MANUEL S.

ENVERGA UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
1ST SEMESTER 2017-2018

MEAC 5502
Review Power and Industrial
Plant Engineering

Lecture 1:
Fundamentals of Power Plant:
a. Thermodynamics
b. Fluid Mechanics

Reference: PPE by PRIME Reviewer

 Thermodynamics is a branch of science that treats various
phenomena of energy and the related properties of matter, especially of the
laws of transformation of heat into other form of energy and vice versa.

➢ Temperature
- measure of intensity of heat. The degree of hotness or coldness
➢ Pressure
- it is the force applied per unit area

Absolute temperature
- the temperature measured from absolute zero.

Absolute zero
- the temperature at which the molecules stop moving.

Temperature Scale
• Celcius or Centigrade
• Fahrenheit
• Kelvin
• Rankine
Relation between temperature scales:
9
𝐹= 𝐶 + 32 𝑅 = 𝐹 + 460
5

5
𝐶= 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273
9

TEMPERATURE INTERVAL/CHANGE
– the difference between two temperature readings from the same
scale, and the change in temperature through which the body is heated.

𝟏𝑪𝒐 = 𝟗ൗ𝟓 𝑭𝒐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒.
ABSOLUTE and GAGE PRESSURE
Absolute pressure
The true pressure measured above a perfect vacuum.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

Gage pressure
The pressure measured from the level of atmospheric pressure by
most pressure recording instrument like pressure gage and open-ended
manometer.
Note:
✓ Pgage = negative (-) when the pressure is vacuum.
✓ Perfect vacuum is -101.325.
Patm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
= 1.032 kg/sq. cm
= 29.92 inHg
= 760 mmHg = 760 torr
= 1.013 bar
= 1 atm
Newton’s Second Law
States that the object will accelerate in the direction and directly
proportional to the unbalanced force acting on it.

𝐹 𝛼 𝑎𝑜

𝑎𝑜
𝐹=𝑚
𝑔𝑐
Where;
F = unbalance force
m = mass of the object
𝑎𝑜 =𝑔𝑜 =observed acceleration or local acceleration
= 9.81m/sec. square = 32.2 ft/sec. square
𝑘𝑔−𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 −𝑓𝑡
𝑔�𝑐 = proportionality constant = 1 = 32.2
𝑁−𝑠2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 −𝑠2
Density and Specific Volume
The density is defined as mass per unit volume and the specific volume is
defined as volume per unit mass. Specific volume is the inverse of density.

Density:
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

Specific Weight
This defined as weight (force) of the thermodynamic substance per unit volume.

𝐹 𝑚𝑔𝑜 𝑔𝑜
𝛾= = =𝜌
𝑉 𝑣𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

Specific Gravity or Relative Density

- The ratio of the density of a substance by the density of standard substance, such
as water at 4 degree C.

𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝐺 = =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 @ 4𝑜𝐶 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 @ 4𝑜 𝐶
FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position.
𝑔𝑜
𝑃𝐸2 − 𝑃𝐸1 = 𝑚 𝑧 − 𝑧1
𝑔𝑐 2

𝑔𝑜
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚 ∆𝑧
𝑔𝑐
2. Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.
1𝑚
𝐾𝐸2 − 𝐾𝐸1 = 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2
2 𝑔𝑐

1𝑚
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2
2 𝑔𝑐
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM and SURROUNDINGS
Thermodynamics system or also known as control volume is defined
as a region in space that is under consideration, it also contains mass or
thermodynamic substance. It has the specific boundaries that separate it
from the external effects of the environment.
A system can be anything, for example, a piston, pump, blower,
turbine or compressor.

Types of thermodynamic system:

1. Open system (steady flow system) are able to exchange energy (heat and
work) and mass across the system boundaries.

Wout Win
PE1 PE2 An open or steady-flow system
KE1 KE2 where mass and associated
min mout
energies, including heat and
U1 U2
work crosses the system
Wf1 Wf2 boundaries.
Qin Qout
2. Closed system (non-flow system) are able to exchange energy (heat and
work) across the system boundary not mass.
Wout Win
A closed or non-flow system, only
heat and work crosses the system
min = 0 mout = 0
boundaries.

