Berio's 'Visage' and the Theatre of Electroacoustic Music

Author(s): Richard Causton

Source: Tempo, New Series, No. 194, Italian Issue (Oct., 1995), pp. 15-21
Published by: Cambridge University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/944606
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Richard
Causton
Berio's 'Visage' and the Theatre of
Electroacoustic Music
As a setting for the enactment of important or
dramaticevents, theatremay be locatedanywhere.
The construction of special auditoria to accom-
modate aspects of theatre as an art form of
re-presentation and re-enactment in no way
invalidates the concept of a theatrical drama
which unfolds in the imaginationor in the arena
of everyday life. Music, like theatre, may be
inspired by real-life situations, but whereas in
modern Western civilizationit has taken on a life
of its own, and is played in the rarefied isolation
of concert halls, theatre, being a more concrete
form of representationalart, has retained much
closer links with the outside world.
However, it seems certain that, at some point
in the past, music existed solely as a facet of
another life-situation or action, as is still the case
in some other cultures. In many tribal societies,
for example, people sing songs accompanied by
instruments, but do not have a conception of
music as such, since the songs are merely an
integrated and indivisible part of the act of
hunting or of various secular or sacred rites. Of
course the use of music as an element of ritual is
by no means absent from Western cultures; but
whereas in the past the ceremony has generally
given rise to the music (as in the case of liturgy),
since the Enlightenment this situation has co-
existed with its reverse: the phenomenon of the
public concert, in which the music (which is the
raisond'e'treof the whole occasion) engenders the
ritual.This very concept of music as an independ-
ent artform, togetherwith the abilityto preserveit
in the form of notation, has enabled it to become
removed from its original context and from the
stimuli which brought about its creation.
In parallel with this distancing of music from
everydaylife has been the development of opera,
in which a drama is enacted and sung by
charactersfor whom, once more, the frontiers
between the experiences of life and music have
ceased to exist. In Wagner, this concept comes to
embrace the idea of the creation of a whole
world, which functions as the setting for a story
which tells 'all there is to tell'. However, the
potent combinationof language, music, visual art
and action, unfolding through time as a Gesamt-
kunstwerk,acts rather to overwhelm and subdue
the creative imagination of the listener/watcher
than to stimulate or provoke it; everything
requiredfor the complete opera-houseexperience
is present before the eyes and ears, and any sense
of incompleteness felt during the course of the
work on account of the dramatictensions of the
plot is resolved (in its own terms)by the time the
opera has finished.
If we view the Gesamtkunstwerk as one extreme
of the spectrum of possibilities, a step towards
greater engagement of the listener's imagination
in creative activity is representedby the kind of
programmatic composition in which a purely
musical discourse is accompanied by notes
explaining the situation(s)being depicted. Here
the visual aspects of the dramaare forced to take
shape within the minds of the audience, condi-
tioned by the written programme, the musical
experience, and the personalityof the listener. In
abstractinstrumentalmusic, on the other hand,
no such extra-musical model is cited (except
perhapssummarilyin the title of the work), and
so the audience, in an attempt to place it safely
within one of the pre-defined categories of life
situation, identifies it as part of the 'concert'
ritual, with its performers and audience, and
establishedorder of procedure. The very sounds
of the instrumentsthemselves become a part of
this process of identification,since they can never
entirely be dissociated from their historical and
culturalcontexts (e.g. the organas an ecclesiastical
instrument,the use of the horn in hunting, etc.).
This scheme of things effectively encompassed
the whole range of musical activity in the
Westernworld until the advent, in the late 1940s,
of the electroacoustic tape piece. For the first
time, it became possible for composers to
exercise direct control over every parameterof
musical sound, and to fix their pieces in a
definitive form on tape. This presented two
problems: firstly, it defied recognition as part of
the 'concert' ritual, because one of the two basic
prerequisites for that definition (audience and
performer) was missing. Secondly, it was often
impossible for the audience to identify the sound
sources, and thence to trace them to a cultural
16 Music
Berio's'Visage'and the Theatreof Electroacoustic
frameof reference. Partof the reasonfor this was
that many of the sounds had their origins in
electrically powered frequency oscillators as
opposed to naturally resonating bodies (as had
been the case in all previous music); but even
naturally produced sounds were often changed
beyond all recognition. This branch of electro-
acoustic composition represented, potentially,
the most abstract possible form of musical
activity, and could be seen as an opposite
counterpart to the kind of traditional opera
discussed above.
