UNIT 3 Indices and

Logarithms
_____________________________________________________________________

Overview

In this unit we will explore indices (or exponents) and logarithms. These ideas arise in many
areas of the natural and social sciences. For instance, the intensity of an earthquake is
measured by using logarithms and compound interest is calculated by using functions that
contain indices. Therefore, it is essential that we are able to manipulate these concepts.

Unit Objectives

After you have completed this unit, you should be able to

1. apply the laws of indices,

2. apply the laws of logarithms,
3. solve exponential equations,
4. solve logarithmic equations.

1
 Indices (Exponents)

Indices give us another way of expressing numbers, especially large numbers. For instance

2 4 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16 .

The number 2 is called the base and the number 4 is called the index or exponent.
€
The following rules will allow you to manipulate indices.

Let a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0 .

1. a m × a n = a m +n , for example, 2 3 × 2 4 = 2 4 +3 = 2 7.
€ €
am 45
2. n = a m −n , for example 3 = 4 5−3 = 4 2 .
€ a € 4

3. a1 = a , for example 91 = 9 .
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4. a 0 = 1, for example 6 0 = 1.
€ €
1 1 1
5. a −n
= n , for example 2 −2 = 2 = .
€ a € 2 4
n 2
6. ( a m ) = a m×n , for example (2 3 ) = 2 3×2 = 2 6 .
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m m m 3 3 3 3
7. (ab) = a b , for example (2x ) = 2 x = 8x .
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" a %m am " 2 %2 22 4
8. $ ' = m , for example $ ' = 2 = .
€ #b& b € # 3& 3 9

Now that you know what integer indices mean, what about rational indices? Rational indices
€ € radicals:
are used to represent
1
n
a = an .

In particular,
1 €
1. a = a2 , a ≥ 0.
1
2. 3
a = a3 .
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Also
m

€ a n = n am .
For instance,
2
27 3 = 3 27 2 .
€

€ 2
Example Simplify, writing your answer with only positive indices.

8a 4 b −2c
a 2bc 2
Solution
8a 4 b −2c
= 8a 4 −2b −2−1c1−2
a 2bc 2 €
= 8a 2b −3c −1
8a 2
=
b 3c
1

− 35 "16 % − 2
Example Compute without the use of a calculator (i) ( 32) (ii) $ '
# 81&
€
Solution
€
(i) One way to approach this question is to write 32 and € a base raised to an index that
is divisible by 5. A little thought indicates that we can write
32 = 2 5 . So

− 35 − 35 5×− 35 1 1
(32) = (2 5 ) =2 = 2 −3 = = .
€ 23 8

(ii) Here
€ 1 1
"16 % − 2 1 1 812 81 9
$ ' = 1 = = 1 = = .
"16 % 2 "16 2 % 16 2
1
# 81& 16 4
$ ' $$ 1 ''
# 81& # 812 &

Notice that the effect of the negative sign in the index is to invert the
fraction so we could have written
€
1 1 1
"16 % − 2 " 81% 2 812 81 9
$ ' =$ ' = 1 = = .
# 81& #16 & 16 2 16 4

4€n +1 × 6 n −2
Example Simplify n .
8n × 9 2

Solution Here we try to get common bases. Bases 2 and 3 look good.
€

3
 2 (n+1)
4 n+1 × 6 n−2 ( 2 ) × (2 × 3)
n−2

n = n n
8n × 9 2 (23 ) × (32 ) 2
2 2(n+1) × 2 n−2 × 3n−2
=
2 3n × 3 ( 2 )
2 n

2 2n+2 × 2 n−2 × 3n−2

=
2 3n × 3n
2 2n+2+n−2 × 3n−2
=
2 3n × 3n
2 3n × 3n−2
= 3n n
2 ×3
= 3n−2−n
= 3−2
1
= 2
3
1
=
9

Exercises 3.1

In Exercises 1 – 4, perform the indicated operations and simplify, writing your answer using
only positive indices.

1. 6𝑝! 𝑞(𝑝" 𝑞! )#

"
$ ! %$& " '
2. ($ # &)$

*%
3. +,$%

4
 4. 𝑥 ! (3𝑥 -" )"

In Exercises 5 – 8, compute without the use of a calculator.

