5 Modern Theories and Research on Classical Chapter 4 described some of the most basic terms and concepts of dssical conditioning and some way in which it plays a roe in our daily lives. Most ofthe concepts presented in that chapter ether were developed by Paviov for can be traced back to some of his ideas. Pavlov saw casial conditioning as simple, mechanical, rule-governed type of learning, yet one that might explain a good del of our "cared behaviors, We have already seen that ‘moder psychologists generally donot believe that classical conditioning can account for 38 ‘many Jearned behaviors as Pavov thought. ‘The present chapter examines other ways in ‘which psychologists” conceptions of asicl fondioning have changed over the years Perhaps the clearest theme emerging from rmogern research on clasical conditioning is that though iis one ofthe simplest types of Jearning we know of, i is more complicated than was once believed. This isnot to say that ‘modern conditioning experiments exhibit dis order or that he results llow no rls; rather, itis simply thatthe modern rules (theories) of conditioning have become more complex and ‘more sophinicate, Conditioning [As you rad about these modem theories, itmay be helpful to keep in ming the flowing ‘question: What would an ideal theory of cls Sal conditioning look like? In Chapter 1 we reviewed the characteristics a god theory should have, but now lt us consider the spe- cfc case of a theory of dassical cnditioning, Firs of al, the dependent variable should be well described and well predicted. In classical ‘conditioning, the dependent varable isthe CCR. The ideal theory would predict, in ad- vance, what the CR will look lik. Stimulus substation theory offered a simple rule for predicting the form ofthe OR, tut we have Sen that tis simple rule is often voted. To ward the end of this chapter, some modern theories and research bearing on tis problem will be discussed. The ideal theory would also be able to predic fora given coniioning si- uation, both the ans’ of conditioning andthe dnetionof conditioning (excitatory or inhibi tory), We have already examined some of the independent vatiables that can influence ‘the amount and direction of condtianing—the salience of CS and US, their contiguity, onder and frequency of presentation, and so forth.2 Modem Thar and Rete on Cla onioning ‘Asa result of modern research, the ist of im portant independent variables hes grown longer. An ideal theory would not only take all ofthese variables into account; it would do so in the most parsimonious way possible, keeping the number of theoretical assump. tion (the syntax of the theory) and interven: ing variables to a minimum, | doubt that anyone would disagree with the statement thatthe ideal theory of casical conditioning has not yee been developed. Nu: ‘merous new phenomena have been discovered in rent year, and che sheer numberof these iseoveres, i nothing ele, has strained the ingenuity ofthe most dedicated theoreticians i this field. Nonetheless, considerable prog ress has been made inthe let two decades, and this chapter presents some ofthe expert ‘mental and theoretical highligh, THE BLOCKING EFFECT Qe of the oldest principles of association is he principle of frequency. Thomas, Brown (1820) fim proposed ths principe, and we hhave seen data from Ebbinghaus and fom clasical conditioning experiments that sup. por this principle. OF our, iscbious that lrequeny isnot the only variable tha fers hese "HaToR: Foran, i e983 is more salient than a szond CS, the fmt should show Taster acguistion, Tone CS. {if more ighly correlated with the US than a second CS, the first should exhibit stronger condoning. Bu if al ofthese other factors axe controled, then the Fae-OT Reauety should beexidens: More pairings sould pro. Gb nto dong ioc umber of pairings shoud prodice equal serong con ‘ThE ole of fequency is impli in the ideaied learning curve inthe fist pane of Figure 4-6: This graph depicts the dependent varable, the strength of condoning, ay + funtion of the independent variable, the umber of CS-US pairing. The principle of frequency was adopted son of the basi = sop tar head ted peng (ue Che en 18" (90h “nea tes dete neat ect iat oe dae ee igeme ctr re a wean ata geen Seen olay ea, ale dvm adap tae go eon nae ey nga aa et Societe ee cerns Sree ae bow eae de ee ‘mins experiment and others in this chapter a ei ped Boa a ee init cS ed cree SRT wi epee ears igh), Usual ely one US i RSS it sy ie pron others, so the superscripts aad will tep- peat stabil iola Toes he cals ae sae on otth on 3h en, eee iad vs lve eb sin ler ee anda Stone ae ici ene tna tt eee Sie eae ial ences aa ey U8 peta dared eee te ince ecto a mat nitro mares hap ree Slane ‘in one group received some T* trials and mort na ener aca Soli mea ops of is cue ae Die that the results of an experiment tafe, Sich Gaeeec ‘tween CSs of different modafities. "To avoid conan eee eee ae acne anon Chinese Nant ope cadravina conte copes rn gs st he eee shoModern There ed Rearh on Csi! Codioing 91 p51 on fan Beng pr sips Tis dan inte peek Gectng peop plas Sas ra” tea] as ae ope ae sone PAE DOSE TES Sethey poop fe ems da nea is a Feliable predictor ofthe US—the USA” Reece Ptr reese sep oceas Meh cree nln Ce Seay other sine. The-S00tar oT wo te cout = YT Texts stan dn Phat? adds nothing te aad Cheesy to predict he US, THE eer ret sgt Sondoing il rot occur ater condoning stuaon, Table 5-1 out if a GS is no new normation te lines he design ofthe experiment. There were US frie cont gu, oh the Bh had, wooo Tina's ‘ads theabjecs have lemed sting stout any Seatguy. he agua aE epee ote nate uo seh ia, be ising poupreaed ania, bo simol Land pont wh 2 sin ofL* tal and by eth af tt abe information abou an cere pee phase Leeda sone CR Tn Phase 7th dictable OS, pap hs animalearn blocking group received aserics of LT trials. associate both stimuli with the US. (Kamin Nate ht thee were exe eae thowed Waal poduces a ondtioned re ashe {ide at aszond OS, pune in ecm gp.) cece lng with LIne text pase, This experiment forces ito cocide that was presented by Wel in extinction for tev- the simple equency hypothe cnt com ral rials so as to measure strength of con- pletely correct(We cannot price the nrengeh Stoning to SG eondening to T amply by couning he The coos forte concal group were number times Tis pated wi oe JS We identical exepe for one import ile tus a ake nto oust What ee CSs cma Phase no smal were reeled tte poset and what prior Ono, | Thus the fit tine he abject were ex: hiner ve er, In Kamin Teper) posed 0 LT, andthe US wasn Pan tient shoved tit Zonditonig i no he a ‘impo realize hat oth groupe in tis ‘oma eof he ping of CS and US. experinent recived exactly the same number Condonng wll ecu ely he CS i of pixings of simulue T and shock. Because fgmative, only iit is predictive of something ofthe equal numberof pairings the frequency important, sel-axan-apconnig tod Ths prinple predicts that conditioning to Ti SW Snpy Wat The bj has «| Sl be eqly song inthe ewo groupe, ore active role nthe condoning proce However, Kamin oaied wating afer thn was previ thnght—te sbi atest Wheres be cbsrved a song GR] seleve ame, aring abut {0 Tin the contd group, be recoded eer| il dieing uninformative oc For Say no condoned responding a all to in|, ewe ycologs Alan the Hocking group Since the nly dileence) Wagner, te blocking eect and related fad between the wo groupe was that the locking" lng underscored Wie ned Tr a new try ot ipoup receive condoning tle with L i dase conn ane bar at Frase but the contro group diac, Kamin’ thee low pdtons of infarmatvenss and conduded that tht por conioning with, predctnencss in a hie gurus, cjave Sima Lsomctow “hosed te lat com), The rau of et Capos Alening of ina he Reals Wagner made), ow ne of ‘An nuit exlanton of Kunin's Hock the mos famous teri of clas conde ingeserimentisot fio omae To toning —soni Yim 8. tse sal Us ice it 8 Meer Tar and Renee n Clie Conioning THE RESCORLA-WAGNER MODEL An nttivlavroducton 1k will require some effort to master the principles of the Rescorla-Wagner model—it is one ofthe more dificult theories presented in this book. However, che basic ideas beh the theory are quite simple and reasonable, so let us begin bY examifing these Teas’ an informal way, We can sar with the assump. tion