas equation,
p V 100 10  8.84 10 3 4

p V  m RT  m  1
 1
 1.069 10 kg 3

287  288
1 1 a 1 a
RT 1

 p    n   p   N
 1  1

IP  W  W  
n 
 

m RT    1   m RT    1 
2 ' 3

 n  1  p    n  1   p   60
LPC HPC a 1 a 2

1 2

 1.35  1.069 10  287  288  733    1.35  1.069 10  287  288  6000  
1.35 1 1.35 1
3 1.35 3 1.35

 IP        1       1
 1.35  1  1000  100    1.35  1  1000  733  
 IP  4.08kW

Diameter of HP Cylinder :
p V  m RT
2 2 a 2
'

m RT 1.069 10  287  303 ' 3

V    1.268 10 ma 2 4 3

100 10
2
p 2
3

D 2
D 2

V  2
L  1.268 10   0.1125 2

2
4 2

4 4
 D  0.0378m 2
3. A multi stage compressor is to be designed to elevate the pressure from 1 bar to120 bar such
that the stage pressure will not exceed 4. Determine: (i) Number of stages (ii) exact stage
pressure ratio (iii) Intermediate pressures (iv) the minimum power required to compress 15
3
m /min of air. Take n=1.2.

z  4, p  1 bar, p  120 bar

1 N 1

(i) Number of Stages :

p 120
z  N
4 
N 1
 N  4 Stages
N

p 1
1
(ii) Exact Stage Pressure ratio :
p 120
z  N
z 
N 1
 z  3.343
4

p 1
1
(iii) Intermediate Pressures :
p p p 120
N 1
   3.343 
4 1 5
 3.343  p  35.89bar 4
p N
p 4
p 4
p 4

p 35.89
 3.343 
4
 p  10.74bar 3
p 3
p 3

p 10.74
 3.343 
3
 p  3.21bar 2
p 2
p 2

(iv) Minimum Power required :

 p  
n 1

 Nn 
Nn

IP    p V    1 N 1

     
1 a
n 1 p 1

 4 1.2  110 15  120  

1.2 1
5 41.2

IP       1
 1.2  1  60 100  1  
 IP  132.26kW
 Module V, Chapter 2
Steam Nozzles
Nozzle is a device used to increase the velocity of steam with a pressure drop. If the velocity of
steam decreases with an increase in pressure in a device, it is a diffuser. In a steam nozzle, a part
of the enthalpy of steam is converted into kinetic energy as the steam expands from high pressure
to low pressure. Amount of energy converted depends upon the type of expansion and pressure
ratio. Isentropic expansion provides maximum conversion of energy.

Types of Nozzles

Nozzles are classified into three types as:

1. Convergent Nozzle
2. Divergent Nozzle
3. Convergent – Divergent Nozzle
If the cross sectional area of the nozzle decreases continuously from Inlet to exit, it is a
Convergent nozzle. If the cross sectional area of the nozzle increases continuously from Inlet to
exit, it is a Divergent nozzle. If the cross sectional area of the nozzle first decreases and then
increases continuously from it is a Convergent - Divergent nozzle

Applications of Nozzles
Steam Nozzles are extensively used in
• Steam turbines
• Gas turbines
• Injectors for pumping feed water to boilers
• Steam flow meters
• Ejectors for removal of air from condensers

Types of Flows in Nozzle

Flows in Steam Nozzles can be broadly classified into three types as
1. Isentropic Flow (Adiabatic Flow)
2. Flow with friction
3. Supersaturated flow
1. Isentropic Flow
Considering sections 1 and 2 of a Convergent nozzle with m  1kg/s
V 2
V 2

h  W  Q  h 
1
1

2
2

2 2
Since Q  0 and W  0,
V V V2
V 2 2 2

h  h  
1
1
 h  h   V  2h  h   V
2
2 2

1 2
1

2
2

1 2 1
2

2 2 2 2
V  2(h  h )  V
2 1 2 1
2

Since V is very small,1

V  2(h  h )  V  2000(h  h )  V  44.72 (h  h )

2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2

Velocity in terms of Pressure Ratio

If the law of expansion is pv  c,

n

V V 2
n 2

2
  pv  p v
1

2 2 n 1
1 s1 2 s2

Since V is very small, 1

V n  pv 
pv  p v  V  n pv
2 2

2
 2
1  2 s2

2 n 1 2 n 1  pv 
1 s1 2 s2 1 s1

1 s1

 p    p  
n 1 n 1
n n
V n 2n
p v 1      V  1    
2

2
 pv 2 2 2

2 n 1  p  n  1
1 s1 2 1 s1
 p 
  1
  1

 p  
n 1
n
2n
V  p v 1     2

n 1
2
 p  1 s1

  1
 Condition for Maximum Discharge

 p  
n 1
n
.
AV A V A .
n
m 1
 m1 2 2 2
2 p v 1     2

n 1   p  
1 s1
v vs1
v s2 s2 1

1


p 
n

But, p v  p v  v  v   n n 2

p
1 s1 2 s2 s2 s1

 p   A  p   p  
1 n 1 2 n 1

Ap 
n n n n
.
n n
m    2 2
2 p v 1      2 2
p v      
2 2

v p n 1   p   v n 1  p   p  
1 s1 1 s1

s1 1 1 s1 1 1

The discharge is maximum when,

.

dm
0
p 
d  2

p 1

p  2  n 1

This gives the critical pressure ratio i.e.  

