IEEE

FUNDAMENTALS Std 1100-1999

Typically, momentary interruptions are the result of a variety of normal and abnormal opera-
tions in the electric power supplier’s distribution system (see IEEE Std 446-1995 and Allen
and Segall [B1]). Due to the definition of a power interruption generally used by electric
power suppliers vs. the capabilities of electronic load equipment, distribution circuits that the
electric power supplier might consider to be reliable may be totally inadequate to the user of
electronic load equipment. It is advisable that users of electronic equipment work with their
local electric power supplier to determine operating characteristics of the particular distribu-
tion circuits in question, considering both the frequency of momentary interruptions and
other pertinent reliability indices—including power quality.

Voltage waveform disturbances at the electric power supplier’s feeder level have been moni-
tored (see Allen and Segall [B1], Edison Electric Institute [B11], and Golde [B15]), and
compared and contrasted (see Martzloff and Gruzs [B37]). The general conclusion is that
line voltage sags are most frequent, and thus most likely to contribute to electronic load dis-
ruptions. They are followed by surges, interruptions, and swells, in lesser probabilities. The
actual percentage of each type of voltage disturbance varies with time, location, the
response characteristics, and the threshold settings of the particular power quality monitor-
ing instrument being used. All things being otherwise equal, these variances are most highly
influenced by the particular threshold settings utilized on the monitoring equipment.

User equipment residing near locations where lightning enters the electric power supplier’s
distribution system will experience high-energy surge conditions via the building’s service
entry wiring since it provides the interface to the electric power supplier’s ac distribution sys-
tem. But user equipment located at sites further away from the strike location most likely will
experience momentary sag conditions as opposed to surges. This typically occurs when one or
more lightning “arrestors” located on the electrical supply system’s distribution wiring go into
operation, and are located between the strike point and the service entry of the user’s site. The
momentary sags correctly result from deliberate current-shunting actions of the electric power
supplier’s lightning-protection equipment, which locally load down the ac distribution system
during its operation. To a degree this action can also be randomly duplicated by arcing to
ground from the conductors, or from insulator flashovers on the distribution system’s wiring.

4.5 Load and power source interactions

Interactions of interest between electronic load equipment and their power sources (and
sometimes their grounding systems) primarily result in transient disturbances or nearly con-
tinuous distortions to the system voltage waveform. Under the heading of “Voltage parameter
affecting loads,” Table 4-3 summarizes these sources of voltage waveform disturbances, dis-
tortions, and their general characteristics (see The Dranetz Field Handbook [B54] and
McEachern [B40]). When ameliorating these variances, it is often helpful to know their
related current waveforms. For example, certain source/load interactions (e.g., switching)
result in short first-transition-time voltage transients (surges). The reader is referred to 4.6 for
a discussion of surges.

Copyright © 1999 IEEE. All rights reserved. 85

 IEEE
Std 1100-1999 CHAPTER 4

Table 4-3—Matching sensitive load and power source requirements

Voltage parameter
affecting loads
with expected environments
Typical immunity of electronic loads
Typical range
of power sources
Normal Critical Units affected and comments

Over and undervoltage +6%, –13.3% +10%, –15% ±5% Power supplies, capacitors, motors.
Component overheating and data
upset.

Swells/sags +10%, –15% +20%, –30% ±5% Same as above.

Transients, impulsive and Varies: Varies: Varies: Dielectric breakdown, voltage

oscillatory, power lines 100–6000 V 500–1500 V 200–500 V overstress. Component failure and
data upset.

Transients, impulsive and Varies: Varies: Varies: Same as above.

oscillatory, signal lines 100–6000 V 50–300 V 15–50 V

ESD < 45 kV Varies widely: Varies widely: Signal circuits. Dielectric break-
1000–1500 V 200–500 V 15–50 V down, voltage overstress. Compo-
nent failure and data upset. Rapid
changes in signal reference voltage.

RFI/EMI (conducted) 10 V up to 200 kHz Varies widely: Varies widely: Signal circuits. Data upset, rapid
(normal and common mode) less at higher frequency 3 V typical 0.3 V typical changes in signal reference voltage.

RFI/EMI (radiated) < 50 kV/m, < 200 kHz Varies widely Varies widely Same as above.
< 1.5 kV/m, > 200 kHz with shielding with shielding

Voltage distortion 5–50% THD 5–10% 3–5% Voltage regulators, signal circuits,
(from sine wave) capacitor filters, capacitor banks.
Overheating, undercharging.

Phase imbalance 2–10% 5% max 3% max Polyphase rectifiers, motors. Over-

heating.

Current parameter Typical range Typical susceptibility of power sources

affecting sources of load current
Normal Critical Units affected and comments

Power factor 0.85–0.6 lagging 0.8 lagging < 0.6 lagging Power source derating or greater
or capacity source with reduced over-
< 0.9 lagging all efficiency.

Crest factor 1.4–2.5 1.0–2.5 > 2.5 1.414 normal; impact function of
impedances at 3rd and higher har-
monics (3–6% Z). Voltage shape
distortion.

Current distortion 0–10% total rms 5–10% total 5% max total Regulators, power circuits. Over-
0–5% largest 3% largest heating.

DC current Negligible to 5% or < 1% As low as 0.5% Half-wave rectifier loads can satu-
more rate some power sources, trip cir-
cuit breakers.

Ground current 0–10 A rms + noise and > 0.5 A < 0.1 A Can trip GFI devices, violate code,
surge currents cause rapid signal reference voltage
changes.

Frequency parameter Typical range Typical immunity of electronic loads

affecting loads of power sources
Normal Critical Units affected and comments

Line frequency ±1% ±1% ±0.5% Zero-crossing counters.

Rate of frequency change 1.5 Hz/s 1.5 Hz/s 0.3 Hz/s Phase synchronization circuits.

Source: Based on FIPS Pub 94-1983.

86 Copyright © 1999 IEEE. All rights reserved.