that itis useful for an animal to be ‘0 predictor aiteipate important events in ie enitonnént, bot inane an SS oth rable and_unlavor, Be, tis well ae ania Ee Ea htc of vet eotg aa Weep fea. Clasical conditioning can be viewed a 2 cans of learning abou gual (fo important events (US he Ress ime ces OS CS is presented one Tee dng en rep: (1) eS might bear mare Se @) te CS man oom boo () NE Rig Bem je rear fi Res Wag ner model reguding which of ese rl hoe en may beeaterounderandfwecompare Dredit the arrival of food, since the occur: Fence ofthe tne will now prdace activity in the food center trough thé link) ‘This reasoning may explain how the ani- i x et lr a oproed ate sad ace or pi) be fow a aa sie of that event? K straightborward idea tha te the ean cc ak ofthe even: I the tone signals lage amqunt oT fa ng oe toon biveer ie eae a cent. the wisn fd aT ek mca wil deve Rex ad Mosier adopted thi amb tt lata ce i'w i ings reached simp he se tection be Sele ee or iateny of he US Saree eee ‘hip ina sgh ifr wey ree tht th amoun of asoanve rege cztr wll porta aompes Snes oe these ofthe US. Parteaveg ‘pete erample wil uu iis ro. Sopot ats pled a eh tioned suppression procedure in which a ligh is with ama shock. Let ‘us the notation A to denote the an of associat ‘Lm ahock can tape Teter A stand for ‘hat an animal “expects” ona giver GJ of aarave wi he actual US” por at iy ‘ irlrger than expected, (for example, the w- “ayo; de abserpe [ecu ne al expects no shock but ere will be some eit receives one), mot [pested (or instance, if he animal expects 9, shock but does not receive one), there wil be | ore inhibitory conditag Peal Ivor the animal expects is wat actually happens, there will be no addtional lea ‘With theae three general rules in mind, let 4s now examine the model in more detail low can ainal ania ae US is forthcoming? The $-8 theory af asial ‘ondtioning provides a simple explanation: lect ink from a specific CS cener (such as ‘tone center) toa spcitic US center (auch as 2 for center) is f ing conditioning. ‘This link may explain how the subjet cap are ow cocred wit meh) foes {doing ped the sengh of esa ‘ion tee igh tne oa ) The ie soe ek ie Sra oh le arengh of some QSLUS sswcie goat "signifies the light)” Speaking casually, we righ wy that 8 reece te sed at eal eh nde, isa mer of te suger neat aa ton” about the sie of Be ac) Os cm of cndoning. he Rese ee Iodel pred hat Vv aprons ee thee sepeatin wie te Alero heal even) Ban inerening atin, ey ce a served ye What we en ceoeee te, tte OR (ch te te laure mag ft 04 Siete SN ie pemnemecpers Ce ot ea Daa cea deme BeBe oy gy yor oye ston bythe rete own in Figure 5, fr ang? cach C8 precat on that oa ca ample). receive a decrease in associative strength. An ‘A second example will ‘example of such a situation is an extinction sic ntme SE nan slr Soper aegis Seat US edo me tng soni‘ =. eC recine Srna ete) Mester eora {imo Bok Vendo (he ami MAG pence. Ys ing raf ho wee ves Ea Hn (ree a 0 he wiieribewlnchitjee, anesthe eae incall nat tgiceagh tem OO ee oe thir ace eng, Va, which sl CSS approach A in suc station (where Vy," US is presented_| Ve + Ve). TH aiimpion can be &x2 3. TTA, = Van, there wil be no aming ined as flows: Presumably, ao animal wil, Ths corespond tothe station wiee te ‘use all available stimuli to predict the occur-' size of the US is well predicted by the OSs that renof and The wie of a US. Since the light and preceded it. tone are abvays presented together, nina wl ute both ofthese siguals, and it wil be These rules sate wheter laring wil 0c able to predic the SDE OTe hock asia’ cur one iven tral thd whether twa bes when the sum of teir associative frengths citatory of inhibitory. Al that remains isto als A. Ifthe light and the tone are eqdally predict dow mack learning will occur (Siete associative strengths will in. tial For any given CS, the model ses that ‘ease atthe same rate 0 at anfpite V, the amount of increase or derease in aso, and Ve will both equal AJ2. On the other, ative strength wil always Ee pRpORARaT TS hand, ifthe lights more salen than the tone, the di To asymptote its astocatve strength will be ~ discepahgy change in asseiaive eater than the tone’s, bu ther total strength strength willbe large! Ifthe discrepane)is wil sill equal A,. small, here wil ately leschange ‘We are now ina poston to state more for- in attciative strength Final, the model mally he thre rules menined at the begin- sates thatthe change in associative erength ing ofthis section. Let ut define A asthe, ao depends on the slice of he CS. Thee, ssympote of associative arength a lien US, fare, if ro CSs are present on a condoning i, il appr. The mode! sates atom eich tril but one iit and the ther weak Vay these will be excitatory” this model, The best way to gain such an ge Jeaning—each CS present on that wal will dersanding is actualy to use the med! to ve an inrease in asoitve’suength. make predictions fora variety of condoning Tals pony coresponds tothe dtuaton in situons. Inthe next two sections we Wil ‘leh the US is “underpedced." That is, work through vera sich amples ug ma_- 4 9 Maden Tar nd Roache Casal Cong merical and graphic aid to make the predic Application ofthe Hoge to Some Basie Condtioning Pheromone Since nether the associative strength of any CS nor A, can be measured direct, any num bers assigned to these quantities are com: pletely arbitrary. In each of the following ‘examples, let us consider a conditioned suppression procedure with aI mA shock as the US, and let us set A, equal co 100. That is, we will asume that this shock will apport 100 units ofasociatve strength Acquisition, Consider the frst condition- ing trial on which light i paired with the 1 mA shock. Ifthe ight i the only CS present, then V,. = Vz, and V, = 0 because tere has been no prior conditioning with the light. Therefore, the discrepancy (Ay — Vg) = (100 — 0) = 100, and there will be some ex- itatory conditioning on this rial, The model sates thatthe amount of learning willbe pro- portional to this discrepancy, with the pro- Portion depending onthe sence of height. ‘We need to introduce another variable, §,, tai Sr Bon The )Decwpney Bten A Yan 1 rage Ast Sah net Tl a Ky YoYo YL Nom Yam Tat ti? Tad which isa measure ofthe salience ofthe ight ‘According tothe Researla-Wagner model, S, must have a value between 0 and 1. Let us the OS, § that with the particular light used as 2. This value of 2 meane that, ‘om any tral on which the light ie present, the change in V_ will equl 20 percent ofthe dis. ‘crepancy between A and Viyy- Therefore, on ‘the fist til V, wll be incremented by 2 x 100 = On, 2, 20 units, This process of incrementa- depicted graphy in Figure 5-1 smal 2, Vi, (and therefore V,_) begins so the disrepancy between Ay and V, 4s 80. The increment ia V, on trial 2s .2°% 20 16 = 16, and so after cwo trial V, = 20 + 36 (ce Figure 51), Notice because of the smaller dacrepanybeween A, and on tal 2, the amount of amie i walt than on ial (16 it ntad of 20) i 51 shows that the increment in ace strength should drop to 12.8 on trial 3 and to 27 by tral 10. By the end of trial 10, Vz has sen to 89.3, and with addtional tals it would of 10, ‘et closer and cose tothe asymptote ‘Axalready mentioned, the values cho- sen'for A, and S, are arbitrary, but the mod- a's predictions about the overall shape of the ‘sequisition curve ae the same no matter what WU Yorn Tra Fg. Frc ! he Retcra Wiper mae ft sii acqton wen sgl Pret! aber rh = 8,Modern Thi an Reh on Csi! Conieing $6 ‘ales are used. That i, the madel predic model acouns fr the phenomenon of oer thatthe nl nrc nV, willbe he arg: shadowing Let tse at neers tanh inrement wil became smalercodionng expeinet wih wo CS ae snd male he asmptt is approached, same light wed in the previous tangs Jn this simple example, V, and Vay, were = 2) ai avery loud oie (eon oe alvay equal the plotng ofboth quantities noie = Sy = 3), gure Seen Jn Figure 5-1 may sem redundant. However, sule of sever conditoning tian Gn ha dlenent example shows that ifmorethan one compound OS. On tral Van = Vit We 8 ime i i near to know bath = 0, wt Gcepanc Bewech A od VT Nem andthe ascitve strengths ofall the ig 100 asin the previous emp Uae ft india Cs. Preiou example, however, there are wo CS Vv. wise associative “incre: Oreadaeing. "Ina