GERBER - International Handbook On Geographical Education

International Handbook on Geographical Education
The GeoJournal Library
Volume73
Managing Editor: Max Barlow, Concordia University,

Montreal, Canada
Founding Series Editor:

Wolf Tietze, Helmstedt, Germany
Editorial Board: Paul Claval, France

Yehuda Gradus, Israel
Risto Laulajainen, Sweden
Sam Ock Park, South Korea
Herman van der Wusten, The Netherlands
The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
International Handbook
on Geographical
Education
edited by
ROD GERBER
University of New England,
Armidale, Australia
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-90-481-6172-0 ISBN 978-94-017-1942-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-1942-1
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved

© 2003Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2003
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2003
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise,
without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied
specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive
use by the purchaser of the work.
This book has been developed with the grateful assistance from Members of the
International Geographical Union/Commission on Geographical Education.
CONTENTS
Preface xi
List of Contributors XV
Section 1: Introduction
1. The global scene for geographical education 3

Rod Gerber
Section 2: International Trends
2. Globalisation and geographical education 21

Rod Gerber
3. Relevant knowledge, skills and values in geographical education 35

John Lidstone
4. Maximising the use of communication technologies in

geographical education 47
Lea Houtsonen
5. Old cultures, new cultures in geographical education 65

Manuela Malheiro Ferreira
6. Geography and the community 75

Josefina Ostuni
Section 3: Refocussing Learning and Teaching
7. Experience and Learning in Geography 89

Margaret Robertson
8. Alternative geography 99
Sarah Bednarz and Robert Bednarz
9. Continuity and change in geography education: learning and teaching 115

Joseph P. Stoltman and Lisa DeChano
vii
viii
Section 4: Improving Curriculum Planning and Development
10. Geography curriculum planning in evolution: some

historical and international perspectives 141
Bill Marsden
11. Effective approaches to curriculum development in geography 159

David Lambert
12. The role of teachers in developing school geography curriculum 171

Julie Okpala and Richard Tabulawa
13. International collaboration in the field of environmental

and geographical education 191
Taina Kaivola
Section 5: Innovation and Change in Geographical Education
14. New media will accelerate the renewal of geographic education 205
Joop van der Schee
15. Career-long professional development for geography teachers 215

Simon Catling
16. Alliances, networks and partnerships in geographic education 235

David Lanegran
17. A question of standards in geographical education 245

Phillip Stimpson
Section 6: A Focus on Research in Geographical Education
18. Research in geographical education: the search for impact 259

Michael Williams
19. Geography teachers as action researchers 273

Graham Butt
20. Exploring relationships between teaching and research in

geography education 285
Frances Slater
Section 7: International Geographical Education Futures
21. Lifelong geographical education 301

Hannele Cantell and Hannele Rikkinen
ix
22. Self-directed learning and self-directed learners in

geographical education 315
TammyKwan
23. Improved intercultural geographical education 325

Helena Allahwerdi and Hannele Rikkinen
24. Geography and information and communications technologies:

some futures thinking 337
W. Ashley Kent
Preface
I am very pleased to have been asked by Rod Gerber to provide a preface to such a
book. Not least because of the twenty-four chapters, eight are written by former
students or colleagues with whom I have worked in the past and whom I still meet at
conferences on geographical education. It is with a certain pride and joy that I note the
progress which has been made in geographical education both in its day to day teaching
and in research, in the twenty years following the end of my term of office as Chair of
the Commission on Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union
(CGEIUG). My successors, Joe Stoltman, Hartwig Haubrich, Rod Gerber and now Lea
Houtsonen, have done much and are continuing to work hard, to foster the development
of geographical education. This book is proof, if proof were needed, that the
international collaboration in this field, is alive and well, with contributions coming
from all the continents (except Antarctica!).
It would be a moribund subject that remained unaffected in one way or another by

developments on the 'great world stage', as Fairgrieve (1926) would have put it. And,
as Rod Gerber shows, the issues of globalisation, of cultural encounters, of differing
value systems, of new technologies, of variable economic development and of
environmental quality, all feature as topics which influence and are influenced by,
geographical education. Neither are these issues separate from one another, as Manuela
Ferreira indicates in her Chapter on New Cultures and Old Cultures in Geographical
Education, they interact. The new communications technology affects economic
development which in turn impacts on national incomes; this often results in raising the
disparities between the incomes of different areas; this stimulates migration from poorer
to richer areas; this leads to cultural encounters which may be fruitful but sometimes
stressful; this raises the issues of the kind of values which motivate people in particular
areas to behave in ways which may affect the quality of the environment. Geographers
with their holistic view are well placed to help learners to come to grips with these
issues. It would be a bold, not to say foolhardy, person who could claim to offer ready
solutions to the problems arising from these interactions. But getting people to
understand the nature of these issues is a step in the right direction; it is step towards
understanding that there is no simple solution to the world's woes, that any action
proposed will take time to have an effect, that patience and hard work will be necessary
before results can be obtained.. It is on these issues that Section 2 International
Trends focuses.
Some of the problems facing geographical educators are not, however, of a global
nature but very much related to the day-to-day work of teachers. I cannot forget that for
many years, my immediate concerns were not with global warming or environmental
quality, but with what I should teach; with how I should teach it; with what resources I
had at my disposal to help students learn what I hoped they would learn; with how I
could possibly motivate certain groups whose attitude to learning was anything but
xi
xii
positive. And these problems were immediate and required me to take rapid action. I
did not have the luxury of spending much time reflecting on the optimum solutions.
Nowhere is this better illustrated than in the adoption of new technologies in the
teaching of geography. I am old enough to remember my faltering footsteps in my early
attempts to use the film projector; to master the stencil and then the spirit duplicator; to
get to grips with the tape recorder and then the video recorder; to devise and project
overhead projector transparencies; and last, but not least, to get to understand how to
use the computer both for the obtaining of resources, reproducing them and perhaps
getting the students to use it for their own learning. New communications technologies
which are addressed in Lea Houtsonen's chapter, have the effect, for mature teachers, of
making them feel inadequate even deskilled, until they have learnt to master the new
media. The time available for acquiring new skills and understandings is often limited,
yet time must be found if teachers are not to be left behind. The rewards are worth the
effort.
Thus, it is salutary that Section 3 Re-focussing Learning and Teaching, Section 4

Improving Curriculum Planning and Development and Section 5 Innovation and
Change in Geographical Education, address some of the problems faced by teachers
in their daily work. They do so by examining carefully and thoughtfully some ongoing
issues such as the nature of experience in the learning process (Margaret Robertson), the
ways in which effective curriculum planning and development can take place (David
Lambert), the integration of new media into geographical learning and the ways in
which standards of achievement may be maintained or raised through the use of
appropriate evaluation techniques (Philip Stimpson). Indeed, as Michael Williams
shows in his review of research in geographical education, much of the individual
research undertaken focuses on the immediate problems of teaching and learning
geography. Yet such research need not be shallow. It requires deep thought as well as
empirical investigations.
Indeed much of what can now be achieved in the learning of geography is the result of
past research. Section 6 indicates how this research in geographical education may be
carried out, not just by special research projects but by teachers themselves in the
course of their teaching activities (Graham Butt). It is interesting to note that, though in
some cultures there is a tendency to disparage the nature of educational research,
Frances Slater in her chapter demonstrates that in spite of this denigration, teachers are,
in practice, influenced by educational research in their day-to-day teaching. There is a
subtle way in which all of us as teachers absorb some of the findings of research in our
understanding for example, of what concepts are meaningful to a 13 year-old, or of
what skills s/he is capable of mastering.
Such a review of geographical education would be incomplete without an attempt at

glancing into the future. Section 7 does this in a selective fashion by indicating that
geographical education should not stop when formal education ends, but should be
lifelong (Cantell and Rikkinen), self-directed (Tammy Kwan), intercultural (AIIahwerdi
and Rikkinen) and use the benefits of information technology (Kent). In reading some
of the work of Edward Said (1993,1999) and in noting world events, one becomes ever
more conscious of the vital importance of cultural tolerance. Some geography textbook
writers have, in the past, been guilty of excessive nationalism, religious intolerance and
xiii
racism. Textbook writers are today, much more conscious of the need to avoid
jingoistic sentiments. But, attitudes in society are not always so tolerant and teachers of
geography have a duty to combat such attitudes. It is therefore pleasing to record that in
many countries there is a new emphasis on education for citizenship where the concept
of being a citizen is not a narrow one, but encompasses the idea that the new generation
will be not only citizens of their own nation, but citizens of broader alliances of nations
and citizens of the global community (Lambert and Mach on, 2001 ).
This book reflects the views of geography educators who have toiled for many years to
improve the quality of geographical education. They record their endeavours, their
concerns and their present conclusions, since all knowledge is provisional. They do in
the spirit of international and intercultural cooperation long fostered by the International
Geographical Union. It is this spirit that I commend this book to the reader.
Norman Graves
Professor Emeritus of Geography Education
Institute ofEducation University ofLondon
References
Fairgrieve, J. (1926) Geography in School, London: University of London Press.

Lambert, D. and Machon, P. (eds.) (2001) Citizenship Through Secondary Geography, London: Routledge
Falmer.
Said, E. (1993) Culture and Imperialism London: Chatto and Windus.
Said, E (1999) Out ofPlace: a Memoir. London: Granta.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Helena Allahwerdi
Haaga Institute Polytechnic
Helsinki School of Business and
Helsinki Business College
P.O.Box 133 (Hattulantie 2)
FIN-00511 HELSINKI
Robert Bednarz
Department of Geography
Texas A and M University
College Station TX 77843-3147 USA
Sarah Witham Bednarz

Department of Geography
Texas A and M University
College Station TX 77843-3147 USA
Graham Butt
School of Education
The University ofBirmingham
Birmingham B15 2TT United Kingdom
Hannele Cantell
Department of Teacher Education
University of Helsinki
00280 Helsinki 28 Finland
Simon Catling
Oxford Brooks University
School of Education
Wheatley Campus
Wheatley OX33 1HX Oxford United Kingdom
Lisa De Chano
Geography Department
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo Michigan 49008
United States of America
XV
xvi
Manuela Malheiro Ferriera

Department ofEducation
University Alberta
Rua de Escola Politecnica 147
1269-001 Lisbon Portugal
Rod Gerber
Faculty of Education, Health and Professional Studies
University of New England
Armidale 2351 Australia
Lea Houtsonen
Opetusneuvos, Counsellor of Education
Opetushallitus, National Board of Education
P.O.Box 380 (Hakaniemenkatu 2)
FlN-00531 Helsinki
Finland
Taina Kaivola
Department of Teacher Education
University ofHelsinki
Helsinki Finland
Ashley Kent
Institute of Education
University of London
Bedford Way
London WC1H OAL United Kingdom
TammyKwan
Faculty of Education
Hong Kong University
Hong Kong
David Lambert
Institute of Education
University of London
London WC1H OAL United Kingdom
D. Lanegran
Macalester College
1600 Grand Avenue
St Paul Minnesota 55105 USA
xvii
John Lidstone
Queensland University of Technology
Victoria Park Road
Kelvin Grove 4059 Australia
Bill Marsden
Department of Education
University ofLiverpool
19 Abercromby Square
Liverpool L69 7ZG United Kingdom
Julie Okpala
Faculty ofEducation
University ofNigeria
Nsukka Nigeria
Josefina Ostuni
Departamento de Geografia
Facultad de Filosofia y Letras
Universidad Nacional de Cuyo
Box 345
Centro Universitario-5500 Mendoza-Argentina
Hannele Rikkinen
. Department of Teacher Education
University of Helsinki
Helsinki Finland
Margaret Robertson
Faculty ofEducation
University of Tasmania
Launceston 7250 Australia
F. Slater
15 Worthington House
Myddelton Passage
London EC1R 1XQ United Kingdom
Philip G. Stimpson
Department of Curriculum Studies
The University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong
xviii
Joseph Stoltman
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo Michigan 49008
United States of America
Richard Tabulawa
Department ofLanguages and Social Sciences Education
University ofBotswana
Private Bag 00702
Gaborone Botswana
Joop van der Schee

Geographical Education Centre
Free University
Amsterdam The Netherlands
Michael Williams
Emeritus Professor, University of Wales Swansea
Ger-y-Bryn
Reynoldston
Swansea SA3 lAD United Kingdom
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION
1. THE GLOBAL SCENE FOR GEOGRAPHICAL
EDUCATION
ROD GERBER
Four Scenarios
Picture the following scenarios in your mind concerning the World and its people. How
can they be understood well in order to sustain Planet Earth for now and the future?
What is it in these scenarios that promotes the need for different educative processes to
enhance the sustainability argument? How can geographical education play a key role
in the resolution of these scenarios?
SCENARIO 1: THE FLOOD OF REFUGEES
The human tide of refugees in the 2000s continues unabated. Families and individuals
in regions of Africa, Europe and Asia which are under threat from warfare, terrorism,
disease, civil strife, poverty and oppressive dictatorships, struggle to escape from these
purges. In their hundreds and thousands, these people have sought refuge in
neighbouring and distant countries. They do so by travelling on foot, by some form of
transport including boats and aircraft, and on temporary structures such as rafts. A
limited number of refugees are invited to host countries after being processed by
immigration officials. Most of these refugees spend several years in detention camps in
very limited conditions. Here, they struggle to maintain a modest lifestyle. More
recently, people smugglers have entered the refugee flood, charging large amounts of
money to transport these people to a safe haven. However, mostly these are fateful trips
that end up in disaster at the worst and detention camp at best.
SCENARIO 2: MINING MISADVENTURE
A mining company has obtained a permit from the local government to retrieve large
amounts of copper from an equatorial rainforest area. Initially, this project seems to be
an excellent opportunity to enrich the host country and to make a handsome profit for
the mining company. What results is somewhat different. The mining operations have
involved the extensive disruption to the rainforests' human and animal inhabitants
caused by the destruction of the rainforest to retrieve the copper ore. This has reduced
the area of forest that local tribes have used for their livelihood. Animals that were
hunted for food have disappeared. Residue from the processing operation has clogged
the nearby river killing the local fish and virtually closing down the river transport. The
local tribes protest to their government about the impact of the mining operation on
their environment. The mining company justifies its actions as normal under the
circumstances.
3
R. Gerber (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Education. 3-18.

©Kiuwer Academic Publishers.
4 R.GERBER
SCENARIO 3: THIRD-WORLD MANUFACTURING
A wide range of manufacturing now occurs in Third-world countries. This results from
the very low labour costs that overseas companies exploit to manufacture leisure goods
for consumption in First-world countries. In many of these manufacturing sites large
groups of unskilled workers are paid a few dollars for a long working day. They have
very limited working conditions and little capacity to improve their careers. They live
in squalid conditions. Products from these factories are sold to overseas markets at
comparatively high rates. Profits from these sales flow out of the country of the
manufacturing to another country. Therefore, the local countries achieve few benefits
from this large-scale manufacturing.
SCENARIO 4: LOCAL COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
Local communities in different countries have each developed a strong bond to promote
effective environmental and community education. Interest groups of citizens have
been formed in each community to agree on projects that will build partnerships
amongst the local business people, local and state government representatives,
representatives from different community organizations, local schools and interested
citizens. While the projects may differ from community to community, each one is
intended to draw people to work together to strengthen their local interaction and make
the community a more sustainable environment. This may involve community adults
working with school children to implement conservation programs. It may involve
these people working with older citizens on beautification projects. It may even involve
business people supporting children acting as environmental educators for their own
families. Then, it may involve representatives from these communities sharing the
results of their projects with each other.
An initial reading of these scenarios could suggest to the readers that the World is full
of powerful people who exercise control over powerless people. That is much too
pessimistic an angle to think about, even though there is evidence of exploitation of
human beings despite countries supporting the universal Declaration of Human Rights.
These scenarios certainly contain a call for action by citizens around the World to
minimise any abuses of human rights and dignity. They also contain by inference a
need for people, and governments, around the World to think of humanity as the future
for this planet and education as the medium for the securing the future of our planet.
Education, especially geographical education, with its integrative powers for linking
people with each other and with the environments in which they live should be the force
for addressing each of the scenarios mentioned and for enhancing our effectiveness in
using the resources of planet Earth. However, it is reasonable to ask just how effective
is geographical education at the beginning of the twenty-first century for conveying this
important role?
GLOBAL SCENE FORGEOG. EDUCATION 5
Factors that influence the status of Geographical Education around the World
Globally, education is being treated very seriously as the long term solution for the
future quality of life on our planet. Nations in developing countries make
comprehensive education as the only feasible solution for improved quality of life.
Post-industrial Westernised countries believe that education is important, but they push
for economic development as the main driver for the health of their nations. Sadly,
economic development is not ·the main influence of having a sustainable, peaceful
nation. It should never supplant education as the key impetus for the quality of its
citizens' livelihood. Economic development should be used as a major support for
universal education so that nations can learn how to help themselves rather than rely on
economic "handouts" for their survival.
A considerable number of key international statements or policies act as influential

forces on the international orientation that geographical education must take if it is to
become the vital plank of global education. Various Declarations from the United
Nations, including the University Declaration of Human Rights and the Declaration on
the Rights of the Child have been important for underpinning the international work of
geographical educators. They have been supported by key reports from agencies such
as UNESCO. The report of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-
first Century (Delors et al., 1996) drew our attention to the challenge of the two-sided
process for educ.ating people: firstly an individualised process and secondly a process
of constructing social interaction. This was extended in a following report on holistic
education (Sarkijarvi, 2000, 3) to emphasise that whatever education is planned for
people its holistic nature should be promoted through: educating the complete person
through recognising the multiple dimensions of human personality - physical,
emotional, social ethical, aesthetic, spiritual and intellectual; understanding the broad
awareness of the world and the interdependence of and interrelations between the
world, people and phenomena; and taking into account all dimensions of learning that
occur throughout our lives in different forms. Reports and Declarations such as these
have promoted the development of important statements from key professional
geographical organizations such as the International Geographic Union to advise
geographical educators around the world on effective policy and action. The
International Charter on Geographical Education (IGUCGE, 1992) and the
Declaration on Geography and Cultural Diversity (IGU, 2000) represent two of these
important statements.
National statements have played important roles in the formulation of policy for
geographical education in different countries. In the USA, for example, the publication
relating to the national standards in geography - Geography for Life (Bednarz, 1994) -
unpacked the key elements of geographic education for educators in different levels of
formal education. At a more general level, national reports such as An Agenda for the
Knowledge Nation (Jones et al., 2001) offer geographical educators broad advice on
directions that geographical education should be taking for the future benefit of our
society.
The leadership of professional geographical organizations in different countries, eg., the

Geographical Association in the United Kingdom, and different thinkers in geography,
6 R.GERBER
eg., Peet, 1998, and geographical education, eg., Graves, 1975, have contributed
considerably to the global importance of geographical education. Their contributions
have ensured that the varying essential components and approaches of geographical
education can be adapted to numerous contexts in different countries. This allows
policy makers to consider how the focus of geographical education should be developed
in their societies. Should it adopt a problem-centred approach, a socially-critical
approach, develop intercultural understanding, promote environmental education,
develop geographically-informed people or promote international understanding? It
will also assist geographical educators to consider which practices they will emphasis in
their learning experiences. How will they develop different learning and teaching
strategies? How will communications technologies be used in their curricula? To what
extent will social and environmental values be promoted in their programs? What
approaches will be supported in the design and evaluation of curricula?
Further to these professional and academic reasons for promoting geographical

education around the world are a arrange of events and actions that impact on human
awareness and behaviour. In 2001, one of these seminal events was the series of attacks
by terrorists on the US society through acts of human, economic and biological
destruction. The impact of these events was the collective action against human
terrorism that included co-ordinated attacks against the ruling government in
Afghanistan by a Western alliance. Similar unrest in the Balkans, the Middle East,
various regions in Africa and in Indonesia have all contributed to heighten our desire for
a reasoned geographical education. Ordinary citizens become intensely interested in
other places and people at times of uncertainty. Geographical education has a key role
to play when addressing such uncertainty.
The Status of Geographical Education around the World
A thorough understanding of the global scene in geographical education is enhanced by

an analysis of what actual practices are detected in the formal education programs
around the World. What follows is a snapshot of this global picture as presented from
two international surveys conducted by Haubrich (1996) and by the author in 2000. It is
based on the presentation of results from the 2000 survey of 31 countries and
comparisons with the 1996 results.
The study of geographical education in countries around the World consisted of

voluntary responses to eight different aspects of geographical education. These were:
the place of geography in the curriculum at different levels of formal education; the
approaches to geography in these curricula; the importance of knowledge, skills and
values in these curricula; the importance of different educational directions in these
curricula; methods used in teaching geography; the main resources used in teaching
geography; key aspects in preparing geography teachers; and common research methods
used in geographical education.
Geographical educators from 31 countries participated in the study in 2000. These

countries ranged from Argentina to France, from Greece to Japan and from Myanamar
to the United States of America (see Table 1). Twenty-six of these countries also
GLOBAL SCENE FOR GEOG. EDUCATION 7
participated in the original survey. They did so by volunteering their time to complete a
written survey form which they received by electronic means, by fax or by post. In
each case the country of origin was noted, but not the identification of the contributor.
This was done to maintain the anonymity of the contributors. Where there were
responses from more than one person in a country these responses were pooled to obtain
the most common response for each of the items in the survey. As a result, more than
31 responses are noted in some Tables.
Table 1 Countries involved in the international surveys on Geographical Education- 1996 and 2000
1996 2000
Albania Japan Argentina Korea

Algeria Korea Australia Mongolia
Argentina Lithuania Belgium Myanamar
Australia Luxembourg Canada Netherlands
Belgium Mongolia China New Zealand
Bhutan Netherlands Denmark Norway
Canada New Zealand Finland Portugal
China Norway France Singapore
Czech Rep Portugal Germany Slovenia
Denmark Singapore Greece South Africa
Finland Slovak Republic Hong Kong Spain
France Slovenia Hungary Sweden
Germany South Africa India Taiwan
Greece Spain Israel United Kingdom
Hong Kong Sweden Italy United States of America
Hungary Switzerland Japan Zimbabwe
India United Kingdom
Israel United States of America
Italy
RESULTS
The results from the 2000 international study indicate considerable variation in the
nature of geographical education in countries around the World. They are summarised
as follows:
The Place of Geography in the curriculum at different levels of formal education
Geography is treated differently in the curricula of Primary and Secondary schools, as

opposed to Colleges or Universities in these countries (see Table 2). At the Primary
level, geography is taught mainly as an integrated subject and it is mandatory. It is
8 R.GERBER
usually a key component of an integrated humanities or social studies program. This

reflects the trend in many countries of dividing the Primary curriculum into broad
bodies of knowledge that may be approached in various ways within a particular school
whilst adhering to broader aims of social studies or humanities education with children.
At the lower Secondary level, geography was still a largely mandatory subject in the
school curriculum, but it is now a separate subject in its own right. The practice is for
large blocks of time, eg. one or two years, to be dedicated to the study of geography.
Particular emphasis is placed here on the geography of the local area and nation. This
changes at the upper Secondary level where geography is taught mainly as a separate
subject, but an optional one. While geography still maintains an independent presence
at this level of education, there is increasing anecdotal evidence to indicate that there is
a decline in the numbers of students taking the subject in both Western and developing
countries. This is due in part to such factors as increased competition from other
optional subjects and from the drive to move to integrated humanities' subjects in the
upper end of Secondary school education. This trend is maintained at the College and
University levels. Such a trend is expected at the higher education level because many
degree programs do not see the relevance of studying geography in their curricula, eg.
law, medicine and engineering.
Table2 Place of geography in the curriculum of countries in 2000 by levels of education in the 31
countries (no. of responses)
Level of Education Separate An Integrated Combination Mandatory Optional

Subject Subject of Both Subject Subject
Primary/Elementary 12 31 5 26 0
Lower/Secondary/Junior 30 14 10 28 4
High School
Upper Secondary/Senior 39 7 7 13 23
High School
College/University 38 9 8 3 30
The Approach to Geography in these Curricula
A summary of the approaches to Geography in these curricula is reported generally and

for each level of education (see Table 3). Overall, there is moderate support for an
issues/themes approach, a systematic approach and a regional approach, with limited
support for a systems approach. This trend was also evident in the 1996 survey. This
pattern varied across the different levels of education. At the Primary and lower
Secondary levels, the main support was for an issues/themes' and a regional approach
and modest support for a systematic approach, with little concern for a systems
approach. This pattern was maintained at the upper Secondary level except that there
was some support for a systems approach. At the College and University levels the
spread of all four approaches was evident.
Table 3 Main approach to Geography in the curricula in 2000 in different levels of education in the 31
countries (no. of responses)
Level of Education Response Regional Systematic Issues/ Systems

Approach Approach Themes Approach
Primary Very Strong 6 2 0 0

Lower Secondary 9 2 2 2
Upper Secondary 5 2 4 0
College/University 5 7 6 4
Total 25 13 12 6
Primary Strong 8 I 10 2
Total 31 44 52 24
Primary Moderate 15 13 20 3
Total 59 55 65 42
Primary Weak 10 13 4 11
College/University 11 I 2 7
Total 38 30 12 34
Primary Not at all 5 15 10 28

Total 23 34 35 70
The importance of knowledge, skills and values in these curricula
In this survey, knowledge was considered through geographical facts and concepts,
skills through practical and thinking geographical skills, and values as social and
environmental values (see Table 4 below). These components of knowledge, skills and
values were selected in this study because they were most widely used in curriculum
policy documents in the different countries. Both geographical facts and concepts were
rated highly by the respondents. Facts were rated very highly across all four levels of
education. This result reflects the situation in a wide range of countries that discrete
facts remain as a leading source of knowledge in the study of geography. Geographical
concepts were rated very highly as well. This indicates that geographical educators in
different countries are taking the use of organising concepts seriously in their
educational programs. These concepts were rated most highly for College/University
studies and highly at the Secondary levels. They did not rate highly for Primary level
studies. These results are interesting because the geography curriculum at the different
levels of education do all focus on different geographical concepts. I suspect that
within this set of responses the geographical educators were thinking more of what they
10 R. GERBER
actually focus on in their teaching. Hence, at the higher levels of education these key
concepts are addressed directly whereas at the Primary level they guide the learning and
teaching rather than being taught directly.
Skills, either of a practical or a thinking nature, rated moderately in the survey. The
emphasis on practical skills was most pronounced for College/University level, upper
Secondary and Primary levels. This may be explained by the focus on fieldwork at
these levels of education. However, it is still unclear why practical skills are not
emphasised at the lower Secondary level studies because it is at this level where local
fieldwork studies are most pronounced. For thinking skills, the pattern changed in that
the emphasis now became the College/University, lower Secondary and upper
Secondary levels. This is probably because greater emphasis is placed on higher level
cognitive skills in geography in the higher levels of formal education. A moderate
focus on geographical values was evident in these results, with most concern for values
being expressed at the College/University and upper Secondary levels.
Table 4 The extent to which knowledge, skills and values are important in the Geography curricula in 2000
at different levels of education in the 31 countries (no. of responses)
Level of Education Responses Facts Concepts Values Practical Skills Thinking

Skills
Primary Very Strong I 0 4 0

Lower Secondary 3 2 I 0 I
Upper Secondary S 6 I 3 4
College/University 4 14 5 7 IS
Total 15 23 7 14 20
Primary Strong 24 6 12 4
Upper Secondary 20 21 9 12 12
College/University 17 22 8 21 II
Total 83 70 30 51 35
Primary Moderate II 28 19 13 19
Lower Secondary 17 17 26 26 26
Upper Secondary 17 16 22 22 22
College/University 19 9 20 13 17
Total 64 70 87 74 84
Primary Weak 5 7 18 14 20
Lower Secondary 0 2 8 9 7
·Upper Secondary I 0 10 6 4
Total 9 44 31 31
Primary Notatall 2 I
Lower Secondary 2 2 2
Upper Secondary I 2 2
College/University 0 3 I
Total 5 8 6
The importance of selected educational directions in these curricula
Ten educational directions were identified in the 1996 survey and replicated in this
survey. They were: regional identity, national identity, international solidarity, global
solidarity, environmental education, development education, peace education,
intercultural education, gender education and citizenship education. The results of the
responses from the different countries are summarised in Table 5 below. For these six
directions, very strong support was given to only one - national identity (mainly at the
Primary, lower and upper Secondary levels); with strong support given to
environmental education (at all levels of education); and moderate support was reported
for regional identity and citizenship education (at all levels of education). Modest
support was expressed in international solidarity (mainly at the College/University and
upper Secondary levels; global solidarity (mainly at College/University and both
Secondary levels); in development education (mainly at College/University and both
Secondary levels); and for intercultural education (across all levels). Negative results
were achieved for the inclusion of peace education (across all levels of education) and
gender education (for all levels except the College/University level).
To some extent these results may be reviewed as predictable since they reflect the
divide between the people who want geography to remain as a separate subject in the
school curriculum and those who support a more integrative role for geography in the
education curricula. Taken collectively, they suggest that geography has not embraced
many ofthe recent educational directions as it could have in the different curricula.
Teaching methods used in Geographical Education
A wide range of accepted teaching methods were included for the consideration of
respondents. They were: fieldwork, games, lectures, experiments, statistics,
inquiries/decision-making activities, map reading, map making, mental mapping,
individual work and group work. A summary of the extent to which these methods are
used in geography classrooms in the 31 countries is presented in Table 6. Of these
methods, strong to very strong support was reported for lectures, map making and map
reading. Moderate to strong support was reported for group work and individual work;
and moderate support was evident for fieldwork, statistics, mental mapping and
inquiries/decision-making. Respondents reported weak responses to the use of games
and experiments in their geographical education.
12 R.GERBER
Table 5 Extent of importance of geographical educational directions in 2000 at different levels of education
in the 3I countries (no. of responses)
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Primary Very 0 4
Strong
Lower Secondary 3 0 0 I 0 I I 0 s
Upper Secondary 4 3 2 2 2 2 I 2 0 3
College/Univeraity 7 8 s s 6 4 3 I I 2
Total 18 18 8 8 12 6 6 4 1 14
Primary Strong 12 20 0 0 IS 2 I 9 I 10
Lower Secondary 12 17 4 s 19 4 2 9 2 7
Upper Secondary 12 2 10 II IS 12 2 12 2 6
College/University 10 10 8 14 13 2 10 4 6
Total 46 59 22 24 63 31 7 40 9 29
Primary Moderate 16 12 16 16 19 17 II 17 s 18
Lower Secondary 17 14 23 20 17 27 12 21 7 21
Upper Secondary 18 20 19 IS 24 22 12 18 9 23
College/Univeraity 12 9 21 17 20 21 9 20 1S 21
Total 63 55 79 68 80 87 44 76 36 83
Primary Weak 9 10 22 19 16 19 II 22 8
Lower Secondary 10 6 IS 14 8 IS 9 23 9
Upper Secondary 10 8 10 9 4 IS 7 17 9
College/University 12 IS 8 11 3 21 7 IS 11
Total 41 39 55 53 13 31 70 34 77 37
Primary Not at all 3 0 s 8 3 9 12 7 16 4

Lower Secondary 2 I 2 s 2 s 14 4 12 2
Upper Secondary 0 I 3 7 2 4 13 s 16 3
College/Univeraity 3 2 2 3 I 3 9 6 9 4
Total 8 4 12 23 8 21 49 22 53 13
Table6 Teaching methods used in geographical education in 3I countries in 2000
Teaching Method Not at all Weak Moderate Strong Very

Strong
Fieldwork I I2 I9 9 2
Games/Simulations 24 l3 4 4 0
Lectures 0 3 7 I4 I9
Experiments 5 I8 18 2 0
Statistics I 5 27 8 2
Inquiries/Decision- 2 8 2I 8 4
making
Map reading 0 2 14 I6 II
Mapmaking 4 l3 2I 5 0
Mental mapping 4 I5 20 2 I
Individual work 0 2 I4 2I 6
Group work 0 6 20 II 6
Teaching materials used in Geographical Education
The teaching materials selected represented the conventional ones and some newer
ones, eg. GIS and computer software, that are becoming more available to teaching
geography at different levels (see Table 7). Of these listed materials, textbooks were
used very strongly at all levels of formal education; atlases were used strongly across all
levels; films/videos were used moderately at all levels of education, and so were
photographs; and satellite imagery, computer software and Geographic Information
Systems were not used very much at all, especially at the Primary and Secondary levels.
These newer teaching and learning resources were only considered as being important
at the College/University level of Geographical Education.
Table7 Extent to which teaching materials are used in teaching geography in 2000 at different levels of
education in the 31 countries (no. of responses)
Level of Education Response Textbook Atlas Film/ Video Photographs Satellite Computer GIS
Images Software
Primary Very Strong II 4 I I 0 0 0

Lower Secondary 14 4 2 3 2 I 0
Upper Secondary 17 5 2 2 2 2 0
College/University 12 4 I 0 3 6 3
Total 54 17 6 6 7 9 3
Primary Strong 13 16 10 13 0 4 0
Lower Secondary 24 15 13 12 2 3 0
College/University 19 II 7 15 II 10 II
Total 80 58 47 55 15 20 11
Primary Moderate 12 10 19 2 I 10 2
College/University 9 17 24 21 17 15 18
Total 27 so 77 90 39 59 34
Primary Weak 5 9 10 7 23 17 10
College/University 3 4 9 6 II 12 6
Total 8 29 35 19 79 59 43
Primary Not at all 3 5 4 2 20 13 31

Lower Secondary 2 3 3 I 9 9 30
Upper Secondary I 2 I I 5 5 18
College/University 0 2 3 2 2 2 6
Total 6 12 11 6 36 29 85
Training of Geography teachers/tutors/lecturers
The extent to which different aspects are used in the preparation of geography teachers
is summarised in Table 8. Of the list of ten aspects for training Geography
14 R.GERBER
teachers/tutors/lecturers listed in the survey, the respondents reported strong to very

strong answers for lesson planning, teaching methods and aspects of pedagogy.
Moderate to strong responses were recorded for the following aspects: the use of media,
assessment, curriculum planning, the development of skills and psychological aspects.
The development of values was seen as being of moderate importance in teacher
education and sociological aspects were viewed as being of limited importance.
Table 8 Aspects treated in the training of geography teachers in 31 countries in 2000 (no. of responses)
Curriculum Element Not Weak Moderately Strong Very

Important Important Strong
Pedagogy 0 5 12 16 lO
Psychology 0 9 19 12 3
Sociology 4 17 14 7 l
Lesson planning 0 2 5 22 14
Different teaching 0 l 6 20 16
methods
Use of media 0 3 18 16 6
Assessment/evaluation 0 4 14 16 9
Curriculum planning l 9 l3 12 8
Developing skills 0 4 16 16 7
Developing values l 9 17 ll 5
Research Methods used in Geographical Education
When asked to report the main research methods used in studies of geographical
education, the respondents offered weak to moderate responses suggesting that research
was not being treated as an explicit aspect of geographical education in many countries
(see Table 9). Of the eight common research methods listed in the survey, only
quantitative methods, case studies, and multi-method studies were considered as having
been used moderately in geographical education research in their country. We have
been lead to believe that action research is a staple approach used by geography
teachers when they engage in research activities. This was not highlighted in this
survey.
Implications and Discussion
26 ofthe 31 countries in this survey were involved in the 1996 survey. The majority of
those countries who did not participate in the 2000 survey were from smaller European
countries. The new countries were from Asia and Africa. Therefore, I conclude that it
is reasonable to extrapolate from the 1996 and 2000 results to describe some trends that
have occurred. This was done by visual comparisons of the results from the current
study with those presented by Haubrich (1996).
Table 9 Research methods evident in geographical education in 31 countries in 2000
Teaching Method Not at all Weak Moderate Strong Very