&
5. 27"

"
6. 81-!

"
7. ,√17.

$
* -"
8. /".0

In Exercises 9 – 11, perform the indicated operations and simplify.

!%'& × *%)&
9. +"%)& × "%'&

5
 # %'$ × ,%""%'" '
10. !("$% ) × *%'$

1%'& !%'"
11. (!%'&)%)& ÷ (!%)%)&

6
Exponential Equations

Equations where the variable is in the index are called exponential equations. For example,
2 x = 32

is an exponential equation. The following idea will be used to solve some of the exponential
equations that you will encounter.
€
Idea: If aΔ = a ◊ , then Δ = ◊.

Notice that for the idea to work both sides of the equation must have a common base.
€ €
Example Solve 2 x = 32.

Solution We need to write 32 as 2 raised to some index. So, we have

€
2 x = 32
2x = 25
x =5

Example Solve 9 2x +1 = 27 x −2 .
€
Solution Here using 3 as the common base will work. We have
€
9 2x +1 = 27 x −2
2 2x +1 x −2
(3 ) = ( 33 )
32(2x +1) = 33(x −2)
2(2x +1) = 3(x − 2)
4 x + 2 = 3x − 6
x = −8

Now suppose we need to solve the following equation: 2 x = 9 . It is not exactly clear how we
would write 9 as 2 raised to€some index. In this case we need another approach to solve the
given equation. The approach that we will use involves logarithms. We will explore
logarithms in the subsequent sections.
€
Finally, let us look at an equation involving indices that is really a quadratic equation in
disguise.

Example Solve the equation 2"2 − 12(22 ) + 32 = 0.

Solution We will rewrite the equation and make a substitution to reveal the quadratic nature
of the equation. First, notice that 2"2 can be rewritten as(22 )" . The equation now becomes

(22 )" − 12(22 ) + 32 = 0.

7
Now let 𝑢 = 22 . The equation now becomes

𝑢" − 12𝑢 + 32 = 0.

This is actually a quadratic equation! Next, we will solve the quadratic equation.

𝑢" − 12𝑢 + 32 = 0
(𝑢 − 4)(𝑢 − 8) = 0
𝑢 = 4, 8

But remember 𝑢 = 22 . So 22 = 4 or 22 = 8. This gives 𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = 3.

EXERCISES 3.2

In Exercises 1 – 4, solve the given exponential equation.

1. 16"2 = 64

+ 23+
2. 32-" = /".0

3. 2523" + 1 = 126

+ 23+ +
4. (342 ) /*+0 =1

8
In Exercises 5 – 7, solve the given equation by forming a quadratic equation.

5. 3"2 − 12(32 ) + 27 = 0

6. 5"2 − 6(52 ) + 5 = 0

7. 2(2"2 ) − 9(22 ) + 4 = 0

9
Logarithms

Logarithms are like the “opposite” or “inverse” of indices or exponents. The expression

log a x ,

read as “the logarithm to the base a of x”

(a is called the base of the logarithm, where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1) is asking you the following
question:

“To what power must I raise a to get x?”

For instance, log 3 9 = 2 because 3 2 = 9 . We will call log ! 9 the logarithmic form and call
3" = 9 the exponential form. In general,

y = log a x means a y = x .
Example Evaluate the following without the use of a calculator.

(i) log 5 125 (ii) log 2 1

8
(iii) log 9 1 (iv) log16 4

Solution
(i) log 5 125 = 3 because 5 3 = 125 .
(ii) log 2 18 = -3 because 2 -3 = 18 .
(iii) log 9 1 = 0 because 9 0 = 1 .
1
(iv) log16 4 = 12 because 16 2 = 4 .

The Natural Base

In many practical applications there is an irrational base that seems to arise naturally. This
base can be compared to the irrational number p that arises naturally in several geometric
calculations. The natural base is denoted by e, where

e » 2.7182818! .

The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2 is called the natural exponential function.

The Natural Logarithm

When the base of the logarithm is e we have the natural logarithm, written log 5 𝑥 or more
commonly as ln 𝑥. So ln 𝑥 is asking us the following question.

“To what power must I raise e to get x?”

