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Vehicle Noise and Vibration

MIET 1192

“Week 04”

Mohammad FARD
School of Engineering

August 2021
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Week 04:
Fundamental of Sound and Noise, SPL,
Sound Intensity, Sound Power
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Sound & Noise

• What is sound ?

• Why do we measure sound ?

• What units do we use ?

• How do we hear ?

• What instruments do we use for measurement ?

• Where should we make our measurements ?

• How should the microphone be positioned in the sound field ?

• How do we make a measurement report ?

• What do we do when levels are too high ?

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Sound & Noise

• Sound: A pressure variation (wave) that travels through

air and is detected by the human ear.
• Noise: Excessive or unwanted sound which potentially
results in annoyance and/or hearing loss (can be from
occupational and/or non-occupational sources).

1. Sound is a periodic process.

2. Sound involves energy transport.
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Sound & Noise

• We can’t measure acoustic energy very well,
but we can measure sound pressure well.
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Sound Pressure

• Pressure is fundamental to acoustics

• Pressure = force per unit of area

Units
• Newtons per square meter (N/m2)—Called a
Pascal (modern unit)
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Sound Pressure
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More about Decibel (dB)

• The decibel (dB) is used to described the ratio of the

magnitudes of energy related quantities on a
logarithmic scale.

• The number of bels (B) is the Log10 (logarithm to base

ten) of the ratio of the magnitudes of energy related
quantities.
• The decibel (dB) is one tenth of a bel (B)
or
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Why use decibels?

• Human beings hear sound magnitude on a
logarithmic scale.
• An increase or decrease of 10 dB corresponds
to a doubling or a halving of the perceived
sound loudness.

• Because the decibel is a more convenient size

of unit, the bel (B) is almost never used.
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Acoustic Energy → Sound Pressure

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Sound Pressure Level

pref = 20 10−6 Pa
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Sound Pressure Levels Summary

Everyday noise environments fall in the sound pressure
level range of 0-120 dB.

p2 p
L p = 10 log10 [ 2 ] = 20 log10 [ ]dB
pref pref
−6
pref = 20 10 Pa
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Sound Pressure → Sound Pressure Level

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Adding Sounds

Therefore, we can only add the energies in linear scale.

Sound Energy 𝑝2
p 2
t = p 2
1 + p 2
2
𝐿𝑝 = 10 log10[
Ref. Energy
]𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 [ 2 ]
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 20 × 10−6 𝑃𝑎
Energy Total Energy from Energy from
Source 1 Source 2
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Addition of Incoherent Sounds

• Addition of two incoherent sounds:

p2
SPL = L p = 10 log10 [ 2 ]
p 2
t = p 2
1 + p 2
2
pref

Energy Total Energy from Energy from

Source 1 Source 2

Lpt = 10 log10 [10 L1 /10

+ 10 L2 /10
]
pi 2
Where SPL or Lpi = 10 log10 [ 2 ]
pref
• Addition of N incoherent sounds:
L pt = 10 log10 [10 L1 / 10
+ 10 L2 / 10
+ ...... + 10 LN / 10
]
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Incoherent Noise Sources

1. Let p = p1 + p2 and pi = pi ,0 cos(t +  i ), i = 1, 2; then proof  0,1
Total Energy pt2 = p12 + p22 + 2 p1 p2 =
= p12 + p22 + p1,0 p2,0 cos( 1 −  2 )
For Incoherent Noise  0

2. Assume that three sounds of different frequencies (or

three incoherent (random phase) noise sources) are to
be combined to obtain a total sound pressure level.

Let the three sound pressure levels be (a) 90 dB, (b) 88

dB and (c) 85 dB. Find the total SPL.
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Adding Sound Pressure Level (Example)

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Adding Sound Pressure Level (Example)

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Rules of Thumb – Sound Power Levels

• Doubling power = add 3 dB, halving power = subtract

3 dB,

• Increasing power by ten times = add 10 dB, reducing

power by ten times = subtract 10 dB.

• Thus 43 dB represents a ratio of 10*10*10*10*2=

20000:1, 37 dB represents 10*10*10*10/2 = 5000:1. A
ratio of 200:1 = 10*10*2:1 = 10+10+3 =23 dB.

• If you can’t find an exact ratio you can find upper and
lower limits within which the ratio must sit.
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Intensity
The rate at which energy is transported past a
given area of the medium is known as the
intensity of the sound wave.
Energy
Intensity =
Area  Time
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Sound Intensity & Sound Power

And since energy/time = power:

Energy Power
Intensity = =
Area  Time Area

The units of intensity are W/m2.

Now the relationship between sound power (W) and sound intensity (I) is:
W = I ・ S(W).
where S(W) is the area through which intensity I is passing.
Note: This is Sound Intensity and it is NOT Sound Intensity Level. Sound Intensity Level is explained
in latter slides.
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Intensity and Area (Continue)

• The mathematical relationship between intensity and
distance is an: Inverse square relationship.

• As a wave carries its energy through a 3D medium,

the intensity of the wave decreases with increasing
distance because energy is being distributed over a
greater surface area (Energy, remember, is
conserved).