Paradoxically, however, the very flexibility
which made this possible also allowed for the
inclusion in compositions of tape recorded
sounds from real life, allowing the composer 'an
acoustic palette as wide as that of the environ-
ment itself (Emmerson:18). Combined with the
use of more abstract sound, this facility
engendered a plethora of possibilities, one of
them being a kind of symbolic fusion (curiously
analogous to the position of opera) between
abstract musical ideas and the life situation in
which they have their roots.
In accordance with Luciano Berio's assertion
that the significanceof electroacousticmusic 'lies
not in the discovery of "new" sounds, but in the
possibility it gives the composer of integrating
a larger domain of sound phenomena into a
musical thought' (Appleton and Perera:131),
attention in recent years has moved away from
the original question of concretevs. electronic
sound sources, to focus increasinglyon problems
of language and syntax. Various attempts at a
classificationof electroacousticworks according
to newly-defined genres have been made. Simon
Emmerson (1986:17-25) distinguishes aural
discourse from mimeticdiscourse, and abstract
syntax from abstractedsyntax, constructing a
'language grid' consisting of nine subdivisions1
into which compositionsmaybe placed.According
to his analysis, 'mimesis' denotes 'imitation not
only of nature but also of aspects of human
culture not usually associated directly with
musical material' (Emmerson:17), whilst aural
discourse refers to what is traditionallythought
of as 'abstract musical substance'. Sounds may
then be ordered according to a syntax which is
' The subdivisions are as follows: (1) Aural discourse:
AbstractSyntax; (2) Auraldiscourse:Combination of abstract
and abstracted syntax; (3) Aural discourse: Abstracted
syntax; (4) Combination of aural and mimetic discourse:
Abstract syntax; (5) Combination of aural and mimetic
discourse: Combination of abstract and abstracted syntax;
(6) Combination of aural and mimetic discourse: Abstracted
syntax; (7) Mimetic discourse: Abstract syntax; (8) Mimetic
discourse: Combination of abstract and abstracted syntax;
(9) Mimetic discourse: Abstracted syntax.
abstractedfrom their sonic or referentialqualities,
or abstract(i.e. organized according to precepts
unconnectedto any propertiesof the sound itself:
for example, serially). However, as Emmerson
hints, any easy categorization of a sonic event
as 'mimetic' or 'non-mimetic' belie the true
complexity of the situation,since humansidenti-
fy sounds by any one of several parameters,and
the amplitude or frequency envelope of a sound
may tell the listener as much or more about its
source than the timbre itself.2 For example, a
synthetic sound which gets louder and rises in
pitch is perhapsas likely to be associatedwith an
approachingcar as an actual recording of a car
engine. All sound is a resultof movementthrough
space with respect to time, but depending on the
temporal dimensions under consideration we
may focus upon the impulse created by a single
movement of a piston (timbre), the continuous
sound created by the periodic movement of the
piston to and fro (pitch), or the morphology of
the whole sonic entity as the car approachesand
then recedes into the distance.
Denis Smalley's paper Spectro-Morphology and
StructuringProcesses(reprinted in Emmerson,
pp.61-93) offers a sophisticated approachto the
ordering of electroacoustic sound types, and
discusses this dichotomy in terms of textureand
gesture.Texturedescribes the internal life of a
sound as a staticobject, whilstgestureis concerned
with its 'energy profile' or dynamic patterning.
Although Smalley recognizes the close links
betweengestureand causality('If we do not know
what caused the gesture, at least we can surmize
from its energetic profile that it could have been
caused, and its spectro-morphologywill provide
evidence of the nature of such a cause' [82], his
general outlook remains obstinately tied to the
Schaefferianconcept of sounds as objects which
can be regarded as purely aural phenomena
devoid of any extramusicalconnotations. Whilst
acknowledging that tape-recorded sounds, like
words, may be exploited for their sonic or
symbolic properties, Smalley insists that the
listener can (and should) acquire the ability to
reject any notion of the source of a sound (a
dissociative process referred to as 'reduced
listening'). An obvious means of achieving this
would be throughrepeatedhearingsof the sound
object until the listener reached a state of
semantic satiation, the sound having yielded its
meaningful content on its first appearance.
However, the extent to which this is possible
clearlydependson the natureof the sound:whilst
2 This
explains one of the means by which mimesis may be
achieved in purely acoustic music.

