BIOL1012: INTRODUCTION

TO BIOSCIENCES
MODULE #5 – PART 1
The University of Trinidad and Tobago
ECIAF Campus
Ms. Kimberly Singh / Mr. Lakshman Lochan
Overview of Module #5 – Plant
Physiology Morphology of Plants

Internal Structures of Plants

Part 1
Growth of Plants

Photosynthesis in Plants

Part 2 Respiration in Plants

Reproduction and Response

Part 3 in Plants
Overview of Module #5 – Plant
Physiology

Assessments

Lab #3 – Plant Morphology

Quiz #3 – Photosynthesis,
Respiration and Reproduction
 Leaf
• A leaf is the green, flat lateral outgrowth in
plants.
• They come in different shapes, sizes and
colors, and are generally flat and thin.
• They are the main organ responsible for
photosynthesis as they contain chlorophyll,
providing the plant with energy or food.
• The pigment, chlorophyll, gives the leaves
their green colour.
• Leaves can be classified based on many
anatomic and morphologic features such as
venation, shape, arrangement, margin etc.
 Simple and Compound Leaves
• Simple Leaf - the lamina or the leaf blade is undivided. Even if there are
small divisions, they do not reach the midrib and divide the lamina.
• Compound Leaf - the leaf blade is divided from the midrib into two or
more parts. Sometimes these divided parts function as separate leaves.
Parts of a Simple Leaf
• Leaf blade or lamina:
• It’s generally broad and flat.
• It is in this layer that
photosynthesis occurs.
• It contains a prominent midrib at
the centre of the leaf blade
which is the main vein.
• From this midrib arise branches
called veins.
• Leaves are of different types
depending on the type of
edges/margins, the pattern of
the veins and number of blades
per leaf.
Parts of a Simple Leaf
• Petiole:
• It is the stalk-like structure
which connects the leaf blade
to the stem.
• The petiole has tiny tubes, that
connect the veins on the leaf
blade to the stem.
• Few of these enable water
transport to the leaf while the
others carry food away from
the leaf to other parts of the
plant.
Petiole
• Petiolated- These leaves have a stalk or petiole which attaches
them to the stem.
• Sessile- These leaves do not have a petiole and are directly
attached to the stem.
Parts of a Simple Leaf
• Stipule:
• Some plants also contain
another part called stipules.
• These are small flap-like
structures that grow at the base
of the petioles.
• They are protective in some
plants when they protect the
growing petiole while in others,
they fall off once the petiole
starts growing.
 Compound Leaf Structure