• i.e., if the distance from the source is doubled (increased

by a factor of 2), then the intensity is decreased by a
factor of 22, or 4.
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Intensity and Hearing

• Humans are equipped with very sensitive ears

capable of detecting sound waves of extremely low
intensity, as faint as 1×10-12 W/m2 at 1 kHz.

• Hence Intensity Threshold of Hearing (TOH):

1×10-12 W/m2 at 1 kHz.
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Why 𝑰𝟎 or 𝑰𝒓𝒆𝒇 is 1 x 10-12 ?

• Reference sound intensity (sound power per

unit area) Iref is 1 pW/m2 equals 1 x 10-12
W/m2
• We know the reference sound pressure pref is
20 µPa equals 2 x 10-5 Pa. 2
p
• For a plane sound wave I=
Zc
where Zc is the characteristic impedance of air
and approximately equal to 400 Pa.s/m for
normal atmospheric conditions
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• Thus the sound intensity of a plane sound wave

with the reference sound pressure is
( 2 10 ) = 10−12 W/m2 = 1 pW/m2 = I
−5 2

ref
400
• The reference sound pressure and the reference
sound intensity correspond to the threshold of
human hearing at 1 kHz.

• Thus the level of the threshold of human hearing at

1 kHz is 0 dB (re 20 µPa).

• Remember, reference sound power W0 (Wref) is 1

pW equals 1 x 10-12 W
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Sound Intensity Level

I
• Sound Intensity Level: LI = 10 log10 [ ], where I ref = 110−12 Pa
I ref

• The threshold of hearing (1×10-12 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 0

dB.

• e.g. 1: A sound (e.g. the sound of rustling leaves) which is 10 times

more intense (i.e. 1×10-11 W/m2) is assigned a sound intensity level of
10 dB.

• e.g. 1: A sound (e.g. a whisper) which is 100 times more intense (1×10-
10 W/m2) is assigned a sound intensity level of 20 dB.
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Sound Intensity Level vs Sound Intensity

Energy Power
Sound Intensity = =
Area  Time Area

Sound Intensity Level

Sound Power W = I S where S is the area through which intensity I is passing.

Sound Power Level

For Point noise source at “a“

distance (Spherical Propagation)

For Cylindrical noise source at “a”

distance (Cylindrical Propagation)
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Decaying of Sound by Time
• Exponential decays are common in acoustics
− kt
I (t ) = I 0e
• − kt
LI (t ) = 10log10 ( I 0 e ) = 10log10 ( I 0 ) − 10kt log10 (e)
= 10log10 ( I 0 ) − 4.343kt
• Decay rate d = 10 k log10(e) = 4.343 k dB/s
• The reverberation time T60 is the time taken to
decay 60 dB
60 6 13.8
T60 = = =
d k log10 (e) k
Note: We will study about reverberation later in this course.
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Air absorption
• Sound is attenuated by air absorption

I = I 0 e- mx = I 0 e- mct W/m 2
dI
= -mcI 0 e = -mcI W/m /s
- mct 2

dt
dE EcA Ec( A + 4mV )
=- - mcE = - J/s
dt 4V 4V

• Thus air absorption adds 4mV m2 area of sound

absorption to the wall sound absorption area
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Sound Wave Length and Speed

c=f*λ (Sea level, T=288 K, P=1 atm, ρ=1.225 kgm -3,

c=340.3 ms-1)

Lowest audible frequency 20 Hz Wavelength 17.15 m.

Highest audible frequency 20 kHz Wavelength 17.15 mm.
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Expression of SPL in Frequency Domain

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Equal Loudness
An ''equal-loudness contour'' is a measure of sound pressure dB SPL, over the
frequency spectrum, for which a listener perceives a constant loudness.
The unit of measurement for loudness levels is the phon, and by definition two
sine waves that have equal phons are equally loud.
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Frequency Weightings
• The “A”-weighting which approximately follows the inverted
shape of the equal loudness contour passing through 40 dB at
1 kHz. This weighting is in most sound-level-meters. It is also
use to measure interior noise or normal outdoor noise. dB(A)
indicates A-Weighted SPL.

• The “B”-weighting which approximately follows the inverted

shape of the equal loudness contour passing through 70 dB at
1 kHz (Inverse of equal loudness graph passing from 70 dB at
1000 Hz → B-Weighting).

• The “C”-weighting which approximately follows the inverted

shape of the equal loudness contour passing through 100 dB at
1 kHz (Inverse of equal loudness graph passing from 100 dB at
1000 Hz → C-Weighting). C-weighting is used for very loud
noise such car racing noise or airplane noise.
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The A,B and C Frequency Weighting Curves

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Octave Filter

• When more detailed information about a

complex sound is needed, the frequency
range of 20Hz to 20kHz can be split into
sections or bands. The Octave band SPL will
give you more information about your sound.

• These bands usually have a bandwidth of one

octave or one-third octave, or 1/12 octaves.
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Octave Filter
A sound level meter may provide 1:1 (or single) octave band
filters or 1:3 (or third) octave band filters.

An Octave is a frequency band where the highest frequency is

twice the lowest frequency.