condoning exper- ened For V, the noenee wike wes iment with a compound CS conssig of ein ioftietineenes Po intense mus and on weak ones Prov. Forte moe len ae he covered a phenomenon be calla crementis 5X 100 = 30. Thon he ra] et 1, Ving = 20-4 50° 705 At the a of ial z Rit 2 sere, ae dscepany eee ete a tat he weak OS Ey ec" an ters ic ‘would elicit litde if any conditioned res and- crement in V, on trial 2 is 2X 30}= 5, and sotiecarattemed Goya: Seems ong AX ME San ‘otal increment in V,.. is 21,30 that affer two. tials Vig = 70 + 2 = 91. Figure 5-2 also tc shows te predictions or tials Sand Ie Ne ited in conjunction with a more tice that with the two CSs, V,... appreaches se Serene © ma or mehr py nia veto the forme, by tial 10 the ines ie aude "easy ostow hohe Rein Waer_stengh ew shal Sees tt Sp hens > tn be a Sars a Saatic 1 Change in Associative Skength on Tris . shadows 9 light. Parameter SEee 4st} hg of ils i 20] f [ \ SW I en Nae ts Teal Wide Tas a08° Modern Thai and Resch on Clase Gononing | A this pint, Vp = 286, Vp = 71-4 and son in the mal that 2 dubling ofthe bys FS Noa (alhough wo be pecie Vin wil ical sie of the US wil produce avdoubling of never reach a value of exactly 10). the asymptote only that the asymptote wil “The model's prediction of overshadowing, cease.) With this new, large asymptote, there Von and Ay can be seen deatly by compiting the course is now a discrepancy between Vim Tr in figures Sl and 5-2. The only dif Temake some concrete predictions, et s a Geonae between these two conditioning stu- sume that smli Land Tare equally salient, ‘Mans isthe addition of the note in the second and that S. = Sz = 2, On tral tof Phase ‘Renple. In Figure 5-1, V, hat reached a 2, the idevement Tm ssocative strength for Vahueof 69-3 after 10 cas, and with funher each stimulus will be.2 x (160 — 100) = 12 Teast wil approach 10. In Figure 5-2, W_. To be cern tha you understand how the fas nearly aeached 100 by tial 10, but be- “Ynodel works in this case, you can verify that eve the more salient nose has wsurped over V, should increase to 119.2 afer wil 2 and SO units of asociative strength, Vi, wil never ‘124.72 after tral. Vz shoald increase o 19.2 Tite above 30, In shor, itis because the total, after trial 2 and 24,72 aftr ral 8. The model Strength of both CSs in the compound can ~ predicts tht because L had ahead startin ac Meet rise above 100 thatthe model predis quiring associative strength, 7 will continue {he igh wil be overshadowed—the devel of to be larger than Vz However, unlike the Conditioning will never be what it would bein simple blocking exprimert, when US inten- the absence ofthe nos. ity is increased in Phase 2, Vr does gain ome \, associative strength. This prediction of the ‘Blocking. The model's explanation ofthe ResorlacWagner mode has been verified ip blocking eet is similar to that of. in which the magnitude ofthe US | atc nin he aking group, ince in ome way when aims Tis | ‘stimulus L receives many pairings with the,/added (Kamin, 1969). * ‘hock in Phase 1 (se Table 5-1), so that by : the end of this phase V, = 100 (assuming Extinction. Let us reurn for @ moment ‘oe again thatthe asymptote is 100), In the tothe simple example depicted in Figure 5-1, Blocking experiment, it does not matter in whichasinle CS, L,ispaited witha 1 mA i ‘whether stimulus Lis more orlesssaient than shock (A, = 100). Suppose there have been ‘Ghmulus T; what mates is that bythe end of enough acquisition tials tobring Vi. toa value 4 Phase 1, L bas unurped essentially all of the of 90, and then extinction trials begin. In wociative strength the US can support. At Chapter 4 we saw that ifa CS is repeatedly the start of Phase 2, with V, = 100, Vz = presented without the US, che conditioned re rand V_n = 100, there is virally no di sponse gradually weakens nd disappears, The tepaney baween Vg and A,, and therefore Rescorls- Wagner mode provides a simple ex SSiurther changes inssociative strength for planation of ths, as depiced in Figure 5-4 ‘Rh stimulus The fist tal of Phase 2 in. The only trick to undersanding its predic- i the blocking grup is digrammed in Figure tons for an extaction situation is to realize | 55 All other alsin Phase 2 would look the that Ay = 0 (that is, che intensity of the US same, since V.,, would continue to be very on an extinction trial is zero, since there is no loge tothe asymptote of 100. US). Therefore, at lng 3 Vn has any pos ‘What could be done in Phase 2¢o eliminate itive value at all, Vig Willbe greater than Ao, 1 blocking effeet—to ensure that simulus T° and inhibitory learning wil occur. On the frst acquires some asociaive strength? Figure S~ extinction tial ofthis example, with Vim 3 dlusrates one possiblity. (Suppose the ine V, = 90 and Sy, = .2, the change in aso tensity ofthe US is increased to2mA in Phase ative strength will be 2 x (0 — 90) = — rand that Ay = 160. (There i0 atsump- Thismeans that on chefs extinction t” L Va© sso Sth Blo Te Makers Tris end Rear Clare Conining herp ‘tmen A 08 Vag, + ange in sedate Srangh on Tit OO Nan Yr Va YT Vom WMT Yam AST Basa ot am 0 Bosing Tek Ted | 2 dS Maemo g ee (ay=000) Tah Wh US ety ree 0) = 2 Dae Tis Ft Sra ore Psst Recap mot ct > } oncepmcy Seen Ag a Vugy fe warain | arr “Uwe ‘omer erg Reese aarp = 9 _ we fi « we a ‘8 HY ao] ee LE i Wi Man Wi Yon Mao Wi) Titz TedMalo Thri nd Rach om Cla Coining i deen om 90072. Thi weber a» came condoned inhibitor uring ea x ‘ave sengh it sll gear than the dation tal The reson iy fee, tht Impl of 0,0 on he Second extinction rearar of the prone of Fonte Yield deny by 144 unis to 916. cont, che US wl be overpriced Tih ebional exc iV, vl rop eum of th nose atengh of twin def Ime ats ta if te US i ve ‘ke eincton lit a inple example of (atin i?) Howeve, the CS preexposure eflect uggeis wkison of interest concerns how quickly that some alteration of these wssumptions is in {iuoned epndig deco inte wo ope Asnming Tat Te ened amen ‘whups. The common finding is that condi- of the Rescorla-Wagner_ model is correct, the bring proceeds more rapidly inthe control daesiggerthat Sedecenes aie a La 1 ~ pamptin inthe CS peep pop (Li, eae peedwiios oat ‘owt Moore, 1958; bow, Markman, & ° We can ERY Change the value of 8. in © ra ie Bogdan FOU 1102. Male Thrin on Ree on Ciel Conditioning mathematic eustion, but what doe such 4 converatins ging en atone, you have the, change mean from 2 psychological perspee- ability to choose which conversation you at. | crear wa heeft caged Wi owing you ol ee | inte organ tat rqure gre gee teed deqeome nee a | value of § in ourequaonsSeme lering then listen or awe to a convertion taking theorits have proposed thats change con plac in ack of You, and son Laboratory, | Sins of defease in the organi’ atbrio Experiments have town that ia sje I scimulus i. Bey claim tha rng testo on of to ies speaking simul Preemponure tris he nbjetIeme aC PE neu, he sblee n ene way | Points to pay atention to that sims nothing about what he ee voice had id when the stimulus is later paired wid US it (Moray, 1989) Atleast within the domain of {aks longer for an ascii wo develop] ~ spec it aes ha aprons atc RTaRTC Ifthe CS prespoure eect and other sim-pady is very liiel fr wth ony oo. | ilar phenomena are to be explained byte toutes of speech itis diffu or impose. | Rescora-Wagner model it seem that te oly to lar rom beh simultaneous | recourse isto concede tht he parame St. Within behavioral oyeloy, number of ota fined propery of he C3. Rate this \ reer (Lvejoy, 808; Zaman & Hos | partner proba the pigs 59) hve arte dat onhuman ayers h J mus also have such Jaierebatenio x ‘psiypandaat these should fet thei ab at 5 * fy lear from thei experiences (Theovieg similar OSs have ben uni {of auention in animals propose that on acon, be gn the ditoing til where ever sig eve of important evens in the pas, S.wil sented smulaneouly, the subject be relatively high. 7o pro-_o only one or a few of # ose theo moaations inthe Rescora-Wag- learning (a is —) fri tse hy en bento theta ated as rigorously asthe model's equations imal. : : for changes in V, (To make this modification ing vith such des, Mack as concrete a the rest ofthe model we would _intos (1975) proposed a theory of aenton need to specify exacy what circumstances wil and clacl conning thats considered cause an increase or