10
Example Evaluate the following without the use of calculators.

(i) ln e 2 (ii) ln 1e (iii) ln 1

Solution

(i) ln e 2 = 2 because e 2 = e 2 .
(ii) ln 1e = -1 because e -1 = 1e .
(iii) ln 1 = 0 because e 0 = 1 .

Remark

Whenever we write a logarithm without specifying the base, we mean base 10. For example,
log 100 means log+6 100. The bases of the two logarithmic functions that are on your
calculators are 10 (the log key) and e (the ln key). If we want to compute logarithms to other
bases, we will have to use the change of base formula that we will learn about later on in this
unit.

Laws of Logarithms

By now you should have realized that logarithms are actually exponents. Did you realize
this? Since there are laws that govern the behaviour of exponents, there are also laws that
govern the behaviour of logarithms. These laws are given below
If p and q are positive numbers, then

1. log a pq = log a p + log a q

p
2. log a = log a p - log a q
q
3. log a p r = r log a p

Let us prove Law 1.

Proof of Law 1: Let x = log a p . This means that p = a x . Also, let y = log a q . This means
that q = a y . Now
log a pq = log a a x a y
= log a a x + y
= x+ y
= log a p + log a q.

Activity Prove Laws 2 and 3.

11
Example Rewrite as a sum/difference of logarithms.

z3
2
(i) log 5 x y 4
(ii) log (iii) ln x x 2 + 1
100

Solution
(i)
log5 x 2 y 4 = log5 x 2 + log5 y 4 (Law1)
= 2 log5 x + 4 log5 y (Law 2)

(ii)
z3
log = log z 3 - log 100 (Law 2)
100
= 3 log z - 3 (Law 3)

(iii)
1
ln x x 2 + 1 = ln x( x 2 + 1) 2
1
= ln x + ln( x 2 + 1) 2 (Law 1)
= ln x + 12 ln( x 2 + 1) (Law 3)

Remark It is important that you note that log a ( x + y ) ¹ log a x + log a y .

Example Combine as a single logarithm

+
(i) 2 log ! 𝑥 + log ! 𝑦 (ii) 2 log 𝑥 + " log(𝑥 − 2) − 3 log(𝑥 + 1)

Solution

(i) 2 log ! 𝑥 + log ! 𝑦 = log ! 𝑥 " + log ! 𝑦 (Law 3)

= log ! (𝑥 " 𝑦) (Law 1)

&
+
(ii) 2 log 𝑥 + " log(𝑥 − 2) − 3 log(𝑥 + 1) = log 𝑥 " + log(𝑥 − 2)$ − log(𝑥 + 1)! (Law 3)

= log 𝑥 " + log √𝑥 − 2 − log(𝑥 + 1)!

= log,𝑥 " √𝑥 − 2. − log(𝑥 + 1)! (Law 1)

2 $ √2-"
= log F (23+)" G (Law 2)

12
Exercises 3.3

In Exercises 1 – 11, complete the following without the use of a calculator.

1. The logarithmic form of 3# = 81 is ___________________.

2. The exponential form of log " 32 = 5 is ________________.

3. log 4 125 = ____________.

4. log , 36 = _____________.

5. log 1 3 = ______________.

6. log 0.1 = _____________.

+
7. log 1 /*+0 = ____________.

+
8. log #1 /.0 = ____________.

+
9. ln /5 $ 0 = ______________.

10. ln 1 = ________________.

11. ln √𝑒 = _______________.

In Exercises 12 – 15, write as a sum/difference or a multiple of logarithms.

12. log xy 3

x2
13. log 3 3
y

æ x( y 2 - 1) ö
14. logçç ÷÷
è z ø

13
 2√2 $ 3"
15. ln I 23+
J

In Exercises 16 – 21, rewrite as a single logarithm.

16. log( x + 2) - 2 log y

17. 12 ln( x 2 - 1) + 3 ln y

18. 2 ln x - 3[ln( x + 1) + ln( x - 1)]

19. 1
3
[log( x 3
+ 1) - log y ]

14
20. 3 log(𝑥𝑦) − 2 log 𝑦 + 2 (Hint: Write 2 as a logarithm to base 10)

21. 4 log " (𝑎𝑏) − 2 log " 𝑏 " − 3

15
Logarithmic Equations

An equation containing logarithms is called a logarithmic equation. We can solve some

logarithmic equations by using an idea like the one that we used to solve exponential
equations earlier.

