Thermal Stresses in Hollow Cylinder

411
The Thermal Stresses in Solid and in Hollow Circular Cylinders-

concentrically Heated. ·
By CHARLES H. LEES, D.Sc., F.R.S.
(Received l\Iay 2, 1922.)

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1. The large differences of temperature which exist between the inside and
outside of the heating or firing tunnels used in pottery and other works, and
between the inner and outer portions of the concrete or masonry pillars
supporting the floors of a building in which a fire occurs, make the thermal
stresses approach the breaking strength of the materials and they are crushed
or torn asunder. The same may be said to a less degree of chimney stacks,
and of the walls of the cylinders of internal combustion engines.
In order to prevent this, it is necessary to design the structure so as to
withstand the stresses which will be produced by the differences of tempera-
ture to which they will be subjected. The calculation of these stresses has
only been carried out for a hollow cylinder of constant elasticity and heat
conductivity, with the temperature throughout it following the steady
logarithmic law and the material expanding according to the linear law.*
It is proposed to treat the problem in a more general way in the present
communication, and to show that for any temperature distribution, with any
law of expansion, the stresses may be found by a simple graphical method
so long as the variation of the elastic constants with temperature may be-
neglected.
Deterrnination of the Stresses.
2. Let a hollow circular cylinder, of internal radius r 1 and external radius r~,
and considerable length, originally at constant temperature, and not subjected
to any pressure, have its temperatme raised so that
the temperature of each point of a cylindrical
surface of radius r within it is raised to 0, where 0
is a function of r. Let the cylinder then be subjected
to a uniform pressure, R 1, at its inner, a uniform
pressure, R2, at its outer curved surface, and a
uniform pressure, X, at each of its end surfaces. To
find the mechanical and thermal stresses at each FIG. 1.-Radii, 1·1 and r2 ;
sectional areas, s1 and s2•
point of the material of the cylinder.
In the first instance we note that a uniform rise of temperature would
produce a uniform expansion of the cylinder, and no stresses would result.
* See R. Lorenz, 'Zeitscb. Verein Deutsch. Ing.,' vol. 51, p. 743 (1907).
412 Dr. C. H. Lees. The Thermal Stresses in Solid and in
from such an expansion. We therefore divide the final temperature, 0, into
two parts: first, a uniform temperature, 0, to which the cylinder would have
to be heated to give the same expansion of the whole shell as that produced
by the actual temperature, 0; second, the excess, 0', of the actual tempera-
ture over this uniform temperature.
Thus 0 = 0+0'.
Whatever the character of the law of expansion of the material of the
·shell with rise of temperature, we may write v 8 = v0 (1 + r.1. 8 ) where v0 is the

volume of an element at 0° C. and v 8 at 0° C., and r.1. 8 is the increase of volume
of 1 c.c. when raised from 0° C. to 0° C. Hence if -,i is the mean expansion for
the whole shell and a/ the excess at a point where the temperature is 0 over
the mean expansion, we have r.1. 8 =!!+a/.
Next we notice that, although the pressures on the end surfaces are
uniform the pressures in planes parallel to them cease to be uniform, owing
to the variation of 0' with r. In planes at distances from the end surfaces
greater than the thickness of the cylinder these pressures become indepen-
dent of the positions of the planes.
In the middle length of the cylinder points initially in a plane perpen-
dicular to the axis of the cylinder at x are still in a plane perpendicular
to the axis and at x+x' after the expansion, and the initial distance, dx
a.part of two such planes becomes (l+(dx'/dx)dx after expansion, and is
independent of r. The same statement would hold for the whole length of
the cylinder, provided the end surfaces were kept plane by pressures or
tractions applied in a suitable way over them.
Under these circumstances the only stresses acting on an elementary
portion of the material bounded by two planes perpendicular to the axis at
<listance x and x + dx from some fixed plane, by two cylindrical surfaces of-radii
~- and r + dr, and two planes through the axis making angles <p and <p + d<f>
with some fixed axial plane, are the equal axial pressures, X, acting on the
surfaces perpendicular to the axis, the radial pressures, R and R + dR, on the
X
Fro. 2.-The pressures-R, radial; T, tangential; and X, axial, at the faces of an
element.
Hollow Circula1· Cylinders concentrically Heated. 413
inner and outer cylindrical surfaces respectively, and the equal tangential
pressures, T, acting on the axial surfaces at right angles to those surfaces
(fig. 2). If the displacement outwards of a point originally 1· from the axis
is 1·', the stress-strain equations for the elementary portion of the material are
~{ -R+u(T+X)} = ~;-}ae', (2.1)
;1 { -T+u (R+X)} = r-¼

r' ae', (2.2)
;1 { -X+u(R+T) } = d,a·'
ri:J -¼ a/, (2.3)
where e is Young's modulus, u Poisson's ratio for the material, and dx' / dx is
independent of rand x and may be written ax,
The stress equilibrium equation is
T = R+1· ~!, (2.4)
Multiplying (2.3) through by u and adding to (2.2) we get
1- {
€
- T + CT R + u 2 (R + T)} = r'-1' + uax- -l +3 CT . a9 ' • (2.5)
Subtracting (2.2) from (2.1) we get

1 +u (T-R) = dr' r'
€ dr-r'
Substituting for T-R from (2.4) this gives
l+u dR
-€-
_ d
dr - dr
('r')
r (2.6)
1 +u
and -- R
e
= r'-+a
r
constant.
Differentiating (2.5) with respect to 1·, assuming that the variations of

e and u with the radius are negligible and subtracting the result from (2.6)
we get
1-u2 !!:_ (T+R) = ~ das'
e dr 3 d1· ·
Integrating this gives us
T+R = .!- _e_ as'+A' (2.7)
3 1-u '
where A' is a constant of integration.
Substituting for T from (2.4) we get
2R+ r-l-=-3-1-ae
dR 1 € , ,
+A.
( 1' -<T
Multiplying through by r and integrating we have
1.2R = B'+A' f +~ l~u Ja/. rdr.