Qin Qout

3. Isolated systems are totally isolated from the environment. There is no

exchange of heat, work, or mass across the system boundaries.

Wout = 0 Win = 0

An isolated system, no mass, heat

min = 0 mout = 0 and work crosses the system
boundaries.

Qin = 0 Qout = 0
Nonflow Process – a process that takes place in a closed system.
Example: compressor

Steady flow Process – a process that takes place in an open system in which
the quantity of matter within the system is constant.
Example: turbine

Non-flow work – work in a non-flow process.

𝟐
𝑾𝒏 = න 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝑷 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏
𝟏

Steady flow work – the work in a steady flow process.

𝟐
𝑾𝒔 = − න 𝑽𝒅𝑷 = 𝑽 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐
𝟏
Where:
P = pressure
V = volume
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
States that the mass going in in the system is equal to the mass
going out of the system.

Mass flow rate going in the system = mass flow rate going out the system
𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡

m1 = 5 kg/s

m1 + m2 = 12 kg/s

m2 = 7 kg/s
The Continuity Equation

The continuity equation was derived from the law of conservation of mass.
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝜌1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2
For frictionless flow, t1 = t2
V = A1v1= A2v2
Where:
A = cross sectional area normal to the flow, sq. meter
v = average flow velocity, m/s
V = volume flow rate, cu. Meter/sec.
HEAT and ENTROPY:

Heat – a form of energy associated with the kinetic random motion of large
number of molecules.

Sensible heat – the heat needed to change the temperature of the body
without changing its phase.
𝑸𝒔 = 𝒎𝑪∆𝑻
Where:
Qs = sensible heat
m = mass
ΔT = change in temperature
C = specific heat
Cwater = 1.0 cal/gm C = 1 Btu/lb F = 4.186 kJ/kg K
Latent heat – the heat needed by the body to change its phase without changing
its temperature.
Latent heat of fusion – solid to liquid
Latent heat of vaporization – liquid to gas
𝑸𝑳 = ±𝒎𝑳
Where:
QL = heat needed
m = mass
L = latent heat (fusion/vaporization)
(+) = heat entering; substance melts
(-) = heat leaving; substance freezes

Note:
Latent heat of fusion of ice (Lf)
= 144 Btu/lb = 334 kJ/kg = 80 cal/gm
Latent heat of vaporization of boiling water (Lv)
= 970 Btu/lb = 2257 kJ/kg = 540 cal/gm
Entropy – the measure of randomness of the molecules of a substance.
- the measure of the amount of energy that is unavailable to do useful
work in a closed system undergoing a change of state.

ENTHALPY and INTERNAL ENERGY

Enthalpy – the heat energy transferred to a substance at a constant
pressure process.
Internal energy – the energy stored within the body. It is the sum of the
kinetic energy of all its constituent particles plus the sum of all the potential
energies of interaction among these particles.
𝑯 = 𝑼 + 𝑷𝑽
Where;
H = enthalpy
U = internal energy
P = absolute pressure
V = volume
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
- Energy cannot be created nor be destroyed, it can only be
transformed from one form to another.

Sum of energy entering = Sum of the energy leaving

PE1 + KE1 + H1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + H2 + W
PE1
Where; KE1
PE = potential energy H1 1
KE = kinetic energy W
H = U + PV = enthalpy
Q

2 PE2
KE2
H2
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Heat cannot be transferred from cold body to hot body without an
input of work. It similarly states that heat cannot be converted 100% into
work.
The bottom line is that an engine must operate between a hot and
cold reservoir.
Also, is that energy has different levels of potential to do work, and
that energy cannot naturally move from realm of lower potential to a real of
higher potential.

CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
Clausius statement is based from the natural tendency of heat to
flow from high temperature region to low temperature region.
It states that the impossibility of a self-acting device to transfer heat
from a colder body to a hotter body without an aid of external work.
KELVIN-PLANK STATEMENT
A kelvin-plank statement is based on the concept of a thermal
efficiency. It states that a heat engine or similar device cannot be 100%.
It is impossible to construct a heat engine which operates in a
cycle and receives a given amount of heat from a high temperature body
and does an equal amount of work.

3rd LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The third law of thermodynamics deals with absolute entropy of
pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature.
It states that it is impossible to reach absolute zero. This law is
sometimes called the Nernst heat theorem, named after Walter Nernst.
The total entropy of pure substance approaches zero as the
absolute thermodynamic temperature approaches zero. The third body
usually a thermometer.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body,
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
IDEAL GAS OR PERFECT GAS
Perfect gas follows strictly Boyle’s law and Charles’ law of gases.

The equation of state of an ideal gases,

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻 = 𝒏𝑫𝑻
Where:
R = gas constant = for air, 0.287kJ/kg-K
R = D/M (for any gas)
D = universal gas constant
8.314 J/mol-K = 1545 ft-lbf/mol-degR
P = absolute pressure
T = absolute temperature
n = no. of moles
m = mass
M = molecular weight
RELATION BETWEEN Cp, Cv, k and R
𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅

𝑅
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑘−1

𝐶𝑝
=𝑘
𝐶𝑣

𝑘𝑅
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑘−1
Where:
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = specific heat constant volume
k = specific ratio
R = gas constant
GENERAL GAS LAWS
1. Boyle’s Law
If the temperature remained constant within a closed system, the
volume of the gas varies inversely with the pressure during the change of state.
1 𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑉𝛼 ; =
𝑃 𝑉1 𝑃2
2. Charles’ Law
If the pressure remained constant within a closed system, the volume
of the gas varies directly with the temperature during the change of state.
𝑉1 𝑇1
𝑉𝛼𝑇; =
𝑉2 𝑇2
3. Gay-Lussac Law
The pressure of an ideal gas if held at constant volume is directly
proportional to its temperature at any change of state.
𝑃1 𝑇1
𝑃𝛼𝑇; =
𝑃2 𝑇2
4. Combined Charles and Boyle’s Law
These laws state how one quantity varies with another if the third
quantity remained unchanged, but if the three quantities change
simultaneously, it necessary to combine these laws in order to determine the
final conditions of the gas.

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
5. Daltons Law of Partial Pressure
The pressure exerted in a vessel by a mixture of gases is equal to the
sum of the pressures that each separate gas would exert if it alone occupied
the whole volume of the vessel.
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 … … 𝑃𝑛
Where:
P = total pressure
P1, P2, P3, ……Pn = partial pressure of gases
Partial pressure – the pressure exerted by each gas.
6. Avogadro’s law
At equal volume, at the same temperature and pressure conditions,
the gases contain the same number of molecules.
𝑚1 𝑀1 𝑅1 𝑀1
= ; =
𝑚2 𝑀2 𝑅2 𝑀2
Where;
M1 and M2 = molecular weights
m1 and m2 = masses
R1 and R2 = gas constant

THE INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY and ENTROPY OF AN IDEAL GAS

𝑻𝟐
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 ∆𝑻; ∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪𝒍𝒏 ; ∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 ∆𝑻
𝑻𝟏
Where:
∆𝑈= change in internal energy
∆𝐻 = change in enthalpy
∆𝑆 = change in entropy
∆𝑇 = change in temperature
m = mass
C = specific heat
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

PROCESS
When a system undergoes any changes, it is to have undergone a
process.

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Reversible process – one in which both the system and surroundings
are returned to their original states, otherwise it is an irreversible process.

CYCLIC PROCESS
- A process which gives the same states/conditions after the system undergoes
a series of process.