2

p  n  1 1

For saturated steam, n  1.135 , For Superheated steam, n  1.3

 p  0.582 p for saturated steam and p  0.546 p for superheated steam
2 1 2 1

n 1

.
p  2  n 1

 m  A n 1
 

max

v  
2

s1
n 1
 2. Expansion of Steam with Friction

The exit velocity of steam is reduced due to

• friction between the nozzle surface and steam
• the internal fluid friction in steam
• shock losses
The effects of friction are as follows:
• Most of these frictional losses takes place beyond the throat in the divergent section
• Expansion is no more isentropic and enthalpy drop is reduced
• The exit velocity will be reduced
• The final dryness fraction of steam increases
• The specific volume of steam increases

The friction during the flow in a nozzle leads to the definition of Nozzle efficiency
Actula Enthalpy drop
  N
Isentropic Enthalpy drop
h h
  1 2'

h h
N

1 2

The exit velocity of steam considerin g friction is

V  44.72  (h  h )
2 N 1 2
 3. Super Saturated Flow

This type of flow takes place in the divergent portion of a convergent – divergent nozzle.
When the steam is passed through the nozzle, the velocity increases and further expansion in
the divergent portion takes place rapidly. Due to the rapid expansion, the steam does not have
time to condense. Thus the steam remains in unnatural dry or superheated state. This type of
flow is called supersaturated flow or metastable flow.

PROBLEMS
1. Steam expands from 3 bar to 1 bar in a nozzle. The initial velocity is 90 m/s and
0
The initial temperature is 150 C. The nozzle efficiency is 0.95. Determine the exit velocity.
0
Data: p1 = 3 bar, T1 = 150 C, p2 = 1 bar, V1 = 90 m/s, ηN = 0.95, V2 = ?

0
From Superheated Steam tables, At p1 = 3 bar and T1 =150 C, h1 = 2762 kJ/kg, s1 = 7.078
kJ/kgK. From saturation steam table, at p2 = 1 bar, sf2 = 1.303 kJ/kgK, sfg2 = 6.056 kJ/kgK, hf2 =
417 kJ/kg, hfg2 = 2258 kJ/kgK
For Isentropic expansion process1 - 2,
s1  s2  s1  s f 2  xs fg 2  7.078  1.303  ( x  6.056)  x  0.954
h1  2762kJ / kg
h2  h f 2  xh fg 2  417  0.954  2258  2570.2kJ / kg
V2  2 N h1  h2 103  V12
V2  2  0.952762  2570.2103  90 2
V2  610.3m / s
0
2. The inlet condition of steam to a convergent – divergent nozzle is 22 bar and 260 C. The exit
pressure is 4 bar. Assuming frictionless flow upto throat and a nozzle efficiency of 85%,
2
determine: (i) the flow rate for a throat area of 32.2 cm (ii) the exit area.

(i) p  0.546  p  0.546  22  12bar

2 1

From Mollier chart, at p  22bar , T  260 ,h  2940kJ / kg ,

1 1
o

C 1

At p  12bar , h  2790kJ / kg
2 t

V  2h  h   22940  2790  10  547.72m / s

1 1 t
3

From Mollier chart, at p  12bar , v  0.16m / kg 2 st

3

.
AV 32.2 10  547.72 4

m  t
 t
 11.02kg / s
v st
0.16
(ii) From Mollier chart, at p  4bar , h  2590kJ / kg 3 2

V  2 h  h   2  0.852940  2590  10  771.36m / s

2 N 1 2
3

.
AV A  771.36
m  2
 11.02 
2
 A  0.00628m 2

2
2

v s2
0.44
3. Steam at a pressure of 6.5 bar and 0.9 dry discharges through a nozzle having throat area of
2
0.004m . The back pressure is 1 bar. Calculate the mass of steam per minute and necessary
diameter of the mouth of the nozzle so that the discharge shall be maximum. What is the final
velocity of steam?