The form of this equation suggests the expression of the stresses in terms
of s the area of the circle of radius 1· instead of r. The equation becomes
Rs = As+B+ 61 l-u
€ JS a.._'. ds, (2.8)
A 7rA'
where =-2- and B = 7rB'.
Hence R 1 and R2, . the pressures on the inside and outside surfaces
respectively, satisfy the equations
Hence
and R:iS2-R1s1 = A (s2-s1) since f32
s,
ae' ds = 0.
On elimination of A these give
R = R2B2-R1s1+(R1-R2)s1s2I+I _e_E'
(2.9)
S2 - S1 S2 - S1 S 6 1 - <T S '
where
E 2 being the value of E 9 at the outer surface.

Or if u be written for 1 / s throughout the coefficients
R = R2u1-R1u2+R1-R2 !+! _e_ E'. (2.10)
?f-1 -1t2 U1 - U:,i S 6 l-u S
Equation (2.4) becomes T = R+ 2s !~ hence
T = R2u1-R1u2_R1-R2 ~+! _e_(2ao'-E'). (2.11)

1l1 - ?l2 U1 - 1t2 S 6 1- <T S
On substituting for R and T in equation (2.3) we get
X= (2.12)
Hollow Cfrcular Cylinders concentrically Heated. 415
On substituting for R, T, and X in equation (2.2) we get

!:' = ! . ~ = l+o- { - ( l - 2 a) R21l1-R1u2+R1-R~. I}-o-ctx+! l+o-E'.
1· 2 s e u1-u 2 it1-u2 s 61-o-s
(2.13)
The fractional increase of length ax in the axial direction and the part X 1
of X which is independent of rand x may be given any arbitrary values so
. sum X + eax 1s
lona as their . k ept equa l to 2o- R2u1-R1u2
----.
1
0 ~-~
Thus if the increase of length axis taken zero X 1 = 2a- R2'ull11 -Riu 2, while if
-U2
X, 1 1s
. taken zero ax R2u1 - R1u2
= 2a_..;;,.....;;...._...;....__
U1-U2
Whatever value is assigned t,o a,, it only affects the expressions for the
mechanical portions of the stresses and displacements, the terms for the
thermal stresses and displacements are unaffected. They depend on E' and
dE' / ds = a,/ only.
The mean pressure ½(R+T+X) at the point r is given by
! (R+ T+X) = ~ (l +o-) R2it1 -R1u2 ~ ax+ !_ _e_ 4a,/ ( 2.14)

3 3 1l1 - U2 3 6 1- <T 3 '
the shear stress in the plane T, X is given by
! (X-T) = _l-2a. R2it1-R1u2+! R1-R2. !-~ ax+! _e_ ! E'
3 3 1i1 -n2 3 u1 -u2 s 3 6 1-o- · 3 s '
(2.15)
and in the plane R, T by
! (R-T) = ~ R1-R2. 2+! _e_ (-~ rxe' +~ E'\ (2.16)

3 3 U1 -il2 S 6 1-o- 3 3 S j'
and in the plane R, X by
! (R-X) = 1-20-. R2u1-R1u2+! R1-R2 !+~ a
3 3 1l1 -1l2 3 U1 - U2 • S3 x
+! _e_ (!
E' -~ ~/).
6 1-o- 3 s 3
(2.17)
The terms involving the internal and external pressures are identical with
those given by Lame in his Le~ons and quoted by Love.•
If the cylinder is solid, the constant of integration B in equation (2.8)
becomes zero. On making this change iu the calculations oaivina 0
the stresses
· f oun d that t h e term R21t1
· 1s
it -R11t2 .
....cc.......;;...._.;;;.._c; m the expression for each stress reduces
U1-U2
to R2-the pressure on the outside surface-the term involving R1 - R2
* Love, 'Theory of Elasticity,' 2nd edit., p. 141 (1906).
VOL. CI.-A. 2 E
disappears, that involving ax remains, while the terms giving the thermal part
of the stresses remain unchanged in form, but E' is now J' a/ . ds
0
and E' at
S
s =0 becomes (dEl 1
GS 1 0
) that is ao' at the centre, so that the thermal radial
pressure does not become zero at the centre, but the shear stress in the R, T
plane does.
Graphical Constructions for the Stresses and Displacements.

