COMMUNICATION BASICS

The necessary pieces are a sender, a receiver, and a message. For human communication, each person has an
added step of either coding or decoding a message. The two basic ways of coding messages are putting it in
some kind of language (speech or writing) and/or nonverbally communicating it (body language, tone, etc). The
receiver then interprets (decodes) the words and nonverbals, hoping to arrive at an understanding of what the
sender really means.
Communication Problems
The way we encode and decode messages is based on how we learned to communicate in earlier stages of life.
Communication problems can then emerge at every step of the above model because no two people have had
exactly same life experiences that shape communication patterns.
Sender Problems: The most common problem that we can make as message senders is coding our thought,
feeling or need in a way that has a low chance of being understood by the receiver. Another common problem is
that sometimes our thoughts, feelings, or ideas are extremely complex, and we may not even have a good sense
of them ourselves.
Receiver Problems: The biggest problem that happens when we receive messages is in decoding things
inaccurately, which can be caused by 1) not really attending to the sender, 2) not having the skills necessary to
decode the message, or 3) adding your our own meaning to the message that was not really intended by the
sender.
How To Communicate Better
So how can we get better at communicating based on all of this? I don't think we need to learn a bunch of tricky
ways to phrase things, or subscribe to rules like using "I Statements" or any of that. Instead, we just need to
have better awareness of how messy communicating is, and being more thoughtful about sending and receiving
messages.
1. Be Aware of your own communication errors.
2. Choose your words (and actions) wisely based on who the receiver is.
3. Check in with the sender when you are decoding messages to make sure you have the right understanding.
EFFECTIVENESS IN COMMUNICATION
What is effective communication?
Communication is about more than just exchanging information. It's about understanding the emotion and
intentions behind the information. Effective communication is also a two-way street. It’s not only how you
convey a message so that it is received and understood by someone in exactly the way you intended, it’s also
how you listen to gain the full meaning of what’s being said and to make the other person feel heard and
understood.
While effective communication is a learned skill, it is more effective when it’s spontaneous rather than
formulaic. A speech that is read, for example, rarely has the same impact as a speech that’s delivered (or
appears to be delivered) spontaneously. Of course, it takes time and effort to develop these skills and become an
effective communicator. The more effort and practice you put in, the more instinctive and spontaneous your
communication skills will become.
Barriers to effective interpersonal communication
 Stress and out-of-control emotion. 
 Lack of focus. 
 Inconsistent body language. 
 Negative body language. 
Improving communication skills #1: Become an engaged listener
 Focus fully on the speaker, his or her body language, tone of voice, and other nonverbal cues.
 Favor your right ear. 
 Avoid interrupting or trying to redirect the conversation to your concerns
 Show your interest in what’s being said. 
 Try to set aside judgment. 
 Provide feedback.  
Improving communication skills #2: Pay attention to nonverbal signals
Developing the ability to understand and use nonverbal communication can help you connect with others,
express what you really mean, navigate challenging situations, and build better relationships at home and work.
 You can enhance effective communication by using open body language—arms uncrossed, standing
with an open stance or sitting on the edge of your seat, and maintaining eye contact with the person
you’re talking to.
 You can also use body language to emphasize or enhance your verbal message—patting a friend on the
back while complimenting him on his success, for example, or pounding your fists to underline your
message.
Improving communication skills #3: Keep stress in check
Staying calm under pressure
 Use stalling tactics to give yourself time to think.
 Pause to collect your thoughts. 
 Make one point and provide an example or supporting piece of information.
 Deliver your words clearly. 
 Wrap up with a summary and then stop.
Improving communication skills #4: Assert yourself
Direct, assertive expression makes for clear communication and can help boost self-esteem and decision-
making. Being assertive means expressing your thoughts, feelings, and needs in an open and honest way, while
standing up for yourself and respecting others.To improve assertiveness:
 Value yourself and your opinions. 
 Know your needs and wants. Learn to express them without infringing on the rights of others.
 Express negative thoughts in a positive way.
 Receive feedback positively. 
 Learn to say “no.” Know your limits and don’t let others take advantage of you.

INTERPERSONAL & INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION6

► Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication takes place within a single person, often for the purpose of clarifying ideas
or analyzing a situation. Other times, intrapersonal communication is undertaken in order to reflect upon or
appreciate something. Three aspects of intrapersonal communication are self-concept, perception and
expectation.
 Self-concept (also called self-awareness) involves three factors: beliefs, values and attitudes.
o Beliefs are basic personal orientation toward what is true or false, good or bad; beliefs
can be descriptive or prescriptive.
o Values are deep-seated orientations and ideals, generally based on and consistent with
beliefs, about right and wrong ideas and actions.
o Attitudes are learned predisposition toward or against a topic, ideals that stem from and
generally are consistent with values.