Berio's'Visage'and the Theatreof Electroacoustic
a recording of a mountain stream may be
appreciated for its purely sonic qualities
relatively quickly, 'with music for voice ... it is
doubtful whether we can ever banish from our
apprehension of the sound the recognition of a
humansource'(TrevorWishart,in Emmerson:42).
To take a graphic example, the sound of a cry of
pain will retain its associations through many
repetitions.This type of associationmay not be a
function of any voluntary mental process, so
much as an innate reflex response geared to self
preservation,thus bypassingthe faculty by which
we make qualitative aesthetic judgements, and
apparentlyworkingdirectlyon our nervoussystem.
Notwithstanding the relatively recent advent
of the loudspeaker, the nature of all sonic
phenomena has been, throughout history, a
reliable indicator of the nature of their causative
physicalevents (conditionedby naturalacoustics).
Given this fact, together with the overriding
human need to found meaningful relationships
between objects and contextualize them into an
establishedworld view (even if this requires the
constructionof myths),we are forced to conclude
that the experience of electroacoustic music
unavoidably engenders in us mental images
which have their roots in other partsof life. If we
are to refute the assertionthat all electroacoustic
musicis inherentlytheatricalwe mustnevertheless
concede that the tendency to invoke elements of
theatre in order to 'complete' the experience of
electroacoustic music is a part of our humanity:
the theatre is in the mind.
The extent to which composers acknowledge
this tendency variesconsiderably,and is reflected
in their works: whilst Denis Smalley's pieces
revolve around subtle textural patternings,
Trevor Wishart actively exploits the potential
which it affords, constructing whole narratives
out of his ordering of recognizable sounds and
transformationsbetween them (for example in
his piece Red Bird).With this in mind, we may
discuss electroacoustic music as operating in
terms of abstracttheatre or concretetheatre;
significantly, the approach of the composer in
this respect frequently correspondsto his or her
interest in, or indifference to, the variety of the
possible uses of the human voice.
The dichotomy between the properties of
concrete sounds as 'sound objects' and as
'signifiers' is analogous to that which exists
between the phonetic and semantic levels of
language.Thus when the voice is introducedinto
electroacousticmusic - the voice, with its ability
to communicate not only through language but
also tone of voice, inflection etc., and above all
by virtue of its ultimate inseparabilityfrom the
Music 17
human nervous system - the situation becomes
infinitely more complex.
* * *
Berio, in his own words, has 'alwaysbeen very
sensitive ... to the excess of connotations that
the voice carries,whatever it is doing. From the
grossest of noises to the most delicate of singing,
the voice always means something, always refers
beyond itself and creates a huge range of
associations:cultural, musical, emotive, physio-
logical, or drawn from everyday life' (Berio:94),
and he has described the extraordinaryflexible
voice of Cathy Berberian as 'almost a second
"studiodifonologia"'(94). Possiblyhis most famous
electroacoustic composition, and a recognized
landmarkin the genre, is Visage(1960-61), a tape
piece consisting of unprocessed vocal sounds
combined with sounds of electronic origin. This
was the co-creation of Berio and Berberian.
Working in the studio of the RAI in Milan, they
improvised a greatly expanded vocal repertory,
creatinga reservoirof materialssuitablefor use in
the piece. These included cries, a whole gamut of
different laughs, singing, a low clicking sound,
isolated phonemes and syllables, and passagesof
nonsense language based on the phonology of
English, Hebrew, and the Neapolitan dialect.
The entire thrust of Visageis theatricalin the
widest sense. As soon as the sound of the close-
miked voice appears, a few seconds into the
piece, the listener is catapultedinto the realms of
intimate human sensibilities, and the focus
instantly shifts from identification of the sounds
to questions about the condition of the person
making them, and their possible causes. The
analogy between the voice and the electronic
studio, with its triple potential for the high-
fidelity reproduction of real sound-objects,
distortion/transformationof them in a variety of
ways, and generation of synthetic or 'fictitious'
sounds, provides a useful starting-point for this
discussion. Throughout Visage, the extent to
which the voice functions as predominantly
referring to other things (as opposed to being in
itself the main object of attention) is in a state of
flux, like a filter, the nature and transparencyor
opacity of which varies with time. Sometimesthe
vocal sounds seem to react to the electronic
sounds, and sometimes to merge with them; the
relationshipbetween them never remains stable
for long.