3. The foregoing expressions for the stresses and displacements lead to the
following methods of representing and determining both graphically.
A. The Stresses Due to the Pressures on the Inner and Outer Surfaces.
Set off along the axis of abscissa\ fig. 3, the reciprocals OU1 = u1 and OU2 = u 2 •
of the areas s1 and s2 of the circles bounding the normal section of the
cylinder. At U 2 erect the ordinate U2R2, equal on some convenient scale to
the pressure R 2 on the outside surface. Join the end R 2 of this ordinate to
the point U 1, and produce to cut the axis of pressure in S0 • Through S0
draw a straight line parallel ·to the axis of abscissre, and let it cut the ordinates
through U2 and U 1 in S2 and S1. Set: off above S1 a length S1R1, equal to R 1
the pressure on the inner surface, join the end of this ordinate to S2 , and
produce to cut the axis of pressure in S0'.
Tl1en OS 1s . R2 • - -
u1- , S0 S, . R1 . - -
0 1s
u2- , h ence OS, R2u1-R1u:1 that
o = ----,
U1-U2 U1-U2 U1-U2
is the constant term in the expressions for the stresses.

To get the term involving Ri - R 2 it, erect at U 1, fig. 4, the ordinate
U1-U2
U 1 A = R 1 -R2, join the end of it to the point U 2 and draw through O a

straight line OB parallel to this join. The ordinate US at any point U is
h
ten= R1-R2
- - - . u.
'll-J-'U2
0
~ !u.- R
u, U R,: z
Fro. 3. Frn. 4.
FIG. 3.-0U 2 = u 2, OU1 = Uu 0S0 ' the mean pressure (tension) determined .by
U 2R 2, U 1R:aS 0, S0 S2Si, S1R 1 and RiS 2S0 •

Frn. 4.-The variable stress US determined from l\A = R 1 -R 2, U2 A and OSB.
Hollow Circular Cylinders concentrically Heated. 417
The mechanical stresses are then given as follows:

R = OSo'+ US, (3.1}
T = OSo'-US, (3.2)
X = -wx+ 2a-. OSo', (3.3)
~ = l-._+a- { -(l ..... 2a-) OS0' + US}-a-ax, (3.4)
,· €
the mean pressure

(3.5)
the shear stresses

1 X T
3 ( - ) = - -l -32-a- OS0 ' + 3l US - 3e a:z, (3.6)
3 (R-T) = 32 us '
1 (3.7)
2a- oc- , 1 us e
and 31 (R-~)
X
= - -1-
; J - " -3 0+3 a:z. (3.8)
B. Stresses D1ie to the Excess of the Dilatation at a Point over the Mean
Dilatation.
Set off as abscissre OA 1 OA2 the areas s1 and s2 of the inner and outer
boundaries of the section of the cylinder. As ordinates take the temperature 0
of each narrow ring of internal area s, and draw tne curve of temperature
distribution throughout the section, fig. 5.
For each temperature estimate from tables of dilatation of the material, the
dilatation ao of 1 c.c. of each part of the section, and with a 8 as ordinates, draw
the curve of dilatation per cubic centimetre D to correspond to the
temperature curve.
D
0, ---,----------
0
I
0 0
FIG. 5. FIG. G. Frn. 7.
F10. 5.-0A1 = Ji, OA 2 = s2, 8 the curve of temperature, and a8 that of dilatation.
Fto. 6.-The expansion curve E, OA 1 = s1> OA 2 = s2 •
F10. 7.-A 1E'A 2, the excess expansion curve; OC parallel to the tangent at P ;
ADC a convenient ordinate.
2 E 2
418 Dr. C. B. Lees. The Thermal Stresses in Solid and in
Find the total expansion E of the shells within the radius r, if they had
expanded independently of each other, that is, find the area enclosed between
the axis of area, the curve D, the ordinate through A 1 and that through s for
different values of s up to sa, and plot the values obtained as ordinates against
the areas as absciss.:e. Join the end of the curve at Ea with its starting point
at A 1 , fig. 6.
The excess of the ordinate of the curve at any point over the ordinate of
the join is the ordinate of the excess expansion curve E' required, fig. 7, the
scale of ordinates being £or convenience increaRed.
Join P a point on the curve to the origin 0. Through O draw OB parallel
to the tangent to the E' curve at P and at A, corresponding to area s, a
convenient multiple of 10, erect a perpendicular to the area axis cutting OB
in C and OP in D 1•
Then the thermal stresses are given as follows:
1
R = 61 €
_u. AD/OA, (3.1')
T = ! _e_ (2AC-AD)/OA, (3.2 1 )

6 1-u
X _ 1 e 2 AC (3.3')
- 61-u OA'
r' _ 1 l+uAD
(3.4')
-;: - 6 1 -
u OA'
thejmean pressure
1 1 e 4 AC (3.5')
3 (R+T+X) = 6 1-u. 3. OA'
the shear stresses
1 1 e 1 AD !(R-T) =~ _e_ ~AD-AC
3 (X-T) =61-u' 3 OA' 3 6 1-u. 3 OA '
(3.6' & 7')
and ! (R-X) = ! _e_ ! . AD-2AC_ (3·8')

3 61-u3 OA
It will be noted that £or the thermal stresses R + T =X at any point, and
.since at the surfaces R = 0, T = X at them both.
NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF STRl!:SSES IN PRACTICAL CASES.
4. In applying the foregoing theory to practical problems it seems desirable

to select in the first instance cases of a comparatively simple type in which
the stresses due to mechanical causes are small. Two such cases are (1) that
-of a long pottery kiln, a section of which is kept at the firing temperature
either permanently or alternately with its neighbours, and (2) that of a

circular pillar of concrete or of masonry supporting the ceiling of a warehouse
in which a fire occurs.
Case (1) a long Potte1·y Kiln 01· Fiwnace.

