20 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY' AN INTRODUCTION TO THE DISCIPLINE 21

The different basic assumptions that personality theorists make concerning desirable to conceptualize these assumptions as continuous so that important
human nature will now he discussed. These assumptions are of paramount signifi - differences among theorists may be more readily apparent. A brief consideration
cance in understanding and evaluating all personality theories: they will play an of each assumption follows.
important part in the presentation of each theoretical perspective included in this
book.
Freedom-Determinism
One of the most basic questions that individuals can ask about themselves is what degree of internal freedom, if any. they
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS CONCERNING HUMAN NATURE actually possess in directing and control ling their thoughts, feelings. and actions. How valid and to what extent is the
All thinking people entertain certain implicit assumptions about human nature. subjective sense of freedom experienced by people in decision making? To what extent is their behavior actually determined by
Personality theorists are no exception to this principle. The suppositions that factors that are partially or totally outside the sphere of their conscious recognition? Philosophers and other thinkers have
people make about the nature of human beings are, presumably. rooted in their debated this critical issue for centuries. It is. therefore. not surprising to find that it is by no means a dead issue in modern
personal experiences. Such basic assumptions profoundly influence the way that psychology (Deci & Ryan. 19851.
individuals perceive one another, treat one another, and, in the case of personality
theorists, construct theories about one another. The assumptions themselves may That major contemporary personality theorists differ sharply from one another on this basic assumption about human
or may not be fully recognized by the individual, whether a personologist or not. nature is quite clear. For instance. Rogers stated that "man does not simply have the characteristics of a machine. he is not
simply in the grip of unconscious motives, he is a person in the process of creating himself, a person who creates meaning in
In this section each of the basic assumptions that one could hold about human
his life. a person who embodies a dimension of subjective freedom" (Shlien. 1963. p. 3071. By way of direct con trast.
nature will be made explicit. We are convinced that all major theories of person -
Skinner asserted that "autonomous man is a device used to explain what we cannot explain in any other way. He has been
ality are built upon different positions on these basic assumptions and that no
constructed from our ignorance. and as our understanding increases, the very stuff of which he is composed vanishes"
major personality theory can be fully or properly understood without reference to (1971. p. 2001. At this point neither of these positions is established as fact. Rather. they are philosophical assumptions
them. The differences among theories of personality, to some extent, reflect more about the nature of humanity.
fundamental differences among theorists on these assumptions.
The basic assumptions concerning human nature fall within these polarities: If a given personality theorist, based on personal experience and a host of other influences impinging upon her intellectual
development, assumes that human beings are genuinely capable of free choice, her theory will be profoundly af fected.
She will likely formulate a theory in which people are seen as primarily responsible for their own actions and, at least to some
IDeterminism
Freedom
extent. capable of transcending various environmental influences upon their behavior. She will tend to see free choice as a quintessential part of what it means to be a human being. On the other
2 Rationality
Irrationality hand, if it personologist is inclined toward determinism, his theory will depict human behavior as being controlled by definable factors. It then becomes incumbent upon the personologist to specify
Elementalism
3 Holism
these factors, and much of his theory will involve this task. In point of fact. deterministically based personality theories differ markedly on the nature of these factors. For example. human
Environmentalism
4 Constitutionalism
Unchangeability behavior could be determined by unconscious motives. external reinforcements. early experiences. physiological processes, genetic factors. cultural influences—each one open to various
5 Changeability
Objectivity interpretations. In this context, the major source of agree ment among these approaches to personality is that human behavior is deter mined.
6 Subjectivity
Reactivity The position. then. that a personologist assumes in the freedom-determinism dimension greatly influences the nature of his or her theory and the implications
7 Proactivity
Heterostasis
8 Homeostasis
Unknowability
9 Knowability

The assumptions arc portrayed here as relatively continuous. bipolar dimen -

sions along which any personality theorist can place himself or herself or be
placed in terms of his or her basic position regarding that assumption. In other
words, each assumption is depicted as a continuum with a pole. or extreme
position. at its opposite end (e.g. freedom is at one pole of the first continuous
dimension, while determinism is at the opposite pole or end). From a philosoph -
ical viewpoint. the issues inherent in these assumptions might be considered
dichotomous rather than continuous (e.g. people are either free or determined).
However, among personologists there are various differences in the extent to
which a basic assumption is perceived as characteristic of humanity. For example.
theorist A may view persons as less determined than does theorist B. Thus. it is