MECHANICAL PROCESS & ALLIED DEFECTS

STEEL MAKING PROCESS

Steel is one of the most widely used materials in manufacturing

The primary raw materials are iron ore, limestone and coal. The iron ore and coal may be shipped in by
rail car and is dumped in the storage area. The coal is cooked in large banks of "coke ovens" for 18
hours at approximately 3000 degrees Fahrenheit. In these ovens there is not enough oxygen for the coal
to burn. This process removes much of the hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur leaving behind almost
pure carbon called coke. The coke is cooled with water before being transported to the blast furnace.
The mixture of coke, limestone and iron ore is placed into a skip cart and dumped into the top of the
blast furnace.
Hot air is forced into the furnace near the bottom causing the coke to burn at temperatures up to 3500
degrees Fahrenheit.
The ore is changed into molten iron which settles to the bottom of the furnace.
Periodically, the molten iron is drained from the furnace into tubs and transported to different areas of
the steel mill.
The limestone joins with any impurities and floats to the top of the molten iron. This is called slag.
To prevent any contamination of the steel, the slag is removed separately.

The iron ore which is not processed immediately is poured into large moulds called ingots.
Scrap steel is added to the molten ore in order to help cool it down. It also helps create larger batches of
steel.
The melted ore is poured into the "Q-BOP" which stands for Quell Based Oxygen Process.
The melted ore and steel are combined and made ready for pouring into the castor.

A variety of materials can be added in order to produce a specific grade of steel designated by the
customer.

The steel is constantly tested in order to meet the customers order.

When the molten steel is ready, it is placed into large pots called ladles. These ladles can hold up to 240
tons of molten steel and are transported to the continuous castor. The continuous castor cools and
forms the steel into plates, pipe, or bars. The steel is run through a series of rollers which shape the
steel into the desired size and thickness. The steel is periodically coiled in order to prevent one end of
the steel from cooling faster than the other end. The final product is wrapped into a coil that can weigh
as much as 60,000 pounds. After the steel has been cooled it can be shipped as a coil or it can be
uncoiled and cut into plates of steel or pipe. Late processing can turn plate steel into a final product by
using a steel press.

INHERENT WROUGHT DISCONTINUITY

Impurities may remain when the steel is removed from the furnace.

Inherent wrought discontinuities are related to the melting and original solidification of the metal.

INGOT

After the steel has been produced, it is poured into large molds and allowed to cool. These molds are
called ingots.
In later processing stages the ingots are reheated and processed into slabs, blooms, and billets.

Inherent wrought discontinuities are present when the molten metal solidifies. They occur before any
rolling or forging takes place.

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PIPE

Pipe is created when the molten metal begins to cool. This cooling takes place gradually upward and
inward. Molten metal will take more physical space than cold metal; therefore as the metal cools, it
creates a void in the ingot.

The last part of the ingot to solidify is at the top of the mold. The cavity formed by the shrinkage is called
pipe. This cavity and any remaining impurities can be the source of discontinuities and is cut away or
cropped.

NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS

The molten metal may not be pure steel. Through the processing of the molten metal, impurities such as
slag, oxides, and sulphides could remain.

Most, but not all, of these impurities float to the surface and are removed.

POROSITY

Small gas pockets may remain in the ingot. This is called porosity.

SEGREGATION

The distribution of the various elements which are added to the steel are generally not uniform
throughout the ingot as it solidifies. This is called segregation.

As the ingot is rolled or forged, the segregation is elongated and reduced in cross section.

This may appear as very thin parallel lines or bands and is called BANDING. Banding is not usually
considered significant.

HOT TOP

The hot top is the top section of the ingot. Most of the remaining impurities and pipe are located in this
section of the ingot. This section of the ingot is removed. However, there still may be some impurities
remaining in the ingot.

These will become a variety of discontinuities which will be discussed later in this chapter.

INHERENT CAST DISCONTINUITY

The metal may also be melted and poured into a sand casting. This type of discontinuity is called an
inherent cast discontinuity.

The first step is to make a pattern. A pattern can be made from wood, metal, plaster, plastic or any other
material that can retain its shape.