decrease inS, and whit beamajor competitor d te Resoia Wagner facors determine how large this change wil mode) Without gong into great deta, the bey maj tenets of Macknosh's theory can be y Ite by ovig hw exp Kaa Mackntos’s Thebyy of Attention. (In ocking elect. Mackiotrh rejects the mos cognitive psychology, attention has been a important principe of te Resco Wagay popular concept for many yeare|The basic node), tht len rex otion is that an individual is continually, Mackintosh instead assumes that Vf bombarded by numerous sili in many sen- every simulus can approach , on lis 9 ‘ory modalities, but a person's ablity to proc- Fartermore, he assumes that, changes és this information i fy limited. As experience in the flloving way. If we he ‘esl, an individual mus selec proces . two simul, Land T, and Liss beter some of this information at the expense of ig) cctorof he US than T, en S, wil incre perig th rem common camp | wd Sy wil eee nd cay oy that ilosrates the phehosienon of elective at aero. Jn othergwords, he subject wile tention isthe so-called ctl party phonon. to the more informative stimulus Le ™ 4 you ae at party where there are many \gtend to simul T, New conser,Modem Thi nd Rech on Cla Cndining $08 theory predicts for the second phase of Ka- min’s blocking experimen, as diagramed in Table $1. Inthe blocking group, stimulus L val be mere informative than Tby vie of the coining that took place in Phase | ‘There Swi iereme- tnd 8 wll tomar.erH the decline in Si rapid, then there wl be ite learning about Tin Base ze Ie i important to note the Mackitosh's theory predict tat Blocking wil ot cur on theft wal of Phase 2. Tiss beaut the ‘bjt cannot know in advance that T will Be ninfomacv, and at least forthe fis tia Sp wil be peter than ao, 2 ome asa aon between T andthe US should frm, In tuppor ofthis preicion, Mackintosh ces some fudhee research ay Kaminaihatahowede ‘that shece_was same teak-condianing=t0 malas T ‘eal of Phase 2-On the surface sis finding tems to favor Mackito'sthcorpever the Resera Wagner model, aeseanhoukd rele thatthe Resco Wages mode oes ‘ot predict tha ther can never beanylewen- ing aboUT- smoke Hocing-axpe- ‘ment, Ti fact, Recorla and Wagner predict tha tee wl be {and therefore Vy) has seachéd A, in Post IIE, does no ea bath Vs ‘The results of Kamin's experiments can therefore be explained bodh by the Resor Wagner rdel and by Mackinost’s atenonal the cry, and which provides the beter explana toni ot dear. or cai, Ie ws reat and compare the tase premises ofthe Resra-Wager model and Mackingt’s theory. According t0 Res Cora and Wagner, animals alvays attend to whatever Sere presented, but karing or: curs only when there is adiscrepanoy betwén ‘what an spimal-erpert-ond-whataetety Happen Machina theory, cppston- Jing does na depend on adnrpancy beeen cxpeted and actual even, but condoning val occur fora given CST Te bj attends to that CS) Furthermore, Mackintosh proposes that annals learn odie tea ‘entjn.toward_informative.CSerand-away * from nnisormatie or redundar OSe ‘Athough i rerognon ofthe role ofa tevon virtue of Makita theory, by discarding the asumption that the amount and dren of leamng depends on 8 com 7 hs aif tally dealing with oder phenomena that ae nicely handled by the Rescoda-Wagner todd, For example, by asuming tat in itary leaning oc ener Var > Ay he Reacri- Wagner mad! is well upped deal witreetone inhibition athe ove expsin-aflet Tis no dear bow Mack: intoh's theory would account for these phenomena, since reompaneor-o¥S, and “A plana pac it ery An Eeauation of the Recorla-Wagner Model end Similar Theorie. Te bistory of the Resora- Wagner model prvies atypia cxample of how theories are formule, chal Tenged, and modified in psychoogy and in scence in general. The model ha been rated ‘by many a an important development in clas sia endoning because it mee the san- dards of «god scent theory that were disc in Ohaptr 1. First, lt consider the teria of implicit and general. These criterion can be aseed by compatig the Rescri Wagner modelo earlier theories of clasical conditioning, which were sentially ‘mathematical wanton of the frequency principle (Bush & Moselle, 1985; Exes, 1950; Hul, 1943). although it maybe dif cult t convince students that the Rescorl ‘Wagner mode is simple, Recor and Wag- er (1972 point out that i ison 0» “ep soore complex thn thse cater tet However, the Rescora-Wagner model has such greater. generality than the therie based on te fequeney principle, frit can predict mary phenomena (ach us Blocking, ondtioned inhibition, the overepetatin ‘fl chat he earer theories culdaot. Oe Inajor advantage ofthe model isha i unites104 sate Then Rho Ceial Candin . suc semingy dive phenomena in aa- cont and ty ocr th indeqnienof Ge conapel inmewe iTeuimple een ri The Keer Wagner model iscerainy 2 Ital heary, fort les many pe preditiossbot when cay ening, COGNITION ‘itor karin oo eaning olde! AND MNIMAL LEARNING tar Pay erate etl mae ary table pres, hatter Hil Inet yea, tere a ben ince in terms of generating ew reach Anyone tenn oping ee he eekie ho brome tough he sclumes pure pyctloy tuna de oa ee tht pik reer on sl condoning fae) le the he sta eens (eeample Jarl Exel Psige (Hee Rover & Hoag, "e, Ret Aun! Bair Pos, Lomi end Make Bove & Trt ah) Tae eyo tn) wil fod vores fai eporng erm copsion" by ho mets reased permet tha ae Sad ox alten cane condoning peeps ech Spe ofthe Rex Wagner mode The chagterwldacesbe onc ees theory has ao ben ln sing thea at amin, ine reed develpment of competing ther. Bede earig, and ith Howes beet Macknos's (157) atenona hay, re many of te ene ate Eee ioe cen years hae scen there of gue 4 ov red in moder ene of desea eee ‘athena hors of catcalcndton’ Gang and amocnie beni as ing tat are maieaion, exes, or sppopeate ps ag teem an | ebro ofthe Resor Wagner made ""Bsader'senion sees (Bough, 175; Fey & Sear, 59; Mele anther cong ow caste potcbey | Nore, 176; Rearce & Hal, 198) arn ayed mee ger | Aawe veaeady wen, the refcionsof ln thenteal daniel caching Consenn || de RexartWager medal agee ith the pcb emeny eee ee || taro diel onnngeperinents ltr say thc nen ation || tot much greater een tha Gd teres 46" mous ory, tl ass me || Salon th eguency prince In meckrn which can nly al nomaon rae, | hereon about ase en” aco The cn longer | soning te qusion i ot wheter te Ret on pry nde oh tae eee be | corla-Wagner model was an improvement over day, the names of your fends, the fact that the previous theories, for itcertinly was, Nei- 4++5=9, the meaning of the word rangle ther are there debates about whether the and chousands of other pies of information, ‘model is perfectly adequate theory of ds- On the other hand, an example ofan item in sical condoning, because itis obvious that short-term memory is « phone number you some changes must be made ifthe models to have just looked up forthe fist time, some. deal with phenomena suchas the CS prees~ one distracts your attentior. fora lew seconds posure effet. The major questions of eurent after you have looked up th number, you whether the Rescorla-Wagner probably forget the numbe: and have to look certain mogifications or some al- it up again ternative theory such as Mackintot’s pro- In addition to being shorlve, shor-term ides the best explanation of the learning memory is aso sid to havea very limited ex: techanisms involved in classical condtion- pacity compared tothe larg: capacity of long- ing, Regardless of how this debate is uli- term memory. Although your short-term rately seted, the Rescorla-Wagner model memory is large enough told a seven-igit vil always be recognized a the fist theory © phone number long enough to dial it, youModes Thiam Rear ot Ciel Coding 105 ‘would probably have great dificuty remem bering two new phone numbers at once, (If ‘you do not belive this, look up two phone ‘pumbers at random and try to recall them ten fonds later.) Accarding to cognitive pay hologiss, because ofthe brevity and limited Capacity of short-term memory, information ‘must be transfered to long-term memory iit isto have any permanence, A cognitive pay” chologist would say that the experiments of Ebbinghaus described.in Chapter 2 involved the eranfer of sequences of nonsense syllables from shor-term to longterm memory. These experiments illustrate one ofthe major tech- nique fr