The question of the voice's subjectivity or
objectivity, and the relation of this to its
operation as primarilydescriptive or responsive,
may be viewed in several ways. An obvious
approachwould be to associateits more primitive
18 Berio's'Visage'and the Theatreof Electroacoustic
Music
LucianoBerio with (in mirror)Cathy Berberian(photo:courtesyof The LondonSinfonietta)
cries with heightened emotional states, and
conclude that these sounds yield information
primarily about the condition of the person
producing them - whilst the moments at which
the voice commands the largest vocabulary (and
its calmest), correspondingto the highest degree
of semantic specificity, are points of lucidity and
objectivity. Certainly there is a sense, at these
points, that the mind behind the voice is very
much in control, re-evoking and describing
scenes distant in time or space: the tone and the
breathy quality of the voice are reminiscent of
story-telling. Yet any attempt to interpret this
behaviouras objective (even if that criterionwere
satisfied merely by high fidelity to a known
fairytale) is immediately subverted by the fact
that the words are all imaginaryand do not mean
anything. We are hearing, rather, an abstraction
and amplification of all the semiotic elements of
the type of speech we use when we tell stories.3
It is equally possible to take an opposite
viewpoint, and claim that the most primitive
utterances represent the voice at its most
objective, since the sounds produced are a direct
result of involuntaryreflex responsesto physical
stimuli, and as such do not depend on the mental
state of the subject. However, from a detached
position this argument too may be rejected,
owing to the implicit assumption that the tape-
3A
process analogous to (but not the same as) the bleeps
of
amplification musical of
aspects Joyce's text in Berio's
Thema(Ommagioa Joyce).
recorded cries and other vocal emissions were
actuallysimulatedresponsesto pain, etc., and thus
a result of voluntarymental processes. If we accept
that such sounds can be made at will, they are no
longer in themselves reliable indicators of the
situation of the subject. However, at one point
(c.6'39"-7'13") screams are accompanied by
sharp,incisive electronic sounds on the tape, and
this acts to corroborate the stark image of a
woman being hit. It marks an extreme mimesis
in the purely electronic part of the piece, which
generally retains a more circumscribed,abstract
character.
Immediately after this the crying of the voice
is abruptly transformed into panting laughter
and then into low clicks. The ensuing passage
(c.7' 13"-7'25")is in many ways a mirrorimage of
that which it follows: the voice makes a unique
foray into the sound-world of 1950s electronic
music in its low clicking sound, and it is the turn
of the real electronic sounds to 'respond', this
time imitatively, rather than confrontationally.
The two sounds become indistinguishable, and
thus any attempt to characterize the vocal and
electronic components of the piece as discrete or
opposing forces is quickly thwarted. Against
these sharply differentiated passages there are
stretches of music in which both voice and
electronics occupy a kind of no-man's land of
and brief vocal emissions (c.8'00"-8'35").
Although the question of the objectivity or
subjectivityof the voice part must remainlargely
 Berio's'Visage'and the Theatreof Electroacoustic
unanswered, it is possible to suggest that whilst
the piece's extremes of primitive utterances and
relatively sophisticateduse of linguistic elements
are both representative of a common human
vocal repertory (the passages which utilize
imaginary words are modelled on archetypal
patternsof inflection associatedwith storytelling
or television speech, and the screamsand cries are
fundamentalto human nature),the exceptionally
finely differentiated shades of laughter (for
example at c.3'20", 6'08" and 8'50") are more
personaltraits.Although recognizablysignificant
of various mental states, some of them are highly
idiosyncraticand, taken in isolation, appearto be
indicativeof the singularnatureof the individual.
However, the emergence of any enduring
appraisal of the personality of the subject is
precluded by the rapid transitionsor vacillation
between contradictoryvocal behaviours. Some-
times the voice metamorphosesbetween sounds
associated with distress and pleasure in a very
short space of time (for example at c.6'39" and
7'13"); at others it teeters unsteadily on a knife-
edge between hysterical laughter and tears
(c.2'40"-3'19").If the vocal gesturesareconsidered
in groups, rather than by themselves, the
repeated negation of one sign by another
underminesany sense of a stable personality,and
threatens the very notion of the subject as an
individual.
This issues a seriouschallenge to the facultyby
which we systematizeperceived phenomena into
our world-view (and thereby reduce their
potency to a functionallevel). If we are bound to
contemporary rationalism, which regards the
healthy psyche as a discrete and autonomous
entity, the view of the voice as that of one
individual throughout the piece (as the sonic
evidence clearly suggests) remains tenable only
through the invocation of concepts such as a
nightmare scenario, or a 'split personality' or
some other mental disorder. Istvan Anhalt's
assertion (made in respect of Berio's solo vocal
work SequenzaIII, but also applicable to Visage)
that 'Berio portrays a woman who reveals, it
seems, a syndrome of psychic ailments that
containselements of schizophrenia'(Anhalt:27)is
echoed by severalother commentators;however,
it appearsthat Berio himself refutes this psycho-
logical interpretation(Osmond-Smith, 1991:67),
preferring to leave the question open.