The pattern maker needs to make allowances for metal shrinkage, degree of finish, type of metal used,
and the shape and size of the casting.

The construction of a wooden pattern should have filleted (rounded) corners in order to eliminate any
shrinkage cracks and to prevent the sand from sticking in the corners which could ruin the sand mold.

As the metal cools the metal grains have a tendency to align themselves at right angles to the cooling
surfaces causing a weak area.

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Sharp corners are also destroyed by the movement of the molten metal as it is poured into the sand
mold.

A combination of sand and clay is used to make a sand casting. A small amount of moisture is required
in order to hold the shape of the mold.

In small castings the sand can be used a number of times. It is processed through a riddle in order to
remove debris.

A steel frame or jacket is placed around the mold

The core may be rammed or packed by hand.

Larger foundries use core blowing machines or the sand may be jolted into the core box.

In a mold made of two parts, the lower half of the mold is called the drag and the upper half of the mold
is called the cope.

The cope and drag are clamped together in order to prevent them from separating while the metal is
poured.

Some casting processes do not require a frame.

A trowel is used to repair any finishing defects in the mold.

The metal is heated in a crucible. Small crucibles are removed with a tongs and poured directly into the
casting mold.

Tiling furnaces use fixed crucibles which remain in the furnace.

Any slag which has floated to the surface is removed before the metal is poured into the casting mold.

After the molten metal has cooled, the casting is removed.

The hardened risers and ingate are removed.

These areas may require grinding and surface finishing

Machining is performed as needed

COPE & DRAG

A casting is the fastest way to go from a raw material to a finished product.

The casting process is accomplished by pouring molten metal into a mold cavity and allowing the metal
to solidify.

It is estimated that 85 percent of all metal castings are poured from sand molds.

Sand molds are a combination of sand, clay and water. The sand is pressed around a top section of a
pattern called a cope, and the bottom section of a pattern called the drag.

CASTING FRAME - POURING BASIN – SPRUE

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The two halves of the casting are locked together to form a cavity. The molten metal is poured into the
cavity at the pouring basin and travels down the spurge.

The gating system of a casting is a series of channels that allow the flow of the molten metal to reach
the mold cavity.

The gating system should minimize the turbulence of the molten metal in order to prevent any type of
discontinuities.

CASTING FRAME

INGATE

Minimizing the turbulence of the molten metal at the ingate reduces excessive erosion and gas
entrapment.

Controlling the flow or speed of the pouring reduces turbulence.

A properly cast mold cavity will provide a built-in metering system which allows the molten metal to flow
into the cavity at a consistent rate no matter how fast or slow the pouring takes place.

Another problem encountered is the location of the spurge. The delivery of the molten metal should take
place in a location that will allow proper directional solidification

RISERS

Risers are placed in a casting in order to compensate for shrinkage that will take place as the metal
cools.

They also serve as a heat source. They will cool last which helps promote directional solidification.

In some instances the gating systems and risers are interchangeable. A riser can be used as the ingate.
The two patterns are locked together with closing pins. The molten metal is poured into the pouring
basin of the spurge and when necessary, the risers.The risers are located at the top of the pipe and are
shown on the next page. The risers are located at the top of the pipe

GRINDING CRACKS

Grinding cracks are essentially thermal cracks. They are caused by local heating under the grinding
wheel.

Grinding cracks occur when too much pressure is used when grinding. This creates excess heat
between the material and the grinding wheel.

Grinding cracks occur at right angles to the grinding wheel.

Grinding may also make a subsurface discontinuity a surface discontinuity.

COLD SHUTS

Cold shuts occur when molten metal is poured over metal that has already solidified.

Cold shuts can occur when the metal is poured too quickly into the mold. This may cause the molten
metal to splash against the wall of the sand casting. These small drops of metal will solidify before the
rest of the molten metal can fill up the mold. The solidified metal does not remelt resulting in a cold

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HOT TEARS

Hot tears occur when thick and thin sections of a casting do not cool at the same rate. This causes the
metal to shrink too quickly resulting in hot tears.