Important
Action research 9 16 16 2 0
Case study 5 8 22 6 2
Ethnographic 6 24 7 4 2
Hermeneutic 10 14 16 2 1
Other qualitative 5 14 22 8 1
Quantitative 2 4 24 11 2
Multi-method 2 8 22 9 2
Meta-analysis 9 19 12 2 1
The 1996 and 2000 results offered three sets of comparisons: areas of increase in 2000,
areas of decrease since 1996, and areas where there was little change from. 1996 to
2000. Each set of comparison is reported as follows:
a) Areas of increase in 2000

Increases were noted in the following areas of knowledge - facts and
geographical concepts; thinking skills; two educational directions -
environmental education and intercultural education; two teaching methods -
fieldwork and mental mapping; atlases; and lesson planning in teacher
preparation.
b) Areas of decrease since 1996

Decreases were noted in the 2000 results in the following aspects: .geographical
values; educational directions including international solidarity, global
solidarity and development education; lectures as a teaching method and the
use of photographs as methods for teaching geography.
c) Areas of similar results between 1996 and 2000

Little change was noted between the results of 1996 and 2000 in the following
aspects: moderate support for issues/themes, regional and systematic
approaches, with limited support for the use of a systems approach; practical
skills; the following educational directions - national identity, regional
identity, citizenship education, and peace education; the following teaching
methods - map reading, group work, individual work, statistics, games,
experiments, and inquiries/decision-making; the following teaching materials -
textbooks, films/videotapes, satellite images, computer software and
Geographical Information Systems (GIS); and the following aspects of teacher
preparation - teaching methods, pedagogy, use of media, assessment,
curriculum planning, skills development, psychological aspects and
sociological aspects.
Based on the assumption that such a simple comparison between two sets of results,
largely with people from a similar set of countries does provide potentially useful
16 R.GERBER
results, what then are the implications of these results for international geographical
education? Certainly, it would have been more useful to have another set of data for a
previous period to confirm any trends. However, this repeated survey does offer some
shafts of light from which geographical educators and both take heart and also despair.
Some aspects for encouragement include the following: the increased importance of
geographical knowledge, especially of key geographical concepts, and cognitive skills
as applied to geography; a greater recognition of environmental and intercultural
education in geographical studies; the increased use of fieldwork as a basic means of
learning; and the increased use of atlases as a basic teaching material in geography
lessons. All of these aspects are written about widely in geographical education books
as being central to the success of geographical education. Geographical concepts are
key organisers of knowledge in geographical education. The battle between advocates
of geographical as opposed to environmental or intercultural education now seems to be
more of a co-existence of these directions with geographical education in which
different emphases are placed on issues for investigation which minimise the need to
argue for one approach or the other. Geographical concepts may be used as the focus in
a broader environmental study or for conducting a probing cultural study that involves
different cultural groups in a region such as the Balkans. The improved showing for
fieldwork highlights its resurgence as a critical teaching method. Atlases had assumed a
lesser importance to textbooks and other resource materials in doing geographical
investigations basically because they were less fashionable than these other resources.
This trend is being reversed as more data in atlas form are being produced in
multimedia format and more thematic mapping is being produced for geographical
study.
Amongst the aspects that were shown to have declined from 1996 to 2000, there is some
cause for concern. The apparent decline in the use of geographical values in
educational practice is very worrying. This may have occurred because values are
difficult to measure as educational outcomes. Policy documents continue to laud the
worth of values in geographical education. The practice is not supporting this
emphasis. It is time for geographical educators to place values back in the spotlight,
possibly at the expense of some of the information technology that abounds in
geographical education these days. The modest decline in emphasis on international
and global orientations in geographical education is of potential concern since the need
for a global focus on human and environmental issues is still as important today as it
was a decade ago. Just what can be done to reinvigorate a global orientation in some
geographical studies? Some people would agree that the decrease in importance of
lectures means that the focus in geographical education is changing from teaching to
learning. It is a trend that they would support strongly. The decline in the use of still
photographs may not be as crucial as one might first think. This is because many
photographic images are now subsumed in multimedia presentations rather than being
treated as stand-alone teaching materials. Therefore, it could be argued that many of
these "negatives" actually do enhance the place of geographical education in different
levels offormal education.
The fact that a continuing strength has been demonstrated across the two surveys across
many key aspects of geographical education bodes well for its place in the different
levels of curriculum development. This emphasises the reality that many key aspects of
geographical education are just as strong today as they were four years ago. However,
does this mean that geographical education is still as strong in countries around the
world as it was four years ago. I conclude with a cautious optimism that it has
maintained its place as a mandatory integrated and separate subject, respectively, in the
Primary and Lower Secondary programs, and still has a definite presence as an optional
subject in the Upper Secondary, College and University levels. However, there is much
to be done to sustain its position in the different curricula over the next decade and
beyond.
Conclusion
So what, then, is the relevance of the four introductory scenarios for twenty-first
century international geographical education? These scenarios reflect important
challenges and actions in people-em;ironment relationships at different scales in our
global context. They demonstrate the importance of: local partnerships to promote
environmental and community education; international relationships between First- and
Third-world countries in manufacturing that can be interpreted as First-world
domination and exploitation of Third-world labour; exploitative environmental actions
by foreign companies on developing world environments in the search for valuable
minerals; and a global scale flow of refugees from one region of the globe to another in
the search for freedom, safety and security. The evidence from these international
surveys suggests that the study of geography in many countries is important in the
education of children in social and environmental aspects in their life-worlds.
Geographical knowledge and skills are especially important for environmental and
intercultural education. People need to know how to use geographical information in
their lives. Formal geographical education is an important force for making this
happen.
Geographical educators and policy makers make good use of relevant international
statements and declarations to guide their curricular development. In a national study in
the broad community in Australia (Gerber, 2001), the author demonstrated that the
Australian community does value geographical education in its society, but more work
needs to be done in the educational community to ensure that this happens in
educational terms. Professional geographers also need to be more overt in their
promotion of geographical education as an essential element of all people's education.
Now, I readily admit that geographical education holds a core position in a good range
of countries. However, this is a tenuous hold and a concerted effort is required to
ensure that all citizens can understand the implications of each of the four scenarios for
their life-worlds and that the world citizenry can work to improve our planet and make
it a sustainable one.
References
Bednarz, S., et al. (1994) Geography for Life. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Research and
Exploration.
18 R.GERBER
Delors, J. eta/. (1996) Learning: the Treasure Within. New York: UNESCO.
Gerber, R. (2001) Attitudes to geography in Australia. Australian Geographer, 32(2), 221-239.
Graves, N. (1975) Geography in Education. London: Heinemann.
Haubrich, H. (1996) Geographical Education 1996: Results ofa Survey in 38 Countries. Mimeo.
International Geographic Union Commission on Geographical Education (1992) International Charter on
Geographical Education. Brisbane: International GeographiC Union.
International Geographic Union (2000) Declaration on Geographical Education and Cultural Diversity.
Seoul: International Geographic Union.
Jones, B. eta/. (2001) An Agenda for a Knowledge Nation. Canberra: Chifley Research Centre.
Peet, R. (1998) Modern Geographical Thought. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sarkijarvi, A. (2000) Holistic Education in Education Policies and Strategies of Countries and International
Organizations. Report for the Task Force on Education for the Twenty-first Century. Paris: UNESCO.
SECTION 2: INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
2. GLOBALISATION AND GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION
ROD GERBER
Introduction: The Concept of Globalisation
Over the last quarter of the twentieth century we have come to appreciate the advent of
the concept of globalisation - a concept that has come to be the basis for considerable
ferment from an increasingly vocal section of our society. The wild protests that have
occurred at international economic forums typifY such vocal behaviour. It is a concept
that tends to divide societies rather than unifY them. It also tends to amass kindred
industrial interests that often result in the development of massive corporations which
have annual budgets larger than many countries. What is this force that has emerged on
planet Earth to attract such attention?
Globalisation, according to Hudson (2000: 63), 'refers to the processes which increase
the scale of social life, and therefore increasingly involve processes which operate
across borders at multiple scales.' Initially, globalisation appeared in the economic
sphere through the deregulation of financial markets, the rapid expansion of
communications technologies, and the development of global financial markets that
were hubbed in a limited number of financial centres. This has resulted in the
depression of the economies in some industrialised countries and in developing
countries that provide raw materials for industries (Delors 1996: 41). The economic
focus for globalisation has since been expanded to include political, social, cultural and
environmental dimensions. To use a maritime metaphor, the world is awash with the
flows of money, goods, ideas, services, images, some diseases and pollutants. The
universalisation of telecommunications through the World Wide Web has accelerated
the process of information transfer and exchange to the extent that even remote
geographical regions have global access to information and ideas.
Burbules and Torres (2000: 14) have summarised the characteristics of globalisation
that can be linked to education as follows:
In Economic terms, there has been a transition from Fordist to post-Fordist forms
of workplace organisation; a growth in internationalised advertising and
consumption patterns; an increase in the free flow of goods, investments and
workers across national and regional borders; and changes in the life roles of
people, eg. producer, consumer, learner and worker.
In Political terms, there has been a decline in national autonomy and a

corresponding weakening of the concept of citizens in terms of their roles, rights,
obligations and status.
21

©Kluwer Academic Publishers.
22 R.GERBER
In Cultural terms, a tension has been created between the ways through which
globalisation induces more standardisation and cultural homogeneity, while
encouraging more fragmentation via the generation of more localised movements.
This tension between the global and the local has been termed as 'the glocal'
(Amove and Torres 1999).
When these characteristics are linked to education they produce a variety of impacts
that both threaten and stimulate our minds. These impacts may be summarised in the
following way (pp. 20-21):
I. Economically, globalisation plays a major effect on employment. Since one of

the key functions of education is the preparation of people for work, schools,
colleges and universities have to reconsider how they are going to prepare
people for work. This will involve the promotion of different forms of the
common life roles of producer, consumer, worker, recreator and learner. What
skills, knowledge and values will people require for different forms of work?
How will the educational institutions accommodate the increased
commercialisation of their learning environments? The changing job demands
will be a reflection of the increasing global competitive labour pool. Therefore,
educational institutions will need to place more emphasis on the shaping of
consumer practices and attitudes than just thinking of producer roles that are
evident in getting and holding down different jobs. These effects cause
adjustments to economic policy that will be discussed later in this chapter.
2. Politically, transnational institutions, organizations and companies place

constraints on the policies that are generated by countries. While international
economic regulation and coordination is developed, governments are less well
placed to deal with the international challenges that are posed by drug
trafficking, the spread of diseases, armed conflicts, terrorism, the trade in
refugees, and other crimes that are organised by international groups.
Educational institutions around the world become very involved in the
development of citizens for the future. They take on crucial roles of facilitating
children's understanding of these challenges, developing more critical
approaches to strengthening communities, and engaging in preventive
approaches through sound educational practices.
3. Culturally, societies are becoming more multicultural through the migration of

people. Multicultural education is, therefore, a fundamental element in formal
education these days in many countries. Educational institutions promote the
development of fair, just and equitable social values amongst different cultural
groups, and they focus on the development of a sense of interdependence.
However, this should not be at the expense of local cultures in different
countries. Education should be able to: improve the development of differing
cultural identities; promote the development of anti-racist philosophies in
curricula; and facilitate through modern communications technologies greater
interaction amongst cultural groups across countries. ·
GLOBALISATION AND GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION 23
While there is a strong trend amongst governments, large organizations and corporate
enterprises to promote globalisation as the way of the future, there is some evidence that
there is resistance to this phenomenon. This is most evident in the local movements
especially in developing countries which are seeking to consolidate or even regenerate
cultures in local identities and practices. Education, in this case, is focussed on the
transmission of skills and the implementation of local scale participatory community
development projects that recognise the complexity of local cultural issues. The
homogenisation of globalised societies is not seen by communities as the way forward
and they are resisting the inevitable, even when international corporations are exploiting
their forests and minerals.
Geography's Role in Understanding Globalisation
Understanding globalisation is essential for the survival of humanity in the twenty-first

century. Geography, with its foci being on human use of pll\_ce and space at different
scales, and the resulting interactions and modifications, is wetl placed to assist us to
appreciate a new geography based on globalisation. The world economic map has been
redrawn to highlight: new centres for world trade around the Pacific rim; a less clear cut
North-South divide; science and technology networks that link up research centres to
major business corporations around the world; and crime, especially through the illegal
trade in drugs, arms, people and nuclear materials. Globalisation may, therefore, be
seen as the attempt by markets to escape the restrictions imposed on them by States.
Once geography focused on geopolitics. Now, it focuses on geoeconomics - the flows
and exchanges of resources and ideas. The resulting financial globalisation is
exemplified by watching the business programs on global television channels such as
CNN. Here, global markets are projected on computer screens on a persistent basis.
Globalisation is a very real phenomenon in the world of sport where competitions such
as the World Cup in the game of football are organised on a global scale. Also, the
investigation of global environmental problems, eg. global warming, involves the
interaction of numerous human and physical dimensions on our planet.
A major role for geography will be to demonstrate the disjunction between the local and
the global. This is crucial since the global corporations and movements pay little
attention to national or state boundaries. Groups cannot rely on their government to
protect them in the face of global challenges. They will become like the 500 Red Indian
tribes in North America- decimated by international diseases and European greed for
land and other resources. Geography has the opportunity to lead the way in education
by demonstrating how the interactions between cultural groups, physical environments,
governmental policies and the use of space can be for the good of groups of people
instead of the good of corporate shareholders. The promotion of diversity amongst
peoples should again be seen as a good thing in geographical education rather than
being an outmoded approach.
A further contribution that geography can make toward harnessing globalisation is to

emphasise the interdependence of people and environments, people with other people,
and environments with environments. This is another key organising concept of
geography that has been reduced in importance in recent decades. As Wilbanks et al
24 R.GERBER
(1997: 30-31) explain, the interdependencies between places are reflected in the flows
of people, materials and ideas. These flows can reinforce or reduce differences amongst
people, land use practices and degrees of modification of local environments.
Geography's challenge is to analyse these flows and the impacts that they have on
places or environments. The flow of old growth forest timbers out of tropical rain
forests at the hands of international corporations produces a destructive impact both on
the local environment and the capacity for the local cultures to maintain their lifestyle
and values. Such an impact is not the one that geographers should promote in their
educational practices.
Geography can take a leading role in demystifying globalisation by extending its social
role in the development of a 'new citizenship' which Capella (2000: 243) states will
arrest the declining culture of citizens and give groups of people a stronger democratic
voice in the way that they interact with each other and their environments. Geography
can do this be promoting the following educational practices in which groups of people:
learn to conserve; learn to cooperate; learn to value solidarity and shared knowledge;
learn to innovate; and learn to join together to face new social and environmental
situations.
The US publication Geography for Life (Bednarz et al., 1994) highlights that the
geographically-informed person understands the interactions of these human and
physical processes at different scales from the local to the global. What globalisation
does is to shift the emphasis away from local and regional studies to macro- or meso-
level studies. It also causes geographers to move away from studies that are based on a
limited group of people who interact with their environment, to studies that consider
how huge populations of people attempt to sustain their world. Consequently,
geography is now being used to focus on new types of organisations that are populating
the world and are having a global influence on our lifestyles and behaviours. Such
bodies as: the environmental group Greenpeace; the insurance giant Allianz; the World
Trade Organisation; the Coca Cola beverage company, and the Nestle food company,
all have changed the way that many populations live and experience their worlds. In the
coming years, education will become a force in globalisation that extends far beyond
state and national boundaries.
What, then, are the educational impacts from studying globalisation that geography can
consider as it seeks to be a constructive base for the future of societies in different
regions? Morrow and Torres (2000: 35) believe that these implications lie in three
areas: the changed role of the state in the global, informational economy in response to
the previous welfare-state Keynesian model of development; pressures to develop
educational policies that attempt to restructure post secondary educational systems
along entrepreneurial lines so as to provide flexible educational responses to the
emerging model of industrial production; and a call to reorganise Primary and
Secondary education and teacher education along the lines of the skills and
competencies that are required by workers in a globalised world. How geography might
do so is attempted in the following sections.
A New Psychology towards Globalisation
The impacts of globalisation, as they accumulate throughout societies around the world,
will cause people to think differently on how they interact with other people and how
they treat their environment. While we live in a shrinking world in actual and cyber
senses, we still think mainly as individuals. The impact of globalisation on the way that
people see themselves and their other global inhabitants will be to produce a collective,
and hopefully, unifying perspective on our planet. Then, the hope will be to be act in a
constructive and sensitive manner towards fellow human beings and the environment.
An important concept in this approach to globalisation and education has been termed
by Rizvi (2000: 217) to be global imagination. Such an imagination offers educators an
approach to globalisation that is both critical and potentially positive. In a somewhat
romantic way, such a concept believes that through globalisation we can produce
greater pluralism of languages, dialects and cultural practices. It implies a
cosmopolitanism in which values and preferences are not based on a narrow
parochialism. People can gain access to a wide range of music, arts and other cultural
artefacts, especially through new communication technologies. People can still be
committed to these cultural roots and possess global interests and values. This is
because the global movement of information and people, encouraged by advances in
new technologies, challenges the integrity of national, regional and ethnic communities.
It is unlikely to cause cultural disintegration and dissolution. Rather, it will cause
cultural groups to reaffirm their values and key ideas in a constellation of cultural
identities. International education is a key strategy through which this concept is being
developed at the moment. Those people who have engaged in international education
bring back to their cultural groups changed cultural tastes and professional aspirations
which build on their educational experiences and change the way in which they see the
wider world, whilst not sacrificing their cultural roots.
The roots for a new psychology could be based on the four pillars that were proposed in
the Delors Report (1996: 85-97). These are:
Learning to know by combining a broad general knowledge with the opportunity

to work at depth in a few subjects.
Learning to do in order to develop occupational skills and competencies to deal

with many situations and to work in teams.
Learning to live together by developing an understanding of other people and an

appreciation of interdependence in a spirit of respect for values of pluralism,
mutual understanding and peace.
Learning to be in order to develop one's personality and to be able to act with

greater autonomy, judgement and personal responsibility.
The intention of these pillars of education is to think about education in a more

encompassing fashion to enable people to learn to deal with social, environmental,
economic, political and equity issues on a global scale in a sensible way. Just how well
26 R.GERBER
it can be achieved depends on how committed people become to life-long and life-broad
learning that focuses on global events and issues.
Changing Roles for Teachers and Learners
Geography teachers and students in countries around the world will need to think
globally if they are to facilitate teaching and learning of, about and for globalisation. In
so doing, it is their duty to focus on the benefits and the costs of globalisation. This will
enable members of the global society to develop a conscious commitment to work for or
against globalisation. Like many human-induced conditions which have been visited
upon different groups of people around the world, globalisation should be seen as
contributing different pluses and minuses to improving our lives. Therefore, the
facilitative geographical educator will need to develop distinctive pedagogic strategies
to promote as full an understanding of globalisation as young minds can grasp. It will
not be a case of telling these young minds that globalisation is good or bad. Rather, it
will be an exercise in providing access to information that will enable young minds in
different cultures to determine for themselves what their stance will be on globalisation,
and how they will approach issues that result from globalisation in their own
communities.
As for the learners in these different cultural groups, there will a strong need to adopt
learning strategies that suit the level of access that they will have to global information
technology, their community contexts, the variety of learning context in which they
operate, and the extent to which co-operative and collective values toward learning exist
in their community. Whether the most effective learning occurs in formal or informal
contexts again depends on views on learning that prevail in the local community,
educational values that influence what is learned and how it is learned, and the
opportunities that people have to exercise what they have learned about globalisation in
their own lives.
This involves geography teachers and students working towards the development of
what Kropotkin (cited by Stoddard 1987: 333) termed as 'a committed geography'
which teaches people about the realities of the world in which they live; develops
strategies for living better in our world and with fellow human beings; helps us
understand and respect the world around us; and which reaches out to the future.
Teachers who adopt this approach develop and implement learning experience that
'challenge and empower students to work for social justice and ecological
sustainability.' (Fien 1999: 143) This is achieved by teachers and students adopting a
socially-critical approach to their geographical education. This approach has been
promoted by Huckle (1983: 153) as one in which teachers and students operating in
specific contexts and environments engage in critical reflection and action in their social
contexts to search for a fairer and less troubled world. This involves the development of
a shared responsibility between teachers and students for developing, implementing and
evaluating learning activities; the use of open inquiry-based teaching styles; the use of
learning that is based on democratic forms of decision-making; and believing that
knowledge is socially constructed. This involves implementing a geographical
education that includes: the rejection of socially unjust and wasteful environmental
practices in areas such as mining and consumerism; a recognition of the role of women
in the development of environments; the development of socially useful, personally
rewarding and environmentally sound products and work practices; the development of
non-nuclear energy policies based on conservation and renewable sources of energy;
and harmony between people on the basis of race, colour, and creed. (Fien 1999:
146-147) Therefore, teachers value ecological sustainability, open participatory
democracy, and explain geographical patterns in terms of the ways in which local
cultures and choices shape and are shaped by a global economic system. Students
develop an understanding of how social and environmental problems result from the
operation of a global economy. As such, committed geographical education is
purposeful and values-oriented. Teachers and students need to ensure that their
commitments are morally and rationally defensible.
Impacts for Curricula and Policy
If educational policy makers and curriculum developers want to promote the concept of
a learning society that is demanded by globalisation education, then they have to try to
develop learners who can think deeply about the concept of globalisation. If not, then
the hype about globalisation that abounds in contemporary magazines, television
channels and newspapers will become the educational tool that develops our society.
This alternative is not a pretty choice when we consider how globalised the media
industry is.
Burbules and Torres (2000: 20) conclude that the broader economic effects of
globalisation result in educational policies that emphasise a shrinking state sector,
'doing more with less', the rational management of schoois as institutions, promoting
market approaches to school choice, the assessment of performance, and the
deregulation of educational services to encourage new providers who ·use different
forms of delivery including online delivery.
A key ingredient in the formulation of policy in regions, countries or states will be the
extent to which international co-operation can be built into the relevant educational
policies and the extent to which resources can be injected into educational
developments to promote such co-operation. Geography curricula can be revised to
place a greater emphasis on the study of global social and environmental aspects.
However, they need to be developed from the base of the life-worlds in which the
learners have. Developing a geography curriculum that takes a purely global focus will
be insufficient for it does not build a bridge between the learners' experience and the
wider world which may be viewed vicariously on the Internet or television.
Globalisation that is studied in a geography curriculum should possess some relevance
to these young minds. Otherwise, it will be discarded forever from their life-long
learning.
An important impact for curricula in geography will be the hybridisation of these

learning plans. Such hybridisation results from the intersection of the global, national
and local images and practices. The knowledge base for the curriculum will be derived
from the practices at these three different scales. The hybridity of discourses that
28 R.GERBER
emerges from such an activity underscores the variety of political agendas that underpin
the curriculum. These agendas have emerged from the different colonial approaches
that are used by different social groups over time, often for their own political ends. It is
especially evident in countries such as South Africa where the different political
agendas from the dominant cultural groups have produced a hybrid model for
education. This approach allows for globalisation and regionalisation processes to be
incorporated into the curriculum planning process. It may also help to indicate how in
some regions that geographical education retains its distinct identity, whereas in others
it has been replaced by social studies or environmental education.
Another impact of globalisation has been the development of new approaches in cross-
cultural education, especially international education and global distance education.
International education is one outcome from globalisation that is not driven by
economic imperatives. It is a pedagogical tradition that is grounded in a humanistic
view on cultural diversity. Through international education, a key objective is to
promote and develop intercultural understanding. As Cantell (1999: 9) explains,
intercultural education focuses on the development of 'mutual cooperative relationships
within societies and between majority or minority cultural groups.' It has the specific
objectives of:
Ensuring that diversity is rooted in equality and does not become a justification for
marginalisation.
Making an effort to recognise cultural differences and to promote respect for

minorities.
Resolving conflicting interests peacefully.
Since schools, and other socialising agencies such as families, churches and political
systems, are key agencies for the socialisation through which young people learn of
their own cultural code, their curricula should promote intercultural understanding.
Cantell (1999: 10) reminds us that this can only occur when acceptable values are
adopted before school curricula are developed. Of particular relevance to geographical
education are values such as: promoting sustainable development, cultural identity,
multiculturalism, internationalisation, physical, mental and social well-being, and
maturing to a be an effective member of society. Cantell (1999: 11) calls for
geographical educators to wear 'intercultural glasses' and to facilitate the development
of moral thinking skills. Such an approach is able to permit geographical educators to
reflect the surrounding society and its values. If they use the slogan of 'All Different, All
Equal' there is a prospect that these educators will be effective in promoting better
cultural understanding.
In recent years, it may be claimed that globalisation has provided an impetus for global
distance education. The capacities of the Internet have enabled more and more
educators, community members and students to communicate on a regular, cost-
effective and reliable basis. I always remember the seminal work done in this regard by
the American environmental educator, Bill Stapp, who used the Internet as a key
educative device for having groups of children in different places in the world
communicate about the river basin in which they lived. Through Project Green, he was
able to have teachers and students share knowledge about their differing environments,
communities and impacts, and to engage in international education using
communications technologies. This strategy is now a mainstream approach to global
distance education. Morrow and Torres (2000: 43) state that the benefits from such an
approach to education include: a more diverse student clientele; increased access;
making the highest levels of expertise available to larger audiences; and responding to
an educational curriculum that is inherently global in nature, eg. environmental
education, peace studies, geographical education and business education. Countering
these benefits are a series of challenges. These include: the cognitive limitations of
electronic delivery and computerised learning systems in terms of the fragmentation of
knowledge that is stored in them; a reduction in the capacity of learners to reflect on
their actions; the capacity for global education to restrict local communities and their
educational systems; and the use of global education to 'invade' culturally different
developing countries around the world. The changes produced by global distance
education are lauded loudly in the post-industrial Westernised world, but they bring
more challenges to the developing world like the ones mentioned above.
As geographical educators, we should ask ourselves whether we should continue to

promote the Internet as a vehicle to improve our planet through different forms of
globalised education. We must remember that the Internet has become such a powerful
tool for global communication, even in developing countries. While we need to reflect
on how it is used for global distance education, we must not lose sight of the fact that
Internet cafes are being established in such numbers in some developing countries that
through informal education this medium is already a powerful communication device in
these countries. Take for example, the area around a private school development in
Eastern China. Three years ago, it was difficult to locate one Internet cafe in the suburbs
of this moderate sized city (of 2 million people). Now, within four kilometres of this
school precinct there are 25 small scale Internet cafes each containing about 15
computers each linked to the Internet, with each computer used regularly after school by
the local children and adolescents. The surge of the Internet is with us globally!
Different approaches to geography curricula have been posed over time. Effective
education of, about and for globalisation will necessitate exposing the learners to
different kinds of approaches so that they can choose the approach that best sujts their
attitudes towards globalisation. This means exposure to inquiry-based, critical, student
self-paced, collegial and teacher-led approaches in the geography curricula. The
student should be in control rather than the teacher for making decisions on how to
study globalisation. The teacher should provide the opportunities for learning rather
than dictating a single proven approach to learning about globalisation through
geography. Vital in these opportunities must be the chance to encourage students and
educators to engage in critical reflection on the ways in which globalisation can impact
on people's lives, and to formulate approaches to learning that involve acting out
decisions about social and environmental problems of different scales. This is a
challenge for geographical educators to allow the learners to participate more actively in
their educative processes so that what is learned is relevant to the learners' lives. This
can be achieved by contextualising their education at both the local and the global
scales. To some this may seem impossible. However, I would argue that it is very
30 R.GERBER
possible as long as we realise that the young minds that we nurture in our schools and
colleges may live in modest areas in their communities, but they operate at a global
level through their popular cultures via rapidly changing communications technologies.
It is a changing world out there which we as educators need to keep abreast of the
tantalising developments.
Inherent in these challenges for geographical educators is the pervasive call for techno-
literacy. Tuathail and McCormack (1998: 347) call for geographical educators to 'begin
developing a critical techno-literacy that will respond to our informationally-mediated
world.' Such a literacy involves both technical competence and the capacity to
contextualise 'the Internet within a political economy of globalisation and continuously
deconstructs, destabilises and displaces its presentation as a spectacle and cyber-utopia.'
They declare that the techno-literacy challenge for geographical educators comprises
three distinctive, but inter-related, dimensions. These are:
Understanding the Internet as a political economy and not as a neutral, value-free

tool.
Developing effective teaching methods through which Internet sites can be

mobilised as a means to foster critical thinking amongst students.
Critically understanding and responding to the transformations in education, work,

culture and subjectivity that have been induced by socio-technical networks such
as the Internet.
They demonstrate how to use the Internet effectively to teach globalisation to

undergraduate students. By making web-based information available to their students,
these University-based geographical educators attempted to engage the students with
the themes of globalisation. They experienced mixed success with their experiment with
the best results coming from a mixed use of Internet, Intranet and traditional sources of
information. But, they concluded that although high-speed Internet access and stylishly
designed web pages do not guarantee learning, the development of a critical techno-
literacy constantly points to alternative routes for learning, ones which prove to be very
rewarding to students who explore them. This is a message for the future for
geographical eductors.
Partnerships and Participation
Just as the practice of globalisation involves the connections of different areas across
the globe, so geographical education for globalisation should focus on the employment
of participatory approaches to geographical education and the formulation of learning
partnerships within communities and across communities throughout the world. Hart
(1997) argued that to counter the traditional educational practice that ignores the socio-
cultural context in which people are learning we should adopt a situated approach to
environmental learning that involves an understanding of environmental phenomena 'in
place', in their complex spatial relatedness to one another. Cuevas, Millan and Reid
(2000) demonstrated how this could be achieved in a number of sites in rural Mexico.
They demonstrated how it was possible to develop environmental education with pre-
teenage children in a local community setting in different rural coastal communities.
While each of the learning environments was a specific local environment, what the
children were learning had global appeal. It focused on concepts, skills and values that
are relevant globally. It doesn't matter that these experiences were occurring in a single
site. The fact that they were occurring at all somewhere on our planet is value enough in
the development of global knowledge, skills and values.
The dual power of participation in situated learning and the development of learning
partnerships has to be explored fully to implement programs on globalisation in
geography curricula in different countries. How are such partnerships developed to
promote or to understand globalisation? Wridt (2001) illustrated how this may be
achieved in her description and critique of Project Axe as it was developed for the
slums of Salvador, Brazil. This project, founded by La Rocca in 1990, and supported by
an Italian non-government organization TERRA NUOVA together with the National
Movement for Street Children in Brazil, seeks to provide the best education for the
poorest people. Through a process known as pedagogical flirting educators work with
children in their street environments to gain their confidence to engage in an
educational process. Having done so, the children are invited through a pedagogy of
desire to become a part of a more structured curriculum that is developed in conjunction
with public schools in areas such as mathematics, reading, geography, history, natural
science. However, these fundamental subjects are presented in a more artistic, creative
program that draws heavily on cultural studies, art, dance, music, environment and
health, ethics and sexuality. The basic premise here is to integrate the school, family
and community into the educational histories of street children. As a result of this
program, these street children view themselves as citizens or active subjects in the
development of their knowledge, satisfying their desires and their human rights.
The Challenge for the next 25 years
The challenge for geographical education in regard to contributing to the development

of an understanding of globalisation is to promote in learners and educators a kind of
reawakening of conscience amongst all peoples on our planet. The purpose of such a
reawakening is to assist in the tackling of the worsening inequalities that are occurring
around the world. The distribution of economic and social capital is being skewed in
favour of the Haves both within countries and across countries. Education, and
particularly geographical education, should become a social exercise that promotes
education for justice that recognises that modern technology can enhance the
understanding and practice of globalisation, but that it also can increase the divide
between the Haves and Have Nots. To promote globalisation education for life,
geographical educators around the world must use their curricula to promote
socialisation in communities amongst young and old people in formal and informal
learning environments. We need to assist learners to understand how the globalisation
forces operate and how our society is being changed forever. This is a complex spatial,
social, and economic process, but one in which geographical education must play a
leading role. Otherwise, many people will believe that globalisation is only an
economic process amidst a busy world.
32 R.GERBER
What geographical educators need to do is to adopt a critical approach to globalisation

in the learning experiences that they develop. Within this approach there is a definite
need to educate their students to the fact that globalisation is not a one-way process. A
balanced approach is necessary in which the impacts of globalisation on our society are
considered along with particular counter movements. One such movement is termed by
Castells (1998: 164-165) is the development of a Fourth World which he defines as
follows:
The Fourth World comprises large areas of the globe, such as Sub-Saharan
Africa, and impoverished rural areas of Latin America and Asia. But it is also
present in literally every country, and every city, in this new geography of
social exclusion. ... And it is populated by millions of homeless, incarcerated,
prostituted, stigmatised, sick, and illiterate persons. ... But, everywhere they
are growing in number, increasing in visibility, as the selective triage of
informational capitalism, and the political breakdown of the welfare state,
intensify social exclusion. .... The rise of the Fourth World is inseparable from
the rise of informational global capitalism.
The least that geographical education can do is to acquaint learners with the four
Worlds and encourage them to use this kind of understanding in the development of our
World as a better place in which to live.
We should remember that globalisation does not necessarily mean the death of the
concept of the state. Nor does it mean the removal of imagined communities. It does
focus on the changing nature of state relations and relations amongst different
communities at local, national and global scales; labour and capital relations; relations
between different countries; and how education is positioned in these relations. Often,
globalisation does challenge the views of those people who wish to think locally from
those who want to think globally. For those who favour local approaches, globalisation
is the problem and localisation is the solution. For those who favour globalisation,
globalisation is the solution and underdevelopment, backwardness and provincialism
are the problems. Maybe, we should consider the concept of 'globalisation from below'
as a way to overcome this dilemma of a black-or-white solution to the debate about
globalisation. Kellner (2000: 31 0) proposes that movements that fit into this mode use
more radical democratic models through alternative cultural institutions and political
movements in Third World countries to develop communities through 'popular
communication' or communication directly with the people. New communications
technologies are being used to increase the democratic process and to empower
individual people. They are being used to link information and practice in questioning
the effects of globalisation on societies around the world. There is no doubt that
examples can be found of misuses of these new communication technologies to promote
malicious activitism. However, it is true to affirm that the Internet is now a 'contested
terrain' (Kellner 2000: 315) used by groups of all persuasions to further their own
agendas. It is likely to be a key weapon in future battles over globalisation. Since
geographical educators offer leadership in dealing with spatially oriented information
about our world, they are likely to have an increasing rather than a decreasing role to
play in understanding the spatial impacts of people's decisions about their planet. To
play this role effectively, geographical educators need to understand the various facets
of the globalisation process and be able to help learners in educational institutions and
in the wider community understand its impact through careful reflection, decision
making and action. Globalisation is much too complex for us to merely accept it as
already established and beyond question. We have to make sure that people rather than
corporations count in the future of our planet.
References
Amove, R. and Torres, C. (1999) Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and the Local.
Lahman, Md: Rowman and Littlefield.
Bednarz, S., et at. (1994) Geography for Life. Washington, DC: National Geographic Research and
Exploration.
Burbules, N. and Torres, C. (2000) Globalization and education: An introduction. InN. Burbules and C.
Torres (eds) Globalisation and Education: Critical Perspectives. (pp. 1-26). New York: Routledge.
Cantell, H. (1999) Cultural understanding through geographical dimensions: A Finnish perspective,
Geographical Education, 12,9-14.
Castells, M. ( 1998) End ofMillennium. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cuevas, M., Millan, G. and Reid, A. (2000) Pedagogical implications of situated learning: Environmental
workshops in rural Mexico. In M. Robertson and R. Gerber (eds) The Child's World: Triggers for Learning.
(pp. 344-364) Melbourne: ACER Press
Delors, J. et at. (1996) Learning: The Treasure Within. New York: UNESCO.
Fien, J. (1999) Towards a map of commitment: A socially critical approach to geographical education,
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(2), 140--158.
Huckle, J. (1983) The politics of school geography. In J. Huckle (ed.) Geographical Education: Reflection
and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hudson, A. (2000) Towards a global political economy. In A. Kent (ed.) Reflective Practice in Geography
Teaching (pp.57-67). London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Kellner, D. (2000) Globalisation and new social movements: Lessons for critical theory and pedagogy. InN.
Burbules and C. Torres (eds) Globalisation and Education: Critical Perspectives (pp. 299-322). London:
Paul Chapman Publishing.
Morrow, R. and Torres, C. (2000) The state, globalisation, and educational policy. InN. Burbules and C.
Torres (eds) Globalisation and Education: Critical Perspectives (pp. 27-56). New York: Routledge.
Rizvi, F. (2000) The production of global imagination. InN. Burbules and C. Torres (eds) Globalisation and
education: Critical Perspectives (pp. 205-226). New York: Routledge.
Stoddard, D. (1987) To claim the high ground: Geography at the end of the century, Transactions of the
Institute of British Geographers, 12, 327-336.
Tuathail, G. and McCormack, D. (1998) The technoliteracy challenge: Teaching globalisation using the
Internet, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 22(3), 347-361.
Wilbanks, T. eta!. (1997) Rediscovering Geography: New Relevance for Science and Society. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.
Wridt, P. (2001) Educating Brazilian street children. In M. Robertson and R. Gerber (eds) Children's Ways of
Knowing: Learning through Partnerships. Melbourne: ACER Press.
3. RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND VALUES IN
GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION
JOHN LIDSTONE
In a world of uncertainty that some have termed post-structural, in which the search for
grand theory or metanarrative becomes ever increasingly difficult, or for some, impossible,
the title of this chapter appears to be wonderfully ambiguous. I use the word "wonderfully"
because it is a great source of wonder that so many people, with such a wide range of
expertise and interests, and most, if not all, with high levels of personal and professional
integrity, can expend so much effort in debating the nature of the school curriculum. It is
indeed wonderful that the ways in which we educate our children are treated as of such
importance throughout most of the world. It is also wonderful in a different sense that there
is so much disagreement about how this task is to be accomplished. The ambiguity implied
by this disagreement, comes from the ways in which the title can be interpreted. Does the
reference to relevant knowledge, skills and values in geographical education indicate that
there may be irrelevant knowledge skills and values as well, and could it be that only some
of this irrelevancy occurs in the context of geographical education, or does the title question
the relevance of geographical education at all? Finally, I can't help wondering if the terms
relevant, knowledge, skills, values, geographical and education are not themselves
ambiguous, admitting of a wide range of meanings, perhaps depending on context.
For too long, geographers and geographical educators have lectured one another, on what
they see as the negligence with which our discipline has been treated by those who plan and
fund curriculum development in our schools. I shall suggest that the close relationship
between geography as a field of academic endeavour and geography as a subject named in
school curricula that is often believed to have existed in some past "golden age" has largely
been a fantasy. Rather, I will propose that the history of geographical education has been a
history of social education designed for a variety of social ends, often with little regard for
work conducted "at the sharp end" of academic endeavour. I will suggest that the conflict
between people of varying curriculum persuasions has not been a conflict over how best to
prepare students to be "good geographers", but over different conceptions of what
constitutes "the good life", either for the few or for the many, and the ways in which the
varying conceptions of the good life may be achieved through education. This chapter,
therefore, attempts to stand back a little and consider the factors that may influence
curricular decisions and the claims that we as geographical aficionados may wish to make
for a place in the sun.
35