QUASI-STATIC
- A process in which system departs from equilibrium state only infinitesimally
at every instant.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
1. Isometric or Isochoric or Isovolumic Process
- An internally reversible constant volume process of a working substance.

a. PV and T relation (V = C)
𝑃1 𝑃2
= ; 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝑇1 𝑇2

b. PV and TS diagram

c. Non-flow Work
2
𝑊𝑜 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑉 = 0 @ 𝑉 = 𝐶
1

d. Steady flow Work

2
𝑊𝑠 = − ‫׬‬1 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑉 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
e. Change in internal energy

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇

f. Change in enthalpy

∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

g. Heat transferred

𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛 ; 𝑊𝑛 = 0 @ 𝑉 = 𝐶
𝑄 = ∆𝑈

h. Change in Entropy
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑙𝑛
𝑇1
2. Isobaric Process
Isobaric process is an internally reversible constant pressure
process of a working substance.

a. PVT relation (P=C)

𝑉1 𝑇1
=
𝑉2 𝑇2
b. PV and TS diagram

c. Non-flow work
2
𝑊𝑛 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
1

d. Steady flow work

2
𝑊𝑠 = − න 𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑃 = 0 @ 𝑃 = 𝐶
1
𝑊𝑠 = 0
e. Change in internal energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇

f. Change in enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

g. Heat transferred
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 = ∆𝐻

h. Change in entropy
𝑉2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1
3. Isothermal Process
A reversible process occurring at constant temperature.

a. PVT relation (T=C)

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝐵𝑜𝑦𝑙𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤

b. PV and TS diagram
c. Non-flow work
2
𝐶
𝑊𝑛 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃 =
1 𝑉
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑉1 𝑉1

d. Steady flow work

2
𝐶
𝑊𝑠 = − න 𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑉 =
1 𝑃
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑠 = −𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊𝑛
e. Change in internal energy

∆𝑈 = 0

f. Change in enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 0

g. Heat transferred
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑊𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑈 = 0

h. Change in entropy
𝑉2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑅 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1
4. Isentropic Process
Also known as the adiabatic process in which there is no heat that can be added
or removed in the system. The system is perfectly insulated from the environment. (Q=0)

a. PVT relation
𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 𝑘 = 𝐶
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑘 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑉2
= 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑇2 𝑉1
𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑘
= 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇2 𝑃2

b. PV and TS diagram
c. non-flow work
2
𝐶
𝑊𝑛 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃 =
1 𝑉𝑘

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑊𝑛 = =
1−𝑘 1−𝑘
d. Steady flow work
2
𝐶
𝑊𝑠 = − න 𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑉 =
1 𝑃𝑘

𝑘 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑘𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑊𝑠 = =
1−𝑘 1−𝑘

𝑊𝑠 = 𝑘𝑊𝑛
e. Change in internal energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 = −𝑊𝑛

f. Change in enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

g. Heat transferred (adiabatic; Q=0)

𝑄=0
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛
∆𝑈 = −𝑊𝑛

h. Change in entropy
∆𝑆 = 0
5. Polytropic Process
A process that obey the thermodynamic relation 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶, where n is the
polytropic exponent and C is constant.

a. PVT relation
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑛−1
𝑇1 𝑉2
= 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑇2 𝑉1

𝑛−1
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑛
= 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇2 𝑃2

b. PV and TS diagram
c. Non-flow work
2
𝐶
𝑊𝑛 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃 = 𝑛
1 𝑉

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑊𝑛 = =
1−𝑛 1−𝑛
d. Steady flow work
2
𝐶
𝑊𝑠 = − න 𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑉 =
1 𝑃𝑛

𝑛 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑊𝑠 = =
1−𝑛 1−𝑛

𝑊𝑠 = 𝑛𝑊𝑛
e. Change in internal energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇

f. Change in enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

g. Heat transferred
𝑘−𝑛
𝑄 = m𝐶𝑛 ∆𝑇 where; 𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶𝑣
1−𝑛

h. Change in entropy
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶𝑛 𝑙𝑛
𝑇1
GENERAL EQUATION FOR THERMODYNAMIC CURVES
The general equation of any process is
𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶
If;
n = 0; isobaric process
n = 1; isothermal process
n = k; isentropic process
n = −∞ 𝑡𝑜 + ∞; polytropic process
n = ∞; isometric process