Risers are used to help eliminate this type of discontinuity. A casting can be reduced to a series of
geometrical shapes. Two heavier sections joined by a light section will result in improper cooling. The
heavier sections require a riser in order to prevent hot tears or center line shrinkage.

SHRINKAGE CAVITIES

Shrinkage cavities occur as the metal cools. If there is not enough metal to fill the mold of the casting a
shrinkage cavity will form. This is overcome by adding risers as the metal cools and shrinks. Shrinking
takes place in those areas which are removed in the machining of the final product.

MICRO SHRINKAGE

Micro shrinkage occurs at the gate of a casting or when the casting mold changes from a thin section
to a thick section. Tapering the sprue base and proper streamlining help eliminate this problem.

BLOW HOLES

A blowhole will occur if the sand casting is too wet. The sand is mixed with clay and pressed into place
in most cases with a pneumatic hammer. In order for the mold to hold its shape, water is added to the
sand and clay.

In a properly-formed mold, the water turns to steam when the molten metal is poured. The steam
escapes through the sand and does not affect the shape of the casting.

If the mold is too wet, the escaping steam blows small holes in the casting resulting in a blow hole.

POROSITY

Porosity is caused by gases that become trapped in the metal as it solidifies. Because air is less dense
than steel, the porosity shows as dark rounded discontinuities.

PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
Processing Discontinuities

Processing discontinuities are manufacturing discontinuities that are created when the metal is rolled,
welded, machined, heat treated, or plated. These types of discontinuities are divided into two types,
primary and secondary or finishing.

Primary processing discontinuities are caused during casting, rolling, forging, or extruding.

Secondary processing (finishing) discontinuities are caused by machining, final forming, grinding,
heat treatment, or plating.

CRACKS

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Cracks may develop during fabrication processes such as forging, rolling, drawing, bending or welding.
In fabrication processes that use high temperatures, cracks are often caused by the metal shrinking as it
cools. Cracks also develop as ruptures in the metal where the material thickness changes dramatically
or by severe distortion

LAMINATIONS

Laminations occur when metal is rolled into plate.

Blowholes or porosity are flattened and lengthened into horizontal discontinuities as the metal travels
through a series of rollers.

This creates a separation in the metal that can be quite large. Because laminations are subsurface,
magnetic particle testing is not effective unless the plate is cut through a lamination. In this situation the
edge of the plate can be inspected.

In most cases, ultrasonic testing is performed.

FORGING

A forging is defined as the shaping of a metal by impact or pressure.

This shaping under pressure improves the material's mechanical properties through controlled plastic
deformation. The grain structure of a forging will assume the shape of the die resulting in increased
strength.

Forgings are also free of voids, blowholes, and porosity. When the forging process takes place, these
discontinuities are dispersed and welded shut.

Another advantage is that a forging has better resistance to shock when it is placed under a static load.

Forgings also have excellent machining qualities. Higher machining speeds can be used because
forgings are free of embedded impurities.

Typical metals that can be forged are carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, iron, copper, nickel,
light alloys and titanium.

DROP FORGING

Drop forging is a process of hammering heated metal billets into closed impression dies. A forging can't
be formed by one blow because of the limitations of the metal. The operations are divided into a number
of steps and each step changes the shape of the part until the desired shape is achieved. It may be
necessary to use a number of dies to shape the part properly.

PRESS FORGING

Press forgings use a slow squeezing action instead of an impact to shape the part.

Some of the advantages are:

 The forging can be made nearer the final shape.

 Vibration and noise are not as great.

 Press production of the metal is faster and more economical.

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 Forgings are symmetrical in shape and closer to tolerances with a smooth surface.

FORGING LAP

A forging lap occurs when the two die become miss-aligned.

Improper handling of the metal in the die causes the metal to form a lap which is squeezed during the
forging process. It is often a shallow discontinuity that is difficult to detect with magnetic particle testing

FORGING BURST

A forging burst occurs when the metal cools before the completion of the forging process. Because the
metal is too cold to form a new shape, it starts to crack or rupture, causing a forging burst. A severe
reduction in a particular section of the forging can also cause a forging burst. Forging bursts can occur
internally or externally. Internal forging bursts are subsurface and occur when the metal cools and
separates while the part is shaped in the die.