Leaf Leaf
Shape of Leaf Blade
• Cordate - Heart-shaped, with the
petiole or stem attached to the
notch.
• Ovate - Egg-shaped, with a
tapering point and the widest
portion near the petiole.
• Reniform - Shaped like a kidney,
with an inward curve on one side.
• Sagittate - Arrowhead-shaped with
the lower lobes folded, or curled
downward
Leaf Margin
• Smooth: This type of leaf margin is
called ‘entire’ leaf margin and is
smooth all around.
• Sinuate: Have smooth curves along
the margins.
• Dentate: They have teethed
margins.
• Serrate: Have saw-teeth shaped
margins.
• Lobed: the leaf blade is divided but
the division doesn’t reach the
midrib.
Patterns of Veins
• Parallel: The veins on the leaf blade
run parallel to each other maintaining
the same distance throughout.
• Palmate: The veins originate at a point
and diverge from the point similar to
the palm of the hand.
• Pinnate: There is a midrib which is
present in the middle of the leaf
blade. From this midrib arise the lateral
veins.
Arrangement on the Stem
• Alternate: Each leaf arises from
a separate node on the stem at
different levels.
• Opposite: Each node gives rise
to two leaves, one on each
side placed oppositely.
• Whorled: In this arrangement,
several leaves are present at
the same level around the stem
giving it a whorled
appearance.
• Rosulate/Rosette: The leaves
arrange themselves in a ring-like
pattern around the stem.
Flower
• A flower is basically a stem with leaf-like structures.
• The flower stalk is a pedicel, and the very end of the axis, where the
other flower parts are attached, is the receptacle.
Flower Structure
• There are four fundamental floral appendages:
1. Sepals - Calyx
2. Petals - Corolla
3. Stamens – Male
4. Carpels – Female
Flower Structure
• Most flowers have all four floral appendages and are complete
flowers.
• Flowers that lack one or two of the four basic floral appendages
are termed incomplete flowers.
• A perfect or bisexual flower has both male (androecium) and
female (gynoecium) parts.
• An imperfect or unisexual flower lacks either male or female
flower parts.
 Flower Structure
Sepals
• Sepals are the lowermost and outermost of
the four appendages.
• They can be quite leaf-like and are often
described as being slightly modified leaves.
• They are the thickest, toughest and most
waxy of the flower parts.
 Flower Structure
Sepals
• The functions of the sepals include:
• Protecting the flower bud as it develops
• Keeping bacterial and fungal spores away
• Maintaining a high humidity inside the bud
• Deterring insect feeding
• Protecting the flower from nectar-robbing insects and birds
• Sepals may be colourful (petaloid) and help attract pollinators.
• All the sepals together are referred to as the calyx.
 Flower Structure
Petals
• Above the sepals on the receptacle are petals,
which together make up the corolla.
• Petals are also leaf-like, being broad, flat and thin
but they differ from leaves in several ways:
• They contain pigments other than chlorophyll
• They have fewer or no fibres
• They tend to be thinner and more delicately
constructed
 Flower Structure
Petals
• Petals work to attract pollinators to the flower.
• Each plant species has flowers of distinctive size, shape, colour, and
arrangement of petals, allowing pollinators to recognize specific
species.
• Sexual reproduction cannot occur efficiently if pollen is carried to other
plants indiscriminately.
• Reproduction results if pollen is carried only to other flowers of the same
species.
 Flower Structure
Petals
• If a flower has a distinctive pattern and
offers a good reward such as nectar or
pollen, the pollinator is likely to search for
and fly to other flowers with the same
pattern, thereby enhancing cross-
pollination.
• In addition to visible colours, many flowers
have pigments that absorb ultraviolet light,
creating patterns only insects can see.
 Flower Structure
Petals
Properties of wind pollinated flowers:
• No bright colors, special odors, or nectar
• Small
• Most have no petals
• Stamens and stigmas exposed to air
currents
• Large amount of pollen
• Pollen smooth, light, easily airborne
• Stigma feathery to catch pollen from wind
 Flower Structure
Petals
• Water pollinated plants are aquatic.
• Pollen floats on the water’s surface drifting
until it contacts flowers.
• This water-aided pollination occurs in
waterweeds and pondweeds.
• In a very few cases, pollen travels
underwater.
• Most aquatic plants are insect-pollinated,
with flowers that emerge from the water
into the air.
 Anther

Flower Structure Filament

Stamens
• Above the petals are the stamen, known
collectively as the androecium.
• Stamens are the “male” part of the
flower because they produce pollen.
• A sterile stamen is termed staminode.
• Stamens have two parts:
1. Filament - the stalk
2. Anther – site of pollen production
 Flower Structure
Carpels
• Carpels constitute the gynoecium, located at
the highest level on the receptacle.
• This is often referred to as the “female” part of
the flower.
• A flower can have zero to many carpels –
often fused together into a single compound
structure, frequently referred to as the pistil.
 Flower Structure
Carpels
• Carpels have three main parts:
1. Stigma – catches the pollen grains
2. Style – elevates the stigma to a useful
position
3. Ovary – site where megaspores are
produced
Flower Structure
 INTERNAL
STRUCTURE OF
PLANTS
Internal Structure of Plants
Internal Structure
Plants contain three types of tissue:
1. Dermal Tissue
• Cuticle
• Epidermis
• Root hairs
2. Ground Tissue
• Palisade mesophyll
• Spongy mesophyll
• Cortex
• Pith
3. Vascular Tissue
• Xylem
• Phloem
• Cambium
Internal Structure of Plants