At the first suggestion that the voice on the
tape is attached to a mind which cannot control
itself, the listener's method of mentally evoking
the missing elements of theatre is undermined:
we are no longer certain whether what the voice
is responding to/describing is real life or an
Music 19
hallucination:are events taking place within the
mind of the subject or around her? Three
possibilities become equally likely: she may be
reactingto external stimuli, acting like a prism or
filter which distorts reality, or merely deluding.
Our inability to find a stable location for the
action, and above all the consistent denial of
languageas a possible meansof identificationand
thereby distancing (ironically reinforced by the
reiteration of 'parole', which means 'words')
continually reflect the focus back onto the one
tangible element - the voice - serving to
reintensify the drama.Nor is the question of the
location of the essential subject matter of the
piece as simple as even this would imply. If the
distress apparentin the voice were symptomatic
of the desperatesearchfor reality and attempt to
find order amongst the imaginary voices heard
during an hallucination, then it follows that the
woman whose voice is heard on the tape is
engaged in the very same futile attempts at
a categorization of perceived (but virtual)
phenomenainto divisions such as unreal and real,
cause and effect, objective and subjective, with
which we were concerned above.
As the sense of disorientationand dislocation
increases throughout the piece, the comfortable
distinctionbetween the listener and the dramatic
charactertends to blur and dissolve: the turbulent
events in her mind are mapped directly onto
those of the audience, the spotlight turns on
them, and in an extraordinaryand sophisticated
coupdetheatre they areforcedinto self-examination.
This accountsfor the extremely disturbingeffect
Visagehas on some people - the inability to
distance themselves from the voice leaves them
exposed to questions about their own sanity and
the validity of theirview of the world. The notion
that voice (which reflects, unmediated, the
relentless, uncontrollable oscillation of the
character's mental state) forces sympathetic
resonances in the minds of the audience,
amplifying the sense of rudderlessness and
distress, invokes the absurd spectre of a chain
reaction or an endless feedback loop of psychic
disturbance between the person (becoming
intermittently the subject) who apprehends it,
and the sound source itself. Thus the origin, as
well as the nature, of the complex of emotional
and mental states associated with the piece is
called into question.
Only when the piece has finished does it
become possible to diminish its considerable
impact.This is frequentlyachieved at the'expense
of a genuine appreciationof the challenge which
the work poses to the listener's creative and
theatrical imagination. Through the use of
20 Berio's'Visage'and the Theatreof Electroacoustic
Music
language - the very negation of which allows
the piece such potency - explanations and
rationalizationsare invoked which found them-
selves upon analyticalscrutinyof the voice as an
external object. Thus the ex-listener (turned
talker), projects the anxiety and distress back
onto the dramaticcharacter,and, having expelled
the distastefulelements of the experience, is able
comfortably to digest it into their world-view,
which (along with their own crucial position
within it), remains intact.
Such a response, it is argued, is merely
functional: after the concert, life goes on, and
some means of regaining emotional stability is
necessary.When this becomes the basic approach
for an analyticalthesis, however, one senses that
the analysthas missedthe point: the way in which
they select and schematize events in support of
their conclusions seems to speak more of
themselvesthanof the piece under consideration.
According to Istvan Anhalt (in his useful
discussion of SequenzaIII):
LucianoBeriohascreateda vocalportraitof a woman,
probablyNorth American... It seemsshe is in no
mood to addressus througha coherentdiscourse,
spokenor sung,andperhapsshe is incapableof doing
so ... Sherevealswhatmightappearto one as a great
varietyof feelings,highlyunstablemoods,anxieties,
neurosis,andpsychosis,andshe is quiteunconcerned
withtheseandpossiblyunableto concealthem... We
sensethat she may be a personwhose thinkingand
perceivingareregulatedmoreby irrepressible desires
or needs,thanby anawareness of anyobjectivereality
aroundher. (Anhalt:25)
Sometimes this intense scrutiny from a safely
entrenched, distant position takes on an air of
voyeurism; later on in the same chapter the
author cites Cathy Berberian's description of
SequenzaIII as 'an X-ray of a woman's inner
life' (40) and continues: 'She conceals little, and
stands, figuratively speaking, naked before us,
in this quasi-clinical,albeit abstractedreconstruc-
tion.' In its failure to discussthe music-theatrical
event as a phenomenon which exists through
the perception and interpretationof an audience,
this approach omits consideration of the most
important elements of the overall drama.