FORGING FLAKES

Forging flakes are internal rupture's usually found only in heavy alloy steel forgings.

Forging flakes are formed during cooling and being internal, are not revealed until the forging has been
machined down to the area of the flakes.

SURFACE TEARS

Surface tears are actually surface rupture's caused by improper manipulation of the forging in the die
while the forging operation is in progress.

ROLLING (SEAMS)

Rolling steel into bars and plate may also introduce discontinuities not present in the original ingot.

Seams are surface indications; generally long and straight, and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
bar. Seam originate from blowholes, cracks, splits, and tears introduced from a previous fabricating
operation

LAPS

Laps are similar to seams and may result from improper rolling practices.

While working the billet into bar stock, corners may be folded over or small fins of metal which were
forced out between the rolls may be flattened into the bar to form a lap. Laps are usually straight and
parallel to the longitudinal axis. Laps are similar to seams but extend into the bar at an angle not normal
to the surface.

GRINDING CRACKS

Grinding cracks are essentially thermal cracks. They are caused by local heating under the grinding
wheel. Grinding cracks occur when too much pressure is used when grinding. This creates excess
heat between the material and the grinding wheel.

Grinding cracks occur at right angles to the grinding wheel.

Grinding may also make a subsurface discontinuity a surface discontinuity.

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HEAT TREAT CRACKS

Steel is often heat treated to produce desired properties for strength or wear. Unequal heating or
cooling of a part may produce heat treat cracks. The most critical areas are at the corners of the part
or where there is a change of thickness.

MACHINING TEARS

When a metal is machined with a dull tool or is cut at too great a depth, the metal may not break away
cleanly. The tool may leave a rough or torn surface which may produce rejectable discontinuities.

SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES

The last type of discontinuity is called a service discontinuity. These types of discontinuities are
created when the part is in service.

They can be caused by fatigue, heat treating, corrosion, erosion, cyclic or static loading.

Defects due to metal fatigue, are considered very critical and may require a variety of nondestructive
testing techniques.

FATIGUE CRACK

Metals subjected to alternating or fluctuating stresses will begin to fail when placed under a load
exceeding the part's fatigue strength.

Faulty design, such as oil holes with sharp edges or poorly finished fillets often result in a concentrated
stress much higher than expected. This area of stress concentration greatly increases the possibilities
of fatigue failure.

A fatigue failure begins as a fine submicroscopic crack or an accumulation of cracks, and spreads under
cyclic stressing. Once a crack has started, it progresses more quickly due to the increased stress
concentration at the crack tip.

Some materials can operate for a many hours or days before failure while other material may fail
immediately. Because fatigue cracks begin at the microscopic level they may be confused with a
nonrelevant indication.

Close and accurate testing is required by a certified technician.

Fatigue cracks are always cause for concern as the article may be evaluated for rework or discarded.

A fatigue crack is often identified by its direction in relation to the applied stresses.

CORROSION

Corrosion can be attributed to the molecular breakdown of the piping or component material brought on
by reactive elements present within the system itself. This can take place due to the contact of metal
pipe with wet soil (external corrosion) and with the fluid in the pipe if it is corrosive or contains water with
dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, or hydrogen sulphide (internal corrosion). Corrosion will cause
thinning as well as cracking due to the formation of notches and concentrated stresses.

STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

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Parts placed under tension stress, and at the same time exposed to a corrosive material, may develop
cracks internally or externally.

These types of cracks are referred to as stress corrosion cracking.

OVER STRESSING

Over stressing may occur when the part has exceeded the design specifications.

This may occur as a result of an accident or emergency situation not anticipated by the designer.

WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
INTRODUCTION

Visual examination is used to determine the quality levels or conditions of welds, base material
processing discontinuities, bolting, and other components.

A good weld should be generally uniform in height.

Improper welding techniques can create an excessively uneven weld with high and low areas.