36 J. LIDSTONE
The Curriculum: contested territory
The nature and focus of the curriculum has always been a political issue in Western (for
which read, democratic) nations, as well as elsewhere, although it is only since the 1960s
that its political nature has become overt and acknowledged. This does not mean, however,
that the curriculum, geographical or otherwise, was neutral before this date. Marsden (1989:
509) has shown how, in the United Kingdom, previous generations looked to the schools to
promote a variety of what he calls "Good causes". "Good causes" are defined in terms of
"politicization" and Marsden explains this process as one of using the curriculum and
informal channels of education to serve the ends of significant power groups, whether the
church, the state or some other body, even the "educational establishment", so that explicitly
or implicitly employed techniques of inculcation, indoctrination, and loaded selection of
material, dictate the content, values, attitudes and beliefs to be transmitted. This definition
enables us to see curricular developments in other countries in a similar vein. In the United
States, integrated social studies, was seen as a truly American education that would not
mimic European traditions and would create a "deliberate fashioning of a new republican
character ... committed to the promise of American culture" (Cremin 1976: 43,44) as a way
of creating citizens who could identify with the customs and institutions of a new nation.
(see Kliebard. H. M. (1986). The Struggle for the American Curriculum 1893-1958. Boston:
Routledge and Kegan Paul). In France, a centralised curriculum was prescribed by the
Government, for many of the same reasons. In the early years of the twentieth century, in
Soviet Russia, it seems that mathematics and physical geography, not to mention the playing
of chess, flourished mainly because they were seen as essentially non-political and therefore
"safe". For much of the last two decades, some curriculum theorists especially in the United
Kingdom and Australia, have been promoting the notion of "Education for environmental
education" or "Education for sustainable development" (Linke 1976; Huckle 1983; Huckle
1991; Fien and Trainer 1993). And finally, and most recently, recent developments in
promoting social education in Hong Kong, Singapore, Australia (especially the state of
Queensland) and some countries of Europe, apparently at the expense of "disciplines" such
as geography and history, may be interpreted as part of this tradition.
Marsden (1989, 510) places his definition of politicization in a broader framework of

curriculum decision making which embraces content, pedagogy and social purposes. While
the social purposes of education may be conceived both in narrow utilitarian terms such as
the "key competencies" for employment produced in Australia in the early 1990s, they may
also reflect broader values and aims. Furthermore, social education may be interpreted in
terms of aggregate social control or the individual socialisation of children. However, while
social education provides the justification for politicization (it is the "good cause") content
and pedagogy may be equally important. Content reflects a selection from both the culture
of the society in which the curriculum is being constructed, and the selection depends
largely on what is most valued by that society at the particular time. Pedagogy, as defined as
the art and science of teaching, reflects a wide range of ideologies and assumptions about
RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND VALUES 37
the nature of teaching and learning. Extreme examples are the catechetical pedagogy of
early nineteenth century schools which was designed for a the mass education of urban
children, the "child centred" pedagogies which became fashionable around the middle of the
twentieth century and the inquiry-centred and "constructivist" pedagogies that gained in
popularity if not in widespread implementation, towards the end of that century.
Although Graves (1975) describes the growth of geography as a subject in British schools
from the early- to mid-nineteenth century, the school subject of that name had little of the
excitement or creativity of the work being conducted by those who increasingly called
themselves geographers. Indeed, Marsden cites the words of both Mackinder (1911) and
Unstead (1928) to illustrate that for most of this period, fostering geographical
understanding was not the main priority:
Let our teaching be from the British standpoint, so that finally we see the world as
a theatre for British activity. This, no doubt, is to deviate from the cold and
impartial ways of science. When we teach the millions, however, we are not
training scientific investigators, but the practical striving citizens of an empire
which has to hold its place through the universal law of survival through efficiency
and effort. (Mackinder, 1911 :79-80)
Unstead (1928: 319) also declared that, in the context ofthe Primary school, the geography
teacher should be a teacher first and a geographer second: "pedagogy is fully as important as
geography".
The Role of Geographers and the Discipline of Geography
The influence of academic geography on the geography curriculum seems to have been
strongest, at least in the United Kingdom, where documentation is most readily available,
between the mid-1920s and the early 1970s, a mere half century. One aspect of this
influence is demonstrated by the interchange between Fairgrieve who criticised the teaching
of Geography Honours courses by L. W. Lyde at University College, London, as creating
only rigid thinkers, while Lyde criticised the pedagogic work of Fairgrieve as being "mere
class management" (Marsden 1997: 245). Other aspects, however, are illustrated by the
change of name of the journal of the UK Geographical Association from The Geographical
Teacher to Geography, and the writing of school textbooks by eminent professors of
geography. After the creation of the Institute of British Geographers in 1933, the
conferences of the two organizations were arranged so that academic geographers could
attend both, academic geographers continued to publish in Geography and Wooldridge
(1949) published his seminal call to arms against social studies entitled "On taking the ge-
out of geography". Wooldridge was adamant that social studies would destroy the value of
geography as an important medium of education. The strong contacts between geographers
and geography educators, according to Marsden, and at least in the United Kingdom, was
maintained and perhaps even enhanced through the 1960s and 1970s, with a balance being
38 J.LIDSTONE
maintained between the social education aspirations of the geography educators, newly
influenced by the curriculum studies movement that had come from the United States, and
the academic geography community which was itself undergoing significant changes in
scope with the advent of a number of "new" approaches to the subject including both the
"quantitative revolution" and welfare-based geography.
From the later 1970s onward, however, the balance, so recently achieved, was again
disturbed. Marsden( 1997: 246) suggests that amongst a wide range of negative trends during
the past twenty years or so, particular note should be taken of:
the increasing movement of academic geographers out of geographical education;
the tendency for geographical educators to downplay the importance of the subject for
pedagogic, social or political reasons;
the activities of outside political forces who sought to reinvent an outmoded form of
geography. (In the United Kingdom, the intention was to ensure that the subject would
support a conservative education agenda. Elsewhere, for example in Australia,
geography was stereotyped as being outmoded as a justification for seizing available
"curriculum real estate.");
the influence of the US-based curriculum theory movement in justifying integrated

studies in schools; and
the beliefs of many education theorists, including those who for ideological or
management-efficiency reasons, wanted to change school curricula and political
pressure groups for environmental studies, world studies, peace studies and other
"adjectival studies" that subject-based syllabuses are mere social constructions and/or
historical accidents.
The result of these movements appears to have been a trend around the world to an issues-
based curriculum, sometimes under the title of "geography" and sometimes under some
other title implying an integrated social studies in the documentation for which lip service
may sometimes be paid to "contributory disciplines" such as geography. Marsden (p. 248)
points out that the "good cause" element of such curricula can subvert the balance between
content, educational processes and social purposes. He claims that the debates between
geographical educators, and academic geographers became increasingly polarised and the
result was a "debilitating anti-intellectualism" which distracted the attention of educators
away from the exciting new developments at the frontiers of geography. With decreasing
relevance of the content of geographical education both to education and to what was
emerging as the essence of the geographical endeavour, the subject as taught in schools
rapidly returned to being defined in terms of educational processes and social purposes, and
while for some this was a state heartily to be desired, for others, it implied a dangerous
retreat from the purposes for which education is maintained in secular, democratic societies.
Before examining some of the ways in which geographical education has been adapted in
recent years in pursuit of particular processes and social purposes, it is useful to review the
more fundamental purposes of education.
The Purposes of Education
Mcintyre, a philosopher of education, has described teachers as the forlorn hope of the
culture of Western modernity (Macintyre 1987). He uses the expression in the original
sixteenth-century Dutch sense (ver/oren hoop) of an assault party sent out on some
dangerous offensive mission in advance of the main forces, as well as in its later English
sense of an enterprise on whose success we have to depend, but which is in fact bound to
fail. For Mcintyre, the mission with which contemporary teachers are entrusted is both
essential and impossible. It is impossible because the two major purposes which teachers are
required to serve are, under the conditions of Western modernity, mutually incompatible.
Mcintyre describes these purposes as follows.
The first purpose that is claimed for almost all education almost everywhere is to shape the
young person to fit into some social role and function that is seen as desirable. It is often
phrased in terms of preparing young people to be "good citizens". The second purpose,
derived from the culture of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, is the purpose of teaching
young persons how to think for themselves, how to acquire independence of mind, how to
be enlightened, as Kant understood "enlightenment". Mcintyre explains that these two
purposes can be combined only if the kind of social roles and occupation for which a given
educational system is training the young are such that their exercise requires, or is at least
compatible with, the possession of a general culture, mastery of which will enable each
young person to think for him or herself.
In Kant's view, thinking is an activity the end-product of which requires rational

justification; it is an activity in which we exhibit our power of rational objectivity. Where
there are no standards of rational objectivity, there is no place for thinking and a fortiori for
independent, enlightened thinking. Furthermore, where there is no widespread social
agreement either about the nature of such standards are, or about the subject-matters on
which such thinking should be exercised, there will be no general culture to support such
thinking.
Mcintyre suggests that there are at least three conditions for an educated public to exist.
Firstly, there must be a body of individuals, educated into both the habit and the opportunity
of active rational debate, to whom the intellectual protagonists may appeal. These
individuals must understand the questions being debated as having practical importance for
aspects of their shared social life, and in their communication with one another they must
recognize themselves as constituting a public. Thus, an educated public contrasts both with
a group of specialists, participation in whose controversies is restricted to their peers, and
40 J. LIDSTONE
with a passive mass public of readers or listeners who merely provide an audience for the
debates of others.
A second type of requirement is shared assent, both to the standards by which the success or
failure of any particular thesis or argument is to be judged, and to the form of rational
justification from which those standards derive their authority. So the debates of an
educated public are to be contrasted with those controversies in which disagreement extends
so far into the question of how disagreement is to be rationally resolved that no effective
conclusion to the debate is possible. Furthermore, they are also to be contrasted with those
debates in which there are indeed shared standards of success and failure in argument, but
where the authority of those standards is afforded no rational justification but derives merely
from local precedent and custom. The prevalence of either excessive scepticism or
dogmatism destroys the possibility of an educated public.
Both these types of requirement presuppose a third. An educated community can exist only
where there is some large degree of shared background beliefs and attitudes, informed by
the widespread reading of a common body of texts which are accorded a canonical status
within that particular community. By canonical status, Macintyre does not mean that such
texts provide a final court of appeal, but rather that appeal to them has to be treated with a
special seriousness, that to controvert them requires a special weight of argument. This
common possession by a community of such a shared body of texts is only possible when
there is also an established tradition of interpretative understanding of how such texts are to
be read and construed. Not every literate and reading public is an educated public; mass
literacy in a society which lacks both canonical texts and a tradition of interpretative
understanding is more likely to produce a condition of public mindlessness than an educated
public.
In the context of geographical education, and its post-1980s manifestation in an increasing

number of countries as environmental education and most recently as sustainable education,
the conflict between the two purposes for education identified by Mcintyre, and the frequent
lack of appropriate conditions within which both may be achieved, underlay the title of
Jickling's (1992) paper entitled: "Why I don't want my children to be educated for
sustainable development". In this article, Jickling seeks to ident~fy the nature of an educated
person.
We might ask ourselves if acquisition of knowledge is a necessary condition. Many

would affirm this, claiming we would not normally say that someone is educated
but does not know anything. However, ... my son, at 9 years of age could go to a
map of the world and identify an astonishing number of countries., but this was
hardly sufficient to convince e me that he was educated. We expect the educated
person to have some understanding of the relationships between those bits of
information that enable a person to make some sense of the world; the educated
person should have some understanding about why a relationship exists. We might
also wonder if the ability to think critically is a necessary criterion for the educated
RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND VALVES 41
person. Again, we would expect to find considerable agreement; we would be

reluctant to say that a person was educated if we judged that he or she could not
think for him or herself(Jickling 1992: 6).
He goes on to point out that the terms "sustainable development" (and incidentally,
"environmental education" as well) are inadequately conceptualised and cites numerous
publications that suggest that the prime purposes of such forms of "education" are
instrumental and therefore more closely associated with training than with education. He
states (p. 7) "training tends to be closely associated with the acquisition of skills that are
perfected through repetition and practice and are minimally involved with understanding ....
In contrast, we speak of a person being more or less well educated indicating a broader and
less determinate understanding tat transcends immediate instrumental values".
In a later jointly authored article, Jickling and Spork (1998), explain how definitions of
environmental and similar "adjectival educations" may become slogans, and cite Lucas
(1995: 1) who pointed out that "for most environmental activists, the for component (as in
education for the environment) acted as a defining characteristic, as it reflected their concern
to act in a way that would enhance or preserve the environment". They remind us of Linke's
(1976) paper in which he argued a case for indoctrination in environmental education, and
in so doing further remind us of the current generation of activist-educators' own criticisms
of the education of a previous generation for promoting patriotism, nationalism and empire
as well as their "neglect of controversial environmental issues, and the avoidance of values
and problem solving objectives ... and a widespread avoidance of environmental politics
and the political economy of resource use" (Fien 1993: 9). It seems that, other than for the
relatively brief period from the late 1950s- early 1980s, little has changed in over a century.
While there are now few who would contest the assertion that there is no such thing as a
neutral educational activity, the real issue that has afflicted geographical education almost
since its inception, is what should constitute an appropriate response to the value-laden
nature of education. Fien (1993: 12) acknowledges the inevitability of a value dimension
and has therefore tried to identify a "best possible" ideology, and placing it "at the heart of
education/or the environment". However, in doing so, he allies himself with those who see
education as existing solely for instrumental purposes and raises yet again the twin
questions of whether education should aim to advance particular ends and whether it is the
job of education to make people think, believe or act in particular ways.
Environmental education and education for sustainable development have been used
extensively in this chapter to demonstrate the problems inherent in the use of "good causes"
to define the purposes of education in general and geographical education in particular.
However, this does not imply that the author believes that matters of great moment at any
particular period of time or in any specific geographical area should not provide a focus for
some of the work undertaken in schools. Indeed, he strongly supports the contention of
(Jickling 1992), who, in the tradition of Kant, differentiates between education for
sustainable development and teaching students about the concept.
42 J. LIDSTONE
I should like my children to know about the arguments that support it and attempt
to clarify it. But I would also like them to know that sustainable development is
being criticised, and I want them to be able to evaluate that criticism and
participate in it if they perceive the need. I want them to realise that there is a
debate doing on between a variety of stances, between adherents of an ecocentric
wor/clview and those who adhere to an anthropocentric worldview (Jickling 1992:
8).
From this point, the issue remains of how best to develop an education system designed to
develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes that enable citizens to participate in such debates
as an "educated public". Jickling and Spork (Jickling and Spork 1998: 315) summarised the
defining characteristics of "education for the environment" as identified by a range of its
supporters. According to the list, the purposes are:
to develop critical thinking and enable problem solving;

to examine ideologies which underlie human-environment relationships;
to criticise conventional wisdom;
to explore material and ideological bases of conventional wisdom;
to analyse power relationships within a particular society;
to engage students in cultural criticism and reconstruction;
to foster political literacy;
to focus on real-world problems and participate in real issues;
to open students' minds to alternative world views;
to work and live cooperatively; and
to realise that humans can act collectively to shape society.
While this list may appear to many to be quite uncontroversial as broad aims of the
education process as a whole, it seems odd that such claims are being made for a single area
of educational endeavour, unless, of course, those who propose them believe that education
for the environment is of such supreme importance that it merits being accepted as the sole
and ultimate purpose of education. As Jickling and Spork point out, the list implies a
tautological situation in which an element of education is defined in terms of education
itself. However, if this approach Is rejected, wherein lies the essence of geographical
education knowledge, skills and values?
The Nature of Knowledge- a return to the disciplines?
Having rejected as not educationally valid the inculcation of specific attitudes and values,
other than those which may be used to define the concept of education itself, we are left
with skills and knowledge as areas which need to be identified as part of the ongoing
curriculum development task for the future, and of these two, we may also dismiss the area
of skill relatively easily. As noted above, skills are generally the product of training which
is usually undertaken for some instrumental end. Given that the ultimate purpose of
education is the creation of an educated public, then it follows that those who are to become
members of that educated public will need to develop the skills to do so. While the list of
characteristics above (whether its items are regarded as being characteristic of education as
a whole or as constituents of the larger endeavour) are by no means universally accepted,
they are obviously qualitatively different. Furthermore, they need to be developed in a
range of different contexts. We are therefore left with knowledge as the essential element on
which the curriculum should be based. Furthermore, even the most cursory glance at the
titles of articles in the journals of any academic discipline demonstrates the speed with
which what counts as knowledge and the focus of investigations designed to create new
knowledge, changes. It therefore appears that the only way in which we can ensure that our
curricula remain relevant to the needs of an educated public is to base our curricula, albeit at
an appropriate level, on the knowledge and skills being developed at the forefront of
academic endeavour. Of course, such a decision not only assists the educated public to
participate as citizens in the major issues of the day, but also prepares some members of that
public to enter the ranks of the specialists on whom so many aspects of modern society
depend. While acknowledging that early initiation into the realms of all specialisms may be
unachievable, the comments above suggest that the most appropriate place from which to
identify the knowledge and skills to be developed by our young people may be the subject
disciplines and fields of study that have developed over time in our universities.
Such a view may initially appear to be an attempt to return to the "golden age" when there
did appear to be a balance between content, pedagogy and social purposes in the curriculum.
However, rather than being a return to the past, the proposal is one for the future- designed
to ensure curricula that remain relevant in terms of knowledge creation, skill development
and intellectual values appropriate for an educated citizenry faced with an ever increasingly
changing world.
In proposing such a "return to the future", I take support from Gardner (1999) who states
that there are three fundamental concerns that should underpin all educations. These are a
concern for truth (and its shadow- what is false or indeterminable), a concern for beauty
(and its shadow- its absence in the ugly or kitschy), and a concern for morality, what is
good (and its shadow- what we consider to be evil). Gardner emphasises that he does not
believe in singular or incontrovertible truth, beauty or morality, but that all students should
begin with an exploration of the ideas of their own community and become acquainted with
the ideals of other communities. He also disagrees profoundly with Hirsch's notion of
cultural literacy (Hirsch 1987; Hirsch 1996) whereby curricula would embrace specific
factual knowledge (and by implication skills and values). He states that in this educational
landscape, questions are more important than answers and that knowledge and
understanding should evolve from the constant probing of such questions. Thus far, Gardner
appears to be in general agreement with the definitions of an educated public offered above.
However, while insisting that there is no single canon of fact, Gardner insists that most
societies around the world have devised institutions that can be recognised as "schools" to
achieve four purposes. These are to transmit roles, to convey cultural values, to inculcate
Iiteracies and to achieve mastery of disciplines and their special ways of thinking about the
44 J. LIDSTONE
world. Of these purposes, the one most relevant to the current discussion relates to the roles
of disciplines as opposed to interdisciplinary curricula or education for "good causes".
Despite their sometimes fuzzy boundaries, and while existing in a state of constant change,
each academic discipline has developed its own unique way of adding to our knowledge
about the world. Biological sciences tell us about the nature and processes of the living
world, physical sciences describe the forces of the material world, artistic disciplines add to
our knowledge of beauty, theoretical mathematics creates knowledge based on axioms,
while history, geography and sociology help us to understand human nature, actions,
motives, possibilities and spatial understandings, each using their own unique languages and
concepts.
It is, of course, true that most problems, including and perhaps pre-eminently those
concerned with the natural environment at a global scale, do not readily fit into neat
disciplinary niches. Teams of workers are the norm in most situations and the most
effective investigatory teams are those that are able judiciously to combine the insights and
techniques of specialists from two or more disciplines - a complex task when the disciplines
themselves are changing and growing so rapidly. However, it is precisely because of this
complexity that we should maintain and support the disciplines primarily because they
represent our best efforts to think systematically about the world and they are prerequisites
of competent interdisciplinary work. Finally, we should not neglect the importance of
disciplinary loyalties and passions often engendered amongst those at the forefront of
knowledge creation.
Peter Haggett in the Preface to his The Geographer's Art (Haggett 1990) said he has
"simply tried to say why I find this subject of geography so fascinating". He goes on to
explain that it is the fascination of the subject rather than its importance or relevance on
which he wishes to focus and compares geography with music and language both of which
"wrap around us in a similar way". "Landscapes, environments and regions of the earth's
surface bring a surprisingly sharp set of responses. We are moved to tears by a great
mountain range, awed by the vastness of a wilderness area, angered by the devastation of a
blighted city area, or intrigued by global waves rippling into local regions." In short,
geographers like places.
However, Haggett also reminds us that scholarship consists in a focus on the structure,
grammar and syntax of forms observed. In offering an explanation of what this means for
geography, he cites the definition of Richard Hartshorne presented in Perspectives on the
Nature of Geography (Hartshorne 1959) "Geography is concerned to provide accurate,
orderly, and rational description and interpretation of the variable characters of the earth's
surface". Haggett reminds us that although Hartshorne originally confined the word
"character" to the visible features of the earth's surface, Sauer had shown the similarities
between geographers' study of the natural landscape (Urlandschaft) and the cultural or
human landscape (Kulturlandschaft) a quarter of a century earlier. Since then, geographers
have identified and acknowledged many different landscapes ranging from socio-economic
landscapes to the perspectives of the land of the Aborigines of Australia. A field trip at a
recent Congress of the International Geographical Union was entitled "Women's spaces in
Amsterdam". One of the most popular field trips at a geographical conference in New
Zealand was concerned with the changing geography of tourism around the Waicomo
Caves, while papers presented by young geographers at the same conference included one
entitled "We're here, we're queer and we're in your classroom". Both landscapes and
places are, it seems, in the eye of the geographically beholden.
Developing curricula which are dynamic and relevant in terms of the disciplines and the
needs of educated citizens is not easy. The task requires teachers who are well versed in
both their disciplinary understanding and their pedagogical skills. However, if we wish to
enjoy the security of life in secular, democratic societies, where decisions are indeed made
in the common good by an educated citizenry, then we should demand no less.
References
Cremin, L. (1976) Traditions ofAmerican Education. New York, Basic Books.

Fien, J. (1993) Education for the Environment: critical curriculum theorising and environmental education.
Geelong, Deakin University Press.
Fien, J. and Trainer, T. (1993) Education for sustainability. In J. Fien Environmental Education: a pathway to
sustainability. Geelong, Deaking University Press.
Gardner, H. (1999) The disciplined mind: what all students should understand New York, Simon and Schuster.
Graves, N. (1975) Geography in Education. London, Heinemann.
Haggett, P. (1990) The Geographer's Art. Oxford, Basil Blackwell.
Hartshorne, R. (1959) Perspectives on the Nature of Geography. Chicago, Rand McNally.
Hirsch, E. (1987) Cultural Literacy. Boston, Houghton Mifflin.
Hirsch, E. (1996) The Schools we need and why we don't have them. New York, Doubleday.
Huckle, J., (ed.) (1983) Geographical Education: reflection and action. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Huckle, J. (1991) Education for sustainability: assessing pathways to the future. Australian Journal of
Environmental Education 7: 43-62.
Jickling, B. (1992) Why I don't want my children to be educated for sustainable development. The Journal of
Environmental Education 23(4): 5-8.
Jickling, B. and Spork, H. (1998) Education for the environment: a critique. Environmental Education Research
4(5): 309-327.
Linke, R. (1976) A case for indoctrination in environmental education. South Pacific Journal of Teacher Education
4(2): 125-129.
Lucas, A.M. (1995) Beware of slogans! Unpublished manuscript to a British Council Seminar: Environmental
Education: from policy to practice. London, Kings College.
Macintyre, A. (1987) The idea of an educated public. In G. Haydon (ed.), Education and Values: The Richard
Peters Lectures. London, University of London Institute of Education: 15-36.
Mackinder, H. (1911) The teaching of geography from the imperial point of view and the use which could and
should be made of visual instruction. Geographical Teacher 6(30): 79-86.
Marsden, B. ( 1997) On taking the geography out of geographical education. Geography 82(3): 241-252.
Marsden, W. (1989) "All in a good cause": geography, history and the politicization of the curriculum in nineteenth
and twentieth century England. Journal of Curriculum Studies 21(6): 509-526.
Unstead, J. (1928) The primary geography schoolteacher- what should he know and be? Geography 14(4): 315-
322.
Wooldridge, S. (1949) On taking the ge- out of geography. Geography 34(1): 9-18.
4. MAXIMISING THE USE OF COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES IN GEOGRAPIDCAL EDUCATION
LEA HOUTSONEN
Introduction
A vast expansion has taken place in recent decades in the use made of information and
communication technology in the teaching of geography, but this trend raises a number
of important questions. Are we capable of making sufficiently effective use of that
technology? Does it improve learning? What chances do teachers and learners of
geography in the developing countries have oftaking advantage of such trends?
Information and communication technology can be integrated successfully into reformed

programmes of geographical education and into learning environments of new kinds,
enabling the creation of "virtual" network schools in which geography can be taught and
adding new efficiency to the distance learning and teaching of geography. The use of
geo-referenced data systems in particular offers immense opportunities.
The necessary conditions for the adoption of information technology in geographical

education have been that: I) teachers have learned the mechanics of operating a
computer, 2) they have internalised correct ways of exploiting computers pedagogically,
and 3) they have set out to adapt their own teaching methods to this new outlook. The
success of the process has been dependent on achievement of the third of these stages.
Information technology at its best can do much to provide support for the renewal of
geographical education and for learning, while at its worst it can prevent development
in that direction and reduce it to nothing more than entertainment and superficiality.
The most important thing is that good teaching materials should be produced for use in
the technical environments concerned, and that teachers should be prepared for using
information technology as an instrument for good teaching.
Geographical Education enters the Information Society
The digitisation of information has led to a tremendous revolution in communications

in the shape of multimedia systems and the spectacular expansion of information
technology networks (UNESCO, 1996; International Technology Association, 2000).
Information and communication technologies include the inputs, processes, and outputs
associated with sending and receiving information. All these parts are necessary if
information is to be shared and understood by the sender and receiver.
47
48 L. HOUTSONEN
Once computers had appeared in schools, the adoption of this new technology in
geographical education took place gradually. Experiments in its use to assist teaching
had been made since the very earliest days of computers, but it was only with the
development of PCs in the 1970s that it became possible to make widespread use of the
devices beyond the universities. After this they became natural items of teaching
equipment in schools, particularly in the United States, many Western European
countries and some of the Asian countries with high standards of living. Surveys
conducted in the 1980s in particular showed that information and communication
technology had spread extensively into schools in the United States, so that practically
every school had computers by the end of the decade. Many countries in Western
Europe have now begun to approach this level (Lehtinen, 1998).
The fact that schools had computers did not mean, however, that their use had any
particularly great impact on the teaching of geography in the early years, any more than
in most other subjects, for as Lehtinen (1998) points out, three large international
comparisons of the use made of information technology in schools showed that it was
of little significance for either teaching or learning in the early 1990s as far as the vast
majority of pupils were concerned. It was during that decade that the numbers of
computers began to increase rapidly in relation to the numbers of pupils, but even this
cannot be regarded as a universal phenomenon, as levels of technology have often
remained poor in the developing countries and relatively large-scale investigations into
differences between the sexes in this respect have shown that information technology
has remained very much a male province.
Data gathered in the mid~l990s regarding network connections available to schools in

different countries indicated that Internet connections providing access to the World
Wide Web were still fairly rare. Again the best served were schools in the United
States. The examination of national education strategies nevertheless suggests that the
situation has altered rapidly in many countries, and Lehtinen (1998) also notes that the
World Bank has sponsored the commencement of extensive information technology
projects for schools in the developing countries, one of the principal aims of which has
been networking.
One gains the impression from the latest research literature that ideas on the importance
of information and communication technology for geographical education are changing
rapidly. A clear rethinking is taking place regarding the use of information technology
for teaching purposes, with a shift of emphasis from mastery of the technology to a
broader consideration of the environments available for learning, collaborative activity,
data searching and interaction (Houtsonen and Ahlberg, 200 I ; Kankaanrinta and
Masalin, 2001; Solem, 2001). Efforts are being made to use this technology to support
individual knowledge acquisition and collaborative work among learners. Where the
computer was looked on earlier as a means of individualising geography teaching, it is
now being conceived of more and more as an instrument of social interaction and
collaborative activity.
MAXIMISING THE USE OF COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES 49
As Kankaanrinta and Masalin (200 1) observe, the rapid developments that have taken
place in information and communication technologies, especially in multimedia,
communications and web-based environments, have created new opportunities that can
enhance the teaching and studying of geography. The work of the geography teacher is
therefore gradually becoming a matter of designing and using web-based learning
environments.
What do we understand by information and communication technology in a

geographical context?
We take the terms information technology and communication technology here to refer
to the use of computers in geography education and communication via data
transmission networks, including more traditional interactive electronic communication
by analogue techniques (video techniques and telephone or video conferencing), since it
is evidently the case in the teaching of geography, as in many other forms of education
and community development, that the gap between traditional electronic means of
communication and digital communications technology is closing all the time.
Gerber and Lidstone (1992) have analysed the factors that influence students' success
with computer-assisted learning. Their examination of the literature on possible causes
of less than optimal achievement of educational aims when computer-based databases
are used in classrooms suggests that there are three major factors that influence success.
These are:
characteristics of the student;

characteristics of the learning environment; and
characteristics of the programs used.
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
When we speak here of a learning environment, we are alluding to the whole situation
in which learning takes place, including not only the presence of a teacher and of other
students following the same course, but also the existence of various forms of teaching
materials and aids such as a textbook, overhead projector and maps. We use the
concept especially when we wish to emphasise the role of the pupil as an active learner
who, coached and directed by the teacher, makes an active effort to adapt the stimuli
offered by the learning environment into a rational entity that represents a better means
of comprehending reality.
The learning environment is regarded as an open one if it allows the learner to select the
aids or materials that are best able to promote an understanding of the entity being
studied (Meisalo and Tella, 1987). In the constructivist sense, learning takes place
when the individual links new things to the skills and knowledge that have already
been acquired. It is a question of perceiving the connection between the new material
and that already existing in his or her own consciousness. The role of information
50 L. HOUTSONEN
technology in the learning environment is thus to support this construction process in

the mind of the learner (Meisalo et al., 2000). The significance of computers for
learning can be seen in the way in which they can provide this support and help the
learner to proceed from one act of perception, one step in learning, to the next.
Network-based learning environments are designed to support participant commitment