 Perception of the outside world also is rooted in beliefs, values and attitudes. It is so closely
intertwined with self-concept that one feeds off the other, creating a harmonious understanding
of both oneself and one’s world.
 Meanwhile, expectations are future-oriented messages dealing with long-term roles, sometimes
called life scripts. These sometimes are projections of learned relationships within the family or
society.
► Direct Interpersonal Communication
Direct interpersonal communication involves a direct face-to-face relationship between the sender and
receiver of a message, who are in an interdependent relationship. Because of interpersonal communication’s
immediacy (it is taking place now) and primacy (it is taking place here), it is characterized by a strong feedback
component. The purposes of interpersonal communication are to influence, help and discover, as well as to
share and play together.
Interpersonal communication can be categorized by the number of participants.
• Dyadic communication involves two people. Example: Two friends talking.
• Group communication involves three or more persons. Example: University study group.
• Public communication involves a large group with a primarily one-way monologue style generating
only minimal feedback. Information sharing, entertainment and persuasion are common purposes of public
communication. Example: Lecture in university class.

Another way of categorizing interpersonal communication is on the function or setting of the communication.
• Organizational communication deals with communication within large organizations such as
businesses. This is sometimes considered part of group communication, but communication scholars have built
up a body of knowledge focused primarily on organizations. Example: Workfocused discussion between
employer and employee.
• Family communication focuses on communication patterns within nuclear, extended and blended
families. Like organizational communication, this too is sometimes seen as part of the general category of group
communication, but much research has been focused specifically on communication within a family
relationship. Family communication can be enhanced by the long-standing and close relationships among
participants as well as the likelihood that families have shared heritage, similar values, and social rituals.
Patterns differ in communication between spouses, between parent and child, among siblings, and within the
wider family context. Example: Conversation during a holiday meal.

► Mediated Interpersonal Communication

Mediated interpersonal communication involves technology that assists or links the sender and receiver
of messages. This may involve immediacy (live, or so-called real time). It does not involve a primary context
but instead uses technology to link the various parties in communication.
• Dyadic communication includes two people, with some of the elements of interpersonal, but the
context is not face-to-face. Example: Two business colleagues using the telephone or e-mail.
• Group communication includes a small group of people. Example: Teleconference in a distance
learning class.
Mediated communication offers the advantage that it allows people to communicate over a distance or
throughout a time span that would not be possible in direct communication. Mediated communication has
several inherent limitations, including the ability of telephone or Internet users to mask or disguise the source of
the message, or the susceptibility of machines to various mechanical or technological noise sources.

► Mass Communication
Mass communication is a more public form of communication between an entity and a large and diverse
audience, mediated by some form of technology. This may be either real time or on a taped delay basis, or it
may be rooted in the usually recent past. Examples: Radio and television, newspapers and magazines.
MANAGING CONVERSATIONS
1. Be clear about the issue
2. Know your objective. 
3. Adopt a mindset of inquiry. 
4. Manage the emotions. 
5. Be comfortable with silence. 
6. Preserve the relationship. 
7. Be consistent. 
8. Develop your conflict resolution skills. 
9. Watch your reaction to thwarting ploys. 
10. Choose the right place to have the conversation. 
11. Know how to begin. 
 ASKING QUESTIONS
The Key to Engaging Students in Learning
Good questioning skills may be the world's most unsung talent. Ask the right questions in the right way, and
you'll engage people; do it differently, and you'll put them off.
Types of Questions
There are three main types of questions:
o Factual questions have only one correct answer. Factual questions usually make the best inquiry-based
projects, as long as they are answerable and have room for exploration.
o Interpretive questions have more than one answer, but they still must be supported with evidence. When
exploring any type of text (video, fiction, nonfiction, a painting, poetry, etc.), it is important to ask interpretive
questions that build on one another because students will have to refer back to the text. Interpretive questions
are effective for starting class discussions, for stimulating oral and written language exercises and, sometimes,
for leading to good inquiry-based learning projects.
o Evaluative questions ask for some kind of opinion, belief or point of view, so they have no wrong answers.
Nonetheless, the answers do depend on prior knowledge and experience, so they are good ways to lead
discussions and explore books or other artistic works. They rarely make for good inquiry-based projects because
they are internally focused, but they can be a great way to connect with and elicit interaction from students .