Improper current, incorrect arc length, and incorrect welding speed may create these uneven areas.
The high-low profile thus created is undesirable because it makes other weld defects more difficult to
evaluate during a visual inspection as well as making non-destructive examinations more difficult to
interpret.

Pipe, fittings, valves, and other parts come in a variety of metals, alloys, diameters, and wall thickness.

Materials, components, processes, and procedures are varied. It is important to learn and understand
these procedures in order to assure that all material and work meet the specified requirements.

Various criteria are used to judge the acceptability of welds.

The accept/reject criteria will determine the acceptable sizes of specific discontinuities.

Procedures for welding examination of ASME code stamped systems are strict, and yet we have
tolerances to work with.

Some discontinuities may be acceptable if they do not exceed allowable tolerances.

The welding specialist must be able to recognize and disposition base metal and welding defects as
required by the project scope.

When welding is performed on materials such as beveled pipe or plate, the first pass should penetrate to
the underside of the joint.

A flat or slightly convex bead should appear on the underside of the plate or on the inside of pipe joint.

When the bead does not penetrate the required depth, the weld is considered incomplete.

The bevel and the root gap should always be in accordance with the applicable welding procedure.

In addition to inadequate fit-up, there are other possible causes of insufficient penetration or excess
reinforcement.

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Procedures for welding examination of ASME code stamped systems are strict, and yet we have
tolerances to work with.

Some discontinuities may be acceptable if they do not exceed allowable tolerances.

The welding specialist must be able to recognize and disposition base metal and welding defects as
required by the project scope.

EXCESS REINFORCEMENT

The top of the weld, or cap as it is sometimes called, is the area where excessive reinforcement may
occur.

Excess reinforcement can be harmful to piping because it may create an excessive load at the toe of
the weld. This may induce flexing of the pipe and premature failure. For this reason the reinforcement
should blend smoothly from the base metal to a slight crown.

UNDERFILL

Under fill is a depression on the face of the weld which is below the height of the base material.
The welder failed to fill the weld joint completely.

INADEQUATE OR INCOMPLETE PENETRATION

Inadequate or incomplete penetration is the joint penetration being less than intended or a condition
created when the penetration and fusion of the filler material within the joint cavity fails to reach the
specified depth within the base material cross section.

Incomplete penetration can result from insufficient root gap during fit-up or when weld shrinkage
causes the root opening to close.

Another common cause can be that an excessive root face or land is provided during joint preparation
that precludes penetration to the back side of the joint.

For joints welded from both sides, inadequate back-gouging prior to welding the second side can result
in lack of penetration.

EXCESSIVE PENETRATION

Unacceptable root contours can result from either too much or too little penetration.

Excessive penetration appears as a bead that is too high on the underside of the plate or on the inside
of the pipe.

When this occurs, the welder is moving or manipulating the weld rod too slowly or the current is too
high.

DROP THROUGH

Drop through is an undesirable protrusion or surface irregularity at the weld root. When the molten weld
puddle does not solidify quickly enough, it will sag.

Generally, this condition is caused by too wide of a root gap, excessive heat, improper welding
technique, or a combination of these.

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SUCK BACK

A concave root surface, sometimes called “suck back” is a defect caused by excess shrinkage of the
weld deposited root bead.

A concave root occurs when the molten weld solidifies without sufficient filler metal being added to the
molten zone.

Excessive amperage, excessive root gaps, or out-of-position welding promotes this condition.

Improper welding technique, too slow a travel speed, too high a current or not adding a sufficient amount
of filler material can cause root concavity.

When the welding operation generates too much heat in one place, the metal can be penetrated
leaving an opening all the way through the material.

This is especially troublesome in the root area, particularly if the end preparation is not performed
correctly.

Another cause of burn-through can be excess of root gap spacing. Burn-through may appear as one
large hole, or may appear as several small holes

POROSITY

Porosity is pores or small voids resulting from gas pockets forming in the metal.

Sometimes impurities can become trapped in the metal; when heated, they may burn out, giving off
gases that form voids in the metal. Another cause of porosity is moisture. A small amount of moisture
absorbed into an electrode can cause porosity on an otherwise acceptable weld. Porosity can also be
caused by improper arc length (too long) of the welding electrode when the welding current is set to
high. Manipulating the electrode too slow can also cause porosity.