Mixture involving ideal gas

1. Mass or gravimetric analysis
𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 … … . . 𝑚𝑛
2. Volumetric or molal analysis
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 … … . . 𝑉𝑛
3. Dalton’s law of partial pressure
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 … … . . 𝑃𝑛
4. Specific heat of the mixture
𝑚𝐶𝑝 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝1 + 𝑚𝐶𝑝2 + 𝑚𝐶𝑝3 … … . . 𝑚𝐶𝑝𝑛
𝑚𝐶𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣1 + 𝑚𝐶𝑣2 + 𝑚𝐶𝑣3 … … . . 𝑚𝐶𝑣𝑛
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Pure substance – is a working substance that has homogeneous and
invariable chemical composition even though there is a change of phase.
Ex. Water and ammonia

2. Working substance – a substance which energy can be stored or from

which energy can be removed.

3. Saturation temperature – the temperature at which liquid start to boil and

vapor start to condense.
Ex. Water boils at 200 degree C at a pressure of 1.55MPa

4. Subcooled liquid – a liquid whose temperature is lower than the

saturation temperature corresponding to the given pressure.
Ex. Liquid water at 50 degC and 97.78 kPa is subcooled liquid since
50 degC is less than 99 degC (𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 97.78 𝑘𝑃𝑎).
5. Saturated liquid- a liquid at the saturation temperature or pressure whose
temperature is equal to the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure.
It has no vapor content.
Ex. Liquid water at 50 degC at12.35 kPa is a saturated liquid since the
given temperature, 50 degC is equal to 50 degC.) (𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 12.35 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

6. Compressed liquid – liquid whose temperature is higher than the saturation

pressure corresponding to the given temperature.
Ex. Liquid water at 105 kPa and 90 degC is compressed since 105 kPa
is greater than70.14 kPa. (𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 90𝑑𝑒𝑔𝐶)

7. Vapor is the term given to a gaseous phase that is in contact with the liquid
phase.
ex. Steam

8. Saturated vapor – is a vapor at saturation temperature and pressure. It has

no liquid or moisture content.
Ex. Steam at 300 degC and 8.58 Mpa
9. Superheated vapor – vapor whose temperature is higher than the
saturation temperature corresponding to the given pressure.
Ex. Steam at 350 deg C and 11.88 Mpa is a superheated vapor since
350 degC is greater than 324 deg C (𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 12.35 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

10. Degrees superheat – is the difference between the actual superheat

temperature and the saturation temperature.

11. Degrees subcooled – the difference between the saturation temperature

and the actual subcooled of liquid water at 50 deg C and 19.94 Mpa.

12. Wet vapor – a mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid.

Ex. Steam at 15MPa and 310 degC is a wet vapor since 310 degC is
less than 342.24 degC (𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
13. Quality of wet vapor is the fraction or percentage by weight that is saturated
vapor. It is the ratio of the massof the saturated vapor to thetotal mass of the
mixture.
𝑚𝑔
𝑥=
𝑚𝑡
Where x = quality of wet vapor
𝑚𝑔 = massof vapor
𝑚𝑡 = mass of the mixture (wet vapor)

14. Percentage moisture is the fraction or percentage by weight that is saturated

liquid. It is the ratio of the mass of saturated liquid to the total mass of the
mixture.
𝑚𝑓
𝑦=
𝑚𝑡
Where y = percentage moisture
𝑚𝑓 = mass of liquid
𝑚𝑡 = mass of the mixture (wet vapor)

15. Critical point is a point that represents the pressure and temperature at
which liquid and vapor can coexist in equilibrium
-end-