Leading a Discussion
Good learning programs involve everyone in planning and activities, whether it's a discussion among your team
about goals or a brainstorming session among kids planning a video project. Here are some good ground rules
for leading a discussion:
o Make sure everyone is prepared. This could mean that everyone has received the hand-outs or that you've read
aloud the story you want to talk about.
o Know your purpose. Is the goal to arrive at a decision or merely to brainstorm possible ideas that you'll follow
up on later?
o Opinions should always be supported with evidence. If you're discussing a book, for example, ask follow-up
questions about why the student believes what she does.
o Leaders only ask questions; they do not answer them.
o Care about each question you ask. Avoid generic questions and prepare some good questions in advance.
o Maintain a high energy level and enthusiasm. It's contagious!
o Spontaneous interpretive questions are an important part of all discussions. Preparing questions in advance will
actually lead to better spontaneous questions as well.
o All good questions always lead to more questions. Be aware of practical and logistical issues, such as time
limits, but never squelch enthusiasm when kids are on a roll.
o Whenever possible and appropriate, use techniques like mapping to provide a conceptual, visual structure to the
ideas you're hearing. Let people see you writing their thoughts and ideas on the map.

WORKING IN TEAMS
What is a team?
Teams share certain characteristics, including a clearly defined purpose (mission) and goals. Teamwork is
defined by a shared commitment both to the team's process (how the team works together) and to its product
(what work the team accomplishes). This commitment to team process is demonstrated through the
development and use of team norms and ground rules, a willingness to pay attention to group process, and a
sense of mutual accountability both to the members of the team as individuals and the team as a whole.
Types of teams
Project teams are usually time-limited teams formed to complete a particular task. When the team completes its
task, it disbands. Standing teams (sometimes called "intact" teams) are formed as on-going organizational units.
Teams that bring together members from different departments or functions are called cross-functional teams.
Ten Qualities of an Effective Team Player
  Demonstrates reliability
 Communicates constructively
 Listens actively
 Functions as an active participant
 Shares openly and willingly
 Cooperates and pitches in to help
 Exhibits flexibility
 Shows commitment to the team
 Works as a problem-solver
 Treats others in a respectful and supportive manner

PUBLIC SPEAKING
Public speaking (sometimes termed oratory or oration) is the process or act of performing a presentation
(a speech) focused around an individual directly speaking to a live audience in a structured, deliberate manner
in order to inform, influence, or entertain them. Public speaking is commonly understood as the formal, face-to-
face talking of a single person to a group of listeners. It is closely allied to "presenting", although the latter is
more often associated with commercial activity. Most of the time, public speaking is to persuade the audience.
THE 4 P's - PLAN, PREPARE, PRACTICE AND PRESENT YOUR SPEECH

PLANNING YOUR SPEECH

1. THE PURPOSE OF THE SPEECH:

• Decide what you wish to speak about
• Decide what is the primary purpose of the speech.
 Do you wish to: (a) instruct and inform
(b) convince, persuade, influence or motivate, or
(c) amuse and entertain
• What are you

• What are the objectives of your speech

• Know your audience (see separate topic below)
• Know the venue (see separate topic below)

PREPARING YOUR SPEECH

2. THEME:
• In one sentence, write down the object of your speech.
• If there are a number of points to be dealt with, establish a theme, a central idea or concept
which gives unity, direction and coherence to the presentation as a whole.
• List the main points to be covered and arrange them in a logical sequence.

Your speech should be structured into 3 distinct parts - Opening, Body and Conclusion
3. OPENING or INTRODUCTION:
• The introduction is most important as your audience will accept your message in the first 30 90
seconds, or they will switch off and ignore the rest of the speech.
• In the introduction you (a) introduce the theme (b) set the scene (c) establish a direction (d)
gain the attention of the audience and get them involved.
• The introduction should be short, positive, easy to handle, generate interest and expectancy
and you must feel comfortable with it. It should create a vivid image and possibly an image
that the audience can identify with.
4. BODY:
• The body should flow naturally from the introduction and lead the audience to the conclusion
you wish to accept.
• Be sure to stick to your theme.
• DO NOT try to cover too much ground - three or four main points are sufficient.
• Use stories, anecdotes, examples to keep the audience interested.
• Pause after each major point, example or illustration for effect and to allow the audience to
consider your point.
• Remember the audience likes to be entertained as well as informed, convinced or motivated.
Try to include some humour, if appropriate to the topic.
5. CONCLUSION:
• The conclusion should re-state the essential message. Keep it short and simple
• Memorize the conclusion and the opening.
• Refer back to the points in the introduction to round off the speech. The conclusion should
always link back to the opening.
• DO NOT introduce any new information to round off the speech.
• DO NOT just fade off.
• DO NOT thank the audience at the end of the speech.