transferring information into long- term memory—rélaztal Rehearsal may con- Sit ofthe overt recitation ofthe to-belearned information (an Bobinghauss experiments) or it may involve silent repetition, Ina more ‘general sense, rehearsal consists of events that take pace after the physical stimuli (a phone book, aft of tems) have been removed, but that ae important forthe long-term retention of some new learning. ‘A of the experiments on clasial condi tioning we have examined 90 far were con cemed with long-term memory—the dev lopment of log lasting associations between (G8 and US. For example, in Kamins block iMag fo sore CROMC) Deed ting esr ing experiment, both phases | and & consisted of several daily conditioning vesioss, and the test trials occurred on yet another dy. How ‘ver, other studies have investigated the prop crtes of short-term memory in animal subjects, and these studies sugges that the short-term memories of nonhumans ik those of human, have short durations and ery lim: ited capacities ‘The Duration of Sho-Term Mamory in Animals ‘One common procedure for studying shot: term memory with animals is delayed mashing ‘to sample. Although its an example of operant conditioning, not dasscal conditioning, we wil examine this procedure now because it provide information that will help us to in terpret the studies on rehearsal decribed in the next sesion. To begin, Figure 68 dia gramea simpler procedure of machig sample 4s it as been used in experiment with pi eons, A suitable experimental chamber is one ‘wth thee response key (plastic disk that can be illuminated with colored lights from be hind) mounted in one wall. Before each trial all chee keys are dark. At the star of a trial the center key i it with one of two coors (or re 5. {are preagveo singe msgs Fatty aces cary, soaps! a tay te coe rene 6 Des rai ‘Sol pk lipeysaga cre ‘Seen tow hon ms rene De @ > @-~ eee. © @o-105. sMadem This nd Rech Cla Conioning instance, red or green), Ths color scaled the sample. Typically; the subject must peck at this key to lght the two side keys: The lft key will be green and the right willbe red, or vice ‘ers. The pigeo’s task isto peck atthe key whose color matches that of the center key. A correct response produces a small amount of food as & teward; an incorect response pro ‘duce fod, Matching to ample isa simple task for pigeons and other animals, and at fsymptote they make the correct choie on ‘early 100 percent ofthe trials (Bough, 1953). Figure 5-6b diagrams the slightly, more eey Daan een complex procedures of delayed matching to sample. The only diference is that cere is a Gelay between the offet ofthe sample and the ‘onset of the two side hey, s0 the subject must remember the color ofthe sample during the Gelay in order to make the correct choice. In ‘2 number of experiments, researchers have ‘varied the size ofthe delay from trial o trial, to as to get a measure of an animal's shor term memory For exarple, the filled circles in Figure 5-Ta show the rents from an ex periment by Grant (1972), in which the delay ‘was varied from zero seznds 10 10 seconds. Freue 5-7. (ar rsrane ot or 2 debs ‘nig oer ner ey ‘em sangleandhace sul was ie (jfetomnce eve caucin moma Seseec nahi amp Note at Shove cote nan are ineMaden There Reson Ci! Coding 107 “The subjects’ mean percentage correct de- creased from about 94 percent with a zero-see ‘nd delay to about 66 percent with 10-second Gelay. With longer delays, the subjects’ per Tormance levels presumably would have ropped tothe chance level of 50 percent cor rect We should be careful not to assume that this function depicts fixed or immmatabl ime course of shortterm memory for these pi eons, because many factors are known toa fect the rate at which performance deteriorates 83 function of delay. For insance, the open CGrles show the results fom the same subjects in another condition of Grant's experiment, in which each test tial was immediatly pre- ceded by one or more “interference trial” on ihc the other color was correct. These in- terference trials wortened the subjects’ per formance, so that after a delay of only six seconds thei choices were atthe chance level (Other studies have shown that various sorts of interfering events presented during the delay can impair performance (Grant & Roberts, 1976; Salmon & D'Amato, 1981). On the other hand, increasing the duration of the ‘sample stimulus improves performance (Rob- fers & Grant, 1974), Decay functions with similar shapes have been obtained with several other species, including monkeys (D'Amato, 1973) and dolphins (Herman, 1978). The results from thre of D'Amato's capuchin monkeys are shown in Figure 5-Tb. ‘A few studies have shown that experience is nother factor tht affets the shape of such functions, and that after extensive precicean- male can perform at above-chance levels afer longer delays than they could early inthe exc periment ‘eoarel in Classical ‘Conditioning Experiments ‘As mentioned earlier, research on human memory has shown that the opportunity for ‘rehearsal increases the strength of longterm learning. Te put it another way, fa person is fir presented wit lis of items to remember and is then given distaction-free perio (in viica the subject presumably recies “proces the matrilin some way), this person's ability to eal the ist items a alate time wil be improved. In a deve series of cxperiments, Wagner, Rudy, and Whit (1973) demonstrated that rehearsals con tributes to the zens of longterm learning in data condoning with animal subject. They demonstrated thatthe acqustion ofa GR proceeds more slowy if some psa fnde(PTE) that "inact the arimal occurs shor after each condoning il. Tey also Showed that PTEs that are “suprising” or “nexpete’” are more distracting (have greater deremental effect on learning) than "expected" PTE How could Wagner eal. detemine what would be surprising or expected fora rabbi in an eyelid condoning experimen’? In one experiment, this was accompliied by Gist firing the subjects traning with ovo CSs hat they abled A and, simul that would ater serve at components ofthe PTEs. Tels with ‘And B were randomly intermixed, but wile ‘A was alvays fled by the US (mid shock in the vicinity ofthe eje), B was never fo lowed by the US. Afr many rls, the rb- bit responses demonstrated thit they had developed a tong discrimination between A and B: A elicted a CR about 9 percent of the time, nd B elicited a CR les han 10 pe cent ofthe ine, Wagner eal. reasoned that the events A" and BY were now expected by the subjects, and these wo evens were used ss experted PTEs in the next phase ofthe ex periment. In adion, it seemed paul that vo events the rabbits had never experienced Irfore, Av and B®, would be unexpected and these two evens "were used a surprising TEs. In the tx phase, the abit were: vided into four groups, and all groups T- Ceived a eres of eonditoning ia with anew 05, C, consistently followed bythe US. In all roup, a PTE ocurred 10 seconds afer each ‘ononing tal, Wha difred cos groups seas the nature ofthe PTE: In two groups, the PTE wat an expected sequence of simul (eter Aor B), whereas inthe other 0100 Maen Thro Reser on Glial Conitinng troupe the PTE was surprising (ther Aor BB"), Wagner et al found tat conditioning 10 simulus € developed much more dol inthe {wo groups that recived surprising PTE. For sample afer 10 il the probability of CR to simelar C war about 85 percent in the soups with expected PTEs but only abou 50 Berean in the roups with the surprising PEs Wagner a used the flowing reasoning «oinerpret thei findings: (2) Tn order for 4 long-term CS-US anceation to develop, an animal needs a ditactionee period afer ‘ach conditioning tal, during Which some thusive. proces we might call “eheaal” tales ple; (2 his reearal proces, whale ever iis, utilizes the animal's shorter ‘memory, which has avery ited capacity, (3) atending to an event such aba PTE alto izes the animal's short-term memory, and ‘othe procesing of «PTE competes withthe rehearsal ofthe previous condoning tial and (4) surprising events attract more aten tion than do expected events, 20 they have a greater dirupve effet onthe animals re earl ofthe previous conditioning til ‘We have now encountered two concept from cognitive paychology that imply that an individ’ capaci to process infermation