5. The distribution of temperature throughout a cylinder concentrically
heated and of length sufficient to make the effect of the ends negligible is
determined by the equation

(5.1)
If, in the first instance, we take the density p, the specific heat c and the
heat conductivity k as constant, and the temperature distribution throughout
the wall of the furnace as steady, 01 being the temperature of the inner
surface at r 1 , 02 that of the outer surface at r 2 , we have
0-02 _ logr2-log r _ log s2-logs
(5.2)
01 -02 - logr2-logr1 - logs2-logs1·
For 'simplicity we may take the dilatation x 9 proportional to the rise of

temperature, that is x 9 = x0. The expansion E of the rings between
E =
,.
s1 and s, if each expands independently of its neighbours, is given by
j a. ( 0- 02) ds, and may be found either by graphic integration of the

s,
curve of temperature or directly from the equation
E = x(01-02) 1 1 {s(logs2-logs)-s1 (logs2 -logs1)+s-s1 }, (5.3)

ogs2- 1ogs1
and plotted as in fig. 8, where the temperature and the coefficient of a.(01-02)
in E are shown for a cylinder when s1 = O·75s2. In that case the temperature
curve is nearly linear.
The total expansion of the area of section of the kiln wall is given by the
ordinate at A2 of the E curve, fig. 8, and has the value
The excess expansion E' = E- E2 S2-S1

8 - .s1 is represented by the excess of the
ordinate of the E curve over that of the join of the two ends of that curve in
fig. 8 and is given by
(5.4)
The excess of the dilatation at any point over the mean dilatation for the
whole wall is represented by the slope of the E' curve, and is given by
IX
0, -_ -dE' -_
( 01 - 02 ) {logs2-log s -l+ -s1- }
IX
ds log s2- log s1 s2-s1 ·
On drawing the lines OP, OB and the vertical ADO, corresponding to fig. 7,
-11-1~A--+---, • 10 for E
&E'
.___L_ _ j -4-1--\-+- -0·4 ~

Kl
E-<
~
-0·6 ~
L__L__JL--1----'-----' - l · O
F10. 8.-Temperature, expansion and stress curves for a hollow cylinder heated within.
or on substituting the values found above in the expressions for the thermal
stresses and displacements, we get
R =!_€_,AD= ! _E_1X( 01 _ 0.) {logs2-logs s2/s-'1 }· ( 5_5)
6 1-o- OA 6 1-o- ~ logs2-logs1 s2/s1-l .
Thus the radial pressure is zero at the inner surface, rises to a maximum
!_€-.1X(01-02){ l +~-1- l }
6 1-o- (s2/s1)-1 s1 logs2-logs1
Hollow Cfrcular Cylinders concentrically Heated. 421
at the section s = s1s2 log S2-S1 f

sa-log 81 , or s = s2 (10 s)/ 811 , and becomes zero at the
Sa 81 -
outer surface. If the outer temperature 02 is higher than the inner 01 these
pressures become tensions.
In the same way the circumferential pressure T is given by
2-(log s2 -log s)}
logs2-logs1 ·
(5.6)
Thus the circumferential pressure is
!6 _e_
1-CT
a ( 01 - 02) { 282
s2-s1
- 2
logs2-logs1
}
at the inner surface r 1, becomes zero slightly within the ring of sectional area
(s1+s2)/2,andis-!6 -1 E a (01-82){-~+ 1 \ } ,that is a tension
-CT S2-S1 og S2- og S1
at the outer surface r 2.*
The longitudinal pressure X is given by
X =! _€_. 2AD =~ _E-a(01-82)2 {logsa/s-r+~}- (5.7)

•
· 6 1-CT OA 6 1-CT log s2/s1 sa-s1
It changes from -16 _e- a ( 01-02) 2 { ~ - 1 1 / } at the inner surface

1-CT S2;-S1 og S2 S
to zero at the surface !... ~
S2 e
(~)•J<•,-•,> and becomes
S1
at the outer surface.

The thermal displacement other than that due to the mean rise of
temperature is given by
r' _ 1 s' _ 1 1 + CT AD _ 1 1 + u . a ( 01 _ 02) { log s2/ s
1· 2 s 6 l-u OA 6 1-CT logs2fs1
Thus the excess thermal displacement is zero at the two surfaces and has
its maximum value 16_l+u.a(01-0a) 1 1 / {1og(82 /s1- 1 ) -1} at the
1- CT og sa s1 log s2/ s1
surface !. = log s2/ s1.
s2 s2f s1-l
To this displacement must be added that due to the mean rise of
temperature which is given by r'.o= ~ 810 = ! a (01-02) { 82 - 81 s1}.

1 .,, s 3 log s2/s 1
* The values of the tangential and axial stresses at the two surfaces are identical
with those given by R. Lorenz, loo. oit.
The coefficients of l~l cr . a. ( 01 -02 ) in the expressions for the stresses
are shown iri fig. 8 as functions of s for the case s1 = 0·75s2• If