to a collaborative effort to build new knowledge and to solve complex problems
together (Houtsonen and Ahlberg, 2001). In this context, network-based learning
environment means a group work programme which, built around a database system
and forming a shared workspace, make it possible to work in different places at different
times.
Various models have been developed for the conception, design, construction and
evaluation of programs intended as learning environments, of which the best known in
Finland is the marketplace model (Hanhimaid eta/., 1991; Meisalo eta/., 2000). The
idea behind this is that of a learner visiting a marketplace where knowledge is on offer
and calling in at stalls that prove to be of interest. The whole marketplace is built up
on a metaphor that defines the environment and the role of the user. It is the content of
a stall that makes it interesting, and it is by undertaking an activity there that the
visitor learns something new. The designing of these stalls and their activities calls for
a sound knowledge of the techniques of information technology, however, as the
marketplace learning environment has to attract the visitor with its vitality. It must be
like an oriental bazaar, packed with colours and sounds. Programs of this kind have
been constructed in Finland for courses in environmental education, for instance.
As emphasised by Meisalo et a/. (2000), a stimulating environment that provides a

wide range of learning opportunities has to be built up of a number of elements:
data network services;

general-purpose tools;
cognitive tools (eg., conceptual maps);
teaching programs;
digital teaching materials (eg., CD-ROM programs); and
simulations, games and virtual reality.
INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP INSTRUCTION
Computer-implemented learning environments are most often used for individual

instruction intended to support group teaching, i.e. to provide remedial teaching for
slow pupils or additional material for gifted pupils. They can also be used to support
co-operative or collaborative learning, however, i.e. to promote the learning process in a
group by enabling comments to be passed between its members.
CREATIVE PROBLEM-SOLVING
Data networks can also be used for problem-solving purposes, by searching Web pages
for background information on particular problems, or even for ready-made solutions.
The visualisation of data and interaction relations is also a field in which information
technology can be of value in geography education, as this can enable problems and
efforts at solving them to be illustrated and clarified. The tools available for this
include conceptual map programs.
Computer-assisted brainstorming is also a good means of creative problem solving,

providing support for interaction between group members in the generation of ideas and
exchange of opinions. It is particularly suitable for problems that have more than one
solution. The aim is first to bring forward a large number of ideas, including
improvements on and combinations of existing ones, and then to develop these in a
more practical direction. Criticism is not permitted during the generation of ideas.
Meisalo et a/. (2000) state that computer-assisted brainstorming has the following
advantages over more conventional processes:
Each member of the group is able to interact with all the others via the computer
network.
The members can all take part in the creative problem-solving process
simultaneously, so that the ideas are generated "one on top of the other".
The members can evaluate the ideas independently.
Evaluators can (if necessary) remain anonymous as far as the authors of the ideas
are concerned.
The method can overcome limitations of time and place.
The superiority of computer-assisted over conventional brainstorming has been

demonstrated in a number of assessments (Gallupe et a/., 1991; Gallupe et a/., 1992).
It is particularly valuable for avoiding the obstructions in the flow of ideas that
frequently afflict brainstorming efforts and for improving the evaluation process by
which the true worth of individual ideas can be appreciated. Both of these features have
been shown to increase the number of viable new ideas generated by the method.
Types of Communication Technology used in Geographical Education
THE INTERNET
Although data communication networks were originally developed in response to

administrative needs in the military sphere, the rise of the Internet can be attributed
52 L. HOUTSONEN
largely to work carried out in university circles. Networking among computers allows
them to make use of each others' capacity and any peripherals attached to the system,
regardless of whether one is dealing with a local area network or a global network. The
Internet is based on a global computer network, which enables contacts to be made
between local computer networks at various levels, where a computer network is defmed
as an entity composed of computers that are linked to each other by means of cables or
some other technology that makes use of an internationally agreed telecommunications
protocol. The term Information Highway was first adopted in the United States and has
now become a familiar notion in one form or another (Electronic Superhighway,
Infobahn etc.) in many Western countries in particular. An information strategy for
education has been drawn up in Finland which has exploitation of the opportunities
offered by modern information and communication technology as one of its principal
tenets.
The main applications available through the Internet are Email and data searches based
on universally accessible databanks, while its chat (IRC) services have emerged as a
significant part of the modern youth culture and its news services enable users to
participate in national or international discussions on current affairs. The adoption of
WAP phones has provided mobile phone users with easier access to Internet services.
In the field of education, use has been made of intranet systems, discrete parts of the
Internet open only to members of a certain organisation and perhaps its co-operation
partners.
By the turn of the millennium there were about 50 million computers in the world that
had access to the Internet (Kankaanrinta, 2000) and an estimated total of about 155
million Internet users, mostly in Anglo-America and Europe. The developing countries
lag far behind in terms of the adoption of modern information technology. Roughly
the same spatial pattern is also to be observed in the use of technological methods in
geographical education, where one of the great challenges for the future will be to ensure
the inclusion of the developing countries, so that they can also benefit from the
advantages offered by modern technology. This will require not only a substantial
improvement in the availability of computers in the developing countries, but also
investments in both the training of geography teachers and in-service training for
existing teachers.
The Internet has represented a mighty step forward in both distance instruction in
geography and the use of applications of information and communication technology in
this field in general. The amount of information carried by the www is enormous, for
it was estimated at the beginning of the new millennium that the service comprised
over a thousand million pages. The problems lie in the fragmentary nature of that
information, the fmding of relevant items and the uncertainty as to whether the
information is reliable and up to date, as a considerable proportion of the web pages are
not checked in any way as far as their content is concerned, nor is any guarantee given
regarding the permanence of sources of information to be found on the Internet. The
person responsible for maintaining a Web page may decide at any time to remove it
from the Internet completely, alter its content, or change its address, so that the
information can no longer be found at its accustomed site. Further problems arise if
one attempts to determine the origins of the information or the author's rights over it.
In the end we are faced with a flood of information, an information jungle, and
corresponding feelings of indigestion on the part of individual users. In spite of these
problems, however, the Web is frequently an irreplaceable source of data that can then
be filled out with information from geography textbooks and other sources.
The future of the Web pages will also be affected by the digitalisation of all forms of
information. As consumers, we are already moving over to digital recordings, cameras,
videos and television, and the Web also offers many types of material nowadays, of
which Meisalo et a!. (2000) mention the following:
text files, ranging from various registers in the form of word lists to scientific
reports and literary works;
images, ranging from diagrams and graphs accompanying texts to separate works
of art created on the Web;·
digital sound recordings, from speech to symphony concerts; and
dynamic presentations, including interactive programs, ranging from simulations

for teaching and research purposes to video games intended for entertainment.
The most popular among the tools available to someone looking for information on the
web are network directories, or search engines. The various examples of these are
nevertheless capable of yielding widely differing results, which in tum indicates that the
outcome of a search can never be regarded as anywhere near complete. If one is
interested in research data on the applications of educational technology, for instance, it
is worthwhile directing the search at the ERIC database.
A number of surveys have been made of the use ofthe Internet by geography teachers in
different parts of the world. Kankaanrinta (2000) reports that Finnish geography
teachers used it as a source of data and that their pupils obtained additional information
from it, but that they were not very familiar with newer forms of use such as the
making of electronic posters, distributing information about courses or electronic
communication. On the other hand, Solem (2000), in a survey among geography
faculty members in North America, observed that Internet-based teaching had not
achieved universal acceptance among its potential adopters, and that where it was used,
this was mostly in the form of Email communication related to courses, whereas very
few people used the Web for creating teaching materials or for building up
collaboration.
54 L. HOUTSONEN
Groupware
Learning environments can be created on a Web site by means of groupware.

Kankaanrinta and Masalin (2001) emphasise that these environments are multi-user,
hypertext-based courses or virtual schools or universities, which include software. The
learning environment is formed by a physical, virtual or multimedia telematic space,
which is created for an active learning process and serves to enhance and support
learners' possibilities. A functional learning environment offers practical information
and communication technology tools, working methods, opportunities for interaction
and dialogue, and guidance and support for learners (Vahtivuori and Masalin, 2000).
Kankaanrinta and Masalin (200 I) also note that groupware is still rarely used in
geographical and environmental education, especially at the school level. Based on
their experiences with several groupware tools, they feel that these offer good, effective
opportunities for co-operative learning. They propose that groupware could create
interactive virtual libraries with on-line articles or databases containing hard-copy
resources. Users could then write comments or recommendations on these resources.
The availability of maps and GIS resources via groupware can also help students and
teachers to share vast amounts of information quickly both within the local learning
community and internationally via the Internet.
The results obtained by Masalin from a survey of 135 students in ten countries
conducted in 2000 strongly indicate that students perceive the benefits of using
groupware when studying geography and environmental education, and that they learn
to use the tools quickly and effectively if proper guidance and tutoring is provided
(Kankaanrinta and Masalin, 2001).
Examples of applications of the Internet to geography teaching
Among the most common educational applications of the Internet are projects in which
it is used to provide various sources of information, although it is also used as a
vehicle for distance and multimedia teaching experiments. In addition, a large number
of projects rely on the use of Email for communication. We will look below at some
examples of geography teaching projects that serve to extend our picture of the
Internet's possibilities.
Distance and multimedia teaching projects
The fact that increasing use is being made nowadays of the concept of information and
communication technologies (ICT) alongside that of information technology serves as
an indication that opportunities of a quite new kind have opened up in the field of
distance learning. The greatest expectations at present are centred on the Internet,
although successful experiments with video conferencing techniques have also been
carried out at all levels from basic schooling to the virtual university (Meisalo et a/.,
2000). The various virtual learning environment projects that have been implemented
may be looked on as modem manifestations of traditional educational institutions that
are genuinely 'open', i.e. they offer learning opportunities to anyone who is interested in
multimedia modalities that comprise both the Internet and television broadcasts. These
virtual schools or universities enable students to complete basic and even degree courses
in geography, as university-level geography courses which students are able to
undertake independently have been developed in many countries. In Finland, it is
possible to complete the upper secondary school courses in geography through distance
learning, a significant part of which consists of interactive course material available on
the Web.
The prospect of more extensive use of distance and multimedia learning opens up new
possibilities for the teaching of geography both in schools and at the university level.
This will be of great importance as far as equality of opportunity in education is
concerned, as multimedia instruction will enable us to provide a wider range of options,
direct teaching at specialised groups of learners, establish networking among schools,
make use of international contacts, gain access to experts in many fields, keep the
information up to date and learn more about information and communication
technologies and their use.
Given that distance learning involves the teacher and student being separated by a
certain physical distance, efforts have been made to develop the possibilities for
interaction under such conditions. The aim in video conferencing is the virtual presence
of the teacher, and sometimes of all the students as well, in a learning environment that
is experienced as being common to everyone, sometimes referred to as the virtual
classroom. Most research to date has nevertheless suggested that it is useful at least at
the beginning of the study period to arrange a physical meeting of all the participants,
eg., in the form, of an initial seminar (Meisalo et al., 2000). This implies, in fact, the
addition of one further mode to the multimedia instruction, so that it consists of a
combination of distance learning practices such as video and Email conferencing with
the vast information resources available via the Internet and with more traditional
working methods.
The Geography Department in the Virtual School
The European concept of the Geography Department at the Virtual School represents an
attempt to build new geography education tools and resources on the idea that diversity
is a way to enrich European collaboration. One of the resources available is commented
links concerned with specific geographical subjects, eg. European forests or water
quality. It is possible to fmd commentaries made by expert teachers applying to links
in each of the participant countries and to those for Europe as a whole. Another
important resource is Webques, an Internet activity model for pupils made by teachers.
It is possible to find: 1) Geosoftware Database, a database of software for learning
geography that exists for use in the European countries, 2) Latitude Project, a project
that allows pupils to compare the duration of daylight and height of the sun in different
56 L. HOUTSONEN
European countries and relate these fgacts to the distribution of temperature and human
activities, 3) Geophoto, a database of photographs useful for illustrating European
geographical phenomena, and 4) Geography Curriculum, a comparison of the place of
geography and subjects taught within it between European countries. This latter
includes a forum on the meaning of Europe and how its boundaries are viewed in the
partner countries. The Geography Department also aims to collaborate with other
projects and institutions concerned with geography education in Europe, such as the
European Geography Teachers Association.
Collaborative learning using new technologies
Solem (200 1) emphasises that new technologies make it easier for some teachers and
students to communicate and collaborate asynchronously across great distances, a "learn
any time, anywhere" approach that has prompted many educators to view the Internet as
a powerful tool for international teaching and learning. In geography classrooms co-
operative learning with computers have been shown to contribute positively to student
achievement, ethnic relations, self-esteem, and classroom climate (Lee, 1996).
Rich et a!. (2000) state that five broad collaboration categories can be recognised,
encapsulating a wide variety of possibilities. They are:
interactions between students;

interactions between staff;
collaborative development of teaching resources;
databases and information centres; and
joint delivery of courses and programmes.
Houtsonen and Ahlberg (200 1) have examined collaborative learning in the context of a
geographical and environmental education project in which teachers in the OECD's
ENSI environmental education project made use of the Knowledge Forum group work
software developed at the University of Toronto. This software comprised an extensive
range of databases designed to help users build and refme their own body of notes, eg.
passages and/or pictures relating to aspects of their own learning. Typical notes could
take the form of a problem, graphics illustrating a theory, a research plan, or a summary
of information found in the resource material, but they could also include exchanges of
ideas or theories, challenges to further thought, or speculative statements of the "what
if... " type, which could lead community members to new understandings. The
Knowledge Forum can be thought of as a collaboratively constructed, constantly
evolving, user-generated hypermedia research environment that is operated either
through a local area network or via the Internet. The topic presented for the teachers to
consider and work up in Houtsonen and Ahlberg's experiment was climate change, and
the frame of reference was based on problem-based learning, with new information
being accumulated by assessing theories and explanations rather than being integrated
directly into earlier information structures. A network-based learning environment
created a collaborative memory and supported the creation, seeking, sharing,

presentation and communication of knowledge.
YoungNet is a two-year European-funded project that aims at building a virtual learning

community that enables young people to communicate and co-operate across national
borders (Brooks and Kent, 2001; Arb0l et a!., 2002). The project started in April
2001, and its virtual multi-user environment will be in trial use in about 50 schools in
five countries beginning from March 2002. The majority of the material to be produced
in the project will be connected with geographical and environmental education.
GIS and geographical education
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) represent one of the greatest challenges for the
future of geographical education. Some educators consider GIS to be one of the most
promising means for implementing educational reform (Kerski, 2001 ). GIS is capable
of analysing complex phenomena from local-to-global scale, and both spatially and
temporally. GIS allows the user to visualise and analyse spatial information in new
ways, revealing previously hidden relationships, patterns and trends. GIS is at the heart
of all modem spatial decision making. GIS offers a one-off opportunity for geographers
to demonstrate unequivocally that they can offer students technological capability for
real-world problem solving through the use of data analysis, modelling and presentation
tools. Wiegand (200 1) stresses that if we do not put GIS at the core of our teaching we
can have little confidence that school geography will survive in the curriculum
competition.
As Bednarz (200 1) emphasises, the most important and powerful argument for
incorporating GIS into the curriculum as far as geography educators are concerned is its
purported ability to enhance spatial thinking skills. In the United States, the National
Geography Standards have specifically encouraged the inclusion of GIS in pre-collegiate
education, for precisely these reasons. Three dimensions of spatial thinking can be
recognised: spatial visualisation, spatial orientation and spatial relations.
The same author attributes the fact that GIS spread into pre-collegiate classrooms only
very slowly to three sets of factors. One set is related to hardware and software
requirements, the need for accessible data and other technical obstacles, the second to
teacher's conceptualisations of geography, their technological skills and the paucity of
appropriate curriculum materials, and the third to the reluctance of teachers to invest
time and effort in learning new technology without assurances of institutional support
or career advantages (Bednarz, 2001).
As Wong Yuk Yong (1996a) stresses, the use of computers for geographical analysis of
spatial information had been greatly advanced by the reduction of hardware prices,
development of superior software, and the creation of a network environment.
However, education in Geographic Information Systems has been generally limited to
universities because of the high costs of introduction and maintenance of the devices.
58 L. HOUTSONEN
Wong Yuk Yong (1996b) says also that teachers trained in GIS are lacking. Lower
software costs, increasing hardware provision, the emergence of GIS-trained teachers,
and developing curriculum emphasis on enquiry skills, seem likely to place many
countries at the threshold of a GIS revolution in schools. Therefore, Wiegand (2001)
stresses that research into teaching and learning with GIS is timely. It is needed a
deeper conceptual understanding of how users make meaning with and from electronic
maps. Kerski (2001) has made a very important research study concerning GIS in
schools. Teachers felt that the most important benefit that GIS brings is real-world
relevance to curricular areas. Teachers recognised that GIS is a long-term, lifelong
learning process (Kerski, 2001:87).
The teachers whose students take the technology the farthest are typically not teachers
who know GIS best themselves. Fitzpatrick (2001:87) states:
Instead, they are teachers who provide a modicum of direction and visible a
goal, and then stand back, instructional reins touching loosely, tugged only
occasionally. Such teachers can be young or old, found in public schools and
private, in all grades, in any discipline. When you visit these classrooms, the
teacher will be the one asking, Cool! So, how'd you do that?
GLOBE Project
GLOBE (Global Learning and Observation to Benefit the Environment) is an

international environmental education network connecting students, teachers and
researchers. American in origin, this programme has now spread to many parts of the
world. Its general aims are: 1) to increase environmental awareness throughout the
world; 2) to promote increased scientific understanding of our Earth; and 3) to improve
standards of study in mathematics and the natural sciences. Each GLOBE school has
its own meteorological station for making daily measurements of precipitation,
temperatures and cloud cover, and students also learn to measure water quality, describe
vegetation and interpret satellite images. The programme makes diverse use of
information and communication technologies in its research projects, so that these
constitute essential tools at all stages. The Internet is used for distributing observations
and findings among all the participating schools. and researchers, and the readings
obtained are gathered together in a database which is available to all schools for
comparing the weather and climate between different parts ofthe world.
"The River Vantaa is flowing"
An interesting collaborative, problem-centred environmental project, entitled The River

Vantaa is flowing, has been carried out among trainee primary school class teachers at
the Department of Teacher Education, University of Helsinki, involving 83 second-year
student teachers, six pedagogical supervisors and 400 pupils and their teachers at four
primary schools in the area alongside the River Vantaa (Lappalainen et al., 2000). The
goals of this project stress the following main topics: 1) introducing students to the
ideas of problem-based learning (PBL); 2) allowing students to practice their skills in
using information and communication technologies such as computer conferencing; and
3) developing modes of interaction between the Department of Teacher Education and
local community schools.
The idea was that the pupils, students, teachers and supervisors should cany out
environmental education projects connected with the River Vantaa using a specially
constructed Email-based discussion forum for its planning, implementation and
evaluation. It would then be possible by examining the Email messages to assess the
importance ofthe use of Email for the projects, which would actually take place at the
schools and in their vicinity, while the main people directing the work were located at
the Department of Teacher Education for most of the time. Analyses of a questionnaire
and of the computer conferencing discussions showed that the project had been
successful, in that the learning process had been active, problem-centred and co-
operative as far as both the Department of Teacher Education and the schools had been
concerned and had allowed all the participants to accept their proper degrees of
responsibility.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MODERN COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR

TEACHING AND LEARNING IN GEOGRAPHY
Impact
The examination made by Lehtinen (1998) of meta-analyses of the impact of the use of
information and communication technologies in teaching, based on the international
research literature, led to the conclusion that pupils in classes where computers were
used as a teaching aid generally learned more than those in other classes, performed
better on average in cognitive tests of school achievement, learned faster, enjoyed the
lessons more and were in general happier in their school work. Thus, hypermedia
environments produced better results than conventional teaching. The results gained in
geography conformed well to the general trend. In their analysis of learning by means
ofthe GLOBUS interactive CD-ROM environmental education programme, Houtsonen
and Rehunen (2000) found that more than half of the pupils regarded this as an
interesting and different mode of studying and valued the illustrative animations and
sound effects. Time-tabling flexibility and the opportunity to study at one's own pace
were also seen as clear benefits of the programme. The paucity of human contacts and
lack of direct discussion were felt to be the main drawbacks relative to lectures.
GLOBUS proved to be well adapted as a study programme for environmental
education, as it approaches the subject from numerous perspectives and allows ample
scope for students to think matters over for themselves.
60 L. HOUTSONEN
Modern communication technologies and cultures in contact
Globalisation points up the scale, urgency and interconnected nature of the problems
facing the international community (UNESCO, 1996). It has been possible to pursue
the global perspective in greater depth in recent years with the help of modem
information and communication technologies. Many countries already have quite high
levels of networking, and it is reasonable to ask how the available technology can be
used to promote understanding between cultures and create a basis for learning together.
There is another side to this question, however, namely the problem of how the less
densely networked parts of the Global Village can avail themselves of advanced
technology. From their point of view, the question of cultural contacts may seem a
somewhat esoteric one, as they are accustomed to .looking on educational technology
simply as a way of alleviating the constant lack of teaching resources and personnel.
After all, most schools in the developing countries experience shortages as far as basic
teaching resources are concerned. In this way the global perspective raises two
simultaneous but mutually conflicting questions. One of the aims of the affluent G7
countries has been to help schools in the developing countries to join in in reaping the
educational benefits brought about by modem information technology.
Many programmes launched by the European Union have been designed to look
seriously at cultural contacts between the different ethnic groups represented on that
continent. Examples of this are provided by the European Geography Department at the
Virtual School and YoungtNet geography teaching programmes. Modem data networks
can indeed be used in many ways to provide support for international education. Many
European schools have taken part in Comenius collaboration with schools in other
countries, and the upper secondary school of Nurmes in Finland, for example, speaks
on its Web pages of how the opportunities provided by the Internet serve to promote
understanding between cultures. Collaboration is not restricted to the recording of facts
on acidification, for instance, but has advanced as far as analysing its effects and
suggesting means of reducing these. Pupils can also evaluate each other's work and
thus enter into genuine two-way communication.
The upper secondary school at Parainen in Finland has for a long time been
collaborating with Virginia City High School in Nevada, USA (Meisalo et a!., 2000)
and has now developed an interest in extending this international project work
elsewhere. The result has been that the two schools have developed an Internet network
of small upper secondary schools in exotic places, eg., in mountainous areas, on
oceanic islands etc., by the name of WorldWideEd. The challenge lies in the fact that
in spite of their remote location, these schools mostly have efficient information
technology and communication equipment at their disposal. The work done by the
pupils is mostly concerned with global problems, and the information is gathered and
analysed using tools available through modem information technology. The results are
published in project documents, the preparation of which can be monitored constantly.
The quality criteria on which these are evaluated are associated with four principal
viewpoints that reflect the teamwork skills normally required in working life for the
handling of information and communication between people of different cultures:
use of source material

content and language
outward appearance
co-operation and assignment of time.
The groups at the various schools communicate by means of a mailing list, by which
they can send each other questionnaires and inquiries or otherwise share information.
The book by Meisalo eta!., (2000) contains a description of the project 2Bl, "To be
one", initiated at Massachusetts Institute of Technology with the aim of using data
network technology to cross the frontiers that derive from circles forming in the course
of local everyday life, based on age, wealth, sex and culture, and to prevent any further,
still more impregnable walls from being erected. The children engaged in the project
are expected to consider various problems connected with economic development, such
as malnutrition, perceive their causes and suggest solutions. The main point of
departure is an ethical one, the concept of a unified world which all inhabitants can treat
as home and for which they can all assume responsibility. The 2Bl project aims
specifically at ensuring that children in the developing countries are able to avail
themselves of the facilities of the digital age, in the knowledge that at present less than
10% of the world's children have access to a computer. It is intended that the project
should function in a distributed manner and provide support for local development
initiatives, one of the first applications being the use or computers for educating
homeless children in Brazil. The inclusion of the whole global community in the
project is also a matter of significance as far as the development of educational
technology is concerned, for the researchers have to resolve questions connected with
local languages or difficult physical conditions under which the technical devices have
to function. It is concrete problems of this kind that are apt to lead to further
innovations.
International Networking in Geographical Education
It will be especially important for the future of geographical education to develop a

means of international networking for teachers and researchers, as emphasised in the
case of teachers by Nakayama (2000) in his "project dream" for developing teaching
materials for Asia and the Pacific Region. In the same way, Solem (2001) has referred
to the importance of networking for the development of geographical education and
research into that field. He mentions in this connection that there are two geographical
bodies currently leading the efforts to build an international teaching and learning
partnership: the International Geographical Union's Commission on Geographical
Education (IGU-CGE) and the International Network for Learning and Teaching
Geography in Higher Education (INL T). The first of these encompasses all levels of
education from pre-school to university, while the latter concentrates on the university
level. Bednarz et a!. (2000) state that the networking provides a timely opportunity to
explore the benefits with professional and personal expertise in learning and teaching
62 L. HOUTSONEN
geography in both school and higher education contexts, address key aspects of school
geography in order to reflect on existing linkages and possible future collaboration with
higher education. Future IGU-CGE activities are likely to be concentrated on extending
international networking so that more of the developing countries can be involved,
whereupon it is obvious that more use than ever will be made of modem information
and communication technology simply in order to communicate information concerned
with international networking and the teaching of geography.
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5. OLD CULTURES, NEW CULTURES IN GEOGRAPHICAL
EDUCATION
MANUELA MALHEIRO FERREIRA
The concept of culture and how it has historically been treated in cultural geography has
changed very much. As Don Mitchell (2000) points out, traditional notions of culture in
cultural geography were, by the 1960s and 1970s, simply inadequate to explain either
local or more global cultural transformations. The world has changed very much in the
last forty or thirty years and cultural geography has changed again with it. A 'new'
cultural geography emerged, but the approaches to study it are very diversified.
Educational geographers have to adapt to these theoretical and practical changes in

geography. In many countries students have many different cultural backgrounds and
teachers have to adapt their teaching strategies to different cultural contexts. It is a
difficult task in a world in rapid change where the social, ethnic, religious conflicts take
place everyday and influence human relations and communication.
After a short introduction about the historical evolution of the concept of culture and the
evolution of cultural geography (old cultures, new cultures), some approaches are
suggested by different authors to geographical education, in order to deal with the
growth of cultural diversity are presented.
Old Cultures in Geographical Education
CULTURE AND OLD CULTURES
The word culture is derived from the Latin word cultura that means "cultivation or
tending". The word developed until the 18th century and there is an evolution from
designating only "cultivation of the land" to "cultivation of the mind" too. The French
Encyclopaedia philosophers associated culture with human beings. Consequently,
culture makes human beings distinctive in relation to other animals. In the 18th
century, in France, the meaning of the word culture was near to the meaning of the word
civilisation. The first word was related with the individual aspects, the second with the
collective ones. In the German language the word "kultur" (as cultivation of the mind)
appeared in the 18th century and it developed in such way that a clear distinction was
made between culture and civilisation. Culture concerned the aspects connected with
the development of the mind, the spiritual or symbolic, and civilisation respected the
material aspects. In this country, Johanan Gottfried Herder criticized the French idea of
65
R. Gerber (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Education.65-73.
66 M.FERRIERA
culture as universal. He wrote (in 1774) that was important to speak not of culture in
the singular, but rather of cultures in the plural - not only of specific national cultures,
but also of different cultures within nations. Herder is considered as the precursor of
the relativist meaning of culture (Cuche, 1999). During the 19th century efforts were
done to evidence the uniqueness of the German culture, even its superiority. Culture
became associated with nation, with nationalistic ideas. Culture is the heritage of the
nation; it includes artistic, intellectual and moral aspects. Technical and economic
development is linked with civilisation. In France during the 19th century and at the
beginning of the 20th century the meaning of the word culture stays very near that for
the word civilisation. The French scientists sustain the universalistic character of the
culture, of the civilisation, German their particularity according to the nation (Cuche,
1999). The British anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) gave the first
definition of the anthropological meaning of culture. For him, culture or civilisation
included the knowledge, the beliefs, the art, the moral, the law, the habits acquired by
Man as a member of a society. He supported the universalism of culture too. Franz
Boas (1858-1942) a geographer who became an anthropologist had the objective of
studying the cultures of different people, not of studying the universal character of
culture. Boas is the creator of the anthropological conception of cultural relativism (he
did not use this term). He sought to explore the particular ways in which the natural and
social environment both conditioned and was conditioned by cultural interaction in a
bounded society.
Cultural relativism was very criticised and according to Cuche (1999) the more crucial
debate in relation to cultural anthropology concerns precisely this approach of culture.
Nevertheless, it is not the objective of this paper to develop this aspect.
Mitchell (2000) points out that culture "has come down to us as a very complex word
indeed, highly suggestive in its meanings, and rich in its possibilities. By contrast, its
history in cultural geography - at least until quite recently - has been rather more
restricted" (p.16). The same author says that the word is complex and has many
different meanings. "Among all the ways of understanding culture, there are perhaps
six that are particularly important. First, culture is the opposite of nature. It is what
makes humans human. Second, culture is the patterns and differentiations of a people.
Third, it is the process by which these patterns developed. Fourth, the term indicates a
set of markers that set one people off from another and which indicate to us our
membership in a group. Fifth, culture is the way that all these patterns, processes, and
markers are represented. Sixth, the idea of culture often indicates a hierarchical
ordering of all these processes, activities, ways of life, and cultural production.
In the United States, the development of cultural geography is very much linked to the
work of Carl Sauer. In Sauer's work it is possible to find many of the most important
themes that dominated cultural geography in the 20th century: a concern with the
material landscape, an interest in cultural ecology and the often damaging effects of
humans on the environment; an aspiration to trace the origins and diffusion of
revolutionary cultural practices such as plant and animal domestication and the use of
fire. In Sauer's work and in the work of those that receive his influence it is also
possible to detect an anti-urban, anti-modern bias with which cultural geography is still
trying to come to terms (Entrikin, 1984 in Mitchell, 2000, p.21 ). His most influential
OLD CULTURES, NEW CULTURES 67
essay was "The Morphology of Landscape" (1925)- a work that sought to place culture
right at the centre of geographical studies. The author's main purpose was to contest
environmental determinism and evidence that it was not nature that caused culture, but
rather culture, working with and on nature, that created the contexts of life. In this
essay Sauer developed a methodology with different steps. The first step was a generic
areal description, to make an elementary distinction between the natural and the cultural
landscape. The description of the natural landscape (climate, geomorphic features, soil,
associations of vegetation, etc.) was merely preliminary because the real task for
geographers was to study how this natural landscape was both the stage for, and the
prime ingredient in, human geographic activity. Sauer said that the cultural landscape is
fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group and that culture is the agent, the
natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape the result. Over time the cultural
landscape becomes complex with the effects of different cultures in an area (Mitchell,
2000). Mitchell points out that "Sauer was largely concerned with effects, with the
shape rather than with the shaping of the earth" (p.29).
In Europe, many Western countries were influenced by the French School of