1. Vascular tissue – consists of the

conducting tissues of the plants
i.e. xylem and phloem vessels.
• These are the main tubes
through which water and
nutrients are transported in the
leaves, shoots and roots.
Internal Structure of Plants
2. Dermal tissue - the epidermis or
“skin” of the plant consisting of a
single layer of tightly packed cells
that covers and protects the plant.
• It includes:
• outer cells (epidermis)
• guards cells surrounding a stoma
• special cells found on the outer
surface of plants, such as hair cells
or cells that cause a stinging
sensation
 Internal Structure of Plants
3. Ground tissue - the bulk of plant tissue
containing photosynthetic mesophyll,
mainly for the function of storage.
• This tissue layer consists of three types of
cells:
1. Parenchyma cells
2. Collenchyma cells
3. Sclerenchyma cells
Internal Structure of Plants
 Vascular System
• Some plants are composed of specialized
conductive cells that create "tubes" through
which materials can flow throughout the plant
body.
• These vessels are continuous throughout the
parts of the plant, allowing for the efficient and
controlled distribution of water and nutrients.
• Functions of vascular system:
• Transports water and minerals
• Provides support and stability to the plant
 Vascular System

• The two types of vascular tissue are:

1. Xylem
2. Phloem
• Roots and root hairs, through which
the bulk of water and minerals
enter the plant body from the soil
medium, are also integral to the
vascular system.
 Xylem
• Xylem consists of a "pipeline" of dead cells
arranged end to end for water and
mineral transport.
• When the cells that form xylem die at
maturity, the nucleus and cytoplasm
disintegrate, leaving a hollow tunnel.
• The leftover cell walls are very thick and
provide support for the plant.
• The cavities inside provide a passage
through which fluids can move.
 Xylem
• The xylem carries water and dissolved
minerals upward from the roots through the
stem and leaves of the plant - “Root-to-
Shoot” movement.
• In larger seed plants, xylem cells are
specialized into vessel elements and
tracheids.
1. Vessel elements - found in flowering
plants.
2. Tracheids – found in non-flowering
plants.
 Phloem
• Unlike xylem, the cells that make up
phloem are living at maturity and can
carry materials both up and down the
plant body.
• Phloem is comprised of :
1. Sieve elements - arranged end to
end to form passageways
2. Companion cells - closely associated
with the sieve elements
 Phloem
• Mature companion cells have both a
nucleus and cytoplasm, while the
mature sieve elements contain only
cytoplasm.
• The nuclei of companion cells may
control the activities of neighboring
sieve elements – hence their close
association.
• Phloem is responsible for distributing the
products of photosynthesis, such as
amino acids and carbohydrates, from
the leaves to the rest of the plant.
 Cambium

• Cambium is a layer of actively

dividing cells between xylem and
phloem tissues.
• It is responsible for the growth of stems
and roots.
Vascular Bundle – Xylem, Phloem
and Cambium
Xylem and Phloem in Plants
 Internal Structure of Leaf