Moisture is hard to detect in the weld rod, but when it arcs and becomes steam, it expands about 1,700
times and becomes trapped in the metal as porosity.

The steam will cause a void before it can cool down.

The weld metal solidifies around it, leaving a void.

Porosity can occur anywhere in the weld metal or the base metal.

Depending on the class and type of weld, some porosity may be allowed.

The project specifications and procedures will establish allowable limits and govern their application.

Undercut

Undercut is the burning away of the side walls of the welding groove during the welding process.

Undercut appears at the edge or toe of the weld bead and runs parallel to the weld.

Undercutting is caused by moving the welding electrode too fast, using the wrong size welding
electrode, or wrong electrode angle while welding.

The welder can produce undercut by holding an extra long arc while welding or by using a welding
current that is too high.

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Undercut can be either internal or external

Even an experienced welder will sometimes cause some undercutting.

Since it is not regarded as a crack, a slight amount of undercut may be allowed by the welding
inspection procedure.

Misalignment

Misalignment (“offset”, “hi-lo”, or “mismatch”) can be either internal or external at the pipe joint.

Mismatch refers to the amount of centerline offset of two members in a welded butt joint.

External misalignment is the variation measured at the outside of the pipe.

Internal mismatch is the variation measured on the inside faces of the pipe.

Misalignment is inspected both internally and externally because irregularities in roundness and boring
can affect fit-up of piping.

It is important to ensure that internal alignment is within tolerance.

Internal misalignment can restrict flow and contribute to corrosion by providing pockets that collect
corrosive substances.

Many specifications place a limit on mismatch since it can be a stress riser or can also cause difficulty in
welding.

Slight amounts of misalignment are sometimes allowed within specified tolerances. Project
specifications and procedures will govern these limits.

Arc Strikes

An arc strike is the unintentional melting or heating of the part or base metal outside of the welding
area.

It is usually caused by the welding arc. Arc strikes can also occur beneath an improperly attached
ground connection.

When performing a magnetic particle inspection, a part which is not secured properly between the
braided copper pads or prods can also produce arc strikes.

Many codes and standards do not address arc strikes. Some codes impose specific requirements. Arc
strikes are not necessarily harmful.

A concern regarding arc strikes is whether or not the required material thickness is reduced below the
design requirements, and whether or not cracks have resulted.

The greatest concern is for arc strikes on harden able, alloyed steel material with medium to high
carbon content. These materials are more susceptible to cracking.

Cold Lap, Overlap

Cold lap or “overlap” is an extension of weld metal beyond the bond of the toe of the weld and is
generally caused by poor handling of the welding electrode.

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Sometimes overlap is referred to simply as lack of fusion. There is a lack of fusion between the base
metal and the weld reinforcement.

Regardless of which term is used on your project, there are no easily interpreted tolerances for overlap,
and it should be considered an unacceptable defect.

Lack of Fusion (Incomplete Fusion)

Incomplete fusion, or “lack of fusion” as it is frequently termed, is described as fusion that is less
than complete.

It is the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal or weld metal and weld metal to fuse together.
Improper weaving, low welding current or too fast a welding speed can cause this condition. Failure to
obtain fusion may occur at any point in the weld.

Incomplete fusion results when the base metal or previously deposited weld is not raised to the melting
temperature at the point of weld deposits prior to weld metal solidification. Failure to remove slag, mill
scale and oxides from weld joint surfaces can also prevent the deposited metal from fusing.

Incomplete fusion is usually elongated in the direction of welding and may have either rounded or sharp
edges, depending on how it is formed.

There are many causes of incomplete fusion. A welding surface that has not been properly cleaned
might resist fusing or melting into the weld metal.

Too low a welding current might not melt the base metal sufficiently to cause good fusion. Welding too
fast might cause incomplete fusion because the metal will not be sufficiently heated for proper fusion to
occur.

Laminations or inclusions in the base metal can be the cause of improper fusion. The welder can
cause incomplete fusion by improperly manipulating the electrode.