Geography. Portugal is an example of one of these countries. Orlando Ribeiro, the
most well known Portuguese geographer completed his geographical training in Paris,
where he followed among others, the courses of Physical Geography of E. De Martonne
and of Human Geography of A. Demangeon. The influence of the French School of
Geography and especially of the cultural geography of the Pierre Gourou is always
present in Ribeiro's geographical thought. In an article entitled Conception et
Interpretation en Geographie Humaine (1961-1962, pp. 5-37) (which is the translation
into French of a work published in 1960 Atitude e Explicar;iio em Geografia Humana
and for which an abstract is written in English) the author states: " Human geography is
torn between two tendencies: the ecological tendency examines man in interrelation
with the natural environment, the chronological tendency places the accent on the
changes which man has produced in the landscape. Man, in this sense is a genuine
geographic factor. There are two extreme positions: one tends to point out the role of
determinism of the natural environment, the other seeks the key to geographical
explanation in the culture of man". The author while according an essential place to
culture in geographical interpretation, draws attention to the fact that "culture itself is
explained in large part by its genetic environment ... "
For Orlando Ribeiro, "research into ecological correlations is not the essence of human
geography. Human geography ought to remain the description and interpretation of the
human elements of the landscape, of regions, and of continents. Its fundamental
method remains observation. The interpretation, with delicate gradations as in all social
sciences, ought to be based simultaneously on the influences of the environment and on
the resources of the culture of a given people. It thereby reflects both determinism and
the freedom of choice in human behaviour". In Ribeiro's works, the importance of
physical conditions is always present, as well as the role of history and of man as a
genuine geographic factor.
In 1962 (work published in 1987), Ribeiro pointed out that each region is unique and
the wish to reduce the infinite number of regions to a certain number of types was
dangerous, though attractive, and in 1970 he pointed out that the regional monographs
68 M.FERRIERA
were still very useful in countries where the traditional structure remained and where
the diversity of regional combinations had not yet been completely effaced (Ferreira,
1995).
OLD CULTURES AND GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION
In geographical education the regional paradigm was predominant in syllabuses

organisation, until the 1960s (for example in United Kingdom and USA) or even until
the 1970s (for example in Portugal). In schools human geography remained the
description and interpretation of the human elements of the landscape, of regions, and
of continents. After the study of the physical conditions, students should study the
distribution of the population and the economic activities of the regions, of the
continents, and the interrelations between physical and human aspects should be put in
evidence. Fieldwork was based on the observation of landscape and students were
required to describe and explain the human aspects of the landscape taking into account
the physical conditions and the cultural influences.
In the 1950s there was recognition of the deficiencies of regional geography and the
emphasis on the description of uniqueness was replaced by a concern with similarity.
Neo-positivist approaches to geography were concerned with revealing spatial laws,
using quantitative methods in order to explain and predict human patterns of behaviour.
The High School Geography Project (HSGP) developed in the USA in the 1960s is one
of the first important curriculum development projects in geography that reflects the
influence of the neo-positivism in social sciences. The project was published in the
form of a complete one-year course for students aged fourteen to sixteen and the course
is entitled "Geography in an urban age". The initial orientation of the HSGP was
towards positivist science, but certain activities should have served to ameliorate the
worst excesses of scientific objectivity in a human science. The proposed inquired-
based approach and the questions for which there are no "correct" answers counter the
view of a crude positivist objectivity (Helburn, 1983). The course included a unit on
cultural geography.
In the 1970s, this neo-positivist approach to human geography was criticised, and
humanistic and radical geography were two important new approaches adopted by
Geographers. Humanistic geography rejected the objectivity of positivism and
proposed the importance of subjective modes of knowing. Radical geographers,
particularly the Marxist ones, were interested in understanding how social forces
produce space and how social differences become spatial patterns of inequalities.
New Cultures in Geographical Education
NEW CULTURES
Jackson (2000) writing about "new directions in human geography" points out that
these are exciting times for human geography as the discipline is experiencing a period
of rapid change, reflecting dramatic shifts in the world and that the work of leading
human geographers, such as David Harvey and Doreen Massey, is generating
considerable interest beyond the discipline boundaries in politics, sociology and
especially in cultural studies. The narrow disciplinary boundaries have been
transcended and new movements (including feminism and post-colonial studies) have
taken researchers off in new directions, opening up new spaces, new debates and new
alliances, revealing the limitations of previous approaches and transforming the very
nature of human geography. Feminist theory revealed the masculinist nature of
'objective' scientific knowledge and post-colonial theory demonstrated how 'Western'
identities and concepts of the self have been forged through encounters with 'non-
Western' others. Some geographers perceive these transformations as a threat to the
'core' of the discipline, with its traditional interest in human-environment relations, to
understanding the evolving meanings of landscape and place, and to sustain the vital
links between human and physical geography.
The same author points out that in the last few years, human geography like other social
sciences experienced a "cultural turn' in which "the traditional belief in 'objective'
knowledge has given way to more sceptical and critical understandings between power
and knowledge". Besides feminism and post-colonial theory, the other main influence
on recent developments in human geography has been the impact of cultural studies.
The 'new' cultural geography insisted on the plurality of cultures and the multiple
landscapes with these cultures are associated. This 'New' cultural geography is defined
as "contemporary' and historical (but always contextual and theoretically-informed);
social as well as spatial (but not confined exclusively to narrowly-defined landscape
issues); urban as well as rural; and interested in the contingent nature of culture, in
dominant ideologies and in forms of resistance to them" (Cosgrove and Jackson, 1987,
p. 95 in Jackson, 2000, p.52). There has been a growth of interest in various forms of
differences, gender, race, sexuality and disability and at a wider scale, a recognition of
the 'hybrid' character of modern cultures, as processes of displacement and diaspora.
Geographers are tracing the transnational migration of people and the associated flows
of commodities and information. Geographers are interested in studying the
connections between 'the local' and 'the global' instead of seeing recent developments
only as a simple process of globalisation. According to the same author "understanding
the nature of transnationality is very important on the agenda for geographical research
in the new millennium (Jackson, 2000).
Another author, Mitchell (2000), says in relation to cultural studies that in the 1970s and
mainly in the 1980s they emphasised culture, society, power domination, resistance,
style, consumption, and ideology. But, Peter Jackson, already in 1980, enter a plea for a
connection between cultural and social geography. In 1983, Cosgrove suggested the
development of a "radical cultural geography" centred on issues of power, dominance,
and the control of space and culture by elite groups. "For both of them, as for others
engaged in developing a 'new cultural geography', the goal was to create a 'thoroughly
politicised concept of culture' so as to turn 'attention to areas of social life that have
rarely been treated by geographers (Jackson 1989, p. 45), such as ideologies of race, the
role of language and discourse in producing cultural spaces, the development and
70 M.FERRIERA
maintenance of subcultures, issues of gender, sexuality, and identity, and the way in
which landscapes and places are more than just congeries of material artefacts or empty
containers awaiting social action" (p.57):
In the same way, Valentine (2001) points out that in the late 1980s and 1990s there was
a 'cultural turn' in geography, leading to a shift in emphasis away from issues of
structural inequality towards one of identity, meanings and representations, and so on.
Consequently, it is increasingly difficult to distinguish between social geography and
cultural geography. The same author calls also attention to the fact that social
categories, such as class, gender, sexuality and race are no longer taken for granted as
given or fixed, but rather are understood to be socially constructed.
Postmodernism produced a new interest by "the myriad variations that exist between the
many 'sorts' of human beings studied by human geographers- the variations between
women and men, between social classes, between ethnic groups, between human groups
defined on all manner of criteria- and to recognise (and in some ways represent) the
very different inputs and experiences these diverse populations have into, and of,
'socio-spatial' processes" (Cloke et al., 1991, 171 in Valentine, 2001, 3).
Another very important aspect is the recognition that every individual has not only a
singular and invariable identity, identities are multiple, contingent and subject to rapid
change.
NEW CULTURES AND GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION
What are the implications of this recent evolution of human geography, cultural studies
and cultural geography on geographical education?
Tracey Skelton and Gill Valentine (1998) wrote a collection of essays entitled "Cool
Places: Geographies of Youth Cultures". This collection has the aim of exploring 'the
diversity in young's people's lives in order to place youth on the geographical map and
to demonstrate youth's relevance to a range of geographical debates. The authors pay
special attention to young people's identities including gender, ethnicity, disability and
sexuality. Throughout this publication there is a concern with the everyday and the
popular, including television and the use of computers, and everyday spaces such as the
home, school, workplaces, streets and clubs. According to Morgan (2000), the Skelton
and Valentine book represents a significant contribution to popular geographical studies
and challenges geography to incorporate such perspectives in its teaching and research.
Valentine in his more recent book entitled "Social Geographies- Space and Society"
(200 1) begins by thinking of how cultural identities are constructed in and through the
site of the body, reflecting on how corporeal differences can serve as a basis for socio-
spatial forms of exclusion and oppression at other scales. The author presents the home,
as one of the most important sites for the production of cultural identity. The home is
not only a physical location but also a matrix of social relations, a place which has
multiple meanings and which is experienced very differently by different social groups.
Community as a structure of meaning provides a useful way of thinking of social
relations at a national or even global scale and four institutions - school, the workplace,
the prison and the asylum, represent spaces or power structures which are designed to
achieve particular ends, are also studied. The street and the city can be sites of struggle
and exclusion as well as spaces of proximity, political expression and celebration.
Distinctions can be drawn between urban and rural society, and finally the nation,
national identities, nationalism, citizenship, globalisation, and the global citizen are
examined.
All these themes throughout the book, according to the author, include a reflection on
the juxtapositions of social-spatial relations, on homogeneity and difference, and on
disputes over control and disorder.
Morgan (2000) says that "perspectives from cultural geography and cultural studies
offer geography educators new ways of thinking about their work. Cultural studies is an
interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary field that involves the analysis of lived experience of
various groups and individuals in late twentieth-century societies. It highlights culture
as a living process that shapes the way we live, view ourselves and understand the
world around us. Cultural studies is characterised by a variety of approaches. The
importance of cultural studies for geography education is expressed in the notion of
'cultural pedagogy' which refers to the idea that education takes place in a variety of
social sites including but not limited to schooling. Thus, libraries, television, movies,
newspapers, magazines, toys, advertisements, video games, books, sports and so on are
all involved in the process of identity formation and its production and legitimation of
knowledge (p.282). The author suggests that geography teachers could draw upon
'new' cultural studies and develop a geography education that would: "start from the
lived experiences of young people - this means that there is a recognition of how our
geographical imaginations are being shaped by a range of stimuli; be concerned to
examine the 'texts' that young people use to construct their identities. In doing so it
pays attention to the meanings as encoded in these texts and the meanings that people
produce for them; be deconstructive in that it seeks to prise open new meanings and
provide resources for the construction of new identities" (p.284).
Finally, Lambert and Balderstone (2000) say that geography can contribute to cultural
literacy. The term (Hirsch,l987) refers to the knowledge required by people, no matter
what their social, cultural or ethnic background is to operate in their 'second' national
culture (a person's first culture is their local, regional, ethnic or other). People living in
the same country, should be able to communicate, not only through a common language
but also through commonly held information, assumptions and cultural allusions. The
authors say that geographical education has a contribution to make in terms of
locational knowledge and information about significant world events and processes, but
should also contribute to effect 'intercultural communication' between students, with
different cultural backgrounds, living in the same country.
Another important approach that geographical educators should take into account is the
'new' multicultural education. Multicultural education has promised greater cultural
interaction, interchange and an impact on the school achievement and life chances of
minority students. This not happened in a majority of cases. Consequently,
multicultural education has been progressively criticised by antiracist and radical
72 M.FERRIERA
theorists for giving too much importance to curricular change, and too little importance
to the impact of structural racism on student's lives. Stephen May (1999) states that
'critical multiculturalism' is the response to these criticisms. It incorporates post-
modern conceptions and analyses of culture and identity, while holding onto the
possibility of an emancipatory politics. It combines multicultural/antiracist streams. It
emphasises the links between theory, policy and practice, providing a critical and
practical account of culturally pluralist forms of schooling. And, finally it lends itself to
the possibilities of a cross-national dialogue in which the differing theoretical and
practical concerns of a variety of national contexts can be reflectively and reflexively
explored (p.8).
What are the 'new' ways to geographical education due the importance acquired by
'new' cultural studies, in the last two decades?
According to the new developments in cultural geography, there is a need of giving

importance in geographic education to:
the character of modern cultures where processes of displacement and diaspora

have a fundamental importance to explain spatial organisation and individual
spatial behaviour;
the study ofthe connections between 'the local' and 'the global';
various forms of differences, gender, ethnic, sexuality, age and disability, and not
only to differences based on a social and economic basis;
examine different themes such as: the home, the community, the street and the city,
the urban and the rural society, the nation, national identities, nationalism,
citizenship, globalisation, global citizen, all themes that can show evidence of
cultural, social and political relations; and
popular culture.
The importance of starting from the lived experiences of young people and taking into
account a youth culture is also stressed.
There is also a need of approaching different cultural contexts at different scales from
the local to the global.
Conclusion
Old cultures and new cultures have influence on cultural geography and geographical
education. Old themes, such as the study of the landscape and the region are still
important, new themes became also important, among them, the home, the community,
the street, the city, the urban and the rural society, the nation, national identities,
nationalism, citizenship, globalisation, and the global citizen. In the study of every
theme it is necessary to take into account different identities, different meanings and
representations that different cultural groups (such as, women and men, groups
belonging to different social classes, to different ethnic groups, to different ages, to

human groups defined on all manner of criteria) have in relation to socio-spatial
processes.
References
Cloke, P., Philo, C. and Sadler, D. (1991) Approaching Human Geography, London: Paul Chapman.
Cosgrove, D. and Jackson, P. (1987). New directions in cultural geography in Area, 19, p. 95-101.
Cuche, D. (1999). A No{:iio de Cultura nas Ciencias Sociais, Lisboa: Fim de Seculo Edi~oes.
Entrikin, J. (1984) Carl Sauer, philosopher in spite of himself. In Geographical Review 74, p. 387-407.
Ferreira, M. (1995) Some aspects of the evolution of geographical education in Portugal. The secondary
school curriculum - its historical development. In Reporting Research in Geography Education, Monograph,
No. 2, London: Institute of Education, University of London, p. 9-27.
Ferreira, M., Miranda, B. and Alexandre, F. (2001) Ensino da geografia: territ6rios e culturas, In Aetas do
Congresso de Geografia Portuguesa, Lisboa: FCSH-UNL.
Helburn, N. (1983) Reflections on the high school geography project. In Huckle, J. (ed.) Geographical
Education: Reflection and Action, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 20-28.
Hirsch, E. (1987) Cultural literacy: what every American needs to know, Boston: Houghton Miffiin Co.
Jackson, P. (1989) Maps of meaning. an introduction to cultural geography, London: Unwin Hyman.
Jackson, P. (2000) New directions in human geography. In Kent, A. (ed.) Reflective Practice in Geography
Teaching, London: Paul Chapman, p. 50-56.
Lambert, D. and Balderstone, D. (2000) Learning to teach geography in the secondary school. A companion
to school experience, London: Routledge Falmer.
Ribeiro, 0. (1961-62) Conception et interpretation en geographie humaine. In Cahiers de Geographie de
Quebec, 11, p. 5-37.
Ribeiro, 0. (1970) Trinta e Cinco Anos de Estudos Geognificos. In Ensaios de Geografia Humana e
Regional, Lisboa: Sa da Costa.
Ribeiro, 0. (1987) lntrodu{:iio aoEstudo da Geografia Regional, Lisboa: Edi~oes Joao Sa da Costa.
May, S. (ed.) (1999) Critical multiculturalism. Rethinking multicultural and antiracist education, London.
Falmer Press.
Mitchell, D. (2000) Cultural geography. A critical introduction, London: Blackwell.
Morgan, J. (2000) Cultural studies go to school. In Kent, A. (ed.) Reflective practice in geography teaching,
London: Paul Chapman, p. 276-286.
Skelton, T. and Valentine, G. (1998) Cool places: geographies ofyouth cultures, London: Routledge.
Valentine, G. (2001) Social geographies. space and society, Harlow, Essex: Prentice Hall.
JOSEFINA OSTUNI
Introduction
A series of indicators exist that call for a critical look at the standing of geography in
relation to community. They include the general feeling of reject by a large number of
high school students. Also, there is the modest amount of advocacy by geographers in
the media when social and environmental issues are raised. The actual situation is very
different from that created by the literary imagination of Saint Exupery in The Little
Prince. Any geographer totally sides with and feels proud of the Little Prince when,
after having heard the description the Wise Geographer makes of his activity, he
exclaims:
It is really interesting. At long last a real job!

(1951: 54)
However, the general public not only does not consider the geographer's job interesting,
but they also display an ignorance of what geographers do. Which are those factors that
influence the general publics' lack of knowledge? In order to elucidate the problem it is
necessary to analyze how geography as a science projects itself onto the community, -
community in its broad sense: population in general. It is also necessary to ask oneself
what has been geographers' professional behaviour as a social group with origins,
practices and ideas in common. Therefore, the analysis of this paper will focus on
those observing geographical science from within and those who contemplate it from
the outside.
Geography as a School Practice
If we start out from the premise that the community's opinion of geography is the
result of what was learnt at school, we will be forced to carry out a wide survey of what
happens in that school environment. Though it may seem paradoxical compared to
what was quoted from The Little Prince above, we can also find in such a literary
character the key of the deception felt by students when studying geography. In fact,
the Geographer defines his profession thus:
He [the geographer] is a wise man who knows where the seas, the rivers, the
cities, the mountains and the deserts are situated (1951: 53).
This statement, used by Jeannine Geoffroy in his opening speech at the Meeting of
National Studies in Amiens in 1991, gives a "retro" image similar to the situation
75
76 J. OSTUNI
found in classrooms, thus making reference to French schools, the main topic of
concern in that meeting.
The students' perception of Geography is very different from that of The Little Prince:
to memorize names and production figures is not appealing to them. That type of
memorizing turns the geography class into a curricular space lacking in appeal and
interest. So then, is it the exclusive responsibility of geography teaching in the
elementary and high school to have turned geography into a data-memorizing exercise?
Or is the academic and scientific field also to assume part of such responsibility?
It is important to give some thought to teaching since there is consensus in the fact that
the school is a node from which the community may obtain a true perception of
geography as a discipline with the potential to educate and to provide answers to the
problems arising in the real world.
The rapid changes the world has been going through since the second half of the
twentieth century have pushed many countries to introduce significant modifications in
their educational systems. Geography, of course, has been involved in those changes.
A dispassionate analysis points to the successes and failures, shared responsibilities,
and different situations among countries.
While there is no total coverage of what goes on in the different countries of the world,
there is availability of bibliography and surveys which provide some approach with
respect to what is really happening in the field of education. Two reports have been
considered in this regard to: those undertaken by the presidents of the Commission on
Geographical Education (CGE) of the International Geographic Union (IGU) (Haubrich,
1996 and Gerber, 2000) reporting the results of surveys circulated among the members
of the CEG-UGI in different parts of the world. The opinion of the members of the
Committee on Geographical Education in the Forum edited by Kent, A. (2000) were
also taken into account, as well the papers published in the IGU-CGE Proceedings of
1994, 1996, 1998, 2000 and 2001. In addition, the minutes of the 8th Meeting of
Latin American Geographers (2001) were consulted, together with a publication from a
meeting of the Geographical Inter-Department Network of Argentina's National
Universities (2001), and a questionnaire recently sent to geographers in different
countries by the author.
The result of the analysis of this information has shown the predominance of the
following situations:
There are still some countries where geography has no standing in the school
curriculums.
There are countries in which geography is included in the school curriculums but
with varied levels of depth in its treatment. The following is noted:
* at elementary school level, geography teaching is integrated into other

disciplines, and in general it is taught by non-specialized teachers;
* at high school level, the situation is varied depending on its
compulsory/elective status. Those teaching it are mainly geography graduates;
GEOGRAPHY AND THE COMMUNITY 77
in many cases there is no direct denomination, and it is included within a

thematic axis of the social sciences area;
in other cases its contents are distributed between the social sciences and
the earth sciences areas;
* at high school level, junior and senior years, geography as a subject is kept
with a reduced number of periods, sometimes compulsory, some other times
elective.
Concerning the changes that have taken place since the 80's, the following can be
stated:
There are countries where geography has gained a strengthened position. In such
countries, the positive action of geographers' association groups is evident, thanks
to their advocacy before public authorities both in favor of an adequate treatment
of geographical content curricula and in the change of the perception of geography
by the wider community.
There are countries where geography has been reduced in the curricula with the
subsequent loss in class period load. In those countries, the geographers'
professional societies have not been consulted during the period of curricular
reform. There does not exist, either, a fluent exchange between the college and
high school levels, and therefore, no proper updating of teachers exists.
As a result, the map of geographical education could be schematically outlined as a

broad grey area, an area of serious deficiencies, with small red spots expressing some
vitality. Of course, both the grey areas and the red spots should take on different
tonalities, because even though they share common problems, diverse positions are
detected among countries within the same continent and even among states within the
same country. The irregular and varied treatment of geography in the school curricula
leave the specialist geographers with a sensation of dissatisfaction which even extends
to those specialists from countries where this discipline has been significantly
strengthened.
However, it is evident that amidst the generalized deception, a change in attitude has
begun to be perceived by this author, both in teachers and in the institutions devoted to
geographical activity. The old dispute between the geography teachers at the high
school level and those at university level must be overcome. The former accused the
college level teachers of, much as it has been in the U.S.A. and in Singapore, adapting
an arrogant attitude towards high school geography teaching; the latter considered that
high school level teaching was responsible for the poor image students and the
community had of geography. Both groups must recognize the limitations of their
views: the university teachers have not transmitted to schools the advances achieved in
the scientific field and have not assisted their graduates on a persistent basis on ways to
improve geography in the wider world; the high school teachers must acknowledge the
fact that they have not shown enough flexibility and good disposition for changes in
the nature of geographical understanding. This change in attitude calls for effective
inter-communication between the geography departments and their graduates, something
that unfortunately does not occur in every country. A good example of where this kind
78 J. OSTUNI
of change is working is to be found in the Geography Alliance movement in the U.S.A.

that is described by Lanegran in Chapter 16.
A Critical Look at the Academic Community
After these remarks have been made about the teaching of geography around the world,
it is now relevant to analyze what is the attitude and behaviour of academic
geographers, that is, of those who are responsible for teaching at college and University
level and also those acting as consultants, but in particular the former, who are
supposed to establish the guidelines of what our science really is.
For a long time, academic geographers avoided arguments about its defmition and
enclosed themselves up in an arrogant attitude.
It is worthwhile recalling the feeling of superiority of some geographers, like Ritter's,

quoted by Claval when making reference to the coherent and explanatory character given
to geography by environmentalism :
There will come a time, perhaps, when some men gifted with equal strength
shall embrace, with an eagle's sight, both the physical and the moral world.
(1974: 60).
It is here stated, thus, the capacity of geography to cover two different types of scope -
studies of the physical environment and social or moral studies of people living in the
environment. This is the point of identity and conflict in the history of geography as a
science. Despite these, and other optimistic statements about geographers, there are real
world events which force us to adopt a more critical attitude about which are the so fur
unresolved points about the nature of geography and geographers.
Many authors have highlighted and commented about the poor status that geography is
granted in circles outside the science. They have also expressed how difficult it is to
defme, to others, what the geographer does or what geography represents. The need to
fmd an answer has led these writers to review the course of geographical thought. The
challenge has been taken up in various styles. The authors selected in this paper do not
constitute the totality of those who have been concerned about the problem, but the
widespread acquaintance with their works, translated into other languages, has made it
possible for the geographical community around the world to fmd themselves identified
with their shared concerns.
Gould (1985), in Geographers at Work, successfully manages to depict the

embarrassing situation of geographers when consulted about their job. The author
remarks that even though the geographer's mission is to inform, this is only a minimal
portion of the whole job, such as is made evident when analyzing the geographer's task
at university level. The approach taken by Gould is to track down the work of the
geographers from antiquity and to the present times. As a result of such a survey, he
presents the image of a fickle Geography being pulled from different sides, a grip from
which it fmally gets loose, and getting close to the Tree of Wisdom. Gould holds that
whatever the function and the approach adopted, the geographer
.. . is a man who devotes his life to the task of interpreting and also of
transforming the physical and the human world (1985: 350).
With his book, Gould's intention can be perceived when he states that his book is
written for those who ask what the geographer does. His goal to write on geographical
topics for the wider public, with scientific rigor but in an accessible language. This
was confirmed by Gould in his chapter published in the New Tendencies in Geography,
and also in an interview given to me in 1988 in Department of Geography, The
Pennsylvania State University.
Unwin (1992), in The place of Geography, starts out from the picture described by
Gould and goes on to analyze the poor image that the wider society has of geography.
Also, he relates it to the teaching profession as well as to the little political
commitment of geographers. Unwin reflects critically upon the theory in order to
suggest what should be the status of geography in education and in society:
Even though geography has always been a vast discipline, it is exclusively

responsible for providing, at the elementary and high-school levels, a critical
interpretation of man's occupancy of the land, and of the differences between
places (1992: 286).
Claval (1987) says that in his country nobody doubts any longer that geography is in
crisis, and he regrets that his warning, in 1964, was considered to be a pessimistic
attitude. He points out the difficulties of teaching geography. In order to fmd an
answer to the predicament of this discipline, he resorts to its history, to its genesis, so
as to "clarify the logic of its current buildup". He says that such historical reflections
are necessary for students, to show them that this science is not something static, but
rather it is inserted within a space-time context towards which it has to react. When
analyzing the different stages through which geography has evolved, Claval remarks
that this discipline reaches its consolidation when it approaches the social sciences:
Instead of being perceived as a study of the regional differences of the earth's

crust, or as an analysis of the relationship between man and the environment,
or as a study of landscapes, geography defines itself as a discipline of the
spatial dimensions of human life-of social life (1987: 135).
Another French author, Lacoste (1997) notes the following about students' opinion of
geography:
A bothersome discipline but fairly easy in the long run, because as everyone
knows, "in geography there's nothing to be understood, only memory is
enough" ... , in any case, since recent years, students do not even want to hear
about those lessons enumerating reliefrivers-vegetation-population-
agriculture-cities-industries for every country or for every region (1977: 5).
Through these words he tries to describe not only the students' rejection of geography
but also the intention of authorities to eliminate it from the school curriculum, which is
more serious still.
80 J. OSTUNI
Lacoste (1977:72), for whom geography is an instrument closely tied to political and
military power, states that teaching somehow masked such a function by depriving it
from all possibility of application. Lacoste searches into geographical thought by
means of its relationship with ideologies, practice, and power, and he concludes that
what gradually emptied geography of such a content, what gradually minimized its
strategic capacity and turned it into" apolitical and useless discourse" was "the teachers'
original epistemological malaise concerning geography".
Peet (1999), in tum, has also presented similar concern by stating that geography
suffers from a permanent identity crisis due to the fact that what geographers do is
dreadfully complex. This complexity is inherent to its disciplinal point of view.
What is this thing called geography? Outside the discipline, geography is

usually the memorization of "facts", when geography can be distinguished
froin geology. Within the discipline, there is confusion too. The problem in
part derives from the corpus of organized geography containing separate
spheres of interest in what often appear to be discrete topics (1999: 1).
Peet deals with the different geographical approaches of modem geographical thought,
and he analyzes its social and spatial dimension in order to understand those difficulties
and to support the defmition he presented at the beginning of his book.
Geography is the study of relations between society and the natural

environment. .. . The "relation" between society and nature is thus an entire
system, a complex of interrelations (1999: 1-2)
With an objective similar to those expressed by the above authors, meetings were held
in the city of Amiens in 1991 in order to discuss the problem of geography teaching in
France and to contribute some solutions. An important aspect to be highlighted about
those meetings is the coincident thought of the guest geographers in terms of situating
geography as a social science which
is characterized for its deciphering of societies' writings over the earth's

surface (1991: 158)
While some contributors to this conference showed great concern for the lack of
understanding that wider society has about geography, others were worried about the
little interest shown in geography by students. Overall, these contributors agreed that
geography teaching was being devalued and therefore it had a poor image in the wider
community. The road chosen by the contributors to scrutinize this problem was to
focus on the evolution of the discipline of geography. There is perhaps in all of them
an attempt to discover a mature discipline of geography. Even though as a science
geography has to respond to an ever-changing world that pushes it into some
flexibility, it must not lose basic elements in such times. Healthy reflections upon
geography's essence will make it return to its roots as many times as the flashes of fads
may push it off course. In this respect, it is worthwhile asking oneself whether this is
not what Peet (1999) means at the end of his book, when he states:
Geography is changed almost beyond recognition in style and sophistication,

yet it is dominated still by ancient themes. Is this an eternal return of almost-
the-same? (1999: 302).
Community in its Broadest Sense
In relation to public opinion's and other professionals' perception of geography, it was

agreed that even though there is no positive value judgement, such an attitude varies
amongst those who have gone deeper into the essence of geography, and those who
have worked together with geographers, and who have been able to acknowledge their
contribution to improve our society. On the other hand, many hold that in recent
times, the use of Geographic Information Systems have contributed considerably to an
understanding of the geographers' work and their skill to use and interpret spatial data.
This view is enhanced by the gradual use of simplified GIS' s in high school curricula.
A recent study conducted in Australia (Gerber, 2001) on community attitudes towards

Geography focused on the perceptions and opinions of groups of business people,
govermnent representatives, professional people, educators and members of the general
public. Overall, this widely-represented group of people held a generally positive
appreciation of the discipline of geography, but that it was promoted sufficiently in the
education sectors. Considerable variations were detected, however, amongst these
groups in their perceptions of the purposes of geography, e.g. the study of places and
regions was favoured by the general public, business people, school educators and
professional workers, whilst government workers valued people-environment
relationships. All groups believed that geography was important in school education.
Primary industries were the main focus for geography in the world of work, together
with key roles in recreation, leisure and tourism. Also, geography was seen to have an
important role in understanding the environment; skills developed in its study were
valued highly; geographical concepts and theories were valued by business, professional
and govermnent groups; and values associated with environmental conservation, wise
use of resourses, ecological sustainability and acting ethically over the environment wee
supported strongly. It may, therefore, be concluded that while geography as a
discipline is respected by diferent community groups, they have not convinced the
educational policy makers of its importance for the improvement of the Australian
society.
The limited presence of geographers' opinion in the mass media limits their projection
and recognition on the part of the general public, for whom geography is still a
synonym for border line conflicts, site location, or memorization of names and figures.
Some of the authors quoted above stressed the fact that geographers have real skills in
developing topics of interest for society, and that they should transmit their opinion
beyond the academic border. Thus, they would recover the ground lost to the
spectacular advancement of the media in its field of concern. (Lacoste, 1977: 6, 128-
130) Unwin (1992: 289) insists that researchers should publish papers aimed at the
decision-makers. With regards to public image, this author encourages teachers in the
geography departments to "change the discipline's public image, and to conceive their
job as an exercise worthwhile doing".
82 J. OSTUNI
Gould (1975: 423) not only fosters the treatment of geographical topics for the wider
public, but he also published articles on Chemobyl and AIDS. Truly convinced about
the importance of this function, he recognized that geographers "since times past had
neglected their duty to communicate with society in general, and that of educating
citizens into a better understanding of spatial aspects". Without a doubt, this is an
approach to be exploited by geographers under two conditions: scientific rigor and
accessible language.
5. Geography in the Communication System
It is evident that the components analyzed thus far- school, university, and society - do
not constitute disconnected entities but rather they are closely interrelated. To ignore
this link would be to put the system at risk and introduce crises which often shake up
the responsible protagonists from their lethargy or indifference.
It may well be applied to geographers what an epistemologist stated during an

interview, about the role of intellectuals: "[ ... they have to] keep up the intellectual
·quality of their undertakings; come into contact with social and political groups in
order to be of service with their thinking, and fmally, to reach the media so as to fill
the spaces which public opinion is made up of' (Follari, 2001).
Geography teaching at elementary and high school levels must be supported and
controlled by the geography departments in universities if we really wish to promote its
value in the education of students. It is the university professors' great responsibility
to adapt themselves to the present times without losing the essence of their science, that
is, it is they who have to preserve the science and to protect it from any deviation. It is
also their duty to communicate with society by means of the proper clear language
without distorting the discipline~ It has to be pointed out that in this transmission,
together with the geographical information, there should be an attempt to irifluence or
modifY the erroneous interpretations and attitudes that appear in the popular press or on
television. The task is not only to be emitters of accurate information; they must also
be attentive receivers of queries coming both from education and from the wider society
(Figure 1).
Communication links an emitter -in our case the university and research centers- with a
receiver, represented by both· the teachers and students in elementary and high school
education, and the public in general, through a message that carries accurate content and
an ethical intention. The message constitutes the center of the integrated
communication; it is the message understood as a bi-polar unit (emission-reception) of
an information act built upon a culturally accepted code (Titone,1977: 19). It is this
cultural code that will be taken into consideration when designing the geographical
message. The message aimed at students cannot be identical to the one aimed at
society in general or at the decision-making groups. It is towards the latter, towards
those spheres into which access is not easy, that geographers must concentrate their
effort to understand their peculiarities so that the messages may be encoded in such a
way to be easily accessed.
The teaching of geography at

elementary and high-school levels
Influences the
Counsels, shaping of a proper
updates, and
controls
value
Fosters its prestige

The academic scientific Community in its
geographical community broader sense
Projects itself through the

media in an accessible
language
Figure I. Adequate functioning of a g eographical communication system within the community (Ostuni, J.)
What is important is that once the communication flow is established between the three
component elements, each one of them shall tum itself into an emitter and a receiver,
which will ensure feedback into the system. In this way, the geographer is positive
about the three-fold function of intellectuals.
Conclusion
The analysis of the problem presented shows that the understanding of geography is
conceived by friends and foe from its specific scope as well as from its external context.
This requires constant review and control. To neglect any one of the three aspects (in
Figure 1) will negatively influence the others. Out of the three components in this
system, it is the university geography departments that are primarily responsible for the
health of the discipline. They provide the ground for the growth of the discipline and,
therefore, they should properly transmit geographical knowledge and control its correct
application. If university geographers neglect this task, they themselves will be affected
by the system's dysfunctions. These dysfunctions can be manifested in a decrease in
the people seeking careers in geography, a loss of ground in the school curriculums at
elementary, high school, and college levels, and very little or no prestige at all in the
wider public. Therefore, the geography departments must become real power plants for
the development of the discipline and its transmission; they must emit clear signals,
from the university level, of what should be taught in geography. It must be so
because at university level the proper balance is not often achieved, and there is a
constant swing from a marked naturalistic emphasis to a social or technical significance.
The specific community composed of the geography departments, the geographic

societies and academies, shall have to act in proper coordination so as to project onto
84 J. OSTUNI
society a clearly focused image of geographical science, an image such as that presented
in the publication Rediscovering Geography (1997) by North American geographers.
Teaching at high school level must be strengthened, since it represents the best
opportunity to show to the general public what is geography's contribution, thus
changing the vague, outdated images many people have of geography. This should be
an unavoidable objective of every institution that is responsible for the development of
geography.
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D.C.: National Academy Press.
SECTION 3: REFOCUSSING LEARNING AND TEACHING
7. EXPERIENCE AND LEARNING IN GEOGRAPHY
MARGARET ROBERTSON
Experience is the name every one gives to their mistakes (quoted from Oscar
Wilde's Lady Windermere's Fan, 1892).
A less cynical version of Oscar Wilde's famous statement has often been used in
classrooms as 'we learn from our mistakes' or 'we learn from experience'. From these
perspectives the job of the teacher, it seems, is to guide the young person towards added
insights regarding their experience. Learning comes from being reflective and thinking
critically upon issues and events linked with guided classroom experience. All
commendable aims that ought to encourage quality learning outcomes. If only the
educative process could be regarded with such simplicity! The task of teaching the
discipline of geography would be relatively straight forward - as it appeared to be in
former times.
As recent events of global terrorism have highlighted the educative process is much
more complex. To simplify the process to static and rigid bases of knowledge can
compound ignorance and bigotry. At the same time to understand the diverse layers of
meaning, reference systems, beliefs and values of the culture and systems of the world
is to ask the impossible of teachers and students in any classroom regardless of
discipline. Our dilemma as trainers of teachers is to provide professional development
that will equip the teacher with authentic skills and personal confidence to guide the
future of young people with just and valid reference systems. Just how we do that is
problematic and integrally bound up with the life's experience of each person.
Uncertainty at all levels of society makes the management of daily events difficult. At
local levels restructuring of the job markets has had profound impact on communities
across the industrialised world with widespread unemployment and associated loss of
social status and sense of well-being. The cause is often far away in another country .
. Closure of factories, businesses, local banks and related community services can be
traced to complex entanglements of national and transnational corporations. Fluctuating
commodity prices can make resources valuable and a big employer of people, and in
turn result in oversupply on world markets and downsizing and/or closure of local
operations leading to unemployment. Decisions taken in boardrooms in the financial
centres of the world have their ultimate impact on the daily lives of people in local
towns. Debt can come very easily for local families and turn comfortable home
circumstances into borderline poverty. In the wake of the terrorist attacks of September
11th, 2001 in the United States there is palpable evidence of these predictions across the
global community.
89
90 M. ROBERTSON
To deal with these mega-forces in personal, dependable ways our children need special
skills. In geography classrooms across the world we can study patterns and
distributions ofthemes and issues. We can teach facts about a whole range of matters
and implement curriculums determined by distant educative power brokers. All are
laudable aims. But, the fundamental test will be whether the facts we teach and the
skills we develop in our classrooms will stand the test of time in the real world.
Knowledge and understanding of local and national environments are important for our
children to act as 'good' citizens. Knowing more about the diversity that exists at a
global level may be a better preparation for the future that faces young people.
Recent writings by authors in the field of geography have extended the late twentieth
century interest in people and place connectedness to consider the importance of the
'moral and ethical landscape' of local terrains. In the light of current global forces a
brief explication of these ideas seems apt. Considered in the next section of this chapter
this review then forms the basis for reporting some research findings that reveal a small
part of the personal experiences of students in geography/social science classrooms
located in several countries. The chapter concludes by offering some comment on
trainee geography/social science teachers' visions for the future with some
recommendations for change in curriculum content to inject optimism and life-skills
that encourage independence into the life's experience of young people.
Experience and Ethical Landscapes in Geography Teaching
Calls from diverse sources for social justice, fairness and equity for human beings
should have resonance for all geographic educators. Charged with responsibilities for
extending the boundaries of students' global knowledge, teachers of geography have the
very grave responsibility of interpreting the curriculum from the standpoints of where
students are currently situated. Often this position is one of limited first hand
experience of places other than those within a very narrow boundary from home. Along
with this restricted experience is a corresponding shortage of contacts with alternate
landscapes, and otherness related to both people, and natural and built environments.
'Knowing' about different places and people with alternate sets of values can be related
to what the television or other media forms offer. It can also be part of the socialising
patterns within the family and local community (Crang 1998; Mitchell 2000). Both
forums offer interpretations that transmit to young people mediated messages based on
the perspectives of the producers of programs and/or the beliefs of the social groups
with whom the young student interacts. Neither is a guarantee of factual, well informed
evidence and decision making. Recognition of this shortfall in community information
is central to the way in which the teacher approaches the teaching of 'otherness' and
difference in both the cultural and physical environments people inhabit.
Intercultural learning for meaning and understanding in geography classrooms requires