is limied—atenion and shorterm memory. Following the preedent of several cognitive peyehlogss, Wagner ct al asumed that these two concepts are related, both making ts ofthe same Limited resource, The source has been called a ‘working memory” (Bowe 1975; Honig, 1978 oan “active memory (Wagner, 187) which an presumably be used In several diferent waye—forrebeaning pat vent, for atendng to preen evens in the ovironment, fr retrieving information fom long-term memory, or for directing and con: croling ongoing behavior. From an intitve standpoint, seems quite plausible that these Gisiney diferent activites can nerf with ‘ach oer or example, maybe diel pay dove tention to some current simul (Gay, 4 conversation) while simultaneously "ying reteve some information from log. term memory (sch s the same of the person wo has just entered the rom). Likewise, i ray be difclt o atend o a conversation wile engoging in a demanding sequence of tnotr behaviors (sch a8 playing a video fame) In the oepuing experiment, ibe sub ject greater attention to + surpraing PTE presumably decreaed the amount of re- Sears hat could be devoted othe events of the preceding condoning ial ‘Another experimen by Waguer ea, po- vide farther support for ae of reearal inthe acquisition of aOR. rehearsal ine essary for conditioning, and if surpriing PTE inerfres wih th reste o sme ex tent, hen the soner the PTE ocur afr the conditioning tril the grener should be the upton of conditioning. To test this pe diction, Wagner et al. varie the duration of the interval between the tial and a surprising PTE irom 310300 seconds fe diferent groupe of subjects, Figure -8 show the median per centage of CRs to the new CS over the fs ten conditioning tals. As can be seen, the ‘PTE had ther greatest disp fleet when they dosely followed each conditioning trial, thereby keeping rehearsal to minimum. Tan expériment with pigeon a subjects, Maki (1979) showed ina somewhat different vey ha surprising stimu rei more proc esing han do expected stil. Mak ted ‘ilayed matching to sample procedure, but through the careful use of sitions stimu the was able to arrange station in which he sample stimulus was sometines “expected” (Gat i, predicted by a pir simuls) and Sometimes surprising.” Mak found tht pi eons performed beer on the delayed mate ing task when the sample was surprising. This suggests that a surprising imulus receives ‘mote atetion andlor reel, thereby ic creasing the duration of is say in shorter ‘memory The rests of Mai and of Wagner tal ar consent withthe of tis with Inuman subject tha have sowa that sue rising or ditincive simul (1 i beter re ‘membered, and 2) imerere: wih «person's smemory for eat simul (is, Determas,Maser Tri ond Reach on Clas Omang 08 no @ ‘Bre pore now Zeon! on eps nt Grow your smn eae! fayenson ("9 ener! olga be ates a SOO Suet ot eae bev sch owawascrnmarypaute TRIAL-PTE INTERVAL (SECONDS) ‘ee FT uncle, McCarver, & Orig, 1971; Restor, 1933). ogre Terminology Inthe Payeology of Ania earing ‘The preceding sections make it ear that ‘more and more of the terms and concepts of cgaitive paychology have found their way into theoretical analyses of learning and be- havior. Tis trend has both advocates and op- ponents, Some believe that it forecasts the fonvergence of the tradicional behavioral ap- proach to learning with the more recent cog- nitive approach, and tha the field will benefit fom this interchange of theoretical ideas. On the ether hand, strict behaviorss see this trend as a sgn thatthe psychological disi- pline of learning is fling vitim tthe same loose and unscientific thinking that has char acterized cognitive peycology from is begin rings. Regardless of How you fel about this controversy, you should recognize that the ‘ruil point ol disagreement concerns the ex tent to which intervening variables should be used in psychological theories. Terms such as tention, rebel, and shorter manor are in teevening variables, sine they cannot be ob served direcly cither inthe stimulus ‘environment of in 2 creature’ behavior. The concept of rehearsal is a good example. We ‘annot observe the proces of rebearsal in an animal subject; all we can observe is that if some distracting stimulus is presented shortly afer a conditioning tral, learning vil be im- paired, We can only if the existence of re hrearsal. from such observations. Some psychologists believe that making such an in- ference is helpful in advancing psychological Jnowiedge, whereas strict behaviors believe that such’ inferences are dangerous and ‘counter productive NEURAL CORRELATES ‘OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Both behaviorist and cognitive psychologists ‘would probably agree that our understanding of elasical conditioning would be greatly en- hanced if we knew what changes in the ner vous system accompany the acquisition of @ GR, Unforsnately, despite subuansil r= search efforts relatively litle is known about these neural mechenims. There has been some progress in neurophysilogical research tn clasical conditioning, however, and some10. Moire Thi a Resch on Chal Coding of what has been learned, both with simple fd complex organisms, is summarized net. ‘Kandel's research on the neural mecha: isms of habituation inthe mollak Api was discussed in Chapter 3. Kandel and bis a fociates have also udied classical coniton- ing in Apbjia in several diferent ways, Io tome carly studies, Kandel and Tae (1964, 1863) produced a conditoningike elect in 8 thre neuron configuration of Api. Figure 5-9 ilustats their methods. Electrodes were inserted into the cell bodies of neurons {and 2 and delivering a weak electrical curent thos gh either electrode would cause the o responding neuron to fire. Before conition- ing, it was found that the fring of neuron didnot eause neuron 3 to fire, whereas the Fring of neuron 2 did cause neuron 3 to fire. Rowever, the fring of neuron 1 did produce 4 amall depolarization in the membrane of ‘peuron 3, which indicated that there was an Ineffecve synaptic connection between neu rons {and 3, Given thi intial sate of afr, ‘Kandel and Taue treated the simulation of peuron 1 at the CS, and the stimulation of ‘neuron 2 asthe US, which produced the UR ofthe fring of neuron 3. After several CS-US pairings (Che stimulation of neuron 1, then feuron 2), Kandel and Taue found thatthe CS now elicited a response of its own—the ‘simulation of neuron { now caused neuron 3 to fire, Tis new synaptic asocaton was not permanent: [tse for about 20 minates and then disappeared. However, the researchers ‘were able to demonstrate tis conitioningike fect in several sets of neurons. They also Showed that the effet depended on the tem poral contiguity of CS and US—unpsied ‘imulations of neuron | and neuron 2 did not produce the effect. - "The results of Kandel and Tau illustrate how simple the neural mechanisms of classical conditioning enght be, atleast in some crear tures. Since there ar three distinct elements in any clatsial condtioning stuation—the CS, the US, and the response—a minimum of three neurons must be involved. What is Significant about the results of Kandel and "Tauc is that, working with this absolute min~ imum of three neurons, they were able (0 demonsiate something resembling clasical conditioning Tn ther more recent work, Kandel and his asociates have begua to examine dassical Conditioning in the gll-withdrawal reflex of “ply In this condoning arrangement, the US was a shock tothe tall, and the UR was the gillewithdrawal response (refer to Figure 5:1), The CS was wetkstimblation of thes- ‘hon, which intially produced only a minor fill-wthdrawal response. After several pait- ings of the CS and US, however, the CS be- fan to elicit full glwithdrawal response {Carew, Hawkins, & Kandel, 1983). Hawke in, Carew, and Kanéel (1988) found that the. precise temporal arangement of CS and US ‘eas crcial, Optimal learning occurred ith fhert-dlay conditioning (withthe CS preced- ing the US by 0.5 seconds), and there was no evidence of conditioning with a delay of se- gr. estonia tbe actu sdb ‘net od (1988 eta 2 lt Senvieg ere caning ny tee fens te. Slr contone, sitar Wen freuen seat «stor esr Inrevan ba smaten of rast di Iieraeedtinr ator which a font ad non 2 rete Sled 96 ‘Steessee, mu 1 ow dread (Sciyepoon a mpoe nomen 3.Madr Tris