A Third Octave Band is 1/3 the width of an Octave Band.

An instrument with 1:1 octave band filters, would typically

provide 10 bands from 31.5Hz to 16kHz (or 11 bands from 16
Hz. See next slide).
An instrument with 1:3 octave band filters would typically
provide 33 bands from 12.5Hz to 20kHz although some
additional bands such as 6.3Hz, 8Hz and 10Hz may also be
available.
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Octave Filter Frequencies

For Octave: The bandwidth is a consistent 69% of the centre frequency.

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1/3 Octave Filter Frequencies

For 1/3 Octave: The bandwidth

is a consistent with 23% of the
centre frequency.
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FRF of 1/3 Octave Filter

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Octave and 1/3-Octave Bands

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Expression of SPL in Time Domain

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Expression of SPL in Time Domain

The below curve is the measured Sound Pressure Level (SPL), which is measured at short
time intervals (0.01 sec intervals). The problem is a sound that lasts over time never has a
single SPL value. Since it fluctuates over time you have to find a way of describing the
entire curve with a single number.
To represent sound in time domain, very frequently, the metrics Leq, Lmax, and Lmin are
used. These refer to the Equivalent Level, the Maximum Level, and the Minimum
Level. Lmax and Lmin are the easiest to understand, they’re simply the highest and lowest
values the sound level meter saw during the measurement:

Sound Level Meter Lmin and Lmax

Possible Measurement Modes: Lmin, Lmax, Leq…

Free Mobile App

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Time Domain

 1 t2 P
2

Leq = 10 log10  
 t2 − t1 1 P0
t 2
dt 


Leq = the Time Weighted Equivalent Level, or equivalent continuous sound pressure level [dB]. Leq is an
energy average noise level for the period of interest.

p0 = reference pressure level = 20µPa=

p= measured sound pressure in Pa 20 10−6 Pa
t1 = start time for measurement
t2 = end time for measurement

Leq represents a single dB average value for the measured SPL. It can be said that the above formula first
measures the surface below the measured SPL (red colour area in left figure) and find the equivalent constant
value of Leq.
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Equivalent Sound Pressure Level

Often, we have n measurements in many some similar time intervals. After calculating the
Leq (equivalent SPL) for each time interval, the total Leq can be obtained by:

 ( Leq1 ) (
Leq 2
) (
Leq 3
) (
Leq n
) 
 10 10
+ 10 10
+ 10 10
+ ...10 10

Total Leq = 10 log10  
 n 
 
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L10, L50, and L90

Ln is a statistical analysis of noise levels. The n denotes the percentage exceedance, for example the value of
L90 shows the noise level that was exceeded for 90% of the measurement duration.

L10 is the level, in decibels, that the sound level exceeded for 10% of the time.
L50 is the value that the sound level was above for 50% of the time and can be considered the median value.
L90 is the value that the sound level was above 90% of the time.
Graphically speaking, the L10 line is adjusted until 10% of it is below the curve, the L50 line is adjusted until
exactly half of it is below the curve.

L90 is the level exceeded for 90% of the time. For 90% of the time, the noise level is above this level. It is
generally considered to be representing the background or ambient level of a noise environment.

Note: L90 represents the background noise.

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Appendices
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a 10log10(a) 20log10(a)
1 0 0
1.25 1 2
1.6 2 4
2 3 6
2.5 4 8
3.15 5 10
4 6 12
5 7 14
6.3 8 16
8 9 18
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Acoustic Camera Sound Level Meter

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Experimental setup at RMIT

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5. Experimental setup
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Acoustic Camera Results

Ford Territory @ 20Hz

Result @ 20Hz

Seat displayed significant vibration and

noise emissions from the RHS side
adjustment area, across the RHS base.
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Acoustic Camera Results

Ford Territory @ 20Hz

Refinement of the excitation range on the

frequency v Pressure graph contributing
elements were singled out.

Contributing Element 1 – Interface between

RHS lower polymer trim parts.
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Acoustic Camera Results

Ford Territory @ 20Hz

Refinement of the excitation range on the

frequency v Pressure graph contributing
elements were singled out.

Contributing Element 2 – Interface between

RHS lower polymer trim parts further back.
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Acoustic Camera Results

Ford Territory @ 20Hz

Refinement of the excitation range on the

frequency v Pressure graph contributing
elements were singled out.

Contributing Element 3 – Fore / Aft / Tilt

Adjustment switch.
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Acoustic Camera Results

Ford Territory @ 20Hz
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Acoustic Camera Results

Ford Territory @ 20Hz
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Acoustic Camera Results

Ford Territory @ 30Hz

At an excitation frequency of 30Hz the front

storage bin displayed noise in the low
frequency range, peaking at 89dB.
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Acoustic Camera Results

Ford Territory @ 70Hz
Finally at 70Hz, reaching limits of shaker
table setup. Shaker shaft experiencing some
sideways motion which disrupts shaker
motor.

Limits of realistic input frequency to test

seat
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6. Discussion of Results
Ford Territory @ 70Hz

LHS Rear source of NVH @ 60 –

70 Hz.

Linked to under seat storage

bin.

Poorly executed design