more than that which can be provided by normal classroom resources of textbooks and
videos. Online-Internet based class interactions between children in different schools
and places can help to extend the boundaries of experience. However, without good
research to support the value of these cyber-based communications we can assert that
EXPERIENCE AND LEARNING IN GEOGRAPHY 91
first hand experience will be the most powerful way to produce lasting impressions of
alternate intellectual and landscapes. Travelling to places outside the usual boundaries
of everyday living can provide personal experience of difference and a consequent need
to reconsider appropriate strategies for successful interaction. However, this can be a
dream for most of the world's children. Being mindful of the experiences of the
world's street children that will likely lead to insights on different lifestyles, only a few
children will have the privilege of in-country experiences through holidays and perhaps
between-country scholarships.
Research reminds us that stereotypes of people and places are learned. Kincheloe and
Steinberg (1997) refer to the "on-the-job curriculum of patriarchy" (p. 154) which
guarantees the ongoing suppression of women in the workforce and their relegation to
more menial and less secure jobs. As these authors state this is one of the paradoxes of
industralialised societies which espouse a 'free market economy' with the right to
material wealth of all their citizens, but through inadequate support for family structures
diminish the power for women as child bearers to act with similar certainty as their male
counterparts. A more recent debate considers the role of racial privilege as an
expression of hegemony - be it white supremacy or non-white success attained at the
perceived expense of white people. Kincheloe and Steinberg (1997) describe this
phenomenon as a feature of the United States experience. The same observation can be
made of the way in which the politics of hatred has been fostered by extremist political
elements in Australia against the advancement and government support of indigenous
Australians. In the Asian context the story of colonial rule provides further evidence of
the extent to which a dominant culture can 'craft' the thinking of its children. Bhabha's
(1994) analysis of colonial power describes how white supremacy has been fictionalised
in stories for children, which associate fear with black children in the context of
everyday life. Perhaps the worst example of institutionalised stereotyping to have
dominated twentieth century politics was South Africa's Apartheid policy. As Mitchell
(2000) concludes 'space makes race' (p. 255).
Space and place connections will inevitably provide people with metaphors by which to
live their lives. Living a set of ethical standards that are nurtured within the family and
wider community is a way to diminish complexity and 'get on with it' in everyday
living (Mitchell 2000). However, and one would like to think unwittingly,
discriminatory practices, along with negative and judgmental behaviours do form part
of the child's experience of the everyday world. The developmental progress of the
child will be a function of the totality of their experiences at home, from the electronic
media and books they read, 'holidays', as well as the many and diverse visual images of
'different people' they encounter in their daily lives as part of their formal and informal
experiences.
A debate that exists at the moment, for instance, takes this argument into the sphere of
cyberworld and is of particular interest for geography educators. Geographers now
need to apply a new set of ethics to technology use of the Internet. Debates over
technology are not new for geographers - the positivism versus empowerment argument
that relates to geographic information systems (GIS) is a relevant issue. But, the
boundaries of the Internet do not make the issue so bland. Grimes (1999) describes this
development as a 'geography of virtualisation'. As new places and spaces develop
92 M.ROBERTSON
within the Internet communication system, Grimes suggests that we might ask if it is
"forming a news set of spaces which eclipse national boundaries, and consider what this
means for politics, culture and ultimately, the possibility of democracy" (1999, p. 74).
His analysis of cyberspace considers three intersecting areas for ethical decision making
for geographers and by implication teachers of the discipline - outcomes, knowledge
and professional standards. Questions to ask are: How valuable are Internet based
resources? How do information and communication technologies (ICT) influence
student motivation and research approaches? How 'corporatised' is education
becoming?
In brief, the moral landscapes of learning environments may seem increasingly complex
for teachers. Alternatively, they may seem liberating. For geography teachers who now
have access to more information about the world, its people and places, one hopes that
the reaction is the latter.
The Reflective Geography Teacher
All the new experiences both constructed in classrooms and incidental in everyday life
challenge teachers to rid themselves of traditional knowledge boundaries and see the
possibilities of infinite knowledge sources. As Keiron Egan (1988) notes of teaching
and learning the opportunities are limited purely by the imagination of the teacher and
students. Similar judgements can be applied to the new knowledge domain of
information and communications technologies (ICT). At the same time the enormity of
the pedagogical shifts implied. Understanding the moral terrain within a school
community is demanding enough without the added dimension of a shifting curriculum.
Holding on to some of the 'true and told' approaches of traditional teaching may be
good advice for simplifying the apparent complexity. For instance, careful navigation
around existing attitudes and metaphors of living can be achieved with non-confronting
experiences such as swapping stories of daily routines with similar aged children of
non-dominant cultures in the school. Simple processes can provide a sound start for
asking more critical questions about less tangible beliefs and shift the awareness beyond
the surface aspects of the 'iceberg' to the depths of cultural difference which lie beneath
the observable layers (Fennes and Hapgood 1997). Our aim as educators should be to
look beyond the obvious for understanding. However, to do so requires a personal skill
for self-reflection - sensitising ourselves to accept cultural difference without prejudice
and working towards peaceful coexistence.
Providing children with alternative images of everyday living can be achieved simply
through geography fieldwork experiences. Another pedagogical approach known to
have lasting impact on students' behaviour is action learning whereby problem solving
and enquiry are used to motivate learning and authenticity in content (Hart 1997).
Either can engage young minds in reality linked contexts where decisions have
consequences and choices of behaviour and action can enhance or minimise the
outcome for other community members. Embedding learning in real situations and
contexts means taking into account the situated values, beliefs and landscape
arrangements (Proctor and Smith 1999). Experience in this sense is not simulated or
virtual - it is! ICT can be part of this learning experience but be used as a resource
rather then the content per se.
In the broadest context at the heart of the challenge for geography teachers is need to
provide students with multiple discourses of life and experiences in other cultural
contexts. The study of people and place interactions is central to the discipline.
However, the danger lies in the way in which we approach the education of 'otherness'.
If we apply the basic tenet of Western thinking then the discussion is likely to be
embedded in materialism (such as Marxist social theory), patriarchy and generalisable
reason (Gregory 1994, Harvey 1996). Put simply, and as already argued, one can argue
that the recorded history of the Western world is primarily patriarchal, and couched in
economic and political systems with an implicit hierarchy of power ascendancy based
on dominance within those structures. Translated to the geography classroom of the
Western world this can promote a simplistic view of 'good' and/or 'success' as being
wealthy in monetary terms, living in a 'nice' house in a 'nice' suburb. Illustrative of the
narrowness of this approach is the concern by community leaders in countries like
Canada, New Zealand and Australia to provide a more inclusive curriculum that
recognises the cultures of indigenous people. Yet, there is a danger in this
acknowledgement of the hurt incurred from past colonising forces by indigenous
communities of excluding more recent immigrants of alternate ethnicity. In-migration
especially from Asian, African and Afro-Caribbean to economically wealthy Western
countries has led to culturally diverse origins. Post-modernity shifts us towards
considering multiple geographies of structures, institutions and place within the same
physical space.
SEARCHING FOR THE TRUTH
Recognising difference is a beginning. However, defining the narratives of alternate

geographies is more problematic for teachers and an area where considerable assistance
is required to locate morally, ethically and socially just learning models. One approach
found to be useful by theoretical geographers is that of Foucault. Drawn from the
respective knowledge domains of biology, economics and language studies he offers
three separate models for a comprehensive study of people and populations. First, there
are the biological 'functions' of people "receiving stimuli (physiological ones, but also
social, inter-human, and cultural ones, reacting to them, adapting, evolving .... finding
average norms of adjustment" (Foucault 1970, p. 357). The surface of economics leads
to ways of resolve conflict or rules and through language a system of signs conveys the
way in which the daily world becomes organised and thus "constitute a coherent whole
and a system of signs" (p. 357). Hence, behavioural norms, along with rules that govern
behavioural transgressions and systems for ethical decisions help locate the moral
dimensions of space. At the same time much of the content of representational space is
unconscious. This makes both the study of difference problematic and the danger of
universality of personal interpretations seem acceptable.
Foucault's approach offers geographic educators a way to free their thinking from
perceived traditional constraints. Matless's (1994) study of the recreational historical
geography of the Broadlands of Norfolk's illustrates this lateral application. He draws
94 M.ROBERTSON
on Foucault's ideas to show how aesthetics or moral geographies can guide the use and
development of landscape spaces. Through an analysis of publications and images from
the past a series of competing views about landscape management leading to an
evolving preferred set of behaviours can be revealed. He uses Foucault's approach as a
means of escaping the accusers of modernity as rigid and conforming thinking to seek
alternate 'truths' in the postmodern context of space.
Other illustrations include the widely referenced writings of Tuan (1994, 1989, 1977).
His views on environmental aesthetics have long challenged geographers to think
outside the dominant view. Along with feminist writers like Hooks (1990) we get from
Tuan a sense of 'insider' versus 'outsider' behaviours in the social and physical spaces
ofNew York. They provide clear evidence of Foucault's ideas on normative space and
power. So, too, does the research of McDowell (1999) on feminist identity. Her
reconstructed concepts of space and place in city landscapes and analysis of home and
community illustrate well how the hegemonic 'norms' of an era can be redefined from
gendered perspectives. The common theme in all these writings (see also Allen,
Massey and Pryke, 1999; Duncan and Ley, 1993; Fincher and Jacobs, 1998) is an
openness to explore the real spaces of people and places, take in the images and explain
them as they are.
As Lefebvre's Production of Space (1991) guides us to believe, the truth lies in local
neighbourhood spaces frequented by everyday people going about their everyday
business. We need a way to analyse that local everyday experience, to look at the
homes, shops, roads, leisure parks and learn to 'read' the signs of different discourses
and narratives that surround us. In an earlier paper, Matless (1992) describes how when
all that seems fundamental in daily life is under review, geography is the one discipline
that can adapt its tools to provide a means of discovering new knowledge. Matless
states:
There is much to bring out from seemingly mundane geographical practice;

from naturalistic description .. , from mapping.. , from fieldwork .. , from local
studies ... , indeed from all the unexamined items of taken-for-granted
geography (1992, p. 54).
Hence, the ways in which we study cultural geography and process the new spaces of
the cyber world can simply be a matter of training our eyes to 'see' difference in our
surroundings and record it as it is free from moral constraints; look for the patterns in
the descriptions, and seek to map this information using existing tools. With skills to
observe, represent and interpret facts, awareness of personal geographies can come from
local experience and encourage in children to feel that their lives are enriched by
different others in their communities.
Leisure, Recreation and Geography Students
Geography educators can have as their best resource the students themselves. Research
into the leisure and recreation need of young people indicates their clear separation of
spaces that are important in their lives. For their developing identities they seek private
spaces such as their own bedroom or a space in school or elsewhere that enables them to
be away from the watchful eyes of adults (Abbott Chapman and Robertson, 1999, in
press; Weinstein, 1995). Cross-cultural research also shows the importance of nature
and wilderness in the lives of young people (Robertson and Rikkinen, 2000). Concerns
for the environment were clearly evident in the research reported on the views and
visions of the young UK children who participated in the national land use study of
1996 (Robertson and Walford, 2000). Such dimensions suggest a thoughtful and
reflective dimension to young people. At the same time the importance of socialising
makes the use of public spaces by young people a separate and interesting dimension
for study. Their use of recreational spaces such as leisure centres, skateboard parks,
sporting grounds, cinema complexes, shopping malls, etc., all provide fertile territory
for understanding the behaviours of youth (Robertson, 2001).
Knowing what young people choose to do with their spare time can be the starting point
for sound geographic education. This is well illustrated in Ramasubramanian's (2001)
The City Search Auckland project. As part of a larger project (Digital Technologies,
Youth Voices project) the volunteer group of young people involved were invited to
nominate a problem of interest to them in their city. Through a process of consensus
they decided to develop a 'virtual information kiosk' for Auckland's youth that would
identify the local sites of interest to their peers and present the information using GIS,
Maplnfo software using graphics, maps and ways to appeal to the age group. The
process provides an excellent prototype of constructivist learning that combines a
multitude of sound geographic education principles - problem solving, skill building
through authentic locally based research, use of ICT and built in assessment and
evaluation through the feedback from users ofthe site.
My own research has shown that a useful tool for starting a dialogue with students about
their uses of 'spare time' can be photographs. Used recently to stimulate a conversation
about their leisure and recreation activities in three UK schools, the 11 year olds and 15
year olds who formed the samples in each school showed clear evidence of the local,
national and global forces at work in their daily lives. In one of these schools
skateboards were 'de rigueur' and in another school they were considered 'passe'. In all
three schools the popular prime time television show was the Australian production
Neighbours. All students interviewed indicated a strong attraction to nature attractions
and a concern for their maintenance. Such findings echo results from previous studies
in Finland (Robertson and Rikkinen, 2001) and Australia (Robertson, 2001).
Recommendations for Geography Teacher Education Programs
In a recent survey, second year students (N=105) enrolled in the four year Bachelor of
Education degree program at the University of Tasmania recorded their local, national
and global visions of the future at the end of the first decade of the new millennium.
Notwithstanding the irony that their thoughts were recorded two weeks prior to the
September 11th terrorist attacks in the United States, I was struck by the pessimism in
their responses. References to global conflicts and wars, widening gaps between the
rich and the poor, increased crime, unemployment and pollution were common. While
there is ample evidence to explain the causes of such gloomy outlooks the concern is
96 M.ROBERTSON
that these are the young people who will be teaching our future adults in classrooms in
two years time. Starting from a position of such negative perceptions can filter through
to the position they adopt in their teaching including the topics they choose, the
knowledge they convey and the values that are reinforced. Do we need a future
generation burdened potentially by guilt, low self-esteem and despair? Or, do we rely on
our teachers to commence the healing process towards a future built on harmony and
good will?
In his recently published book, titled Geography in British Schools 1850-2000, Rex
Walford stated:
Geography teachers should not be ashamed to take the lead in schools in

seeking to inspire their pupils about the continuing fascination and beauty of
the natural world, as well as making them marvel at the complexity and the
liveliness of the human one. Not all things on earth are 'problems'.. (200 1,
pp. 247)
The wisdom in these words is for we the practitioners to interpret and translate into the
curriculum of our trainee geography teachers and embed the future learning of children
with hope and optimism that they can help build a better world.
References
Abbott-Chapman, J. and Robertson, M. (1999) Home as a private space: some adolescent constructs. Journal
of Youth Studies, 2(1), 23-43.
Abbott-Chapman, J. and Robertson, M. (accepted for publication late 2001) Leisure and Society.
Allen, J., Massey, D. and Pryke, M. (1999) {eds.) Unsettling Cities, London: Routledge.
Bhaba, H. (1994) The Location ofCulture, London: Routledge.
Crang, M. (1998) Cultural Geography, London: Routledge.
Foucault, M. (1970). The order of things, Random House: New York.
Duncan, J. and Ley, D. (1993) (eds.) Place, Culture/Representation, London: Routledge.
Egan, K. (1988) The origins of imagination and the curriculum, in K. Egan and D. Nadaner (eds.),
Imagination and Education, New York: Teachers College Press, pp. 91-127.
Fennes, H. and Hapgood, K. (1997) Intercultural Learning in the Classroom, London: Cassell.
Fincher, R. and Jacobs, J.M. (1998) Cities ofDifference, New York: The Guildford Press.
Gregory, D. (1994. Geographical imaginations, Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers Inc.
Grimes, S. (1999) Exploring the ethics of development, in J.D. Proctor and D.M. Smith (eds), Geography and
Ethics, London: Routledge, pp. 59-71.
Hart, R. ( 1997) Children 's partic.ipation. The theory and practice of involving young citizens in community
development and environmental care, UNICEF London: Earthscan.
Harvey, D. (2000) Spaces ofhope, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Harvey, D. (1996) Justice, nature and the geography ofdifference, Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc.
Hooks, B. (1990) Yearning: race, gender and cultural politics. London: Turnaround.
Kaivalo, T. and Rikkinen, H. (2001) Recreation and favourite places of Finnish adolescents,in L. Houtsonen,
and M. Tammilehto (eds.), Innovative Practices in Geographical Education, Proceedings of the Helsinki
Symposium of the International Geographical Union's Commission on Geographical Education, University of
Helsinki, pp. 266-273. ISBN 952-10-0089-9.
Kincheloe, J.L. and Steinberg, S.R. (1997) Changing Multiculturalism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Lefebvre, H. (1991). (trans. D. Nicholson-Smith). The production of space. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Company.
Massey, D. (1994). Space, place and gender. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Matless, D. (1994) Moral geography in Broadland, Ecumene, 1(2), pp. 127-156.
Matless. D. (1992) An occasion for geography: landscape, representation, and Foucault's corpus. Environment
and Planning D: Society and Space, 10, pp. 41-56.
McDowell, L. (1999) Gender, Identity and Place. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Mitchell, D. (2000) Cultural Geography. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc.
Proctor, J. and Smith, D. (eds.) (1999) Geography and Moral Terrains. London: Routledge.
Ramasubramanian, L. (2001) Children's learning through geo-information technologies, in M. Robertson and
R. Gerber (eds.) Children's Ways of Knowing: Learning through Experience, Camberwell, ACER Press, pp.
28-45.
Robertson, M. (200 1) Leisure Places - self, space and others, in M. Robertson and R. Gerber (eds.) Children's
Ways ofKnowing: Learning through Experience, Camberwell, ACER Press, pp. 245-267.
Robertson, M. and Rikkinen, H. (2000) Leisure, recreation and young people's every day knowing: a Cross
cultural perspective of private and public spaces, in Proceedings Commission on Geographical Education,
30th Congress of the International Geographical Union, Kyongu, 7-12 August, pp. 127-142.
Robertson, M. and Walford. R. (2000) Views and visions of land use in the United Kingdom. The
Geographical Journal, 166(3), 239-254.
Robertson, M. and Gerber, R. (eds) (2001) Children's Ways of Knowing: Learning through Experience,
Camberwell, ACER Press.
Tuan, Y-F. (1994) Environmental determinism and the city: a historical-cultural note, Ecumene, 1(2), 121-
126.
Tuan, Y-F. (1989) Surface phenomena and aesthetic experience, Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, 79(2), 233-241.
Tuan, Y-F. Tuan (1977) Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience, Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press.
Walford, R. (2001) Geography in British Schools 1850-2000. London: Woburn Press.
Weinstein, C. (1995) Privacy-seeking behaviour in an elementary classroom, in C. Spencer (ed.), Readings in
Environmental Psychology, London, Academic Press, pp. 229-242.
8. ALTERNATIVE GEOGRAPHY
SARAH BEDNARZ AND ROBERT BEDNARZ
Geography is learned in many ways. Some geographic understandings are developed as part
of the process of human development through accommodation and assimilation, whereas
other understandings and skills are learned in formal educational contexts through carefully
planned instruction and the artful construction of student learning opportunities (West,
Farmer and Wolff 1991). Additional geographic knowledge is acquired through informal,
real-world experiences such as family travel, scouting, work, sports, and community
involvement. There is no consensus on optimal learning environments for geography, no
agreement on the single best place, time, or method to learn geography. The reason for this
lack of agreement is that different types of geography learning necessitate different learning
experiences.
Geography education takes many forms and occurs in many different contexts depending
upon targeted educational goals. In the language ofFien, Cox and Fossey (1989) geography
education about the environment and society, as contrasted with education in the
environment and society, or for the environment and society, requires different learning
experiences. Traditional formal geography education in which students learn about people,
places, and environments often involves teacher-centered, school-based, whole-group
instruction. Geography education that takes place in the environment and allows students to
work for the solution of problems and to improve society might very well be structured in
different ways.
A few geography educators have explored and used alternative learning methods and
contexts to great advantage. These learning contexts stand in marked contrast to traditional
geography education. They can be characterized as informal, community-based, individual-
or group-focused, and learner-centered. These alternative ways of learning and teaching
have not been widely adopted by geography educators for at least four reasons. First, they
are not well known. Other than a long line of research on field work (see Foskett and others
1999), relatively little has been written about these other types of geography learning and
teaching that might convince a geography educator to consider them worthy of
consideration and implementation. Second, because they are so fundamentally different
from traditional models of education, they may threaten educators by reducing their control
of the learning process. Third, implementation might require resources that are not
available or strategies that are inapplicable in many schools (eg., fieldwork). Fourth, these
99
R. Gerber (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Education.99-113.

100 S. BEDNARZ AND R. BEDNARZ
methods and strategies have not been linked to new developments in cognition and learning
theory in a way that supports their value and efficacy.
In this chapter we discuss alternative forms and contexts of geography education and the
implications for geography education of new understandings about learning contexts and, by
extension, learning in general. We begin our discussion by exploring ideas about learning,
and the contexts in which learning takes place. Next, we review new developments in two
types of learning with wide application in geography, problem-based learning (PBL) and
participatory education. We conclude by proposing a framework that describes the range of
geography learning approaches and by encouraging geography educators worldwide to offer
learners a variety of learning environments. This chapter is not a comprehensive review of
learning theories or instructional strategies; rather it is an attempt to connect theory on
learning environments to the practice of geography education.
Learning and Learning Geography: two metaphors and three perspectives
As the Israeli researcher Sfard (1998) argues, contemporary education is in the midst of a
struggle between two conceptualizations of the learning process. She characterizes these as
metaphors. The two conceptualizations of learning she suggests are an acquisition metaphor
and a participation metaphor. Like all metaphors, these conceptualizations are embedded
with implicit understandings that shape how people think about issues. Depending upon the
metaphor chosen, different educational experiences will result. The acquisition metaphor
conceives of learning as gaining knowledge through the development of concepts. The
processes or mechanisms by which this occurs vary with school of thought but can range
from passive, direct instruction to so-called constructivist ideas in which learning is seen as
active building of new understandings in a "never ending self regulating process of
emergence in a continuing interaction with peers, teachers, and texts" (Sfard 1998, 6). The
most important point of the metaphor is that the learner, individually, acquires something.
The role of the teacher is to provide students with ·knowledge and concepts or, at least, to
help facilitate the students' acquisition of knowledge.
The participation metaphor, in contrast, views learning as a process of becoming a

member of a community with all that that entails including mastering the language,
norms, and values of the community. Learning its participation, not acquisition;
learning is about activities and doing, not about ownership. The role of the
teacher in this metaphor is an expert participant; the learner is a interested in
participation in certain kinds of activities rather than in accumulating private
possessions (Sfard 1998, 6).
Figure 1 compares the two conceptualizations of education.

ALTERNATIVE GEOGRAPHY 101
Educational Attributes Acquisition Metaphor Participation Metaphor
Goal ofleaming Individual enrichment Community building
Learning Acquisition of something Becoming a participant
Student Recipient, consumer, (re) constructor Peripheral participant, apprentice
Teacher Provider, facilitator, mediator Expert participant, preserver of

practice/discourse
Knowledge, concepts Property, possession, commodity Aspect of practice/discourse/activity
Knowing Having, possessing Belonging, participating,

communicating
Source: After Sfard ( 1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational
Researcher, 27/2:4-13.
Figure 1. Two Metaphors
These two metaphors are not exclusive. Combining aspects of both make sense (Sfard calls
for a "multimetaphorical metaframework"). However, educators often find themselves
seeking "the silver bullet," the one best way to structure learning. This attitude encourages
them to choose between these two metaphors. Some educators swear allegiance to one
conceptualization and eschew the other when in fact combining the perspectives might best
match multiple goals for geographic education: learning about, in, and for the environment
and society.
Within the framework of the two metaphors there are additional perspectives shown in
Figure 2 that guide the design of learning experiences. These interrelate·d approaches can be
termed the learner-centered perspective, the knowledge-centered perspective, and the
community-centered perspective (Bransford et al., 1999). An educator adopting a learner-
centered perspective to plan curriculum and instruction works under the assumption that
teaching is helping students to construct their own meanings. She will pay careful attention
to building instruction from the knowledge, skills, concepts and cultural values and beliefs
that students bring to the learning experience and to linking students to the subject matter.
Instruction will capitalize on what students think about the topic at hand and help students
acquire new understandings by inviting them to think critically about issues in order to
restructure their knowledge.
Source: After Bransford, Brown, Cocking (eds) (1999) How people learn. Washington DC: National Academy
Press.
Figure 2. Three Perspectives
Knowledge-centered instruction focuses on learning experiences that help students develop

an understanding of a discipline (in our case geography) and its subject matter. The learning
environment is designed to facilitate students' acquisition of the content, skills, and
perspectives judged to be worthy and significant and formalized into a local, provincial, or
national curriculum. Knowledge-centered learning experiences can be structured in various
ways. We will discuss one such way, problem based learning, later in this chapter. The
challenge for knowledge-centered instruction is to develop experiences that help students to
fully understand the structure and perspectives of the discipline they are learning in a
connected and coherent, discipline-related fashion. A danger of knowledge-centered
instruction in geography may be that it gives students few opportunities to think
geographically or to do geography and too many opportunities to study a body of
knowledge deemed "geography." This is especially problematic in nations where instruction
is driven by the need to prepare students for examinations which value content knowledge
over the development of community-oriented, social-based skills, values, and attitudes.
Community-centered learning, in contrast, takes advantage of a variety of communities to

enhance education. Instruction following this perspective is designed to allow students to
work as a community of learners, sharing and learning from each other. Community-
centered learning can also involve working with, and in, the larger, broader community
outside of school. Lessening the isolation of schooling from real life is an important goal of
this approach. Community-centered and community-based learning experiences motivate
students, particularly adolescents seeking to establish their identity in the larger world, and
help to encourage the positive life-long learning and citizenship goals ascribed for
geography education in many national contexts. Community-centered instruction can
provide students with the skills, attitudes, and habits of mind they need to connect to the
world that education is ostensibly preparing them to enter.
Combining learner-, knowledge-, and community-centered perspectives enhances learning

(Bransford et a/., 1999). Educators planning instruction are advised to use methods found at
the intersection of these three perspectives. Instruction in a knowledge-centered classroom
can begin with a learner-centered focus on students' current understandings. Learner-
centered classrooms must be concerned with students' development of key knowledge and
skills. The connections between home and school, the world and the classroom should be
addressed in both learner- and knowledge-centered instruction.
These three perspectives, in combination or alone, engage both metaphors of learning.

Clearly, the participation metaphor appears connected to community-centered learning.
However, one could arrange learning in a knowledge-centered, acquisition-styled classroom
following an apprentice model. In such a model students would become members of a
group engaged in inquiry-based activities to form a "community of practice" doing
geography (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Participating in this community, through the
activities, students would learn the vocabulary, perspectives, key skills, and concepts of the
discipline with the guidance of the expert participant (the geography teacher). Other
combinations of metaphors and perspectives are possible and, in fact, advisable. The key to
considering these metaphors and perspectives is alignment: what is being taught and how it
is being taught should align with the educative goals in mind.
To return to the analogy of"about, in, and for," knowledge-centered instruction (about) will
suffice for students to learn only certain aspects of what geography educators consider
important. The learner- and community-centered perspectives need to be incorporated into
geography education in order to meet the broader goals of societies worldwide. In the next
section we look at two ways to meld metaphors and perspectives that move instruction
beyond traditional knowledge-centered instruction in geography education.
Alternative Geography
There are many alternatives to traditional knowledge-centered, classroom-based geography.

Currently, one of the most exciting developments in geography education is in the creation
of software for spatial analysis, visualization, and mapping through the use of geographic
information systems and remote sensing. A plethora of software, available both on disk and
over the Internet, are providing students with access to rich visual, numerical, and
geographical data with related geography learning opportunities. In addition to providing
students with relevant information, the Internet is leading a revolution in instruction by
providing students with individual, on-line learning (see Chapters 14 and 24).
The Internet also provides community-centered learning opportunities for individuals and
groups of students by creating focused on-line communities whose member can participate
in, or work together on, unique geographic adventures, expeditions, or projects. Examples
of such opportunities include the Geography Action! activities of the Geographical
Association in the UK (http://www.geography.org.uk/) and the National Geographic Society
in the US (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/geographyaction/). Other programs make
images of Earth accessible to students such as those acquired by the International Space
Station and made available by EarthKAM (http://www.earthkam.ucsd.edu/). Additional
programs that provide similar resources include those of the Global Learning and
Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) program (http://www.globe.gov/), the
Weather Station (http://www.sutton.lincs.sch.uk/pages/weather/index.htm), the Community
Atlas Project (http://www.esri.com/industries/k-12/atlas/index.html) and AmazonQuest
(http://africaquest.classroom.com/amazon2001/home.asp?qargs=176,9,English).
These on-line programs provide students with a wide variety of learning opportunities.
Some are designed for group participation, some for individual students. Some are on-
going, long-term, and asynchronous; others follow set schedules and have distinct
beginnings and ends. Some are project-based and typically deal with a different topic each
year, as do the Geography Action! activities, others are focused on possible solutions to a
chronic or long-term problem, or at least the collection of data related to such a problem, as
is the case with GLOBE. Some programs require students to work both on- and off-line,
some are almost entirely on-line activities. Within the curriculum, however, virtually all of
these learning environments are essentially transitory. For the most part, they serve more as
a curriculum supplement to everyday classroom instruction rather than a course of study in
geography.
In addition, the availability of computers and access to the Internet varies widely. It is much
more common for schools in the well-developed core regions of the world to have sufficient
computing resources, suitable Internet connectivity, technical support, etc. Even in the most
developed countries, however, many students have limited access to computers and the
Internet, especially in geography and social studies classrooms.
One piece of good news is that promising and complementary approaches to geography
education that are not dependent on technology do exist. Two that are underutilized and
could serve as significant components of instruction are participatory education and
problem-based learning (PBL).
Participatory education (sometimes known as popular education) is best represented in

geography and environmental education by the work of Roger Hart. It is based on the
theories of democratic schooling advanced by John Dewey (1916) and Paulo Freire (1993)
and can be defined as, "the participation of children in investigating and acting on
environmental issues that are important in their own lives and the lives of their
communities" (Hart 1997, 92). Hart stresses the need to create authentic participatory
learning environments, in both formal (school-based) and informal (community-based)
settings. He argues that these learning environments must give children the chance to
engage in analyses of local issues that they themselves identify. Authentic participatory
learning studies, he asserts, empower children and help them to develop into adults who are
able to produce just and peaceful societies in a sustainable global environment. The
commitment to developing solutions to local problems and to taking action to address them
is a notable characteristic of participatory education. It is not sufficient to study local
geographic problems and issues. Participatory education demands that students identify the
problem, the optimal or ideal outcome, their ideal solution, and a positive action plan that
leads to the desired outcome. Participatory education is essentially learner-centered, and
therefore, it is important that the learner plays a central role to ensure that a model of
genuine participation is created. Thus, it is necessary to make sure that learners have
choices, are consulted during the learning process, and are taken seriously if real
participatory education is initiated.
Hart outlines a process for participatory education he terms "action research" shown in
Figure 3. The steps he outlines closely parallel inquiry approaches in geography education.
For example, the core skills featured in the United States National Geography Standards
(GESP 1994) and the inquiry procedures suggested by Fien et al. (1989) shown in Figure 4
are very similar to Hart's process. This is interesting because even though participatory
education and inquiry approaches can be virtually identical, participatory education has been
marginalized in the geography curricula of some nations, such as the United States, because
of its perceived pro-active, political dimensions. Apparently some geography educators feel
uncomfortable dealing with potentially controversial issues related to issues that might
involve social inequality or environmental justice.
Hart suggests that students begin their participatory education process by conducting
exploratory research on their own environment. Next, students extend their study of the
local geography and environment in an attempt to address issues related to environmental
planning, design, and construction, for example, designing a school playground they would
enjoy. They might also extend their exploratory research by attacking an issue related to
environmental management, such as how to maintain a pleasant and clean school
playground, or to environmental monitoring, such as participating in local and national
survey projects to measure environmental quality. These "next steps" can be tied to the
children's stage of development and their expanding range of skills and knowledge as
shown in Figure 5. Although they do not say so explicitly, the participatory education
espoused by Hart and others is a manifestation of the participation metaphor. Children work
in communities and in the community. In the process of performing activities such as
interviewing local elected officials, community members, and environmental experts,
mapping and graphing data, and identifying geographic issues, they are working to improve
their community and to communicate their opinions about geographic issues that they find
important.
Step One: Problem Identification Children evaluate quality of own environment

• Address different community perspectives and values
• Survey community residents and decisions makers including
environmental professionals and government and elected
officials
• Spatialize results: map, graph, chart preliminary findings
• Prioritize issues and select problem
Step Two: Investigation Children research the study site/problem

• Observe and systematically record and summarize information
• Collection of further data, perspectives from many different
points ofview, and from many sources of information
Step Three: Analyze and Interpret Data Children organize the information they have collected
• Graphs, charts, summaries, maps, large wall graphics
Step Four: Plan Action Children draw conclusions, suggest solutions, and (for older
children) decide which to act on
• Positive and negative geographic, social, and environmental
effects of solutions
• Debate and critical analysis
Source: After Hart, R.A. (1997) Children's participation. London: Earthscan.
Figure 3. Action Research
Action Research (after Hart) National Geography Standards Skills Inquiry Procedures (after Fien)
Problem Identification Ask geographic questions Perception, definition, and

Investigation Acquire geographic information classification using skills of
observation, recording, and
description: What and where?
Analyze and Interpret Data Organize geographic information Explanation and prediction using skills
Analyze geographic information of application, analysis, and synthesis:
How? Why? What impact?
Plan Action Answer geographic questions Evaluation and decision making using
skills of values analysis and problem
solving: How ought?
Figure 4. Comparing Action Research, National Geography Standards, and Fien et al. 's Conceptualizations of
Inquiry
Twelve Years Strategic environmental/geographic research: research

and older for action on ecosystems, geographic conditions,
significant problems
Ten Years Community based environmental/geographic

monitoring: housing conditions, traffic studies, solid
waste studies, park use, GIS-based community atlas
\.
Community environmental/geographic management:
management of water wells, local hike and bike trails,
parks
Community environmental/geographic action research:

interviews of residents and environmental professionals
leading to physical improvements and awareness-
raising
EightYears Local action research: observations or interviews

leading to improving part of their environment such as
building a birdhouse, cleaning a local stream
Six Years Local environmental/geographic monitoring: weather

surveys, wildlife surveys, waste and resource audits
Local environmental/geographic management:

recycling, composting,
Four Years Domestic environmental management: caring for own

animals, recycling, gardening
Source: after Hart, R.A. (1997) Children's participation. London: Earthscan.
Figure 5. Childrens' developing capacity to engage in participatory education.