nd Reach Cla Cioning $18 ods. Furie inveigaon reveled that his fehanced respons to ipon simulation vas Seto an ncteate inthe amount often {er lead bythe enor neon of thes hon eit interesting to noe that precy {be oppose neural hangs (eresed trans mite celase bythe sensory neon) Was ‘Band to be spose for habitation of te fiwthdaval reponse. Because of resus fe these, Hawkinr and Kandel (1984) ex pres the hope that oer condoning phe Zomena, sucks generalization second order ‘endioning, an Hocking, may alo be aed ‘equally simple change theca vel ‘leat ofthe ageing complexity ofthe enous ates of figer anima such as nam eearcher investing the ne ‘opuiolgy af Gass condoning in ich {inal have aimed at goals that are in a Sense, more modes. Instead of ting tl Gate ie exact snaps hat undergo changes dng dssabeondionng archers ave fugmpted to dtemine simpy wich major sede ofthe brain areinveeed.A ood del Of ahs research hs ivovedeyebink cond tioning in rabbits, In a thougtful review of thigueareh, Moore (1979) sugges hat i frees ofthe brain sem oe implicated in ferent condoning phenomena. For ix Sanc, the brainstem maybe the ste ofthe rid anocative proces invlved in the Scion of CR“ strutre called the i fovenpur seems to play a rl in preventing ‘onditning to noninfrmatv imal I the hippocampi removed in rabbit, the rb- 1 wf to ex the blocking tee Sl mon, 1977) On the oer hand, removal of Sf nppoeampus doesnot preven the devel pment of cndioned inhton. However, {ions ina peri sles feline mid Brain dee prevent te development of con dicgned nbidon in bite, Prema, thetbject receives lesion in his re fer 2 GS has aleady become a condoned inhib or, the inion proper of he CS are len Based on ings ite thse, various the cri abou the neural methine of aa ‘ending i mammal ave ren propose (Glack-Cleworth, Woody, & Neimann, 1975; ‘Moore, 1979), but they are too complex (and too speculative) to present here. However, a general conclusion we can draw from the vailable data is that divere sectons of the ‘mammalian brain play roe in simple clas- sical conditioning, and that different behae- joral phenomena (acquisition, blocking | conditioned inhibition) may invaie activity in very diferent locations in the brain. OPPONENT:PROCESS THEORIES AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Chapter 3 deserted the Solomon and Cori, (1879[Opponen-Process Theory, hich tates, I mail seni cmos he poate Contribution of asia conditioning to such Spponenprocest, phenomena, (8 recent sac ts topic has rected considerable Enc fro researches who spine In Chania condoning, We wl bpa bye mining sme reach on conning St ations in which the CR takes a form ) ee elke URS We al ba bein bee Balint Gide sone moder tors at empl to exin why CR ate someting: ponte inform othe URS rom hich ey eared Sige Reve . on Compentton chs Ic ir wel known tanya the phnomon onerenoe vi opened a : “ieceakedrepdomacc For fans, 2 heroin user's fm fe : hypoth ran have : | |112. Mado Th ad Reach on Cia Cndining been proposed. Type pharmacclogical ex planation tribute tence t-sme py _ og changin ena bode as a changein metabolism that allows.the drug. ‘cpasthrough he stem more quick. Act cording tothe Sofimon snd Cort tery, rg tlerans i he rela nea the E-procts, which tends tosoumterac: the seprncess (he-initial drug. effet) "The i Cres in tolerance wih sicesve droga mininratons is sappowedly duc. re th Suomi stengening of the proces ovr Urialy Both the pharmacological-explantions and the Soloman aibur drug tole ‘lividus body that y reactotTe drug Ronee based on his re search on morphine and ott drugs, Shepard_Jelges elec Si 2 very differen expan Ton oft on on aiufining [In shor, Siegel daims that drug ‘oom, given an injection of saline slwtion (a8 placebo), and ater placed onthe mea surface. The parle aac fr these cone {rol subjeas were about the same on all four Wil, averaging about 13 recon This de rato Served ata baseline meanoreof en dragged animal's sensi 0 pan. The procedare fron experimental group was exe the sme a rte cond ol excep that these subjects received four mor hie injections, rather tan line injections Inthe experimental rom, On the first ial the meal plat (afer each wbjec's frat posure o morphine) thi group's pawl la teney averaged 24 seconis~neaty-doie that ofthe corel group, This reat simply sows that the morphine ha its expected ane cee, However, one net threes Ta, there was a gradual development ofl erance to morphine: The mean paw ik la teney decreased to 42 sean ial 2,0 1 Tce the result of @ CR that is ected » seconde on tri by the stimuli that regularly precede a auiministraton. The reason this CK ean pr dducetletance-i-thar Witt menPragy the CRiew fe came to tee cnlsons. neo he rus Seg as tied mor pin nd ono the Une pode yor Phin emia In on expcrnent, Spel (979) towed {ha reducion in anges over suceve ore ition that icra of ee asec repone[ contd byte Simul Sige sabes were as and be tee hei eso pain by paige ona meal plat that was heed oan cone fenay warm temperature of ababoe Whee the-latency, of hispaw-ie-reypans, Sige had a measure ofthe ania’ sensiyco pain. A control group of ats reoeived four test teins, (separated by 48 howrs),on which thoy were brought ito a spsal_xprnent pono nnappeon et duipion ate rethrcpetiens il es how Se a some contphaubjeets} phine caused bye Ehange in He ‘metabolisms? This posilty seems unf based on the results fom 2 third group of ub> Jets, These-nbjacs-aleoseived cessive morphine injection, but injections.auee administered in colpaywhere thse rtd, no in the ex perimental room. ‘The fouth injection was administered in new simaluscopetThe ‘experimental room, and the mean paw-lick a- tenses ose animale iar seis To put thee ond ote he ie tae never received a morphine ition bel for there wasn eidene of the gages espn Tie ference be tween te two morphine groups was obtained simply by hanging the oom in witrthe mor i wa ke iege!'s explanation of thse-reuls ist cru tolerance. conditioned response that, wey yw po te 19a ia Ce fe a nn ca ann 8 is clicted by the contextoal-siUMthme-nc- nearly died, after w-heraty etn. OF company the drug administation-Tobemore couse, an overdose of heroin can be fatal, bit is sa ene ect nt md eh si, Sige propose thatthe GB heomert was one-the usr was-able to tderate on thé In which the dug isinjcied.lstevener previous dy Brecher, 1972) Sigel proposes pengataty CReakdypenigee-aninereased er- hat in some cases of hi type, he see may skisiy-eo-paim For the animals that received have taken the herein in some unusual ime all their morphie-ijeetion-in-the-experi- ulus environment, where the peson's previ mental room, by tsiah-dhis om cited a ously acquired compensatory ORs 10 the compensetory~GR--of-typereigesie-which heroin injection would be decreed” He re «counteracted. the UR o-anagesia For the ports that survivors of meaty fal injeons third group the GS for hyperalgesia was pel y requently report thatthe rcumuence fhe sumably-e animals home cage (where th ) drug adiiniaton were diffe rot tose first three morphine injections..were-geen}. . under; they normally injecied-the drug. On ial 4th newatmareonterroftiees- Uther of Siege! (1975) experiments on sient om cout no CR of yges:* morphine tolerance sought to demonstrat he gaia ( new _exience ofthe CR of hyperalgesia more di sult) antrrgpeOR-oFemiesiaaas un. recly by presenting the CS (the context) but opposed, andthe pack latencies of test omiting the US (be morphine) Fs, & subjects were. oo awk atacand afer ra fi is generally fre that lsc cond: eee ‘ining contbutes tothe phenomenon of drug they rece pins taleanc, i sould be pombe to find ev, aus were giao i dence for this effect in nonlaborator stings 7 (as p Paw Tek agencies Siegel and his enlleagues (See, Hinsoi, doubled on a Krank, & McCully 1982) present some evs droped tothe baseline level of aout 13 a0 enc rom regular heroin usersho ied-or onde by the fourth morphine teal. Finally, te Faw 6-10, wos fa own pews wan of ces on = vrata pte eS ha seen ae 2 Tn san he er nto een ae ‘coved maps core ne fn se ‘Sr wih sae crs Sep 175) a 4d i Ps g thee hare US tg CR web 5 i Chyfrrgatyeai).. i: Birra Send 0 ° saree Bi 114 Molen Than Reh ov Casi! Coden eer ars poe tor Fiore seaageors ieeebenre etl 40percent Laie chan the-basalinee™ tencerof 18 seconds, [in other wordt subjects