Idea: If log $ ∆ = log $ ⊡, the △ = ⊡.

Again, for this idea to work both logarithms must have the same base.

Example Solve log 𝟐 (2𝑥 + 1) = log " 9.

Solution Since the logarithms on either side have the same base (base 2), we can apply the
idea. This gives
2𝑥 + 1 = 9
2𝑥 = 8
𝑥=4

Let us look at a more interesting example.

Example Solve ln(𝑥 − 1) + ln(𝑥 + 10) = ln(6𝑥)

Solution Here we have

ln(𝑥 − 1) + ln(𝑥 + 10) = ln(6𝑥)
ln[(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 10)] = ln(6𝑥) (Combine logs)
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 10) = 6𝑥 (Apply idea)
"
𝑥 + 9𝑥 − 10 = 6𝑥 (Quadratic Equation)
𝑥 " + 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 (Factor)
𝑥 = −5,2

Although we have answers for x we are not quite done. Whenever we solve a logarithmic
equation and get more than one answer, we need to check our answers. To check our
answers, we plug our answers into the given equation and see if they work. Let us do that
now.

Check 𝑥 = −5: ln(−5 − 1) + ln(−5 + 10) = ln[6(−5)]

ln(−6) + ln(5) = ln(−31)

Since we cannot find the logarithms of negative numbers, we cannot find ln(−6) and
ln(−31). So𝑥 = −5 is not a valid answer.

Check 𝑥 = 2: ln(2 − 1) + ln(2 + 10) = ln[6(2)]

ln 1 + ln 12 = ln 12
ln 12 = ln 12

So 𝑥 = 2 works. Hence the only solution is 𝑥 = 2.

16
Another method that can be used to solve logarithmic equations is to rewrite the equation in
the exponential form. The following example illustrates this method.

Example Solve log(12𝑥 + 2) − log(𝑥 + 2) = 1.

Solution Here we have log(12𝑥 + 2) − log(𝑥 + 2) = 1

+"23"
log / 23"
0 = 1 (Combine logs)

+"23"
23"
= 10+ (Exponential form)

+"23"
23"
= 10 (Linear equation)

12𝑥 + 2 = 10(𝑥 + 2)
12𝑥 + 2 = 10𝑥 + 20
2𝑥 = 18
𝑥=9

When we were solving exponential equation we posed the following problem: Solve 22 = 9.
We can now solve this problem by using logarithms.

Example Solve 22 = 9, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.

Solution To solve the problem we take logarithms to either base 10 or base e (we need a
logarithm that is on our calculators) of both sides of the equation. Let us do this now.

22 = 9
log 22 = log 9 (Take log of both sides)
𝑥 log 2 = log 9 (Law 3)

9:; 1
𝑥 = 9:; " = 3.17

Try solving the example by taking natural logarithms (ln) of both sides of the equation. Did
you get the same answer? You should.

Consider another example.

Example Solve 3"2-+ = 15, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places.

Solution Let us take natural logarithms of both sides of the equation this time around.

3"2-+ = 15
ln 3"2-+ = ln 15
(2𝑥 − 1) ln 3 = ln 15 (Law 3)

9< +4
2𝑥 − 1 = 9< !
(Divide by ln 3)

17
 2𝑥 − 1 = 2.465 (Linear equation)
2𝑥 = 3.465
𝑥 = 1.733

We can also solve exponential equations involving the natural base e.

Example Solve 2𝑒 !2 − 72 = 0, giving the exact answer.

Solution Our first job here is to get 𝑒 !2 by itself on one side of the equation. Let us do that
now.
2𝑒 !2 − 72 = 0
2𝑒 !2 = 72
𝑒 !2 = 36 (Divide by 2)
!2
ln 𝑒 = ln 36 (Take ln of both sides)
3𝑥 = ln 36 (Definition of ln)
9< !,
𝑥= !

Here are some more interesting examples of exponential equations that we can now solve.

Example Solve the following equations.

( ) ( )
(i) 2 5 2 x + 5 5 x - 3 = 0 (ii) e x + 3e - x = 4

Solution Have you realized that both these equations are quadratic equations in disguise?
Remember, we did an example like part (i) earlier. Anyway, let us proceed with the solutions.