PRESENT YOUR SPEECH

Rely on the fundamentals:

· Own your subject
· Feel positive about your speech
Make positive first impression:
· Establish eye contact
· Confident body language
· Be relaxed and well groomed
Build rapport with your audience:
· Be sincere and be yourself
· Say "we" not "you"
· Talk in terms of your audience's interests
· Involve your audience
Hold the attention of the audience:
· Be enthusiastic
· Use vivid words
· Express yourself clearly and concisely
· Have an upbeat voice
Close your presentation to make a favourable and lasting impression

REMEMBER:
The audience is entitled to your best PREPARATION, your PUNCTUALITY, your keeping to TIME and your
SINCERITY.

DELIVERING SPEECHES
How to Deliver an Effective Presentation or Speech
Effective, confident public speaking should look effortless. In reality most people need considerable time and
practice before they can talk confidently in front of an audience. You can use a number of techniques to
overcome stage fright, present yourself confidently and keep your audience engaged. The audience is on your
side. People want you to succeed; they don’t want to waste their time listening to a boring presentation. You are
in a position of power: you have the knowledge that everyone wants to acquire.
Avoid signs of nerves during your speech
 Fidgeting: Avoid touching your face or playing with jewellery. Keep your hands in front of you. If using a
lecturn, place your hands on either side of it.
 Pacing: Rather than pace in a random, panicky manner, move strategically. Move a few steps and then
stop. This can help keep an audience engaged, and you can use it to emphasise the message you’re
communicating.
 Hands shaking: Use cards rather than sheets of paper for your notes. This will make your shakiness much
less apparent.
Develop good body language
Gesticulate for success
Make eye contact to engage people

EFFECTIVE SELF INTRODUCTION

We all know that it is important to develop a very brief self-introduction that tells people what we want them to
know about us and our business. It is sometimes called "the elevator speech" because one should be able to
finish it before the listener reaches his/her floor in a ride up or down in an elevator. This brief introduction is
often our one chance to make a good first impression, so it warrants some careful attention: 
1. Focus the impact: To give your introduction true impact make it brief, focused, and hard hitting. Keep it to
sixty seconds maximum - preferably thirty. 
2. Rotate the focus: Seek several different ways in which you can introduce yourself, particularly if you
frequently present to the same people.
3. Make it relevant to your audience: Select an aspect of your business that will be relevant to their interests. 
4. Believe it: When creating each introduction, keep to what you believe.
5. Put your full weight behind it: Deliver your introduction with pride, without hesitation, without excuses,
without apologies. Use no explanations that might dilute, rather than strengthen it. 
6. Sound and look happy about what you do. 
7. Look at your listener(s): Making eye contact is the best way to show it in the brief time you have. 
8. Know when to use cues and when not. 
9. Know how to stop: This gets back to keeping it brief and hard-hitting. Keep it crisp. 
10. Leave space for a response. 