Problem-based learning (PBL) shares many similarities with participatory education but is
less concerned with the issues of empowerment, social justice, and democracy. When
compared to participatory education, it is typically seen as a "safer" alternative. It can
provide more conservative geographic educators an alternative approach to traditional
geography instruction and learning experiences that they find more comfortable. The
central idea of PBL is that one or more problems serve to frame, focus, and organize the
curriculum and to stimulate learning. Students, working alone or in small groups,
investigate problems using a variety of research tools and technologies, integrating concepts
and skills from one or more disciplines in the process (Jones, Rasmussen, and Moffitt 1997).
There are many forms of problem-based learning, ranging from simple to complex, and
from very open-ended to more detailed and structured types. Two models are explained
here, one simple and one more complex, each requiring a relatively active and directive role
for the teacher. In virtually all of its forms, PBL tends to be learner-centered because
students direct their own studies as they work to investigate and solve problems. During
this process, they acquire many skills, ranging from the best ways to study geographic
relationships to the most effective means of presenting the results of their investigations.
Students become project planners, collaborators, producers, and decision makers. Research
about the use of PBL in classrooms indicates that students willingly work hard to solve
problems and that they appreciate the autonomy they have while carrying out PBL
activities. They enjoy working cooperatively with fellow students and learning together.
The teacher assumes the role of a facilitator, a coach, a guide, and a resource person,
advising and supporting students in their research inquiries. Thus, PBL's approach to
learning incorporates aspects of both the participation and acquisition metaphor. Students
participate in inquiry activities, usually as members of groups, and in the process of solving
a problem, they acquire the necessary key concepts and skills to address their problem.
In a simple, relatively unstructured approach, PBL follows four stages summarized in

Figure 6. A more complex version is presented in Figure 7. The stages mimic the process
of inquiry suggested by Hart, Fien, and others displayed in Figure 4. Although it is not
apparent from the diagrams, the selection of a good topic is crucial to the success of PBL,
particularly in educational contexts in which students must follow prescriptive curricular
guidelines. To aid in the selection of appropriate problems, geography educators should
consider the following eight factors.
Scale - an appropriate topic includes issues that range from local to global. For example,
global climate change affects students' own communities as well as the worldwide weather
patterns. Students profit from studying issues at a range of scales. A topic that allows
students to zoom in and out, making connections at a range of scales works well for PBL in
geography.
Relevancy- good topics touch students' lives. Community-based research is motivating and
compelling to most young people. In addition, it allows students to develop strong
citizenship skills by working together to solve a shared problem. A topic that encourages
students to generate their own solutions and to take action is good.
Continuity - an effective topic links the present to the past and gives students opportunities
to consider the future. Looking at change over time is a powerful tool of analysis. It is
almost always important to set problems in their historical context and to consider the effect
on the future of actions taken today.
Ethics - a topic that features moral and ethical dimensions will give students opportunities
to learn to use reason to make emotionally or politically charged decisions. After all, one of
the purposes here is to prepare students to deal with difficult issues after they leave school.
Interdisciplinary - a topic that allows the integration of the knowledge and skills from
several disciplines is usually a good choice for PBL. Making sure there are opportunities
for students to do a variety of tasks provides students with the chance to make choices. The
focus should not be too narrow. Geography and environmental science topics lend
themselves to cross-disciplinary exploration.
Complexity - a problem should be complex and open-ended and challenging enough to

interest and motivate students. Of course care must be taken to avoid problems that are so
unwieldy they prevent any chance of successful solution.
Rigor - elect a topic whose rigor is based on its complexity and the issues that must be
addressed. Rigor should not be defined solely on the amount of information it necessary to
attack the problem.
Authenticity - choose a topic that is rooted in the real world and which is significant
because of its implications (Glasgow 1997).
Given the advantages discussed in this chapter, both participatory education and PBL should
be attractive to geography educators seeking alternatives to traditional forms of instruction.
They have been shown to be effective ways to organize classroom learning for at least three
reasons: they enhance student learning, they motivate students, and they prepare students to
make smooth school-to-life and school-to-work transitions.
As discussed earlier, whether following an acquisition or participation metaphor, there is

broad consensus among educators today that learning:
is an active process in which students connect new ideas to old understandings,
is improved by student-to-student dialogue and cooperative learning,
is most motivating and interesting to students when placed ~n real world contexts,
should incorporate learner-centered aspects, that is, students should make decisions to
control their own learning,
requires students to reflect on their experiences and to be able to explain to others what
they have learned;
is life-long, that is, it is vital that students learn how to learn in order to continue
learning throughout their lives (Ryan 1997, Windschitl1999).
Stage Role of Teacher Role of Student
Stage One. Facilitator Problem solver

Clarify topic. Guide Co-learners (discussing and sharing
What do we know? Co-learner with students ideas)
Stage Two. Guide (to define problems) Planner

Identify problem(s). Resource (to suggest data sources) Decision maker
What do we need to know? Planning Assistant (working with Problem solver
students)
Manager (to assist in organizing student
groups and work)
Stage Three. Resource (suggesting materials) Producer

Plan inquiry Model (problem solving; research skills) Problem solver
What are we going to do? Guide (check student work plans; Planner
suggest strategies) Teacher (helping other students with
Facilitator (coordinate resource use and data collection, technology, and
student interaction; Monitor progress; analysis)
anticipate resource needs)
Stage Four. Model (problem solving; research skills) Producer

What have we learned? Guide (manage presentations) Teacher (sharing findings and
Investigate and Report Facilitator (check student findings) teaching classmates; helping other
students with technology)
Figure 6. Model One: A Simple Approach to Problem Based Learning
This model outlines a more highly structured version of PBL The steps mirror Model One
but this approach provides students with more organization and less autonomy. It gives the
educator the opportunity to select problems and issues well-matched to available resources
and curricula.
1. Select a problem. Select a problem using the suggested guidelines. Match the problem to
geography and other curriculum requirements. Make sure access is available
to adequate resources to support an in-depth investigation of the problem
selected.
2. Develop a scenario. Place the problem in context by developing a rationale, event, or scenario to
present to students to introduce and stimulate their investigation. Provide
background on the problem in the scenario and a statement of why it is
important. JustifY the investigation for students and link it to the real world
and their personal interests and concerns. Make it as real world and exciting
as possible. SpecifY the questions that students will define and answer in the
course of their investigation. Let students know if they will work alone or in
groups, and how the groups will be organized.
3. Determine unit products and What will students produce in the course of their investigation and by what
outcomes. criteria will these products be evaluated? What tasks do you wish them to
complete? Decide if students will produce group products, individual results,
or a combination of group and individual assignments. You may require
students to develop brochures, write memoranda, prepare proposals, illustrate
research reports, construct exhibits, present their work to community
members, build web sites, develop databases, produce maps and so forth. Be
clear about how you will assess the assignments and student performance
expectations in general. Again, check your curriculum guidelines and
standards to make sure you are giving students opportunities to learn
challenging content matter and skills. Consider available resources, access to
technology, assessment criteria and formats when considering outcomes and
assessment. Be clear about your expectations but firm in placing students at
the center of the problem solution.
Figure 7. Model Two: a detailed approach to Problem Based Learning
Both PBL and participatory education incorporate these contemporary ideas about
education, but PBL and participatory education are also important for what they can to
contribute to curriculum structuring strategies. In the past, the conventional wisdom viewed
learning as a hierarchical activity, one which followed Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning. It
was believed that students had to learn basic knowledge and skills before going on to more
sophisticated and advanced learning tasks, such as problem solving and decision making. A
curriculum was developed and lessons were structured to begin learning at the lowest levels
of the learning hierarchy. Subsequent lessons included material that required learning
activities higher up the taxonomy until students were ready to tackle the highest level,
evaluation and synthesis. As a result, students were subjected, for long periods of time, to
dull boring tasks emphasizing the acquisition of basic skills and facts that were thought to
be a necessary precursor to more challenging and engaging tasks that came later. Too often,
students became bored and lost interest in a subject during this initial phase before they
were ever exposed to the more interesting material.
Today, educators using participatory education and PBL understand that students can Jearn
basic facts and skills in context and as part of the process of problem solving, that is, on a
need-to-know, point-of-use basis. In both participatory education and PBL, knowledge and
skills are acquired as students work on a problem. Most students find this approach a more
natural, relaxed, and comfortable way to learn. Both participatory education and PBL are
fun for learners and teachers. Working on real world problems is exciting, engaging, and
active, not boring, static, and passive.
Finally, participatory education and PBL prepare students for effective citizenship and the
workplaces of the 21st century. Both approaches encourage students to acquire and master
the skills valued by employers in both the public and private sector. Among other things,
participatory education and PBL give students the ability to:
work effectively in groups,

apply problem solving skills and strategies to real world issues, and
communicate effectively orally and graphically.
Both alternatives connect learners with the real world and teach them to use knowledge and
skills to solve community-based problems. Participatory education and PBL also give
students a valuable perspective- the ability to think geographically.
A Framework for a Range of Geography Learning
First, we examined two metaphors of learning and explored how three perspectives on the
design of learning environments can be arranged along a continuum between the metaphors.
We emphasized the importance of aligning instruction with educational goals, following the
admonition of Fien eta!. (1989) that different activities produce different outcomes. Next,
we explored alternatives to traditional geography instruction, mentioning technology-based
innovations and on-line learning opportunities but concentrating on participatory education
and problem-based learning as approaches that hold rich opportunities for geography
instruction. To conclude, we would like to suggest a simple framework on which to array
the wide variety of geography experiences being developed worldwide today. The
framework may help geography educators to clarify their goals and align and design
learning environments to achieve those goals.
On the top of the framework, shown in Figure 8, lie the two metaphors, participation and
acquisition, recognition that both are important depending on the learning purposes and
goals. Down the left side are the perspectives that drive instructional design: community-
centered, learner-centered, and knowledge-centered. This very simple diagram does not
allow for complex combinations of activities. It categorizes only at a very coarse scale.
Nevertheless, most geography learning experiences will fall somewhere within this matrix.
If geography educators align their goals for instruction somewhere along and within the
framework, it will help them make sure that they are providing their learners with a variety
of appropriate activities and for a wide range of outcomes.
Acquisition Metaphor
Community-Centered
Learning Environments
Learner-Centered Learning
Environments
Knowledge-Centered
Learning Environments
Figure 8. Framework
References
Bransford, J., Brown, A. and Cocking, R. (eds.) (1999) How People Learn. Washington D.C.: National Academy
Press.
Dewey, J. (1916) Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan.
Fien, J., Cox, B. and Fossey, W. (1989) Geography: a medium for education. In J. Fien, R. Gerber, and P Wilson
(eds) The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom (2nd edition}, 1-9. Melbourne, Australia: Macmillan.
Foskett, N. (1999) Forum: fieldwork in the geography curriculum- International perspectives and research issues.
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8/2:159-207.
-Freire, P. (1993) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.
Glasgow, N. (1997) New Curriculum/or New Times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Hart, R. (1997) Children's Participation. London: Earthscan.
Jones, B., Rasmussen, C. and Moffitt, M. (1997) Real life Problem Solving. Washington, D.C: American
Psychological Association.
Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, U.K.:
Cambridge University Press.
Geography Education Standards Project (1994) Geography for Life: National Geography Standards. Washington
D.C.: National Geographic Society.
Sfard, A. (1998) On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher,
2712:4-13.
Windschitl, M. (1999) The challenges of sustaining a constructivist classroom culture. Kappan 80(10):751-755.
West, C., Farmer, J. and Wolff., P. (1991) Instructional Design. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
9. CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN GEOGRAPHY
EDUCATION: LEARNING AND TEACHING
JOSEPH P. STOLTMAN AND LISA DE CHANO
Abstract
Geography education has a rich heritage of content and teaching, a substantial background
of theory and research in both geography and pedagogy, and opportunities to apply both
practical fieldwork and electronic media with which to engage students in problem solving
and inquiry. The "melding" of scientific theories in geography and the theories of education
will continue to be important in geography education. This will result in continuity, since
much of what we know about learning and teaching in general applies to geography
education, and reflects a larger reservoir of evidence that can enhance the way geography is
taught, on the one hand, and what is learned by students on the other. The changes in
geography education are related to the application of new technology and more clearly
refined techniques for selecting and using information to assist in making decisions. Four
widely recognized principles of learning and teaching are discussed relative to geography
education. They are curricular alignment; coherent content; thoughtful discourse; and
practice and application.
Introduction
The dominant trend during the 20th century in geography education was the increased role
of theory in research and practice. It is a trend that is expected to continue into the 21st
century. For geography educators, this was a dual commitment since it was necessary for
them to delve into the theories and empirical research for teaching and learning geography
as well as the theories of geography as a scientific discipline (Chambers, 1992). An
excellent example of the dual commitment was the development and subsequent inclusion
of plate tectonics theory in textbooks. Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, had
observed in 1910 that maps showed an interesting similarity in the shapes of the Atlantic
coastlines of Africa and South America. Over the ensuing two decades Wagner developed
the theory of continental drift, supported it with empirical evidence from geographical,
geodetic, paleontological, and biological sources and research (Wegener, 1966). In schools
today, continental drift/plate tectonic is the mainstay for explaining a wide range of spatial
115
116 J. STOLTMAN AND L. DE CHANO
patterns on the Earth's surface, such as volcanoes and earthquakes, and the theory reaches
into classrooms world wide. Geography educators apply the theory of plate tectonics to
anchor a part of the conceptual information they teach, thus providing a compelling example
of their association with theories in science. Pedagogically and conceptually, they have
developed approaches to teaching the theory to enhance student knowledge and application
of the theory. There are numerous additional theories under discussion, ranging from global
climate change to the spread of infectious diseases that are geographic and may be
assimilated into the educational materials and the content presented. It is the belief of
teachers that the content provides essential information for students to apply in
comprehending the physical and human systems of the world in which they live.
The second sets of theories that geography educators work with are those from education, or
teaching and learning. The work within educational theory is complex, as wi.th scientific
theory, but has several additional attributes that engage geography educators. First, there
are the big theories, such as the child development theory by Piaget (Piaget and Wei!, 1951)
that is applied to education. Second, there are principles of teaching and learning that
emanate from theoretical and/or empirical research that inform geography educators about
how to do their educational work (Bruner and Olson, 1973). Third, there is practical theory
that treats education as an art as much as an educational science and that incorporates
pedagogical traditions, conventional and professional wisdom, best practices, etc. (Castner,
1997; Chambers, 1992). The educational theory represents the second anchorage for
geography educators as they go about their work. Where the two sets of theories meet is a
rich mixture content and pedagogy held together by theory and practice. In many ways, this
is the fieldwork realm of the geography educator, and the empirical data they collect
emanates from both the scientific theories in which content is embedded and the fabric of
educational theory that guides research in teaching and learning. The 20th century,
especially, has seen the work of the geography educator focus to a great degree on weaving
the fabrics of theory, research, and practice into an interconnected realm.
Trends in Geography Education During the 20th Century
Assuming that change in one century will carry over as continued change in a new century,
the first step in reviewing the role of geography educators was to make a cursory review of
what transpired in the 20th century. The belief is that a swing towards a particular
theoretical position or research paradigm that emerges over several decades will continue to
influence new professionals to the field of geography education into the future. In order to
make such a review, the authors turned to prominent books that were published in
geography education during the 20th century and the initial year of the 21st century. The
changing role for geography educators during the 20th century not been chronicled in a
single publication, but rather is evident in a number of publications, including journals,
concept papers, and books. Publications with which the authors were familiar were perused
to determine the relationship to theory and research in geographic content and/or pedagogy
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE 117
that was developed. The review of publications was limited mainly to edited and authored
books, with only several exceptions from the periodical literature.
The authors wanted to show the long-term trends, if any, in the writing by geography
educators relative to content (geography) and education (pedagogy). The publications were
reviewed with the intent to assign them a position on a continuum based on the following
criteria. First, they had to present geography as their content focus. Second, the publications
had to be broadly recognized either in the national or international literature in geography
and/or geography education. The more recent publications had to have been authored or
edited by individuals recognized in the field through citations, quotations, or participation in
national and international forums on geography education or teaching and learning in
geography. Finally, the publication selection was limited to books, monographs, or sections
of books, and several periodicals that greatly influenced later publications, such as Pattison's
four traditions of geography (1964).
While the periodicals in geography and geography education have had a great influence on
the field and the changing role of geography education, the published books, on close
review, largely reflect the periodical literature over time. Furthermore, the research
periodicals are summarized in numerous bibliographies that have been prepared during the
past century and provide the gateway to theoretical research in geography education (Ball,
1969; Forsyth, 1995; Hill and LaPrairie, 1989; Lakehurst and Graves, 1972).
Second, internationally there are a large number of books published in languages other than
English. For example, the French school of geography education was active in research and
writing over a number of years and that literature is substantial (Graves, 2002). The reader
should be aware that while the English language literature may be the most voluminous,
important theoretical treatments of geography education have been published in non-English
language books and periodicals.
The publications that cluster toward the geography as scientific theory side of the
continuum reflect those that present the theories of the discipline, such as central place
theory, distance decay theory, social distance theory, etc. Those that are placed midway
along the continuum reflect the merging of the science of geography and the teaching and
leaning of geography. Many geography educators would concur that this is where the
theoretical and empirical research core of the field should be focused. It is the merging of
content, teaching and learning that occurs in the integration of the scientific and the
educational theories. Finally, the educational theory side of the continuum has a great
attraction, since it reflects the practical work that geography teachers do in the classroom. It
entails the theories of numerous educationalists that have had a significant influence on how
teachers go about their profession. It is at this end of the continuum that one encounters
constructivist theory, multiple-intelligences theory, theories of inquiry instruction that
represent the large capsules into which many different content fields may be examined.
The continuum (Figure 1) has an educational theory terminus and at the opposite end, a
scientific (geography) theory terminus. The review presents a "schema", so to speak, of
where the selected published books and articles in geography education are along a
scientific (geographic) to educational theory continuum. The belief is that the trends at the
end of the 20th century will influence the role of geography educators as the 21st century
unfolds. Thus, a review of continuity and change in geography education will encounter
many of the ideas, theories, practices, and applications presented in those publications in
Figure 1.
Scientific (Geography) Theory Education Theory
(Fairgrieve, 1926)
(Forsaith, 1932)
(Thralls, 1958)
(Pattison, 1964)
(Chorley and Haggett, 1970)
(Bacon, 1970)
(Graves, 1972)
(Biddle and Dear, 1973)
(Long, 1974)
(Marsden, 1976)
(Manson and Ridd, 1977)
(Biddle and Gerber, 1980)
(Walford, 1981)
(Sperling, 1981-84)
(Graves, 1982)
(Slater, 1982)
(Huckle, 1983)
(Graves, 1984)
(Gerber and Lidstone, 1988)
(Natoli, 1988)
(Stoltman, 1990)
(Stoltman, 1991)
(Geography Education Standards Project, 1994)
(Audigier, 1995)
(Hardwick and Holtgrieve, 1996)
(Boehm and Peterson, 1997)
(Frew, 1999)
(Gerber and Chuan, 2000)
(Kent, 2000)
(Marsden, 2001)
(Graves, 2001)
(Lambert and Machon, 2001)
Figure 1: Geography Education: Trends in Scientific and Educational Theory as Reflected in Selected
Publications
Discerning a Pattern in Geography Education
There are two general trends that one may observe and that will influence the role of
geography educators in the future. First, there has been a general trend towards educational
theory in the research and writing of leading scholars in geography education. This may be
interpreted as research for educational theories that connect more specifically to the
demands of education than to the discipline. Recognizing that cycles are evident in many
aspects of education, perhaps the move towards educational theory can be dismissed as a
cycle that will return to focus on the content of the geography, or at least a middle ground
on the continuum in due course (Figure 1). The challenge for geography education is to
seek a position midway along the continuum as the desired placement. One example of
such a reform is the geography content standards movement in the United States (Bednarz,
1998; Geography Education Standards Project, 1994), that has clearly presented geography
as a scientific discipline with a significant contribution to education.
A second pattern displayed by Figure 1 is the absence of writing that presents the scientific
theory of geography in education since Chorley and Haggett's treatise on the teaching of
geography (1970). This lack of a specific connection to the theories of geography within the
geography education community represents a partial drought of approximately 30 years,
broken only by the contributions of Graves (1972) and Hardwick (1990; 1996) towards a
closer examination of scientific theory from the discipline. It seems that there should be
regular contributions on the theoretical side the continuum that clearly present important
theoretical developments it the discipline with a rationale for their inclusion in geographic
education.
There are at least two ways to debate the pattern that has been presented in Figure 1. First,
it may be viewed as problematic. One could summarize that there has developed a chasm
between the science of geography and what geography educators are representing in their
literature. Further, the· consequence of the growing chasm between scientific theory and
educational theory reflects the very aspects of the discipline that geography educators may
assume as their role to address and rectify. It may require a renewed selectivity to what is
recommended to be taught from the discipline. Marsden (2001) states it in the following
way:
... . while the content was demonstrably over-prioritized in the compendious

geography and history textbooks of the nineteenth century, and in the regional
geographies and comparable histories targeted mainly at the secondary grammar
school audience until the 1960s, since then there has been an exaggerated shift
away from subject content to an over-stress on process and purpose. The
reduction in the proportion of extended text in both geography and history
textbooks has been one factor serving to play down content (p. 91 ).
The second way to view the pattern for geography education publications in Figure 1 is that
it reflects the very nature of geography education as it is practised. The role of the
geography educator is to concern himself or herself with how people come to gain
geographic knowledge, understand the applications of that knowledge, and develop their
own structures of geography science. This perspective takes the discipline to the very
threshold of educational theory, and the content of geography is not the principal issue.
There does seem to be an advantaged position for geography educators with regard to
teaching and learning. The ultimate concern of geography educators is ideally to exploit the
strong base of educational theory with which to enhance teaching and learning geographic
content. For example, constructivist theory is widely examined as a part of broader
educational theory (Rita, 1998). The educational theory that learners construct knowledge
based on their experiences in applying content to problem solving strongly suggests that
geography educators are functioning at an appropriate position on the continuum (Figure 1).
The educational theory end of the continuum implies the application of pedagogical and
learning theory to the content of geography. In other words, if theory informs educators of
the methods that promote the construction of knowledge, then it is the role of geography
educators to transfer the content from the discipline and provide opportunities for students
to engage in constructing meaningful concepts and knowledge using geography.
Educational Theories and Geography Education
There is a huge literature on educational theory and a substantial amount of it applies to

geography education. The authors elected to focus on the teaching of geography and the
main theory or principles that are grounded in educational theory. We sought a treatment of
educational theory and related principles that were shown to have considerable similarity
across different countries and cultures. The premise is that once the cultural and social
context is addressed, most learning takes place within a well defined, but perhaps under
researched, set of theoretical paradigms and principles. The theories and principles reflect
most of the elements of good teaching, such as instructional design, theories of teaching and
learning, and attention to content from geography. The research by Brophy (1999) met the
criteria for principles of instruction that applied to international, cross-cultural contexts and
were appropriate in that they applied toall academic school subjects, and were appropriately
challenging to the learners.
Brophy's research resulted in twelve principles of teaching based on a comprehensive

review of the literature. The principles, according to Brophy (1999), emanate from a limited
number of theoretical assumptions. Within the twelve principles noted, there were four
educational principles of teaching that the authors selected because they were very
appropriate to geography and they signify a major component and recommended focus for
geography educators. They are:
Curricular alignment: All components of the curriculum are aligned to create

a cohesive program for accomplishing instructional purposes and goals.
Coherent content: To facilitate meaningful learning and retention, content is

explained clearly and developed with emphasis on its structure and
connections.
Thoughtful discourse: Questions are planned to engage students in sustained

discourse structured around powerful ideas.
Practice and application activities: Students need sufficient opportunities to

practice and apply what they are learning, and to receive improvement-
orientedfeedback (Brophy, 1999:16)
The four principles selected are discussed in the context of geography education and the
way they are expected to impact teaching and learning.
Curricular Alignment
The research by Brophy suggests that the curriculum should begin with the important
student outcomes that are desired in geography education. This is in contrast to beginning
with the smaller pieces of content and determining where they are going to direct the
learning. The major progress towards curricular alignment has occurred where content
standards have been developed as a matter of public policy. Content standards focus on a
particular discipline or multi-disciplinary specialty and clearly specify what students should
know about the discipline, its concepts, theories, skills and and what the students should be
able to do, such as applications of the content, by a particular stage in their schooling.
Content standards focus on the outcome end of the teaching and learning by identifying the
proficiencies that students are expected to achieve. This is in contrast to beginning with the
facts and basic concepts of the discipline and educating towards less well-defined outcomes.
The reviewers and critics of textbooks often define this as a major fault with the way that
textbooks are designed and written (Arnold, 1991; Graves, 2001; Marsden, 2001;
Ostapchuk, 1972; Stowers, 1962), since they begin with factual details and build towards an
integrated knowledge of the many parts.
The geography national content standards in the United States provide one example of
clearly identifying the outcomes for teaching and learning initially, and then building the
curriculum to align with the standards (Geography Education Standards Project, 1994).
There are two imperatives that force the development of national content standards. First, it
is expected that the content standards set geographic content within a process of lifelong
learning. The intent is to maximize the length of the curriculum and its overall impact by
beginning with content for early childhood learners and extending it to adults in a well
articulated life long experience. Second, the content standards were developed to reflect the
actual contexts of lifelong learners: school, family, society, occupation and global
networks. With that philosophy, the national content standards were designed and written
as eighteen statements of geographic content bundled within six strands (Figure 2).
I. The World in Spatial Terms

I. How to use maps and other geographic representations, tools and technologies to acquire, process, an
report information from a spatial perspective.
2. How to Use Mental Maps to organize information about people, places, and environments in a spatial
context.
3. How to analyze the spatial organization of people, places and environment on Earth's surface.
II. Places and Regions

4. The physical and human characteristics of places.
5. People's creation of regions to interpret Earth's complexity.
6. How culture and experience influence people's perceptions of places and regions.
III. Physical Systems

7. The physical processes that shape the patterns of Earth's surface.
8. The characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems on Earth's surface.
IV. Human Systems

9. The characteristics, distribution, and migration ofhuman populations ofEarth's surface.
10. The characteristics, distribution, and complexity of Earth's cultural mosaics.
11. The patterns and networks of economic interdependence on Earth's surface.
12. The processes, patterns and functions of human settlement.
13. How the forces of cooperation and conflict among people influence the division and control of Earth's
surface.
V. Environment and Society

14. How human actions modifY the physical environment.
15. How physical systems affect human systems.
16. The changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution and importance of resources.
VI. The Uses of Geography

17. How to apply geography to interpret the past.
18. How to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future.
Source: (Geography Education Standards Project, 1994)
Figure 2: The National Geography Content Standards.
The development of content standards represented an underlying commitment to the

importance of geographic content in the school curriculum. By virtue of the development of
the content standards, the professional community of geographers reaffirmed the
commitment to quality content clearly identified for students in the pre-college curriculum.
In theory and practice, the geography curricula that are developed and taught to learners in
the United States should address each of the content standards several times during the
period of formal education, or in kindergarten through high school. In order for that to
happen, a curricular alignment based on the content standards was developed. The
alignment is presented in a nationally applicable scope and sequence for geography
education (National Geographic Society, 2000). The document provides clearly articulated
content to be taught, when it should be taught and in what learning sequence should be
followed in the curriculum.
Similar projects to align disciplinary content with curriculum had been underway in several
countries that have focused on the outcomes with students or teachers. One of the earlier
projects was Geography for the Young School Leaver in the United Kingdom (1974-75;
1981-82). The importance of the project was not only the materials developed and
alignment with a national curriculum and national examinations, but that the dissemination
of the project was researched and its impact assessed (Boardman, 1988). The detail with
which Boardman investigated the effects of the curriculum project, and its alignment with
the formal and informal curriculum, exemplifies an increasingly important role for
geography educators, and one that should be a regular part of the research agenda in the
future. Long-term research on curriculum alignment is essential to the improvement of
geography education in order to demonstrate its significance within the learning process.
The practical aspects of curriculum alignment must also be addressed if geography is to

maintain a prominent position in education. Naish reported on monitoring the development
and alignment of a curriculum for primary students (1992). In this case, classroom teachers
were engaged in developing a response to changes in the national curriculum, and the
research examined the ways that primary schools and teachers were responding to the
curriculum. The strength of the research reflects two elements of the curriculum change
process. First, it is normal for the changing landscape of education to be lamented in favor
or the curriculum traditions. Change is not easy. Second, it is usually necessary for
geography teachers to take a pro-active stand in the initiation of change or response to
proposed changes. No one in the curricular alignment process will take responsibility for
geography except geography teachers. The development of citizenship education within the
United States (Bahmueller, 1991) and in the United Kingdom (Lambert and Machon, 2001),
for example, present both challenges and opportunities for geography education. However,
geography educators must step forward with suggestions and evidence regarding how
geography contributes in an important way to emerging curriculum perspectives and
initiatives (Stoltman, 1990). Geography educators must have a firm grip on alignment of
the curriculum in order to monitor the role of the geography within education.
Coherent Content
Geography educators have a responsibility to select and present coherent content in a world
where content is changing rapidly through growth of information and new perspectives on
existing ideas and concepts. Information available to geography teachers and researchers
has grown exponentially for the past three decades or longer. This is a positive
development for the profession since it has enabled geographers to take the lead in the uses
of geographic information systems (GIS) for analyzing, synthesizing, mapping, and
presenting critical information about Earth. On the other hand, the availability of an
abundance of information represents a content menu that is often unrelated and which has
no specific end in itself. Geographers acknowledge the advantages that information

provides. Thus, a changing role for the geography educator is to massage information,
select that which is important in teaching and learning, and avoid overloading the
educational capacity of students to manage and use information.
The development of clearly stated content specifications and standards, such as those
developed in the United States, provides one step in the presentation of coherent content.
Similar redefinitions of the· geography content and deciding what to include in the
curriculum have occurred in other countries during the past two decades (Haubrich, 1987).
The articulation of the content selected into a coherent presentation for student usage must
also be addressed. Traditionally, curriculum projects and textbooks have been responsible
for both the selection of content and its coherent presentation. The success of curriculum
projects and textbooks in fulfilling that delivery of coherent content continues to be a
subject of debate (Bednarz, Bednarz, Stoltman, and Weinbrenner, 2003; Graves, 2001;
Marsden, 2001). The geography curriculum projects that have been developed in the United
States in the past decade have been expected to merge content standards, print materials, and
electronic materials into a product that uses recent technology, but also presents coherent
content.
The Activities and Readings in the Geography of the United States (ARGUS) (Association
of American Geographers, 1997) and Activities and Resources for the Geography of the
World (ARGWorld) (Association of American Geographers, 2002) are projects built on
coherency of content. Each has relied upon professional geographers to select the content
and upon classroom teachers to design the content into meaningful learning activities. There
has been careful scrutiny of content and classroom methodology (simulation, role play,
problem solving, etc.) to engage students in content that is coherent and with which they can
identify and relate.
The process for teaching content that is coherent begins with a content standard, principle,
or theory. Within the ARGWorld Project, one challenge was to enable students to identify
with people who are engaged in agriculture and the knowledge, skills, and challenges that
farmers face. In order to present coherent content, the project designed "Is Farming a Game?
Land Use Decisions in West Africa" that places students in the role of newly arrived
farmers to a region. The newly arrived farmers are faced with important decisions regarding
how they will use their land allocation. The land use decisions require that the student
collect information about the climate, soil, growing season, and situation relative to markets.
Less certain variables, such as the variability of the climate, market forces, environmental
hazards, and chance occurrence are other important considerations that affect the land use
decisions.
The farming game is anchored to the content of geography by two principal standards. They
are:
The changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution and importance of resources
(Figure 2; Standard 16).
How to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future (Figure 2;
Standard 18).
While there are other content standards that are addressed by the farming game, such as
content standards 11, 12, and 13 (Figure 2), the coherency of the content is best supported
by standards 16 and 18 for the following reasons. The farming game engages students in
making decisions about land and its various uses as a resource within the context of certain
climatic and weather variability. Land use is a process that combines the land resource with
cultural and economic factors to allocate those resources towards a goal. In some cases the
goal is subsistence farming, in others it is a cash economy. Contemporary land use decisions
also extend to suburban residences and the location of a service activity. The farming game
builds principles of land use that may then be extended to other situations in the community
with which the students are familiar and reside as citizens.
The farming game also engages students in applying present land use information to make
decisions and to plan for the future. Applications of geographic information to model local
conditions and to predict the impact of changes within a region are assets of geography
education. The farming game provides students with an opportunity to exercise the
predictive nature of the discipline using available geographic information and considering
the variability of the environment and the limitations it presents. The consequence of a
particular land use decision under adverse environmental conditions becomes apparent in
the farming game.
Students also consider chance occurrences in weather that may have either positive or
negative consequences. For example, an evenly occurring precipitation regime during the
growing season will usually be more advantageous than sporadic precipitation with
alternating wet and dry soil periods. Reliance upon data, conventional observations, and
experience each build a knowledge base regarding the geographic context within which the
students are simulating the farming activity.
SETTING THE CONTEXT: COHERENT CONTENT
The farming game introduces students to the arrival of European farmers in West Africa at
the beginning of the 20th century. The farmers are provided some information such as land
speculation brochures (Figure 3), but little else on which to base their land use plans.
WORKERS AND FAMILIES

A New Lift awaits YOU
In the fertile Middle Belt of the Gold Coast
THIS IS TRULY THE BEST OF TWO WORLDS
Tl1e bracing dry season allows

unlnlerrupted work or telsure.
Apri~=~~nb~!~r;;:~:e~~:~;~~nd,
and summers full of gent rains and sunny days
bring forth the bounty of the willing earth.
Come, Join Our Community
Figure 3. Brochure Enticing Europeans to Settle in West Africa
The immigrant farmers are provided with an annual budget and a guide for start-up and
production costs for different crops that are indigenous to the region or that will be
introduced (Figure 4). The location, general climatic, and soil conditions are presented, but
the students discover the geography of the historic "Gold Coast Region" by experiencing the
consequences of their strategies and decisions regarding land use (Figure 5).
Domesticated Setup Production

Plant or Animal Cost Cost
Plantain 25 100
Yams 0 100
Groundnuts 0 50
Maize 0 50
Cassava 0 50
Hill Rice 0 50
Millet 0 25
Chicken 50 50
Goats 50 100
Cattle 100 100
Rubber 100 100

Kola 50 100
Coffee 100 50
Figure 4. Set-up and Production Costs in West Africa
What is Game Theory?