(i) We have
( ) ( )
2 52 x + 5 5 x - 3 = 0
2(5 ) + 5(5 ) - 3 = 0
x 2 x

Now let y = 5 x . This gives

2y2 + 5y - 3 = 0
(2 y - 1)( y + 3) = 0
y = 12 , - 3.

But y = 5 x . So, either 5 x = 12 or 5 x = -3 . First, observe that the equation 5 x = -3 has no real
solutions. Why? Next, to solve the equation 5 x = 12 , we take logarithms to the base 10 of both
sides of the equation to get

log 5 x = log 12
x log 5 = log 12
log 12
x= » -0.431
log 5

18
(ii) By multiplying both sides of the equation by e x we get

e 2 x + 3 = 4e x
e 2 x - 4e x + 3 = 0.

Now let y = e x . Then

y2 - 4y + 3 = 0
( y - 1)( y - 3) = 0
y = 1, 3.

So e x = 1 or e x = 3. When e x = 1 , it should be clear that x = 0 . And when e x = 3 , by taking

natural logarithms of both sides of the equation, we get

ln e x = ln 3
x = ln 3.

The Change of Base Formula

Suppose we need to evaluate log 2 9 . It is not exactly clear to what power we should raise 2 to
get 9. Also, we cannot use our calculators, as only logarithms to bases 10 and e are available
on our calculators. Fortunately, there is a change of base formula that allows us to change the
base of logarithm to any base of our choice.

Change of Base Formula: Let a, b and x be positive numbers with a ¹ 1 and b ¹ 1 . Then

log b x
log a x = .
log b a

Proof: Let y = log a x . Then

a y = x ………(*).

By taking logarithms to the base b of both sides of equation (*) we get

log b a y = log b x
y log b a = log b x
log b x
y= .
log b a

But y = log a x . So
log b x
log a x = .
log b a

19
We are now able to evaluate log 2 9 . By changing to base 10, we get

log 9
log 2 9 = » 3.17 .
log 2

Does that answer sound reasonable?

Activity Evaluate log 2 9 by changing to base e. Did you get the same answer? Use your
calculator to verify your answer.

Sometimes you will be asked to prove results involving logarithms. Most times in proofs you
will need to apply the laws of logarithms without using actual numbers, just letters. Check
out the following example.

Example Prove that, if a > 1, b > 1 and k > 0 then (log a b )(log b k ) = log a k .

Solution Using the change of base formula to change to base a we get

log a k
log b k = .
log a b

Hence
(log a b )(log b k ) = log a k .

Now, that proof was not too bad, was it? Most proofs that you will be asked to do will be as
short as the one above, but you will need to know the laws of logarithms very well.

Exercises 3.4

In Exercises 1 – 7, solve the given equation.

1. log " 5𝑥 = log " 20

2. log ! (𝑥 + 2) = 2

3. log ! (5 − 3𝑥) − log ! (2𝑥 − 1) = 2

20
4. log 4 (2𝑥 + 5) = 2 + log 4 (1 − 2𝑥)

5. log " (𝑥 + 1) + log " (𝑥 − 1) = 3

21
 6. log , 𝑥 + log , (𝑥 + 1) = 1

7. log 2 (𝑥 + 6) = 2

In Exercises 8 – 12, solve the given equation, giving your answers correct to 2 decimal
places.

8. 32 = 10

9. 7"2 = 9

22
10. 2"2-+ − 12 = 0

11. 𝑒 2 = 2

12. 5𝑒 #2 − 15 = 0

13. 32 x − 9(3x ) +18 = 0

23
 14. e x + 4e - x = 5

In Exercises 15 – 17, use the change of base formula to evaluate the given logarithm, giving
your answer correct to 3 decimal places.

15. log ! 25 = ____________________________________

16. log 1 6 = _____________________________________

17. log , 0.5 = ____________________________________

18. If a > 1 and b > 1 , prove that log a b + log 1 b = 0 .

a

24
19. Prove that if x, y are positive real numbers ( x ¹ 1, y ¹ 1 ), then

1
log y x =
log x y .

Hence find an expression for y in terms of x, if

log x y + log y x 2 = 3 ( x, y > 0, x ¹ y )

.

25