PARTICIPATING IN A DEBATE
What is Debating?
A debate is a structured argument.  Two sides speak alternately for and against a particular contention usually
based on a topical issue.  Unlike the arguments you might have with your family or friends however, each
person is allocated a time they are allowed to speak for and any interjections are carefully controlled.  The
subject of the dispute is often prearranged so you may find yourself having to support opinions with which you
do not normally agree.  You also have to argue as part of a team, being careful not to contradict what others on
your side have said.
Why debate?
It is an excellent way of improving speaking skills and is particularly helpful in providing experience in
developing a convincing argument. Those of you who are forced to argue against your natural point of view
realize that arguments, like coins, always have at least two sides.
 The Basic Debating Skills
Style
Style is the manner in which you communicate your arguments.  This is the most basic part of debating to
master.  Content and strategy are worth little unless you deliver your material in a confident and persuasive
way.
Speed
It is vital to talk at a pace which is fast enough to sound intelligent and allow you time to say what you want,
but slow enough to be easily understood. 
Tone
Varying tone is what makes you sound interesting.  Listening to one tone for an entire presentation is boring.
Volume
Speaking quite loudly is sometimes a necessity, but it is by no means necessary to shout through every debate
regardless of context.  There is absolutely no need speak any more loudly than the volume at which everyone in
the room can comfortably hear you.  Shouting does not win debates.  Speaking too quietly is clearly disastrous
since no one will be able to hear you.
 Clarity
The ability to concisely and clearly express complex issues is what debating is all about.  The main reason
people begin to sound unclear is usually because they lose the “stream of thought” which is keeping them
going. It is also important to keep it simple. While long words may make you sound clever, they may also make
you incomprehensible. 
Use of notes and eye contact
Notes are essential, but they must be brief and well organized to be effective.  There is absolutely no point in
trying to speak without notes. Of course, notes should never become obtrusive and damage your contact with
the audience, nor should they ever be read from verbatim.  Most people sketch out the main headings of their
speech, with brief notes under each. When writing notes for rebuttal during the debate, it is usually better to use
a separate sheet of paper so you can take down the details of what the other speakers have said and then transfer
a rough outline onto the notes you will actually be using. Eye contact with the audience is very important, but
keep shifting your gaze. No one likes to be stared at. 
 Content
Content is what you actually say in the debate. The arguments used to develop your own side’s case and rebut
the opposite side’s. The information on content provided below is a general overview of what will be expected
when you debate. 
Case (argument)- the whole
Introduction - The case your group is making must be outlined in the introduction.  This involves stating your
main arguments and explaining the general thrust of your case.  This must be done briefly since the most
important thing is to get on and actually argue it. It is also a good idea to indicate the aspects of the subject to be
discussed by each of the team members.
Conclusion - At the end, once everyone has spoken, it is useful to briefly summarize what your group has said
and why.
Rebuttal – the whole:
It is very important to have a good perspective of the debate and to identify what the key arguments are.  It isn’t
enough to rebut a few random arguments here and there.  Of course the techniques used above are invaluable
but they must be used appropriately.  There are a number of things you should do to systematically break down
a team’s case: 
1.  Ask yourself how the other side have approached the case. Is their methodology flawed?
2.  Consider what tasks the other side set themselves (if any) and whether they have in fact addressed these. 
3.  Consider what the general emphasis of the case is and what assumptions it makes. Try to refute these. 
4.  Take the main arguments and do the same thing.  It is not worth repeating a point of rebuttal that has been
used by someone else already, but you can refer to it to show that the argument has not stood up.  It is not
necessary to correct every example used.  You won’t have time and your aim is to show the other side’s case to
be flawed in the key areas. 
DYNAMICS OF GROUP COMMUNICATION
Overview
Working together in groups can be a great experience or one filled with stress and anxiety. The success of group
work depends largely on the trust developed among group members and the respect they show each other.
When an individual has had a positive experience in a group, he/she is more likely to take risks, ask questions,
and share ideas that will benefit the total group.
A trusting, cooperative atmosphere does not happen automatically. Everyone in the group contributes to the
overall group dynamic. When trust and cooperation exist in a group, then individuals, committees,
organizations, and communities can benefit greatly.
Trust in a person, a group, or an institution is based on the reliability, truthfulness, ability, or strength of that
person, group, or institution (Walumbwa, Luthans, Avey, and Oke 2011). Trust is essential for individuals to
work effectively in committees, clubs, communities, offices, or families. Most "trust-related” research asserts
that trust directly effects group performance and process (Dirks 1999). Trust has also been found to be
associated with group/team satisfaction and increased level of perceived task performance (Costa 2003). For
these reasons, developing a climate of trust is one of the most important tasks a group of people can undertake.
It takes time, but the results can be very worthwhile.
Cooperation is working together for a common purpose or benefit (Oliphant 2011). Cooperation is essential to
long-term group effectiveness and is frequently associated with trust (Dirks 1999). Cooperation “indirectly
affects performance by enhancing a group's sense of efficacy (or effectiveness) in its ability to resolve conflicts
and perform effectively” (Alper, Tjosvold, and Law 2000). When we cooperate in a group, our efforts are
directed toward a common goal. We display cooperative behavior by performing our assigned job or
participating in other activities to benefit the group (Tyler 2002).