01 - 02 = 1000° C., the coefficient of cubical expansion of the material
a. = 12 x 10- 6, Young's modulus e = 10 11 and Poisson's ratio er = ~, the
value of ~l~cra.(01-02) is 3xl08 dynespersq.cm. The tensile strength

of fire brick is of the order 2 x 10 7 dynes per square centimetre (300 lbs.
per square inch). The tensions T and X in the outer portion of the wall
are, therefore, capable of producing cracks in the material which will be
radial, and, since at the outer surface T and X are equal, will extend in the
longitudinal as often as in the transverse direction.
6. If the temperature throughout the section is not steady but variable, the
number of possible distributions is infinite, but of these cases two are worth
investigating as of practical value (A) when the kiln or furnace initially at
02 has its inner snrface raised at a given instant to 01 , and (B) when a kiln or
• furnace has been in operation with its inner surface at 01 and its outer at 02
for a considerable time, and at a given time has the temperature of its
inner surface reduced to 02,
A. The kiln is brought into service.
For the first few minutes the only change of temperature is that close to
the inner surface. The mean temperature is scarcely changed from 02, the
E' curve has very small ordinates but 0' has approximately the value 01 - 02
close to the inner surface.
Hence at this stage, close to the inner surface, R the radial pressure and
1·' /r the radial displacement are very small, but T the tangential and X the
longitudinal pressures are both very nearly double what they finally become
in the steady state, that is near the inner surface they both have initially
the value
~ l: CT ( 01 - 02),
and decrease to half that value as the temperature distribution approaches
that of the steady state.
B. The kiln is put out of service.
For the first few minutes the only change of temperature will be at the
inner surface. The mean temperature of the section is scarcely changed and
the E' curve has only a very small negative ordinate near its zero value at
the inner surface. The approximate value of 0' at the inner surface is
changed from (01-02)/2 to -(01-02)/2.
Hollow Circular Cylinders concent1·ically Heated. 423
Thus R the radial pressure and r' /r the radial displacement a.re very small
close to the inner surface; but T the · tangential pressure and X the
longitudinal pressure change from the approximate value -61 ~ ( 01 -02 ) to
1-0"
-~ ~ (01 -02 ), that is from pressures to equal tensions.
6 1-0"
We have seen that, for a furnace with a difference of temperature
of 1000° C. between inside and outside surfaces of the walls, composed

of material ,yith a coefficient of cubical expansion " = 12 x 1 o- 6, a
Young's modulus e of 1011 and a Poisson's ratio u of ½, the value of
l_ ~ (01 -02) is 1·5 x 108 dynes per square centimetre (2250 lb. per square
12 1-<T
inch), while the tensile strength of the material of the walls is of the order of
2 x 107 dynes per square centimetre (300 lb. per square inch), and that of the
mortar about one-fifth of this. The sudden cooling of the interior of a.
furnace such as that described above will therefore subject the interior of
the wall to tensile stresses in both longitudinal and tangential directioni:;
much _above the tensile strength of the material, and radial cracks will be
produced at the inner surface, which, since the stresses are equal in the two
directions, will run indiscriminately longitudinally and tangentially.
Through the kindness of Sir Robert Hadfield, I have been able to inspect
the walls of furnaces which have been in use for various periods at the
Recla Works, Sheffield, and I find that the above results are confirmed by
experience.
Gase 2.-A Concrete or Masonry Pillar subjected to Fire.
7. A circular pillar of radius a, initially at a uniform temperature 0°, has
its outer surface suddenly raised to (),..
Assuming that the physical constants of the material of t,he pillar may be
taken as uniform throughout the material, the distribution of tempera-
ture throughout the centre length of the pillar at any subsequent time will
be given by the equation
t~ = C: ~ ~- (r ~~). (7.1)
The solution of which under the conditions laid down is
0 = 0a-2()a '2. e-k/cp(fl,/a)•t Jo (f3nr/ a)* (7.2)

fl • f3nJ1(fJn)
where Jo (/3) is the Bessel function of zero order, J 1 (/3) that of the first
order, and the fJ's are the roots of the equation J O (fJ) = 0.
* Comp11re Byerley,' Fourier Series and Spherical Harmonics,' p. 229.
-424 Dr. C. H. Lees. The Thermal Stresses in Solid and in
For a disc of the pillar initially 1 cm. thick cut perpendicular to the axis
we therefore have
E = Jr"21rrdraO = 21ra0a {C..-2!,e-kfcp(fl,/a>2t. ar · Ji (f3nr/ar\,_

O · 2 /3n 2 J1 (/3n) _j ·
Hence at r =a
E,. = 21raOa { a;-2"'i,e-kfcp({J./a)'t. (;J}
and
E' = E-Ea. ~ = 41raOa"'i.e-kfcp{fJ./a)'t.

a
r22 {1-J1(f3n1·/a) •
f3n . . f3nr / a
_&__},
J 1 (.Bn)
('1.3)
Hence the stresses are given by the equations
·and the expansion by the equation

C = ! ~ = ~ l + <F • aOa"i.e-kfcp(fJ•/a) t J:__
r 2 s 3 1-u f3n 2
{ l_J1(/3nr/a). ~ L +! aOa {1-4"'£ __l._ e-k/cp(fJ./a)'t}, (7.7)

f3nr/a J1 (/3n) 3 r /3n 2
the last term representing the expansion due to the mean rise of temperature.
It will be noticed that T + R = X, that is, the stress in the axial direction at
.a point is equal to the sum of the radial and tangential stresses at the point.
8. These expressions are convenient solutions of the problem when t, the
time which has elapsed since the outer surface of the · pillar was first heated,
is sufficiently large to reduce each series to its first term, but, in general, the
.series converge very slowly, and many terms must be taken before an
accurate numerical result is obtained.
As it is in the earlier stages of the heating, before the temperature near
the middle of the pillar has commenced to rise, that the thermal stresses
.appear to produce their greatest effect, it is desirable to attempt to represent
-;the temperature distribution for small values of t by a simpler expression,