The welding process is a series of fusing operations.

The tack welds must be properly fused to the base metal.

The root pass must properly fused to the base metal and the tack welds.

From this point on, each new pass must fuse to the metal previously deposited and to the base
material.

Incomplete fusion between the weld metal and the base metal or between two weld beads can
sometimes be detected visually or with the aid of liquid penetrant or magnetic particle tests.

Lack of fusion between two weld layers can only be detected with radiography or ultrasonic testing. In
some cases it can easily be removed by grinding.

Regardless of where you find it, incomplete fusion is an unacceptable condition.

Spatter

Weld spatter consists of globules of metal unintentionally ejected from the molten pool during welding
and deposited on the surface of the base or weld metal.

Spatter can be caused by arc blow, too high a welding current, too long an arc, moist or defective
electrodes, or incorrect polarity being used.

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Spatter impairs nondestructive examination, and should therefore be eliminated.

Slag Inclusion

Inclusions result from impurities or foreign substances being forced in a molten puddle during the
welding process. Slag is an example of an inclusion. Inclusions below the surface cannot be detected
with the eye, but those on the surface of the weld can be seen.

When the shielded metal arc welding process is in use, the inclusion can come from slag or flux. An
inclusion on the surface of the weld must be removed before welding over it.

Slag is the nonmetallic residue of flux-covered or flux-cored electrodes. It usually floats to the top of the
weld puddle and covers the weld bead as it solidifies.

Scale is the oxide formed on metal by chemical action of the surface metal with oxygen from the air.

Slag and scale are not considered actual weld defects, but they can become such if embedded in
metal.

Both slag and scale can be found as elongated or globular inclusions in base or weld metals.

These substances naturally weaken a weld because they replace sound metal in the bead.

A common cause of inclusions is improper cleaning between passes.

Insufficient cleaning of base material may not remove all scale deposits prior to welding.

A common misconception is that the slag will be melted by the heat on the next weld pass and float to
the top of the weld, thus becoming part of the flux covering of the weld.

This is not necessarily true and is not an acceptable practice. The slag should be removed before the
next weld pass is applied.

Tungsten Inclusion

Another kind of inclusion comes from foreign material becoming embedded in the weld metal while it is
hot.

When the GTAW process is being used, the tungsten electrode can sometimes be the source of the
foreign material.

An inclusion can be thought of as a void, because the weld metal has been displaced by foreign
material.

An inclusion weakens the weld, and for this reason an inclusion is accepted or rejected according to the
allowable limits of the code or standard in use.

Distortion

When heated metal cools, it returns to its original shape. However, welded metal is restricted by the
weld bead and is sometimes distorted.

The acceptability must be based upon the criteria from your procedures that are derived from the
applicable code and standards governing the work or from the project engineers.

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In some cases, the distortion may be in the form of shrinkage that restricts the flow within the line. In
other cases, it may come in the form of warpage.

Usually the main consideration is whether the warpage impairs the function of the item.

Weld Related Cracks

A crack is a linear rupture of metal under stress.

Cracks are often very narrow separations in the weld or adjacent base metal, and usually little
deformation are apparent.

Weld metal cracks can be the result of many factors. For example, cracking occurs when a joint is
highly restrained.

Also, welds which are too small in size for the parts that are joined may crack when the shrinkage strains
during cooling, fracturing at the least ductile location.

Cracking also results from poor welding practices, improper preparation of joints, or improper electrodes
for matching base material.

Inadequate preheat during welding of low-alloy carbon steel materials promotes cracking of the weld
metal or heat-affected zone (HAZ).

Cracks in the HAZ are promoted by high restraint of the joints and improper electrode control.

Low-hydrogen procedures are necessary for most low-alloy steels.

High alloy, austenitic materials such as stainless steel are more crack resistant than low-alloy carbon
steel.

Contamination of the weldments with compounds such as sulfur or the selection of the wrong filler
material can produce micro-fissuring and/or centerline cracking.

It must be recognized that other types of cracks can form during the service life of a component or
weldments. Cracks can be generated by overloading, metal fatigue, intergranular and transgranular
stress corrosion and stress rupture mechanisms.