Essentials of Communication in Developing Trust and Cooperation
Developing trust and cooperation includes elements such as expressing one's thoughts clearly and listening and
interacting with others effectively. Among the many factors that account for group trust and cooperation,
effective communication skills have historically been linked with successfully fostering a positive group
dynamic. Elements of communication include group communication and interactions, active listening, and body
language.
1. Group Communication
Groups with a low level of communication have less trust and cooperation. Lower levels of trust and
cooperation lead to increased conflicts (Levi 2001). A group can be most effective when all members
communicate with one another. As group members interact, question, disagree with, and support decisions,
communication increases. Increased communication promotes overall group success (Limas 2003).
Keep communication simple; people absorb information differently and at varying rates. Use the best practices
below for increasing effective group communication:
During a meeting:
 Restate group goals when a new member joins the group for the first time.
 Restate the purpose of the group as often as needed to help group members focus on what is important.
 Encourage the creativity and the exchange of ideas and open dialogue.
Complex information:
 Provide step-by-step instructions in a logical order.
 Present complex information to the group in multiple ways: (for example, both verbally and in print).
 Check for understanding by asking, “Would someone share their interpretation of this information?”
Other effective communication techniques:
 Use ice breakers and get-acquainted activities to help establish a positive, cooperative group climate.
 Provide regular feedback to help the group to stay focused on goals.
 Groups with a low level of communication have less trust and cooperation. To increase cooperation and
trust: (1) practice effective communication during group meetings; (2) simplify complex information;
and (3) ensure all group members have a voice and understand the topics presented. Encourage group
members to pay attention to one another.
 Discuss one topic at a time.
 Work through group conflicts rather than avoiding them.
 Ensure that all group members have an opportunity to state their views.
 Clearly state decisions so that all members understand.
2. Active Listening
Applause is the only appreciated interruption.
– Arnold Glasgow
Active listening is a multistep process of mindfully hearing and attempting to comprehend the meaning of
words spoken by another person in a conversation or speech (McNaughton, Hamlin, McCarthy, Head-Reeves,
and Schreiner 2008). In group settings, the goal has been to develop a clear understanding of the speaker’s
concern and also to clearly communicate the listener’s interest in the speaker’s message. When all members of a
group practice effective active listening, communication can be improved, which builds trust and cooperation.
The following techniques have helped develop good active listening skills:
Acknowledging what you're hearing
Example: "I see . . . Hmmm" (nodding).
Asking for more information
Example: "That sounds interesting. Tell us more."
Paraphrasing
Example: "So, do I hear you saying that although the plans aren't finished, we should start marketing the
workshop while the committee works on the details?"
Sharing Information
Example: "I have some names of people in my office that could help us with this problem. I will send those to
you before we make the final decision."
Checking feelings
Example: "It seems like you're frustrated. Tell us what concerns you about this situation."
Reporting feelings
Example: "It's been a long day. I'm not productive anymore. I'd like to think about this and get back together on
Wednesday."
Offering or requesting more options
Example: "We've listed some good ideas. Can we expand any of those ideas now?"
3. Body Language
Body language has been defined as communication without words. Miller (2005) stated that body language
includes “overt behaviors such as facial expressions, eye contact, touching and tone of voice” (p. 28). Group
members’ body language helps communicate their interest, boredom or confusion, as well as whether they are
in agreement or disagreement with other members.
When verbal and nonverbal messages are in alignment the most effective group communication and synergy
tends to occur (Miller 2005). Care should be taken so that group members do not come to false conclusions.
Observe nonverbal communication and then use it as a “check point” to confirm what group members have
communicated. Check information with a question, such as:
Example: "I’m having a tough time guaging your reaction to the news. How are people feeling about this
proposal right now?" Or, "I see some frowns. Would someone like to share a concern?"
Conclusion
A trusting, cooperative atmosphere does not happen automatically. Every leader and member of a group is
responsible for creating and maintaining positive group dynamics through communication techniques. When
trust and cooperation exist in a group, individuals, committees, organizations, and communities can greatly
benefit. Effective group communication can be enhanced by applying techniques to increase group
communication and interactions, active listening, and interpretations of body language. For more information
related to working in groups, refer to Working in Groups: Facilitating Positive Group Interactions for methods
to facilitate group interaction.
Group communication is both a science and an art. Behavioral scientists and management theorists have
attempted to discern patterns in group communication and prescribe methods of increasing communication
effectiveness for years. Although the merging of diverse cultures around the world makes this an ever-evolving
topic, there are a number of elements that have been proven to encourage effective group communication
processes.
Significance
Groups, or work teams, can accomplish great things in small and large businesses alike. A group's overall
effectiveness, however, hinges to a great extent on the effectiveness of the participants' communication abilities.
Without positive flows of communication, misunderstandings can occur between groups, creating a fractious
work environment. Without clear communication between group leaders and workers, productivity can slow as
workers struggle to understand their specific job functions. Communication styles can vary according to group
dynamics. Geographically dispersed groups connected via the Internet, for example, are likely to communicate