·which will reproduce the principal characteristics of the actual case.
We have founrl
E' = 41ra0a"'2.e-kfcp(Na)'t. f3n {1- J1/1nr
(f3nr/a) . _&_}·
1.2
2
fa J 1 (/1n)
Now J1 (~nr) = :; 1· { 1-~(~:r+112 (~:/- ... }.
Substituting we find
E' = 41ra0aie-kfcp ((3,JaY,t
_2:_ -½ (fin/2)2 (a2-r2)/a2+-b (/111/2)4 (a4-14)/a4- ... (8.1)
• /3n 2 1-{ (f3n/2)2+r1-2 (/3n/2)4 '
and ou substituting s/sa for 1.2/a2

E , -__ a 0aS. ~ -k/cp,((3,/ai't ½(sa-s)/sa---(71:(f3n/2)2(sa2 -s2)/sa2- ...
-:.;e .
1-½(/3n / 21\2 +n1 (
f3n / 2)<i - ... .
The form of this expression suggests the assumption that at any time
,during the early stages of the heating process the value of E may be taken
s ' " where n has a value which decreases as t
a0 . s ( -)
as approximating to __'!._l
n+ Sa
:increases. Then
E' = -~s. [1-(~)n], (8.2)
n+l Sa
. 0' ~ {1- (n+l) (~)n},

= n+l 0=~.
Sa n+l
,and the values of the stresses and displacements are_readily seen to be
R = _!6 1-
_ e • a0a
CT n+l
{l-(! )n}
Sa '
(8.3)
T = --161-CT
- . _n+l € s \n} ,
-a0a { 1-(2n+l) ( ~-) (8.4)
X = _! _ 1 : _ . aBa {2-2 (n+ 1) (!)n}, (8.5)

61-CT n+l ~
~ = ~~ = _! l+CT a0a {l- (n+l) (!)n} +! a0a (8.6)

r 2 .s 6 1- CT n + 1 Sa 3 n +1'
the last term giving r' /r for the mean rise of temperature B.
Thus the mean temperature lJ increases as n decreases.
The radial stress R is zero at the surface, is a tension within; which
.increases in value rapidly towards its maximum value-! _1:_ • aBa at the
6 1-CT n+l
centre and has nearly that value for a considerable distance from the centre
if n is large.
The tangential stress T has the value! _E_ • a.Ba 2n and is a prernure
61-u n+l
S n 1
at the surface, decreases to zero at the section ( -)
Sa
= -..,n+
9 1 becomes a tension
and has ·the value- 16- _ E _ • a.Ba at the centre, attaining nearly that value
1-u n+l
at a considerable distance from the centre if n is large.

. l
Th e ax1a 1 c a.0
stress X has the value 6- - - . ~ l . 2n and is a pressure at the
1-u n+
surface, decreases to zero at the section ( ~ )n = n+
__l_l becomes a tension and
Sa
h as t h e va1ue - 1- -€- . -a0a

- . 2 at the centre, attaining nearly that value
61-u n+l
at a considerable distance from the centre if 11, is large.
The displacement term r' fr has the value /!al G+ii~:) at the surface·
and the displacement r' decreases to zero at the centre.
The curves of fig. 9 give the coefficients of ! -1 € • a.Bal in the expressions
6 -u n+
for the stresses for the case n = 8. The curve for the axial stress X shows
also the distribution of temperature above and below the mean temperature,
and with the coefficient ! 1+u . a.Ba that part of the expressiou for the
31-u n+l
displacement term 1., fr which depends on the variation of the temperature
from the mean temperature.
During the early stages of the heatiug, the longitudinal tension X in the·
central portion of the section is double the radial tension R and the
tangential tension T. If the pillar is not subject to other mechanical
stresses, and the magnitude of these thermal stresses approaches the tensile
strength of the material, cracks in planes perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder will be more frequent in the central portions than cracks in other
directions.
As, however, the tensile strength of most materials is less at high
than at low temperatures, it is possible that the radial tension, which
persists, bnt with diminished magnitude in the outer and hotter layers near
the surface, where the tangential and longitudinal stresses have become
pressures, may still be large enough in these layers to exceed the tensile
strength of the material. In any layers in which this is the case, cracks wilL
be formed parallel to the outer surface of the cylinder.
Hollow Circular Cylinders concentrically Heated. 42 7
The tangential tension T, like the radial tension R, is half the longitudinal
tension X in the central portions of the section, but becomes zero, and then a
16
14
12
10
I><
..!:S
E--<
8 p::f
.....~
6
'4
·-1
S=O 0
-z ·5for
E'
E'
Frn. 9.-Temperature, expansion and stress curves for circular pillar, heated outside,
in case n = 8.
pressure in the outer portions, where R is still a tension. Hence the tendency
for cracks parallel to the axis to form during the heating process is less than
for cracks perpendicular to the axis in the ceritral portions, and less than for
cracks parallel to the outer surface in the outer portions.
A Heated Solid Cylinde1· has its Su1jace Siuldenly Cooled.