Despite the general focus of the foregoing
discussion,Visagedoes not work throughsemiotic
discontinuity alone: at 13'14" the voice sings
pitched notes for the first time, and the passage
from 15'30"to 17'31"achievesits greatpoignancy
and eloquence through steadily working its way
deeper into a single mood. At this point there is
no doubt as to the sanity of the character,or of
the seriousness of what is being said, and the
work exploits the unique potential of electro-
acoustic music for the superimposition (and
symbolic unification) of speech, song and purely
abstract sound as different incarnations of a
central idea or feeling. The three elements work
perfectly together and, as elsewhere, the voice
communicatesall the salient informationwithout
recourse to real words. One wonders here
whether the combinationof the grave tone and a
Hebrew-based phonology in a work written not
all that long after the Second World War is
intentionally significant. If it is, this hint of
reference to an outside situation is merely a
suggestionin a piece otherwise rigorouslydevoid
of signs pertaining to specific causative events.
Through the negation of language it focuses
intensively on the effects,in human terms, of the
kind of actions with which the world is all too
familiar, but without stooping to the level of
identifyingculpritsandvictims, remainingalways
internationalanduniversal.The invocation of, on
the one hand, electronic sounds which carry no
specific connotations,and, on the other, the most
meaningful sound of all - the human voice -
makes possible the establishmentand dissolution
of innumerable different interrelationships,and
allows Berio freely to exploit the potential for
referential ambiguity inherent in the electro-
acoustic medium. The extreme and carefully
calculatedtension between the great accuracyof
semiotic specificity and the total lack of semantic
specificity forces the mind of the listener into
creative activity.
In itself, Visagedefies categories - it has no
messageor story, the electronic and vocal sounds
are no more opposing dramaticforces than they
are partners,neither can be labelled as objective
or subjective, and no stable behaviouralpatterns
can be discerned in either: even the overall
trajectoryof the voice, from isolated phonemes
to sustainednotes, is far from linear. At this point
it becomes clear why Berio is so reluctant to
participate in the futile quest for an inter-
pretation;every facet of the piece is designed to
provoke analysis, only to ridicule it. One must
look not at the piece, but at one's own self in
relation to it; thus any quasi-scientificstructural
analysiswhich isolates it, failing to acknowledge
the creative activity requiredof the analystas the
inventorof the structure,is invalid. It seems that,
in its extraordinarycapacityto engage the listener
and to awakenin them profound questionsabout
themselves and their relation to others, this piece
is without parallel. It belongs to a unique
dramaticgenre which offers a theatricalexperi-
ence without boundaries; the location is the
virtual space of the mind, and the protagonist
anyone who cares to listen.
 Music 21
Berio's'Visage'and the Theatreof Electroacoustic

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Emery, J. 'Promenade Concerts' Musical Wishart, T. Red Bird: A Document York:
Timesci/1412 (Oct 1960), p.304 Wishart, 1978
Emmerson, S.(ed.) The Language of Electroacoustic
Music London: Macmillan, 1986
Ernst, D. The evolution of electronicmusic References for Petrassi article, cf. p.10
New York: Schirmer, 1977
Flynn, G.W. 'Listeningto Berio's Music' Music Mario Bartolotto, 'Il cammino di Goffredo Petrassi'
Quarterlylxi/3 (Jul 1975) pp.388- in Guido M. Gatti (ed.), L'operadi GoffredoPetrassi
421 (Turin: Einaudi, Quadernidella RassegnaMusicale 1,
Griffiths, P. Guideto ElectronicMusicLondon: 1964).
Faber, 1979
ReginaldSmithBrindle, 'ContemporaryItalianMusic',
Levi-Strauss,C. Myth and Meaning London: in Howard
Hartog (ed.), EuropeanMusic in the 20th
Routledge, 1978
R. notes for Century(London: Pelican Books, 1961).
Marsh, 'Visage' (programme
the Royal Academy of Music John S. Weissmann, GoffredoPetrassi(Milan: Edizioni
Berio Festival, London, 1989) Suvini Zerboni, 1957).

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