much differently than individuals who work in the same room with each other every day. Whatever the setting,
the way groups communicate in your company can directly influence the success of your strategic goals.
Company Culture
Instilling a culture of openness, honesty and trust among co-workers is vital to effective group communication.
All group participants must feel that they are free to contribute to the best of their ability without the fear of
rejection, insult or political repercussions. Groups must be able to pool their intellectual resources to reach their
full effectiveness, and that can only be accomplished when all members are ready and able to tackle new
challenges in innovative ways.
Respect for Individuals
Individual respect is key to effective group communication. Clear hierarchical boundaries in meetings can stifle
ideas and insights from lower-ranking employees. Every individual must truly believe that their input will be
valued and considered, without undue clout given to the input of managers and executives. This kind of respect
for group members' individuality cannot come to fruition through formal policies; executives and managers
must lead by example in this area by first encouraging employees to contribute in meetings, then recognizing
and considering input from all participants.
Business Etiquette
Adhering to a common code of etiquette in workplace groups can help communication processes to remain
productive and collaborative by reducing distractions and feelings of resentment. If all group members dress
professionally, speak courteously, avoid divisive, irrelevant topics of conversation and generally avoid causing
offense to other group members, a team can find it easier to mesh and form a cohesive unit. A lack of attention
to etiquette, on the other hand, can create divisions while encouraging gossip and feelings of resentment, all of
which can present serious impediments to effective communication.
Theories
A number of theories attempt to analyze and explain the dynamics of group communication and the elements
that determine its effectiveness. One such theory is the Decision Emergence Theory set forth by Aubrey Fisher.
Decision Emergence asserts that new groups progress through four stages that lead the group from a diverse
collection of individuals to a productive unit with shared experiences, decision methods, work ethic and values.
The Structuration Theory suggests that individuals in new groups act according to a pre-acknowledged set of
rules, then alter those rules over time based on the group's unique experiences.
Taking part in group discussions
Effective facilitation of a discussion involves the recognition and employment of different perspectives and
different skills to create an inclusive environment.  In order to do so, it is important to consider the features of
effective discussions, and conditions that promote small group interaction and engagement.  Discussion is a
powerful mechanism for active learning; a well-facilitated discussion allows the participant to explore new
ideas while recognizing and valuing the contributions of others. 
Roles of Discussion Leaders (adapted from Handelsman et al. 2006)
1. Create an inclusive environment
Opportunities for reflection:
 What do the participants bring to the group? (“Characteristics that may give you a unique perspective”)
 Self-awareness; awareness of others:
 What do I bring to the group?  What surprises or challenges me?
 What behaviors am I most familiar or comfortable with?
 What behaviors challenge me? 
Dos and Don’ts:
Do:
 Allow participants to introduce themselves – you can even set up an ice breaker to have pairs of students
introduce each other.
 Be clear up front about expectations and intentions amongst participants and the facilitator.
 Use inclusive language.
 Ask for clarification if unclear about a participant’s intent or question.
 Treat participants with respect and consideration.
 Develop an awareness for barriers for learning (cultural; social; experiential, etc).
 Provide sufficient time and space for participants to gather their thoughts and contribute to discussions.
 Provide opportunities for participants to pair-share.
Don’t:
 Use certain conventions or language that will exclude certain groups from understanding the context of the
discussion, or make them feel uncomfortable.
 Assume participants all have the same expectations when the group first convenes.
 Over-generalize behavior or have stereotypical expectations of participants (tokenism).
 Use (or allow others to use) disrespectful language or tone, or disrespectful non-verbal communication.
 Convey a sense of self-importance or superiority.
 Allow only the dominant or more verbal participants to take over the conversation.
 Discourage alternate views or counter-arguments.
 Try to be someone else- be yourself.
2. Keep discussions constructive and positive
 Make the discussion functional by clarifying the goals of each session to the group.
 Establish ground rules:
–   Share personal experiences rather than make general statements about groups of people (stereotyping).
–   Ask dominant participants to allow others to speak.
–   Give all participants a voice- at the start highlight the value of a diversity of perspectives as an essential part
of the process.
–   Go over constructive and destructive group behaviors at the start of the course / workshop.
–   Request that if participants challenge others’ ideas, they back it up with evidence, appropriate experiences,
and/or appropriate logic.
 Try to keep the group on task without rushing them.
 If the group starts to veer in the direction of negativity and/or pointless venting, ask them how they would
like to address this.
 Step back when a group is functional/functioning – help participants become independent learners; take
control of their learning.
3. Encouraging participants
Encouraging participation can be accomplished by:
 Writing participants’ comments on the whiteboard.
 Asking follow-up questions, and paraphrasing the comments for everyone to ponder.  A combination of
initiating and probing questions can be an effective approach to bring out participants’ ideas further.
 Asking the contributor for further clarification and/or elaboration.
 Re-visiting past contributions and incorporating them into subsequent discussions.
 Encouraging others to add their reactions or ideas to build on someone’s comment.
 Not being afraid to admit your own ignorance or confusion if you don’t know something – invite others to
provide resources, and use the opportunity to discuss with the group how one might go about researching
the issue.
 Discomfort and silence are ok, but balance with a clearly stated context and purpose.