9. In this case the stresses and displacements are identical in magnitudes
with those determined for the heating of the cylinder, but the sign of each is
changed, a pressure becoming a tension and a tension a pressure. In fig. 9
we may consider the signs of the ordinates reversed. At the stage of the
cooling shown, which we may regard as representative for the earlier stages,
428 Dr. C. H. Lees. The The1·mal Stresses in Solid and in
the greatest tensile stress is the tangential one, T, which, except just at the
surface, is slightly larger than the axial tensile stress X, and decreases
rapidly in magnitude as we approach the centre. While T and X are both
tensions, the radial pressure R is positive-that is a pressure. During
cooling, we see, then, that there will be a slightly greater tendency for T to
form cracks running parallel to the axis than for X to form cracks running
round the cylinder.
There will be no tendency for R to form cracks running parallel to the
outer surface of the cylinder.

In comparing the stresses produced on cooling with those due to heating,
it must not be assumed in general that the contraction on cooling is
identical with the dilatation on heating. As a rule, building materials
expand more on first being heated than they do at any subsequent heating,
and after each heating contract on cooling by a less amount than they
expanded. Each heating and cooling results in a permanent increase of
volume, which decreases in magnitude with each successive change.* In
such cases it is therefore necessary to use the general theory of Section 2.
10. It is difficult to find experimental observations with which to compare
the above deductions.. The only tests of cylinders subjected to fire without
mechanical loading appear to be those of W. A. Hull of the Bureau of
Standards,t which were carried out on cylinders of clay, concretes, gypsums
and mortars 8 inches in diameter and 16 inches long, heated in a gas furnace
for 3½ hours to 927° C. (1700° F.). These cylinders are too short to justify
the neglect of the effect of the end surfaces, but the temperatures are of the
order of those used in the numerical work of this paper. Mr. Hull draws no
general co1?clusions as to the tendency of the cracks, but the ~llustrations
show a tendency for the major cracks to run in planes perpendicular to
the axis.
For longer vertical cylinders under mechanical stress dne to a load carried
by the cylinder, the observations of Hull! appear to be the only ones
available for comparison. These columns were 12 or 18 inches in diameter
8 feet 9 inches long, of various materials, and were heated for 4 hours in a gas.
furnace to 1100° C. while under load. Both plain and reinforced concrete
columns were tested.
In this case in addition to the longitudinal thermal stress X there was the
* See Day, Sosman and Hostetter,' Amer. Jour. Sci.,' vol. 37, p. 1 (1914); and Mellor
and Campbell, 'Trans. Ceramic Soc.,' vol. 15, p. 80 (1915), and references given by them.
t W. A. Hull, "Heat Insulating Properties of Materials," 'Proceedings of the
American Society for Testing Materials,' Philadelphia, June, 1917.
t See W. A. Hull, "Fire Tests of Concrete Columns,'' 'Proceedings of the American.
Concrete Institute,' vol. 15, p. 1 (1918).
Hollow Circular Cylinders concentrically Heated. 429·
stress due to the load which, in the case ·of the plain concrete columns, was of
the order of 800 lbs. per square inch.
According to the curves of temperature distribution given by Hull, the-
curves of fig. 9 correspond approximately to the state half an hour after the
heatin<T
0
commenced. With the constants for concrete taken as .x = 4 x 10-5-,
e = l x 10 11 , <r = 1/3, the value of
the coefficient !6 1__!__ . aBal of the equa-
-<r n+
tions (8.4, etc.) and of the ordinates of the curves of fig. 9 is 1·2 x 108 dyne&
per square centimetre (1800 lbs. per square inch). Thus in the central
portion of the section of the column the thermal stresses Rand Tare tensions
of 1·2 x 10 8 dynes per square centimetre and X a tension of double that
amount. The latter has to be diminished by the pressure due to the load and
we get a resultant tension of abont 2800 lbs. per square inch, which is greater
than the radial and tangential tensions. There will, therefore, be a greater·
tendency for cracks to form perpendicular to the axis in the central parts of
a column than in other directions. In the outer: portion of the section the-
tangential stress T becomes a pressure before the radial R, and neither are·
affecte_d by the loading. In these portions R is more likely to form cracks
parallel to the outer surface th'1n T is to form cracks parallel to the axis.
The positions of the cracks due to R will be determined by the decrease of
the tensile strength of the concrete as the temperature rises. The curves of
fig. 9 show that from sf Sa= 0·6 to 0·8 while R decreases little the temperature
increases considerably and the tensile strength therefore decreases.
Hull's observations and photographs all indicate that the materials crack
along a surface about 1½ to 2 inches within the outer surface (s/sa, 0·6), and
that the outer shell may, or may not, fall away. The existence of these
cracks within columns which have been subjected to fire, but which appear
on the surface uninjured, has been known for some time.*
As the tensile strength of concrete, at ordinary temperatures, is of the order
1 x 10 8 dynes per square centimetre (1,500 lbs. per square inch), it is seen
that the thermal stresses in the heated columns, at the stage of the heating-
represented by fig. 9, are sufficient to account for the cracks produced.
As the heating continues the tensions in the central portion of the section
at first increase, while the area subjected to them decreases. When the-
temperature at the centre begins to rise the stresses decrease.
Where the column is reinforced with vertical rods, with or without
,v
* See F. J. T. 8tewart, 'Report on Edison orks Fire,' Scientific and Industrial
Research Department, British Fire Prevention Committee's Red Book No. 204., p. 2S
(1916); and A. J. and T. D. Mylr·ea, 'Repo1t on Quaker Oats Works fire,' British Fire-
Prevention Committee's Red Book No. 225, p. 56 (1918).
-430 The1r·mal Stresses in Solid and Hollow Circular Cylinders.
horizontal binders, the crack produced follows the rods or binders, indicating
that the tensile strength of attachment of metal to concrete is less than that
of the concrete itself at the temperature attained.
So soon as the outer shell is detached from the inner port.ion it has to
-0arry its share of the load without lateral support from the inside. It
therefore buckles like an overloaded hollow column and eventually spalls off.
During the cooling process which, in Hull's experiments, was a gradual one,
~nd began long before the column had wholly acquired the higher temperature,
vertical cracks, starting at the outside surface and extending inwards, would
be~most likely to form. The tendency would be the greater the more
rapid the cooling, but less than it would be if the whole column had acquired
the higher temperature before cooling. The photographs of the columns, after
the tests given by Hull, nearly all show these vertical cracks,* but there is no
indication as to whether they were produced during the cooling or not.
So far as the experimental evidence available goes it appears to support the
theoretical deductions of this paper, but it is desirable that the thermal
stresses should be computed either graphically or otherwise in all cases in
which the necessary observations are available, in order to determine to what
extent the explanation of the behaviour of furnace walls and columns here
offered is adequate.
•
* W. A. Hull, 'Tests of Concrete Columns,' p. 15. An important contribution to our