exhibited an increased sensi ta pain. Figure 5-10 alo shows that with rex peed presentations of the context without the Inorphine,pawrlicateneesseurneotheit brine level Thus like any CRrpthe-com= pensatory CR-of hyperalgesia. xhibitdhew Tincion hen the CS was presents sthott thaskih tn yet another experiment, Siget demonstrated that besides extinguishing the hyperalgesia, repeated presentations ofthe C without morphine causes the tolerance tod, appear: When morphine was presented once gun, its analgesic effect was the same as on aubjc's fist injection of morphine Ta summary, Sigel proposes that dug tl rane is due, a leat in part, tothe acquis tion of a compensatory CR that tends to counteract the effet ofthe drug itself)He has demonstrated that morphine tolerances tim ‘lurspecifi, and that the compensatory CR of hyperalgesia can be acquired and extin- suited like anyother GR. Its hard to imag: ine how a theory of drug tolerance focusing ‘on general physologial changes (and nota Towing forthe contribution of casa con- ditoning) could account forthe phenomena Siegel has observed. Condtioned Opponent Theories "To account for Siegel's findings and many similar reas obtained by other researchers, Schull (1979) and Wagaer (1981) have inde- pendently developed two theories that have ‘many similares. Schull als his theory acon ned ponent thar to eflect the fact that he 8, vs * 68 nol accepts mott ofthe assumptions of. Solo: mon and Corbit theory but makés one major change. Schull accept the assumption that typical emotional expesence involves the elie itation af an a-proces fllowed by an oppor ing b proces, However, he doesnot accept the ‘assumption that the b-process is automatically seaphnedwih wend with dis ead, he aes thatthe ee may appearo grow beaut any sot gat i pare i te RAT eiperene proposed that the braces: is increased by a honassociative strenghening mechanism, Schull proposes that any increase the size + ofthe b-processis a conitoned response ~ ited by one ar more spifc CSs ‘eh yy Bee o ade stand by drawing a parallel between salivary conditioning and Sieqe!’s experiments on ‘morphine tolerance. In salivary conditioning, at firm only the food dicts salvation. After Several pairings with 2 CS suchas atone, both raeteamans ore nlf the E-process sine then nora C8 ‘io be mets oleae i moe ce eae iene loved Ors bea gee eligi aca Seater ipmeen) Ate bed aoe Sietie Rpeiectl rom- act Pine twee bo extol iether rs pra weet Gurmcens selent te Ge tot crs Ch cn ow ct Ekin: Tee Aisa, Seegetmnar eum cer pyaar ‘ibe Sat don open or dex honing aCh ee cannes ‘in lced by the-contextul simul thet-nc- neatly died, after w-herotn~txeetion. OF ‘company the drug adminisration-Tabemore couse, an overdose of heroin canbe fatal, bit srl, seth UR merece nce aah dag tc doh ‘as one the-user was able to toltrate on thé Evtion te jecad).clis-a-com previous day (Brecher, 1972). Siegel proposes that in sme cases of thie, the wae may Stisi-cmpaim Forte animals that received have taken the heroin in some wniral time al their morphineijeedonrir-ho-experi uli environment, where the pemon's previ rental room, by wial--this som cited » ouly acquired compensatory ORs co the Compensatory~GRof-typeregesin~ which heroin injection would be decreed He re: + counteracted the UR of-anagesa. For the ports that survivors of nearly fat injections ‘hid group, the GS for hyperalgesia was pel y frequently report thatthe crcumeences fe sumably the animal's home cage (where th ) drug administration were dilon-fom tose fw tre mowphine ijn nen)» under which they arma eae dog On il 4, the eof Siegel's (1975) experiments on perimental room caulit no CR * morphine tolerance sought to demonstrate the Alga ee existence ofthe CR of hyperalgesa more di sclnul), amtwrte URofamipsacasun- rectly by presenting the CS (the context) but opposed, andthe pawick latencies of thes? omiting the US (the morphine). Fr, fa’ ject wer very ln paw erie Thi general le that cal ond- —— tioning contributes tothe phenomenon of drug @ they ree tolerance, it should be posible to find eve sults enc fo ths eet in nonlaboratory stings, (as » Pal ees Siegel and his colleagues (Sieg, Hinson, doubled on te THAT Rep tral, but had Krank, & McCully, 1982) present some evi» dropped tothe baseline level of about 13 see dence from regular heroin userewodiedor _onds by the fourth morphine il. Final, the ge 10. [se [ete an perce ans a pce on» ‘am mel pte shomfrtasrenese Teeter he laos on min 2 ‘eee epee, ae: Sloe all ets (Ate Sep, 75 _- & tte aha of US Ck te Chyengalaeac). decnenne weal ahaal ve CB et A Mean Parc Lteney (Seco){ cs io oth S : OS tae Muy > bartn: ene st bee “ak OAS ole “es Ti Rah Cal ining 18 ox toes, Wager and is sameness Pala ro ates «et acre Want, 28) hae mom nes "night 0 might so Up (Yager el ry fcc con pt he ren ach data do See roe pale lnm 0 eae 2 Pe Seemed or not we woud want See processes The decaf thst reat be presented ere, batt is worth co Te Thor Ebon ad Sent wet Wagner ll i [Although these theories provice some val: peas pt OE icing into the nature of conditioning, ER Retr tore cases The OR E wy pate ofthe OR, whereas oer the OR ss Oy Hw CE be te appestecnf te UR TLC we il cna Par HEU Ra a Acad 0+ the frm oft CB ki So te SOP the OR wil mimic the URL Uh, reverie ors no epanatin. of a aE se hy dese ow pes of CR coe is. the Te UR Oe am) cela esis of recent are, andy Feet mer orga Sta So Wit Bike srcay be sre inte UR For toa, 180 emp shed am ight 0 hig te Sea Heasone UR 10 sok matin conan TOA, geese consis of an BTEC Pisa paarmacsonralage) Baumaie es ihe US ae Bach ie = an, itn a ane pee SE wot gs For |. Acme porns ic UR eb toh mining sad SES of such & “mud ‘SOP predicts that stance, one UR to ethanol is a decrease it. z a ee OR andy emia.» ae | demonstrated that ethanol elicits an ing ‘bani, > ‘Black's (1968) researeh fas Ba Seber an, he UR of ese i EMD onirat, wheres seta oa pl of ir ixguanopae— marbine oust an increas in body the cye logs, then opens but as erature, 2 OS paired with orpine [set eye des no pen ide than it as s beg ren, SOP predic tate cee in CME Te contr alo en eyelink condoning inden bOF EI ‘and. Stewart sre nkich ofcourse the GT > SRE be cai ining }\ Sorat of the heartraie snepyeblin how a drug affect the nervous sytem Cops were known well before Wagner SOP being carefil CRs we sdevdoped, batter oer espones USSR DAY take a simple example ePDlecry makes new predictions that have ot do fll jase to the com” ¢ pene er teen tested. For example consider ory oft theory, bu at may tea ce aeDa eGR por ao Sel aa | SLATER po a penn esa Pca SEO “e iicion guaase sa US, OOK ene aaa + ously, ina hie ior animals bind Suse sigher 1 ib Spon to morphine injection 3 csi ed oa es serge meen ial npn leaves te annals, ood wes IR) However, Bike Sytem there shoul Be Ag 7 5 Aiea Reese caro i ia thi se) of te term UR b196. Matern Thora Rr oC! Cdn ‘yout system isnot involved inthe production ofthis response./The increase in blood glu cote ia simple reful ofthe physical transfer, of gucos rom the needle 16 the bloodstream However, blood glucose levels do affect an an-« Imal’s nervous system in the flowing way. . Blood glucose levels ce monitored in apart > of the brain called the ytd When ood glucre levels ae high, the hypotale ‘us intates a chain of commands that uli rately produces a decrease in blood It is therefore more aararie, daim ike! boom and Stewart o say that the real UR so 4 glucose injection is a deren blood io levels, even though the initial injection wil necesaly increase blood glucose at fis.y * ‘Once the actual UR is identified, Eikel- boom and Stewart claim that predicting the form ofthe CR is straightforward: The CR wil always mimic the UR, as Pavow's tim: ls sbaion theory papoted. Thana thai epaely ped vib» acme ie tin shoul produce a Cf decreased supe nd hs predicon as en cond by spent rea (Woods Raley, 1370) Etlbwm and Sever review eo dence for several. diferent pharmacclogieal gent, and ac goer ru they pope hat ies where he CR apes to bet oposite sftie UR areal cave oe UR as. fesn oper Wend ldongh he o> lye er ppedng tt De em Fed tha te tee far feet ang Fete Even forte few sears Bich tom and Stvat eon (uae ali, tori, eine, arp td few trite dt re hemphte end tines Contador Is tocar tel we it tegen ate sage Feo’ ime Int abttaton theory wile scelafl