• Leaves are the sites of

two major processes in
plants:
• Photosynthesis
• Gas exchange
• Thus, the anatomy of the
leaf is built to facilitate
these two processes.
 Internal Structure of Leaf
Dermal System
• The dermal system is made up of the
upper and lower epidermis - two
outermost layers of a leaf.
• All parts of the young plant body are
covered by an epidermis, which is a
single layer or multiple layers of cells.
• The epidermis contain epidermal cells
and other specialized cells such as
guard cells.
 Internal Structure of Leaf
Upper Epidermis
• Just atop the upper epidermis is a
thin layer called the waxy cuticle.
• Its function is to reduce the water lost
from the leaf by regulating water
exiting and unwanted
substances/organisms entering the
leaf.
• In arid conditions, this cuticle layer
can be quite thick.
• The upper epidermis may contain a
few stomata.
 Internal Structure of Leaf
Lower Epidermis
• The lower epidermis is a single layer
of cells on the lower surface of the
leaf.
• This lowermost layer of the leaf
contains a large number of stomata
(openings) and guard cells.
• It may contain a thin cuticle layer.
• This layer is involved mainly in gas
exchange and transpiration.
 Stomata and Gas Exchange
• A stoma is an opening on the epidermis of the leaf.
• It can be found in the upper epidermis, but is found
in large numbers on the lower epidermis layer.
• Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells,
which can open and close depending on
environmental conditions.
• Stomata are the structures which perform the
following main functions:
1. Exchange of gases, namely carbon dioxide and
oxygen
2. Transpiration – loss of water
 Stomata and Gas Exchange
• When moisture is plentiful, the guard cells
swell with water, forcing the opening of the
stoma open and allowing gas exchange to
occur.
• When the plant loses too much water or
water in the environment becomes less
plentiful, the guard cells deflate, closing
the stoma and preventing further water loss
or gas exchange.
 Transpiration
• When the stomata are open, the plant can
take in carbon dioxide from the air for
photosynthesis and release oxygen back into
the environment.
• While doing so, the plant also loses an
enormous amount of water by evaporation.
• This process, which is specific to plants, is
called transpiration.
• To make up for this water loss, additional
water is drawn in from the soil by the roots
and passed upward through the plant by
the xylem.
 Internal Structure of Leaf
Mesophyll Layers
• The mesophyll layer can be further
divided into two layers:
1. Palisade layer
2. Spongy layer

• Both layers are packed with

chloroplasts, the factories of
photosynthesis.
Internal Structure of Leaf
Palisade Layer
• The palisade mesophyll layer lies
just beneath the upper epidermis.
• It consists of column-shaped cells
containing chloroplasts, packed
neatly and closely together.
• This facilitates the capture of light.
• Here is the site where the majority
of photosynthesis occurs.
 Internal Structure of Leaf
Spongy Mesophyll Layer
• The spongy mesophyll layer is composed of
loosely packed irregularly-shaped cells.
• The cells are less ordered and spread out,
leaving large intracellular air spaces.
• These spaces, along with the moist surface
of mesophyll cells, facilitate the exchange
of gases with the outside environment.
• There are fewer chloroplasts in this layer
however it still plays a role in photosynthesis.
• Vascular bundles are located within the
spongy mesophyll layer.
Internal Structure of Leaf
 Internal Structure of Root
• The root comprises all parts of the plant that lie
beneath the soil.
• Roots are vital to the plant in a variety of ways:
• provide stability and anchorage
• store nutrients
• act as the primary source of water and nutrient
acquisition
• Most of the tissues of the plant, including the
vascular tissues, are continuous throughout the
root and shoot (stem, leaves, flowers).
 Internal Structure of Root

• Typical roots contain four

different sections or zones:
1. Protection zone
2. Meristematic zone
3. Zone of elongation
4. Zone of differentiation
 Internal Structure of Root
1. The root cap or protection zone is
located at the very tip or apex of
the root and protects the
meristematic region.

2. In the meristematic zone, named

after the apical meristem, the
plant cells undergo rapid mitotic
division, creating new cells for
root growth.
 Internal Structure of Root
3. These new cells, once they enter
the zone of elongation, begin to
elongate, furnishing the root with
added length.

4. The zone of differentiation contains

mature, specialized cells, such as
phloem, xylem and root hairs.
 Internal Structure of Root
Root Hairs
• Root hairs are extensions of the epidermal
cells on the surface of the root.
• The tiny root hairs, which have a huge total
absorptive surface area, have evolved in
order to allow the plant to take in as much
water from the soil as possible.
• Water and dissolved minerals from the soil
move into the root hairs by osmosis and
travel into the xylem found in the root,
where they are transported to the rest of
the plant.
 GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT IN
PLANTS
 Growth
• Growth takes place due to cell division, which increases the number of
cells in the body.
• This process continues and we observe increases in weight, size and
volume of all plants and animals - This is called growth.

Growth in living organisms may be defined as an

irreversible increase in the number and size of a cell,
organ or whole organism.
 Growth
• Growth in living organisms is not
uniform throughout the life span.
• Growth initially takes place at a fast
rate until the plant or animal attains
maturity.
• Then, it slows down and at a
particular time, it stops.
• Later in life, death occurs.
 Development
• All the changes that occur in an organism, starting from its beginning
until its death, may collectively be termed as development.