knowledge of the effects of fire and water on loaded columns has just been made by
.Messrs. Ingberg, Griffin, Robinson and Wilson. See' Bureau of Standards Technological
.Paper No. 184' (1921).

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411

The Thermal Stresses in Solid and in Hollow Circular Cylinders-

(Received l\Iay 2, 1922.)

·shell with rise of temperature, we may write v 8 = v0 (1 + r.1. 8 ) where v0 is the

~{ -R+u(T+X)} = ~;-}ae', (2.1)

;1 { -T+u (R+X)} = r-¼

Multiplying (2.3) through by u and adding to (2.2) we get

Subtracting (2.2) from (2.1) we get

Differentiating (2.5) with respect to 1·, assuming that the variations of

1.2R = B'+A' f +~ l~u Ja/. rdr.

and R:iS2-R1s1 = A (s2-s1) since f32

On elimination of A these give

E 2 being the value of E 9 at the outer surface.

Equation (2.4) becomes T = R+ 2s !~ hence

T = R2u1-R1u2_R1-R2 ~+! _e_(2ao'-E'). (2.11)

On substituting for R and T in equation (2.3) we get

On substituting for R, T, and X in equation (2.2) we get

! (R+ T+X) = ~ (l +o-) R2it1 -R1u2 ~ ax+ !_ _e_ 4a,/ ( 2.14)

! (R-T) = ~ R1-R2. 2+! _e_ (-~ rxe' +~ E'\ (2.16)

Graphical Constructions for the Stresses and Displacements.

is the constant term in the expressions for the stresses.

U 1 A = R 1 -R2, join the end of it to the point U 2 and draw through O a

U 2R 2, U 1R:aS 0, S0 S2Si, S1R 1 and RiS 2S0 •

The mechanical stresses are then given as follows:

the mean pressure

the shear stresses

T = ! _e_ (2AC-AD)/OA, (3.2 1 )

and ! (R-X) = ! _e_ ! . AD-2AC_ (3·8')

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF STRl!:SSES IN PRACTICAL CASES.

4. In applying the foregoing theory to practical problems it seems desirable

either permanently or alternately with its neighbours, and (2) that of a

Case (1) a long Potte1·y Kiln 01· Fiwnace.

determined by the equation

For 'simplicity we may take the dilatation x 9 proportional to the rise of

j a. ( 0- 02) ds, and may be found either by graphic integration of the

E = x(01-02) 1 1 {s(logs2-logs)-s1 (logs2 -logs1)+s-s1 }, (5.3)

The excess expansion E' = E- E2 S2-S1

.___L_ _ j -4-1--\-+- -0·4 ~

at the section s = s1s2 log S2-S1 f

X =! _€_. 2AD =~ _E-a(01-82)2 {logsa/s-r+~}- (5.7)

It changes from -16 _e- a ( 01-02) 2 { ~ - 1 1 / } at the inner surface

at the outer surface.

temperature which is given by r'.o= ~ 810 = ! a (01-02) { 82 - 81 s1}.

The coefficients of l~l cr . a. ( 01 -02 ) in the expressions for the stresses

are shown iri fig. 8 as functions of s for the case s1 = 0·75s2• If

value of ~l~cra.(01-02) is 3xl08 dynespersq.cm. The tensile strength

of 1000° C. between inside and outside surfaces of the walls, composed

The solution of which under the conditions laid down is

0 = 0a-2()a '2. e-k/cp(fl,/a)•t Jo (f3nr/ a)* (7.2)

E = Jr"21rrdraO = 21ra0a {C..-2!,e-kfcp(fl,/a>2t. ar · Ji (f3nr/ar\,_

E' = E-Ea. ~ = 41raOa"'i.e-kfcp{fJ./a)'t.

·and the expansion by the equation

{ l_J1(/3nr/a). ~ L +! aOa {1-4"'£ __l._ e-k/cp(fJ./a)'t}, (7.7)

-;the temperature distribution for small values of t by a simpler expression,

and ou substituting s/sa for 1.2/a2

. 0' ~ {1- (n+l) (~)n},

X = _! _ 1 : _ . aBa {2-2 (n+ 1) (!)n}, (8.5)