2
Given: p1 = 6.5 bar, x1 = 0.9, A2 = 0.004m , p3 = 1 bar
p2 = 0.582 x p1 = 0.582 x 6.5 = 3.78 = 3.8 bar
From Mollier chart, at p1 = 6.5 bar & x1 = 0.9, h1 = 2550 kJ/kg, At p2 = 3.8 bar, h2 = 2460 kJ/kg,
3 v 3
vg2 = 0.48 m /kg, x2 = 0.87 At p3 = 1 bar. h3 = 2260 kJ/kg, g3
= 1.8 m /kg, x3 = 0.815

V  2h  h   22550  2460  10  424.26m / s

2 1 2
3

v  x v  0.87  0.48  0.4176m / kg

s2 2 g2
3

.
A V 0.004  424.26
m 2
 2
 4.06kg / s  4.06  60  243.82kg / hr
v s2
0.4176
V  2h  h   22550  2260  10  761.57 m / s
3 1 3
3

v  x  v  0.815 1.8  1.467 m / kg

s3 3 g3
3

.
AV A  761.57
m 3
 4.06 
3
 A  7.83 10 m
3

3
4 2

v s3
1.467
d 2
d 2

A  3
3
 7.83 10 m 
4 2 3
 d  0.0998m
3
4 4
4. A Convergent – Divergent nozzle is required to discharge 360kg/hr of steam. The nozzle is
supplied with steam at 10 bar and 0.97 dry and discharges against a back pressure of 0.5 bar.
Neglecting the effect of friction, find the throat and exit diameters. Assume condition for
maximum discharge.

Given: m = 360 kg/hr = 360/3600 = 0.1 kg/s, p1 = 10 bar, x1 = 0.97, p3 = 0.5 bar
p2 = 0.582 x p1 = 0.582 x 10 = 5.82 bar
From Mollier chart, at p1 = 10 bar & x1 = 0.97, h1 = 2700 kJ/kg
3
At p2 = 5.82 bar = 6 bar, h2 = 2610 kJ/kg, vg2 = 0.35 m /kg, x2 = 0.93
3
At p3 = 0.5 bar, h3 = 2240 kJ/kg, x3 = 0.82, vg3 = 3.2 m /kg
V  2h  h   22700  2610  1000  424.26m / s
2 1 2

v  x  v  0.93  0.35  0.3255m / kg

s2 2 g2
3

.
AV A  424.26
m 2
 0.1  2
 A  7.672 10 m
2

2
5 2

v s2
0.3255
d 2
d 2

A  2
2
 7.672 10  5 2
 d  9.88 10 m
2
3

4 4
V  2h  h   22700  2240  1000  959.16m / s
3 1 3

v  x  v  0.82  3.2  2.624m / kg

s3 3 g3
3

.
AV A  959.16
m 3
 0.1 3
 A  2.735 10 m
3

3
4 2

v s3
2.624
d 2
d 2

A  3
3
 2.735 10  4 3
 d  0.0186m
3
4 4
Steam Table Method :
At p  10 bar, h  762.6kJ / kg , h  2013.6kJ / kg ,
1 f1 fg 1

s  2.138kJ / kgK , s  4.445kJ / kgK

f1 fg 1

h  h  x h  762.6  0.97  2013.6   2715.8kJ / kg

1 f1 1 fg 1

At p  5.82bar , h  664.7 kJ / kg , h  2089.3kJ / kg ,

2 f 2 fg 2

s  1.918kJ / kgK , s  4.851kJ / kgK , v  0.326m / kg

f 2 fg 2 g2
3

For Isentropic process 1 - 2,

s  s  s  x s  s  x s  2.138  0.97  4.445  1.918   x  4.851  x  0.934
1 2 f1 1 fg 1 f 2 2 fg 2 2 2

h  h  x h  664.7  0.934  2089.3  2616.1kJ / kg

2 f 2 2 fg 2

At p  0.5bar , h  340.6kJ / kg , h  2305.4kJ / kg ,

3 f 3 fg 3

s  1.091kJ / kgK , s  6.504kJ / kgK , v  3.24m / kg

f 3 fg 3 g3
3

s  s  s  x s  s  x s  2.138  0.97  4.445  1.091   x  6.504   x  0.823

1 3 f1 1 fg 1 f 3 3 fg 3 3 3

h  h  x h  340.6  0.823  2305.4   2240kJ / kg

3 f 3 3 fg 3

V  2h  h   22715.8  2616.1 1000  446.54m / s

2 1 2

v  x  v  0.934  0.326  0.3044m / kg

s2 2 g2
3

.
AV A  446.54
m  0.1 
2 2
 A  6.818 10 m 2

2
5 2

v 0.3044
s2

d 2
d 2

A  2
2
 6.818 10  5 2
 d  9.32 10 m
2
3

4 4
V  2h  h   22715.8  2240  1000  975.5m / s
3 1 3

v  x  v  0.823  3.24  2.66m / kg

s3 3 g3
3

.
AV A  975.5
m  0.1 
3 3
 A  2.733 10 m 3

3
4 2

v 2.66
s3

d 2
d 2

A  3
3
 2.733 10  4 3
 d  0.0186m
3
4 4