The radiographic and ultrasonic examination response of such flaws is dependent upon the size and
orientation of the flaw.

Crater Cracks

Crater cracks are called shrinkage cracks that occur in the crater of a weld bead. This condition is
caused by improper filling of the crater before raising the electrode away from the weld puddle, or by
stopping the arc suddenly.

Crater cracking is commonly called star cracking, but these cracks can also take the form of centerline
or transverse cracking.

Some craters exhibit small cracks radiating outward from the center of the crater. This condition can
occur in any weld bead depression, but it is more likely to occur in the end of a bead, especially a tack
weld. These cracks are commonly called shrinkage cracks.
When a weld bead is deposited, solidification of a molten metal takes place from the sides and moves
toward the center.

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Since metal shrinks as it solidifies, there may not be an adequate volume of solidified metal to fill the
space previously occupied by molten metal. The result is a shrinkage crack.
Craters can be avoided by pausing before interrupting the arc to allow the addition of enough extra
molten metal to compensate for solidification shrinkage.

Crater cracks must be completely eliminated by grinding or gouging prior to welding over the affected
area.

Cracking results from localized stress which exceeds the ultimate strength of the metal.

Cracks can occur anywhere in metal, but they are especially prone to develop in areas where the metal
has been worked extensively or heated.

Cracks, however slight, are never acceptable. They often tend to grow until they cause failure of the
system.

In some cases, stresses trapped in metal may not cause a crack until after a system is in operation; for
this reason, preheat requirements are included when welding procedures are written.

Longitudinal Cracks

Longitudinal cracks lie parallel to the direction of the weld. These types of cracks may be centerline
cracks in the weld metal or toe cracks in the heat affected zone.

Remember, longitudinal cracks travel the "long way" with the weld.

Transverse Cracks

Transverse cracks run perpendicular to the direction of the weld. These cracks may extend from the
weld metal into the heat affected zone.

Transverse cracks may form in the heat affected zone of the base metal and travel into the weld.

Toe Cracks

Toe cracks begin and propagate from the toe of the weld where stresses may be high.

Root Cracks

Root cracks are longitudinal cracks in the root of the weld and are generally a hot crack.

Root passes are also susceptible to cracking. The root, like the tack, is small in cross-sectional area.

Therefore it cools rapidly, shrinks, and creates stresses in the root pass metal.

Proper preheating of the base metal lowers the rate of cooling and reduces the shrinkage stress.

A crack in the root pass can eventually propagate or crack out at the surface. If that crack begins in the
root pass of a pipe weld, its growth will be hastened because it will constantly be exposed to the fluid
inside the pipe.

Direct contact with the contents of the piping system can greatly speed up the growth of the crack. In
addition to root passes, thin fillet welds are also highly susceptible to cracking.

Tack Welds

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Tacks are susceptible to cracking because of their relatively small cross sectional area, which does not
allow them to sustain high stress.

Stresses on tacks result from fast cooling rates and solidification shrinkage.

Contamination

Contamination of the weldments with compounds such as sulfur or the selection of the wrong filler
material can produce micro-fissuring and/or centerline cracking.

Causes

It must be recognized that other types of cracks can form during the service life of a component or
weldments.

Cracks can be generated by overloading, metal fatigue, intergranular and transgranular stress corrosion
and stress rupture mechanisms, to mention only a few.

The radiographic and ultrasonic examination response of such flaws is dependent upon the size and
orientation of the flaw

The causes of cracking include the following:

* Welding parts that are misaligned.

* No provision for expansion and contraction in rigid joints.

* Use of the wrong electrode or filler metal.

* Impurities such as oil or grease on the base or filler metals.

* Chemical content of the base material that varies beyond acceptable limits.

 Too rapid a heating and/or cooling rate

Prevention of cracks is best accomplished by the following:

* Preheating the base metal to the specified temperature.

* Using the specified filler material.

* Assuring proper spacing or root opening.

* Maintaining acceptable inter-pass temperature.

* Applying post-weld heat treatment.

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