MANAGING MEETINGS
There are good meetings and there are bad meetings. Bad meetings drone on forever, you never seem to get to
the point, and you leave wondering why you were even present. Effective ones leave you energized and feeling
that you've really accomplished something.
So what makes a meeting effective? This really boils down to three things:
1. They achieve the meeting's objective.
2. They take up a minimum amount of time.
3. They leave participants feeling that a sensible process has been followed.
If you structure your meeting planning, preparation, execution, and follow up around these three basic criteria,
the result will be an effective meeting.
1. The Meeting's Objective
An effective meeting serves a useful purpose. This means that in it, you achieve a desired outcome. For a
meeting to meet this outcome, or objective, you have to be clear about what it is.
Too often, people call a meeting to discuss something without really considering what a good outcome would
be.
 Do you want a decision?
 Do you want to generate ideas?
 Are you getting status reports?
 Are you communicating something?
 Are you making plans?
Any of these, and a myriad of others, is an example of a meeting objective. Before you do any meeting
planning, you need to focus your objective.
To help you determine what your meeting objective is, complete this sentence:
At the close of the meeting, I want the group to ...
With the end result clearly defined, you can then plan the contents of the meeting, and determine who needs to
be present.
2. Use Time Wisely
Time is a precious resource, and no one wants their time wasted. With the amount of time we all spend in
meetings, you owe it to yourself and your team to streamline the meeting as much as possible. What's more,
time wasted in a meeting is time wasted for everybody attending. For example, if a critical person is 15 minutes
late in an eight person meeting, that person has cost the organization two hours of lost activity.
Starting with your meeting objective, everything that happens in the meeting itself should further that objective.
If it doesn't, it's superfluous and should not be included.
To ensure you cover only what needs to be covered and you stick to relevant activities, you need to create an
agenda. The agenda is what you will refer to in order to keep the meeting running on target and on time.
To prepare an agenda, consider the following factors:
 Priorities – what absolutely must be covered?
 Results – what do need to accomplish at the meeting?
 Participants – who needs to attend the meeting for it to be successful?
 Sequence – in what order will you cover the topics?
 Timing – how much time will spend on each topic?
 Date and Time – when will the meeting take place?
 Place – where will the meeting take place?
With an idea of what needs to be covered and for how long, you can then look at the information that should be
prepared beforehand. What do the participants need to know in order to make the most of the meeting time?
And, what role are they expected to perform in the meeting, so that they can do the right preparation?
If it's a meeting to solve a problem, ask the participants to come prepared with a viable solution. If you are
discussing an ongoing project, have each participant summarize his or her progress to date and circulate the
reports amongst members.
Assigning a particular topic of discussion to various people is another great way to increase involvement and
interest. On the agenda, indicate who will lead the discussion or presentation of each item.
Use your agenda as your time guide. When you notice that time is running out for a particular item, consider
hurrying the discussion, pushing to a decision, deferring discussion until another time, or assigning it for
discussion by a subcommittee.
An important aspect of running effective meetings is insisting that everyone respects the time allotted. Start the
meeting on time, do not spend time recapping for latecomers, and, when you can, finish on time. Whatever can
be done outside the meeting time should be. This includes circulating reports for people to read beforehand, and
assigning smaller group meetings to discuss issues relevant to only certain people.
Download our free agenda template here, and use this as a starting point for creating your own agenda.
3. Satisfying Participants that a Sensible Process Has Been Followed
Once you have an agenda prepared, you need to circulate it to the participants and get their feedback and input.
Running a meeting is not a dictatorial role: You have to be participative right from the start. Perhaps there is
something important that a team member has to add. Maybe you have allotted too much, or too little, time for a
particular item. There may even be some points you've included that have been settled already and can be taken
off the list for discussion. Whatever the reason, it is important you get feedback from the meeting participants
about your proposed agenda.
Once in the meeting, to ensure maximum satisfaction for everyone, there are several things you should keep in
mind:
 If certain people are dominating the conversation, make a point of asking others for their ideas.
 At the end of each agenda item, quickly summarize what was said, and ask people to confirm that that's a
fair summary. Then make notes regarding follow-up.
 Note items that require further discussion.
 Watch body language and make adjustments as necessary. Maybe you need a break, or you need to stop
someone from speaking too much.
 Ensure the meeting stays on topic.
 List all tasks that are generated at the meeting. Make a note of who is assigned to do what, and by when.
 At the close of the meeting, quickly summarize next steps and inform everyone that you will be sending out
a meeting summary.
After the meeting is over, take some time to debrief, and determine what went well and what could have been
done better. Evaluate the meeting's effectiveness based on how well you met the objective. This will help you
continue to improve your process of running effective meetings. You may even want to get the participants'
feedback as well. Depending on the time frame, this debriefing can be done within the meeting itself or
afterward.
Finally, prepare the meeting summary. This will be forwarded to all participants and other stakeholders. It is a
record of what was accomplished and who is responsible for what as the team moves forward. This is a very
crucial part of effective meetings that often gets overlooked. You need a written record of what transpired,
along with a list of actions that named individuals have agreed to perform. Make sure someone is assigned to
take notes during the meeting if you think you will be too busy to do so yourself.