Development is the whole series of qualitative and

quantitative changes such as growth, differentiation
and maturation, which an organism undergoes
throughout its life cycle.
Stages of Cellular Growth and Development

• The growth of an organ or an organism occurs in three successive

stages:
1. Cell division: The number of cells increases due to mitosis.
2. Cell enlargement: The size of individual cell increases after cell division
due to increase in the volume of its protoplasm.
3. Cell differentiation: In this stage, structure of the cells changes to
perform specific functions. Similar types of cells having the same
functions, form a group, which is known as tissue.
Stages of Cellular Growth and Development

(a) Cell Division (b) Cell Enlargement (c) Cell Differentiation

 The Growth Curve
• The rate of growth of a plant or plant
part is not always the same during its life
span.
• Sometimes it is slow and at other times
rapid.
• If we plot the increase in cell number
(growth rate) against time, a typical S-
shaped curve is obtained.
• This is called growth curve or sigmoid
growth curve.
 The Growth Curve
• This curve has three phases of growth:
1. Lag Phase – This is the initial phase of
growth when the rate of growth is
very slow.
2. Log Phase – It shows rapid growth
and is maximum during the entire life
span.
3. Stationary Phase – Here, the rate of
growth starts decreasing and finally it
stops.
 Measurement of Growth
• Growth in plants, being a quantitative phenomenon, can be
measured in relation to time.
• It can be measured in terms of:
• Increase in length or growth – in the case of stems and roots
• Increase in area or volume – in the case of leaves and fruits
• Increase in the number of cells – in algae, yeast and bacteria
 Factors Affecting Plant Growth
1. External factors are those factors present in the environment that
affect the growth of the plants directly or indirectly and include:
• Light
• Temperature
• Water
• Mineral nutrients
2. Internal factors are substances produced in the plant body itself, which
affects the growth of plants and include:
• Plant hormones
 Factors Affecting Plant Growth
External Factor
Light:
• Light is necessary to plants for the process of manufacturing food via
photosynthesis.
• Besides photosynthesis, light is also essential for seed germination,
growth of seedling, differentiation of various tissues and organs and
reproduction.
• When plants grow in dark, they become tall, yellowish and weak, and
the leaves are very small.
 Factors Affecting Plant Growth
External Factor
Temperature:
• Some plants grow in a cold climate (low temperatures) and some in a
hot climate (high temperatures).
• The optimum temperature required for growth of plants ranges between
28 - 30°C, but for certain plants, it may occur in the temperature range of
4 - 45°C.
• All metabolic activities of plants are directly affected by variation of
temperature.
• A very low temperature causes injuries to the plant due to chilling and
freezing, and a very high temperature stops its growth as cells become
denatured.
 Factors Affecting Plant Growth

External Factor
Water:
• Plants absorb water via its roots and root hairs and utilizes it in
photosynthesis and other biochemical processes and some of it is lost
through transpiration.
• For proper growth of plants, a particular quantity of water is required.
• Both deficiency and excess of water retards the growth of plants.
 Factors Affecting Plant Growth
External Factor
Mineral Nutrients:
• Plants require various mineral nutrients for plant growth and
development.
• All metabolic processes require inorganic nutrients.
• Plant growth is adversely affected by the deficiency of nutrients.
 Factors Affecting Plant Growth
Internal Factor
• There are some substances produced in the plant body itself, which
affects the growth of the plant.
• These are called plant hormones or phytohormones or growth
hormones.
• A phytohormone is an organic substance produced in a small quantity
in one part of plant body and capable of moving to other parts to
influence the growth of that plant.
 Factors Affecting Plant Growth

• The growth of the plant can also be influenced by certain synthetic

chemicals resembling plant hormones both in structure and functions.
• These are called growth regulators.
• They are not produced by plants naturally.
• Growth regulators are chemical substances, other than naturally
produced hormones, which promote, inhibit or modify growth and
development in plants.