1) In this environment life is a game
2) Your opponent chooses combinations of strategies
3) You choose combinations of strategies
4) Different strategic combinations pay off differently
5) As you learn, strategies Improve over lime.
What is a good game strategy? ,

Win or lose big! Modest w in o r loss.
High Risk, High Yield Low Risk, Low Yield
Jl
It is a long shot
but winning pays more ''
Very likely you will w in
but with m inim al payoff
! .Good strategies use both tactics/ I
Figure 5. A Strategy for Land Use Decision-making in West Africa? Figure 5a. Using Game Theory. Figure 5b.
Selecting a Game Strategy
128 J. STOLTMAN AND L. DE CHAND
Once land use decisions have been made, crops have been planted, and the growing season
is underway, the farming game fast-forwards to the outcomes. Two outcomes are of
particular interest to the students. First, the yield from the crops selected for various plots of
land is of interest since it reflects upon one's skill in planning for environmental
contingencies. Second, the value of the crops based on the local and export prices is of
interest since it affects the economic success of the farmer. Outcomes are provided for each
of five years, with 1915 provided as the example (Figure 6).
Domesticated X
Plant or Animal
Plantain 2 Tree crops like early rain

Yams 3 Root crops did really well
Groundnuts 1 So-so year
Maize 2 A good year
Cassava 0.5 Had a problem with rot

Hill Rice 1 Prefers somewhat drier year
Millet 1 So does this grain
Chicken 2 Plenty of scraps and feed

Goats 1 If cattle are OK, who needs goats
Cattle 3 Cattle did well on green grass
Rubber 2 Tree crops like early rain

Kola 2 Tree crops like early rain
Coffee 1.5 Needs a bit more sunshine
Figure 6. Gold Coast X-Factors in 1915.
COHERENT CONTENT AND CONTENT FLOW
The farming game demonstrates the selection of content that is consistent with content
standards. It also demonstrates coherent content in that it builds as a scaffold with the
interaction between students and content early in the farming game underpinning the later
learning experiences. The results of the first year's outcomes provide tangible evidence for
the students to use as they role-play the second, third, etc., years in the farming game in
order to maintain a coherent fabric of content. Finally, the decisions the students make
regarding land use, the environmental variability, and the economic fluctuations in the
marketing of crops, are linked together in a coherent way.
The farming game relies upon a large amount of information and data that could become
disconnected. It also engages the students in making choices for several years, with land
use decision in any year having consequences for subsequent years. The content maintains
a coherency that connects time and land use decisions with the environmental conditions.
At the end of the farming game, the students are expected to express not only the excitement
of successfully raising a crop or livestock, but also to consider the reasons for their
successes or failures and the importance of land use decisions and the rationale for those
decisions. In some cases, the uncertainty of the environment and the inability to offset
climatic variability with the right choices is persistent in the life of the role playing student.
Thoughtful Discourse
Geography educators research and practice in teaching and learning will also entail
discussing the connections between the skills and concepts embedded within content and the
way those skills and concepts may be used to solve problems and make decisions.
Geography based discourse among students prepares them for their role as responsible
citizens outside the classroom. Practice with in-depth discussion among students
functioning as members of communities and participators in the decision making process
develop life-long attributes. In real life, community based decisions are generally not short
and brief, but rather they are complex and extended. Much of the practice that students
obtain in school with regard to content often entails either a correct or an incorrect answer, a
relatively rapid response to teacher-initiated questions. Discourse provides students with
experience in continuing to think about questions and issues when they leave the classroom
and school and engage in public policy discussions in the community.
Students also bring to school with them a whole host of personal experiences they have
gained outside of the classroom that are rarely tapped. Many studies have shown that
personalizing content or relating content to real-world issues helps students grasp concepts
and transfer knowledge between situations. For example, the idea that instructional
activities should be relevant and meaningful to students' own experiences lays at the heart
of constructivism (Hurley, Proctor, and Ford, 1999). Others have embraced constructivist-
based learning and suggested that students engaged in situational problem solving in which
the environment is familiar (Brown, Collins, and Duguid, 1989). Many educational
researchers agree that collaborative problem-solving based on active learning is a powerful
learning environment. It complements constructivist-based learning that provides visual
formats and mental models of the problems to be solved, along with authentic validation
opportunities for students and assessment methods for teachers (Brown et a!., 1989;
Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk, 1997).
Thoughtful discourse requires that the discussion be based on content that the students have
had time to contemplate and consider. Pedagogical strategies have also been developed to
promote discourse. Constructivist-based classroom learning enhances student interactive
thought and verbal behaviors as well as to provide the instructor with more interactive
opportunities. For example, strategies that help students experience relationships within
geography content or a geographic issue may begin with the big concept and subsequently
reduce the concept into smaller and smaller parts. This helps students fit the basic
information with the higher order ideas, which is a difficult process for many geography
students at any level of education. Presenting the curriculum in this way allows for a high
frequency of student inquiry and discussion among students. Substantive discussion and
thoughtful discourse enables students to discuss the world through geographic concepts such
as spatial distributions and patterns and physical and humans systems. In constructivist-
based learning teachers assume an interactive role by mediating the environment and
seeking different points of view from the students. Different viewpoints can be expressed
through discussion in subsequent lessons on related topics.
In the recent past many researchers have proffered different means of employing
constructivism to geographic education, such as laboratory analyses, field exploration, and
role playing (Burkill, 1997; Haigh and Gold, 1993; Kneale, 1996) with positive responses
by the students (Healey, 1996; Hindle, 1993; Nordstrom, 1996). However, with the rapid
advances in technology, the use of the Internet-based communications has emerged as the
single most advanced, and more recently affordable, means of teaching geography. Recent
studies have cited Internet access and usage in 54 percent of United States households
(National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2002) and nearly 45
percent in United Kingdom households (CyberAtlas, 2002). Van Baker, director of
consumer market research for Dataquest asserts that: (i)nternet access has been rising in
importance dramatically, but a lot (of the growth) has to do with education and work-at-
home kinds ofthings (Gray, 2002).
Thoughtful discourse potential in geography content has expanded greatly as a result of

electronic information based on Internet communications such as e-mail and the World
Wide Web. E-mail allows students and instructors to teach and learn collaboratively with
peers who are geographically dispersed (Hurley et al., 1999; Sayers, 1995). The World
Wide Web (WWW) provides students and teachers with a plethora of teaching and learning
material, including on-line maps and books that may have been too costly to acquire
otherwise. Owston (1997) emphasizes that: nothing before has captured the imagination
and interest of educators simultaneously around the globe more than the World Wide Web.
The Web is now causing educators, from preschool to graduate school, to rethink the very
nature of teaching, learning, and schooling.
The effect of expanded electronic connections on thoughtful discourse means that individual
students as well as groups of students in classes may have extended dialogues with students
and other individuals in distant locations regarding geography. While the majority of
discourse and discussion will occur in the classroom with some carryover to the home and
local community, the potential exists for electronic discussions that require considerable
thought and preparation. Depth of reasoning and clarity of rationale regarding the positions
students take on international and global issues is an emerging challenge for geography
educators.
For example, WebQuests are lessons developed by teachers and university education
students. The lessons provide the necessary background information for the topic, as well as
instructions on how the project should be completed (Dodge, 1997). Discussions may be
held with experts available via e-mail or real-time conferencing may be used to engage in
thoughtful discourse. Any necessary handouts and weblinks that may be useful to students
are provided online. WebQuest lessons are available for various topics in such disciplines
as math, natural science, social science, and English and foreign languages. WebQuest
provides a forum for thoughtful discourse among students in different locations about issues
of common concern. The challenge for the geography teachers is to facilitate the
substantive interaction between groups of students regarding issues of significance in their
local, regional, and global contexts.
The applications of constructivist-based learning extend well beyond the classroom.

Individuals outside of school may have clear perspectives on issues, but need practice to be
able to construct and present the important concepts, principles, and relationships.
Thoughtful discourse prepares students for active engagement in issues of public policy and
community concern outside the school. It is the broader community forum where most
thoughtful discourse is directed towards issues and the conversations that help resolve
issues, and where the art of compromise and consensus building occurs. Preparing students
well equipped with conceptual and analytical geography for the art of discourse is a tradition
for the discipline. What has emerged are new sets of issues to be addressed.
Practice and Application
Traditionally, teachers have assisted student learning in three ways. First, teachers present
information, explain concepts and principles of the discipline, and model the skills that are
germane to the subject (coherent content). Second, they review and extend the use of the
content to new and different situations so that students have a deeper sense of how the
content works (thoughtful discourse). Third, teachers engage students in practicing and
making applications of the content they are learning (Brophy, 1999). This is the stage of
learning that allows students to "get their minds and hands engaged" using the methods and
techniques of geographic inquiry. These methods and techniques include cartography,
geographic information systems (GIS), and fieldwork.
Cartography, or map-making, is a useful tool because the end result, the map, "provides a
picture of the world to help reveal and analyze the spatial patterns, relationships, and
complexity of the environment in which we live" (Robinson, Morrison, Muehrcke,
Kimerling, and Guptill, 1995: 5). The act of making the map requires students to collect
data (primary or secondary) and decide on the best way to present the data on the map.
Once the map has been made, then spatial patterns can be discerned and discussed. An
example of cartographic-based inquiry is to have students map the traffic flows along roads
in their city during peak and non-peak hours. The analysis of the patterns on the maps then
enables them to decide how the traffic flows may be redirected to enhance both the
accessibility as well as the environmental quality of the community.
Geographic information systems (GIS) take traditional cartography several steps further.
While both cartography and GIS may be either paper and pencil or computer based, GIS has
the added attraction of the simultaneous spatial analysis of several layers of information at
the same time. For example, a layer is a discrete set of information such as all of the streets
in a county, abandoned mine locations within a particular area, or the population density of
census blocks. Creating maps and carrying out analyses using GIS requires students to
collect data either as raw numerical data or data included on existing maps that may be
converted to a digital format. For example, a. single-theme map would allow students to
look at the spatial distribution of landfills within a county. However, if students were
interested in discovering the best location for a new landfill, they would need to locate and
research sensitive natural areas that may be affected by a new landfill. Another layer of
information might be the locations of paved versus dirt roads for ease of access to the new
landfill site, and the land uses in region surrounding the proposed site. GIS has the
capabilities to incorporate numerous data sets as mapped layers. This provides students
with a better idea of where to locate the new landfill relative to the physical and human
characteristics of the site and its situation. Mapping using GIS provides applications of
geographic principles and practice in using them to solve actual problems.
Fieldwork in elementary and secondary schools is an excellent way to incorporate

geographic knowledge learned in the classroom and apply it to real world situations.
Connections between knowledge and skills and the world outside the classroom are
increasingly viewed as important elements in the transition to adulthood, but also to careers
and responsible citizenship. Engaging students in fieldwork allows students to become
immersed in both the physical and cultural geography that is around them. Students can
collect soil samples, analyze their textures, and provide plausible explanations for why these
types of soils are located where they are, and how those soils either affect or should
influence land use decisions. They can observe different cultures in the a neighborhood of
the city and develop knowledge about the cultures and the countries where immigrant
groups once lived. They can even investigate why early settlements located where they did
and how site and situation has influenced subsequent prosperity or demise. Carl Sauer
(1956: 400) stated that:
... the principal training of the geographer should come, wherever possible, by
doing field work. Such excursions and field courses are the best apprenticeship.
They student and the leader are in running exchange of questions and promptings
suppliedfrom the changing scene ...
Many fieldwork projects engage the student in observing the landscape, forming hypotheses
about the phenomena they observe, collecting and analyzing data, and devising plausible
explanations for what was observed. A recent book providing fieldwork suggestions is
Geography Fieldwork Projects (Frew, 1999). Fieldwork projects are suggested for various
topics, including traffic flow, weather, coasts, and leisure activities. As with written work
and seatwork that is a tradition within geography education, fieldwork benefits from
practice and application. The repetition of fieldwork throughout the elementary and
secondary school years builds a habit of mind and skills that are beneficial for both the
passive adult observing a nature program on the home media to an active outdoors
enthusiast. Fieldwork in K-12 and extended education is the proving grounds for
geographic concepts and phenomena that students have learned in school and that influence
individual decisions throughout life (Foskett, 1999).
Conclusions
Geography education has a rich tradition in learning and teaching. It draws upon two major
sets of theories - one from scientific geography and the other from education - and melds
them together in order to enhance the environmental and spatial perspectives of the
population in general through elementary and secondary education. The important
integrating role of geography educators in melding theories from geography and education
is reflected in the research traditions of the field (Table 1). During the 20th century there
was a steady influence of researchers in geography education inquiring about the best ways
to make benefits of theories in geography and education accessible to teachers and students.
Continuity within geography education suggests that practitioners will continue to do many
things in the future in ways that are very similar with the past. For example, a considerable
amount of research information informs us about the importance of more inclusive concepts
compared to streams of factual data in building a geographic perspective (Forsyth, 1995).
Geography educators will continue to incorporate a cross fertilization of scientific and

educational theory in their work. Too much attention to the scientific, for example, leaves
the pedagogical theory in the wake and of limited use. Attention to educational theory alone
produces important information about practices and procedures, but is at a loss without the
scientific content that students are expected to base decisions and actions. They will
continue to examine the close linkages between the theories of the discipline and the way in
which the content and theories are presented in teaching geography. While making the
connection between scientific theories in geography content, it will be necessary to
incorporate the germane theories of educational pedagogy and practice.
As geography educators, we know with some certainty pedagogical and educational

principles work best. The authors selected four principles of learning and teaching that are
especially germane to geography (Brophy, 2000), and elaborated in some detail on each, as
they relate to the discipline. Information about the educational principles that work and
acknowledging what does not work so well in learning and teaching are available in the
literature of geography and educational research. Changes in the way that geography
educators go about their profession should readily build on that base.
Change within geography education will focus largely on the application of new
technologies, such as geographic information systems and electronic communications, to
search databases and process the information in useful ways. Professional geographers are
ecstatic with the wealth of information that is available about the Earth and the means
available to process it. However, the professionals often are faced with the question of how
to handle such an immense amount of information. They usually resolve the issue by
looking at research questions to determine if the data will assist in arriving at the resolution
of a problem or issue. Students in school must gain practice in handling data in the same
way. There are enough data in electronic form that a student could spend nearly all of their
time "surfing" sources without reaching closure on a question or issue.
The role of the geography educator in the future will entail preparing students to inquire
about problems and issues, but they will be using electronic sources rather than traditional
sources of information. The inquiry will remain, however the mode of an tools used in the
inquiry will be more powerful. Ultimately, the inquiry into a geographic problem or issue
will rest with the application of the geographic perspective gained through the opportunity
to study in a curriculum aligned with the powerful ideas of the discipline, coherent
geographic content, thoughtful discourse, and practice and application of the data, skills, and
perspective of geography as a science. The capstone reward for geography educators is to
prepare students who apply a geographic perspective to recognizing, analyzing, and
resolving the local and global issues and problems they face as responsible citizens.
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SECTION 4: IMPROVING CURRICULUM PLANNING AND
DEVELOPMENT
10. GEOGRAPHY CURRICULUM PLANNING IN EVOLUTION:
SOME HISTORICAL AND INTERNATIONAL
PERSPECTIVES
BILL MARSDEN
Introduction
Curriculum planning procedures in one form or another can be traced back over a long
period. It has had wide ramifications, range in its scope from the imposition of curricula at
the national level to detailed lesson planning. It has ranged from a type of planning that was
at best rudimentary and rigid; to one that remained rigid and restrictive in intent, though
became much broader in scale; to the more sophisticated and 'scientific' or rational
curriculum planning. It must be stressed that these patterns have not simply followed each
other in historical sequence but have to an extent co-existed. Through the various patterns
of planning there has been both continuity and change in international geography curricula.
Whatever the pattern, a contention of this paper is that curriculum planning has rarely been
well-balanced as between the three vital components of matter or content; method or
process; and mission, or social purposes. In one way or another, and for different reasons,
one or two of these facets have been allowed to dominate. Within the short space available
cameos of curriculum planning at different times and in different places will illustrate
connections between the past and the present situation. These examples will be
international in scope, though inevitably the majority are taken from the English-speaking
world.
Rudimentary Curriculum Planning
THE CATECHETICAL SYSTEM
Curriculum planning, such as it was in the days when the churches dominated the provision
of mass schooling was based on the catechism. Rudimentary though it was, catechetical
teaching and learning was a system of planning elaborated in methodological handbooks
and implemented in textbooks. Both teacher question and pupil answer were
predetermined. No more than rote learning was required of the pupil. The authority of the
141
R. Gerber (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Education. I 4I -I 57.

142 W.MARSDEN
text was unquestioned. The memorisation demanded was not only of 'capes and bays' type
facts, such as which town followed which along the shores of the Holy Land, but also of
biblical truth and denominational doctrine. The pupil responses often meant repeating
biblical injunction. The dominant element in the process was the religious mission.
Subjects such as geography and history were merely a means to an end.
Teacher: What is the world?

Pupil: The earth we live on.
Teacher: Who made it?
Pupil: The great and good God.
THE EARLY OBJECT LESSON
Similar rudimentary patterns were evident in the planning of the early nineteenth-century
progressives in Britain, such as Samuel Wilderspin and Elizabeth Mayo. The moral and
religious imperatives remained. The technique of the object lesson was used, again
associated with catechetical methods. The difference was that it was claimed that using it
with tangible objects or visual aids held in front of the class would create a happier learning
environment, especially for very young children improve motivation. One of Mayo's object
lessons illuminated the characteristics of the nutmeg:
Teacher: Why is a nutmeg said to be odorous?

Pupil: Because it has a smell.
While there was certainly a curriculum planning process in train in this early stage of mass
educational provision in Britain, that in its own way brought together issues of matter,
method and mission, the whole was prescriptive and limited in scope and distorted by the
over-riding religious mission. In fairness, the limitations were also the result of lack of
resources and the lack of expertise among teachers.
Restrictive Curriculum Planning
LATER OBJECT LESSONS: THE SCHEME OF WORK
As the nineteenth century progressed, more resources were poured in to education, and the
concept of the trained teacher became realised. The quantity and quality of textbooks
increased. Methodological texts and educational journals proliferated, advising teachers
how to plan their curricula and particular lessons. From the 1860s, however, rigid
government guidelines through the so-called Revised Code reined in the ideas of more
ambitious schools and teachers, though the Codes were ameliorated in the later decades of
the century. The changes in curriculum planning which ensued can again be illustrated
GEOGRAPHY CURRICULUM PLANNING IN EVOLUTION 143
through the object lesson. This remained a topic-based approach and was to be enshrined in
educational legislation in England and Wales. Government circulars demanded it should be
more than an information giving exercise. Writers of methodological texts and articles in
teacher's journals provided schools with detailed guidance on how to run an object lesson.
What was offered were essentially schemes of work and lesson plans for particular topics.
Thus in one object lesson on volcanoes, the apparatus suggested included a model cone,
sand or sawdust to make a cone, pieces of pumice, a picture of a volcano, a map of the
world, and other materials. A newspaper extract describing an actual eruption was
provided. The lesson notes provided were divided into columns dealing side by side with
matter and method. Subject matter from geography, geology and science was linked. The
plan concluded with a blackboard summary of what were meant to be the key ideas
transmitted in the lesson (Anon., 1902: 12-13).
Both continuity and change were therefore evident. In a more secular world, the mission
element was blatant than it had been when the schools were under religious control. The
content had become more wide-ranging. The method of teaching was laid down. All in all
the planning was restrictive leaving little room for teacher initiative.
SCHEMES OF WORK IN TOTALITARIAN STATES
The level or prescription to be found in this pre-World War I era as not to be lost as the
twentieth century progressed, and nowhere was this more the case than under totalitarian
regimes. For example, the curriculum planning process dictated under Nazi rule in
Germany echoed a number of the characteristics of early nineteenth century religious
instruction. The pervasion principle ruled. 'Education in relation to weapons, then, is no
special branch of general education; rather it is, in point of fact, the very core of our entire
education' (quoted in Mann, 1939, p. 46). Even catechetical techniques were deployed, as
in a 'game' supposedly promoting discussion of the concept of pjlicht, meaning duty, or the
work they were expected to do. In noting that the Fuhrer could not achieve all that was
needed alone, the dialogue went:
Teacher: How do each ofyou help?

Pupil: I belong to the Young Folk.
Pupil: I have written to America, describing anti-Jewish propaganda ... '
and so on. (Anon., 1938, p 34)
The inevitable result was gross distortion of the content of the curriculum. On the evidence
of one methodological tract, Geography in the Service of National-Socialist Education, the
subject in essence became school-level geopolitics (Anon. 1938, p. 35 and p. 40).
Demonising the Jews and mixed races, and emphasising the ideology of lebensraum, its
object was to develop an inclination for military engagement and readiness to sacrifice in
the cause of Germany (Heske, 1991, pp. 80-1). The curriculum planning at the macro-level
144 W.MARSDEN
was as draconian as could be conceived. Thus, the Reich Education Minister Rust explicitly
subordinated knowledge to ideological goals. An interdisciplinary curriculum was
advocated in which geography, history, biology, literature and other subjects were unified
through Nordic German folklore. It is said that if Hitler had had his way, 'he might have
abolished all subjects but the "basics"' (Kamenetsky, 1984, pp. 248-9) At the more detailed
level, in one scheme of work for a year on the topic 'National Socialism and the Jews' a
planning grid included in the first column a whole series of sub-topics, with titles such as
'Conspiracy against Germany', 'National Socialism at grips with Crime', was matched with
a another sub-set in the second, headed 'Relations to the Jews', such as 'The Jew profits by
German Misfortunes'. A third column offered a reading list, including Mein Kampf(Mann,
1939, p. 55).
So the mission took massive precedence over questions of matter and method, which were
totally subordinate to the ideological end in view. The system was replicated under State
Socialism in the Soviet Union and other communist countries, not least East Germany.
There is not space, however, to illustrate in any detail here. Suffice it to say that the
curriculum planning process in subjects such as geography and history faithfully reflected
changes demanded by different occupants of the Kremlin. Leaders could be sanctified in
one generation, and vilified in the next. Post-1990-By 1995, there had been an ideological
U-turn. Russian school geography was now pursuing reforms to focus more on the concepts
which accorded, for example, with the aims of the International Charter of Geographical
Education, as approved at International Geographical Union Congresses in the early 1990s.
The internal political imperative no longer ruled (Maksakovsky, 1995, 107-8). It is
interesting to trace the changes over time evident in the articles submitted by geographers in
socialist states to publications of the International Geographical Union Commission on
Geographical Education. The liberalisation of curriculum planning following the demise of
State Socialism, and the regaining of independence of subject states, has recently been
outlined by Liiber (2000). ·
SCHEMES OF WORK UNDER CENTRALISATION
There are many gradations in the experience of centralisation (see Naish, 1990), ranging
from the relatively permissive to the fanatically imposed. The statutory introduction of a
National Curriculum after the Education Reform Act of 1988 was undoubtedly prescriptive
in intent. It included prescribed subjects to be taught, and a set of programmes of study to
be followed in these subjects. Of more daunting rigidity were the detailed sets of attainment
targets, reflecting an assessment-led curriculum, in which initial aims and objectives (see
below) were less critical than the outcomes to be expected. Teachers were not required to
follow particular methods or use particular textbooks. It was the tested outcomes that were
important, buttressed by a more intrusive inspection system, followed by public listing of
schools through League tables, that above all distorted the system.
While certainly not rudimentary, the curriculum planning process was restrictive, and
distorted, though less in geography than in the prioritised areas of the three'R's and science,
by teaching to the text. Though critical of the whole philosophy behind the exercise,
geographical educationists gave guidance on how to lay out schemes of work and plan
lessons, much as those advising on object lessons of one hundred years before. Textbook
authors worked in teams providing not only pupil books, but also elaborate packages of
advice on planning. Local education authorities developed their own fairly inflexible
schemes, which their teachers were advised to follow. Schools had to evolve whole school
curricular plans, and then for different subjects. The pattern of study of different terms was
delineated, before moving on to the detailed planning grids for particular groups of lessons.
One edition of the journal Primary Geographer was entitled 'National Curriculum Special:
A Complete Guide to the new National Curriculum'. A curious feature of some widely
promoted schemes was that while the National Curriculum in subjects such as geography
was said to be content-dominated, some of them ignored or down-played content in the
different columns of their planning grids.
Whether or not this particular example of curriculum planning in action should be placed
under the 'restrictive' heading or included under the following 'rational' one below is a
moot point. The justification for leaving it here is on the one hand the element of
imposition whether at the national political level (see Rawling, 2001), or at that of the local
authority and the school, and the degree to which a narrow emphasis had to be placed on the
bureaucratic and relatively uncreative exigencies of writing out detailed schemes of work
and lessons plans. Another resonance with the past was that, at the primary level in
particular, generalist teachers were deemed not expert enough to implement the programmes
of study in a range of different subjects. Attempts to re-skill them through funded in-service
courses might have been promising in theory but were disparately implemented across the
country, being left to the idiosyncratic policies of local authorities. Even more significant,
they were under-mined after 1995 as the curriculum was narrowed, and the 'basic subjects'
increasingly prioritised. Whether this left a promising opening for a restorative curriculum
planning in geography will be discussed later.
'Rational' Curriculum Planning
CURRICULUM-MAKING IN INTER-WAR USA
What have here been identified as rudimentary and restrictive curriculum planning
procedures co-existed with each other and were also in operation at the time when W.T.
Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis initiated 'the game of curriculum-making that
would be played over the next half-century' (Cremin, 1971, 208-10). His strategies
provided a basis for the so-called scientific movement in American education. As the game
was played out between the wars, the political skills of Harold Rugg and other members of
the social studies lobby established a 'fused' curricular framework in the school timetables,
146 W.MARSDEN
largely displacing subjects like geography and history (see, for example, Rugg, 1926).
Rugg practised what he preached and demonstrated how the balanced approach to he sought
curriculum planning could be implemented. Though disapproving of subjects as the fillers
of slots in school timetables, and for what he regarded as their traditional antediluvian
content, he nevertheless stress the importance of an authentic subject input. Key social
themes or concepts, drawn from the relevant disciplines of knowledge were required to
structure the material to be taught.
How the theoretical ideas were to be implemented were spelled out in Billings' Rugg-
inspired categorisation of the generalisations basic to a social studies course. To achieve the
formulated social goals there had to be training in generalisation as part of training in
thinking. To fashion such training, the new courses must draw on the ideas of those who
were academic leaders in their fields. 'Frontier thinkers' were contacted to elicit what they
judged to be the most distinguished their writings in the various social subjects. As an
example, the most highly prized geographical text was Isaiah Bowman's The New World:
Problems in Political Geography. From this and other works, criteria were distilled to
produce the 'basic generalisations'. These in the first stage amounted to 4,600. They were
finally pared down to a perceived irreducible minimum of 880. They were also grouped
under topic headings such as 'Growth and Location of Cities' and included such
contributing principles as 'Cities grow at geographical points advantageous for trade and
transportation'.
The next categorisation related to what were defined as the 'central themes' of social
studies, which were seen as the broad, general and inclusive concepts epitomising:
the paramount influences which modify economic, political and social activities;
the fundamental trends or movements in history without a knowledge of which

intelligent understanding of modem life is impossible; and
the central problems of the contemporary social order.
These central themes, unlike the myriad facts, episodes and events of traditional textbooks,
were regarded as permanent, widely applicable, and as likely to be as relevant to the life of
the future as to that of the present (Billings, 1929, p.213).
Meanwhile, the geographical education lobby had not been dormant, even if in the event it
was to prove to be something of a rearguard action. Some subject specialists were also
aware the function of content analysis in a wider rational curriculum planning strategy.
Thus, Neville in 1927 itemised what were presented as the necessary outcomes of a
geography course, based on principles enunciated by the economy of time movement. The
purpose was to get to grips with overloading of the timetable by scaling down the content of
subjects to either what was unique to those subjects, or to that which represented something
they could deliver more effectively than any other (pp. 16-7). Overriding educational
objectives were classified according the components that it was agreed geography could best
offer. The fundamental concepts of geography were to do with location, and were made up
of elements such as:
realisation of the meaning oflocation in geography;

realisation of the influence of geographical location on people;
the habit of comparing facts as to their location; and
the habit of observation of locational relationships of places, people or products
(p. 34).
This 'scientific approach' to curriculum-making was also exemplified in contributions to the

National Society for the Study of Education's 32nd Yearbook on The Teaching of
Geography (Whipple, 1933). Notable among these was that of the prolific Edith Putnam
Parker (Stoltman, 1980), whose section on 'Developing the Science of Teaching
Geography', included awesomely detailed classifications of type ideas in the subject,
regarded as a vital basis for curriculum planning (Marsden, 1992a, pp. 133-4).
While all these endeavours were light years in advance of what had gone before, they
brought into the open problems which suggested that in the final analysis curriculum
planning in itself could bear only a modest burden. Indeed the very sophistication inhibited
take-up. To an extent there was success, and Harold Rugg's monumental and controversial
series of social studies textbooks entitled Man and his Changing Society sold well for a
number of years. But the procedures were elaborate, spawning complicated designs beyond
the understanding and logistical capabilities of many teachers to apply. Secondly, the
approach was top down. Among the scientific curriculum planners there existed an element
of disdain for the capacities of teachers, especially in the elementary grades. Finally, the
controversial critique of American society in his textbooks, seen by Rugg as essential to his
mission, provoked political uproar and vitriolic censorship, a harbinger of things to come in
the post-World War II period.
Post-War Curriculum Planning
CURRICULUM PROJECTS IN THE USA
In a Report of a Conference called by the National Academy of Sciences in 1959, Bruner

linked the call for curriculum reform with the perception of crisis in national security as a
result of the Cold War. The conference was in turn a catalyst for the curriculum projects of
the 1960s (Tanner, 1988, p.126). The projects broke with American precedent in that they
were federally funded, were targeted at a national audience, and were attached to single
subjects. They were professionally led, chiefly by academics in the disciplines being
supported (Goodlad, 1964, pp. 1-3).
148 W.MARSDEN
The 1960s curriculum reform movement in the United States was to have considerable
international influence. It included some of the most celebrated figures in the educational
field of the second half of the twentieth century. At the same time, the new curriculum
theory was much founded on that of the 1920s and 1930s, with scholars such as Tyler and
Taba key transitional figures. One of the key names was Jerome Bruner, whose The
Process of Education, while affirming the importance of 'learning by doing', also insisted
that the activity/discovery element in education should be underpinned by the structures of
the disciplines of knowledge (Elliott, 1990, pp. 43-5). The basic themes of subjects he
described as 'as simple as they are powerful'. Grasp of them was the key to progression
into more complex forms of understanding. 'A curriculum as it develops should revisit
these basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal
apparatus that goes with them'. Thus emerged the profoundly influential concept of the
'spiral curriculum' (Bruner, 1963, pp. 12-13).
Through well-funded curriculum projects, novel classroom materials were generated.

Bruner's Man: a Course of Study project was particularly important, almost a template for a
progressive 'new social studies' (Nelson, 1992, p.465). But for the general run of teachers,
the academically derived and novel structures from such social sciences as anthropology
were baffling. Over-optimistic assumptions were made about their capacities to adapt.
Questions were also raised by fundamentalists over what they took to be some morally
suspect ideas in the materials, no less than adultery, promiscuity, blood-letting, infanticide,
cannibalism, violent murder, communal living and 'other revolting behavior' (Fitzgerald,
1979, p. 193). The net effect of the novel content, some unfamiliar processes, and the
controversial nature of the materials was to snuff out a striking piece of curriculum reform
(Helburn, 1983, p. 24).
The American High School Geography Project (AHGSP) of the 1960s, directed by Nicholas
Helburn, was another ambitious initiative that was also to be disseminated well beyond the
boundaries of the United States. Like other projects of its time, it produced curriculum
materials in the form of packages, with teachers' guides as well as pupil books. Again,
however, the take-up was limited. One problem was arguably the somewhat erudite content
of the units, designed to bring to the fore the key ideas of the subject. These were, however,
both unfamiliar to and difficult to grasp by the general run of teachers involved, who were
in many cases suspicious also of enquiry-based methods (Helburn, 1983, p. 27). Less than
ten per cent of teachers were said to be capable of adopting the genuine enquiry approach to
learning which the projects demanded (Gunn, 1971, p. 75). The factors inhibiting radical
curriculum reform were therefore very similar to those which had faced Rugg and his
colleagues in an earlier generation.
CURRICULUM PROJECTS IN GEOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND AND WALES
An early British text to disseminate American concepts of rational curriculum planning was
Wheeler's Curriculum Process (1967), a book strongly influenced by Hilda Taba, whose
Curriculum Development Theory and Practice (1962) was regarded as a classic of its type.
The 1960s were a watershed of radical change not only in curriculum theory, but also at the
academic frontiers of geography. Walford identified the Madingley Hall course for teachers
in 1963 as a starting point for the dissemination of the 'new geography'. It was underpinned
by the seminal texts of Chorley and Haggett, Frontiers in Geographical Teaching (1965)
and Models in Geography (1967). Drawing together the ideas of these two radical sets of
reforms, and also taking on board some of the early reactions against them, were the focus
of many articles and methodological texts among British geographical educationsts in the
1970s (see, for example, Graves, 1975 and 1979, and Marsden, 1976).
A major influence on school geography in England and Wales was the Schools Council's
series of geography projects, including the Avery Hill College Geography for the Young
School Leaver (GYSL) and the Bristol Geography 14-18 Project, whose materials were
aimed at pupils not leaving school at 16. In the event, the latter covered only the 14-16 age
range, leaving the way open for another project, Geography 16-19, at the University of
London Institute of Education. Additionally, the Liverpool Place, Time and Society 8-13
Project, covered geography as well as history and the social sciences for this age group. All
these projects were influenced to a greater or lesser degree by the reforms in curriculum
theory, by the changes at the frontiers of academic geography, and by the American High
School Geography project. In general they eschewed the more rigid behaviourist
approaches to curriculum planning by objectives, but at the same time were engaged in what
were essentially rational curriculum planning procedures, supported by diagrammatic
models based on educational theory. The University ofLondon project's elaboration of the
more simplistic linear models of the Wheeler type, for example, was entitled 'A Model of
Enquiry-based Study', specifying a 'route for enquiry' based on key questions and guiding
concepts. The GYSL and London projects also veered away from quantitative towards
welfare approaches, the latter being strongly tied to an issues-based agenda based on four
'man-environment themes' (Naish, 1978).
Unlike the AHSGP, the Schools Council geography projects enjoyed some success in their
take-up. In part this was no doubt due to learning from the mistakes of earlier projects in
deploying a more democratic mode of dissemination, drawing in local authorities and
particular schools in which materials were piloted. The key to success was said to be
school-based curriculum development, it being argued that only in this way did teachers feel
they were real stake-holders rather than mere acolytes. At the same time, the projects
recognised the vital need to tie in with the external examination system. All developed their
own syllabuses in association with various examining boards, the net result being an
improvement in the syllabuses. Similarly, while the projects themselves reflected the
endemic suspicion of textbooks characteristic of British educational circles, some of the
team members or their teacher associates went on to write successful textbooks based on the
project ideas, such as Rex Beddis and David Waugh, the former the leader and the latter
linked as a teacher with the GYSL project.
150 W.MARSDEN
During the 1980s there was increasing advocacy in geographical educational circles of
issues-based content, and indeed towards its radicalisation and politicisation. It was argued
that progressive enquiry-approaches were not enough, and justification must be through
stimulus to action. Global issues and environmental concerns loomed larger and larger, and
· should be interpreted politically, as well as socially and morally (see, for example, Huckle,
1983; see also Fien, 1992). While these questions were rightly considered to be qf
fundamental important, they served to undermine the distinctiveness of geography (for all
were essentially interdisciplinary questions) and to distort content and the curriculum
process in general the direction of fulfilling an over-riding mission. Additionally, they
triggered a political backlash from right-wing pressure groups. The association with
external lobbies promoting development education, peace education and the like were
accused of propagandising left-wing agendas, and this in part led to the what were regarded
as reactionary changes proposed in the National Curriculum (see above and below).
OTHER INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
There is clearly insufficient space in this brief contribution to cover the many ramifioations
of curriculum planning both historically and across a wide range of countries. Only a small
number of cases can be considered, and that somewhat glibly, as further illustration of some
of the issues covered above, drawing in particular on the work of the of the International
Geographical Union Commission on Geographical Education (IGUCGE).
Germany
One of the countries influenced by the AHSGP project was the then West Germany. Here a
team of academic geographers, led from Munich by Professor Dr. Robert Geipel,
established the Raumwissenchaftliche Curriculumforschungsprojekt des Zentralverbandes
des Deutschen Geographen (RCFP). The preparatory phase began in 1968, and the
development phase and federal funding ended in 1978 (see Marsden 1980). Project groups
were established in seven West German cities and, as with the AHSGP, some highly
innovative thematic frameworks and materials were produced. The end purpose was to
develop the 'capacity to critically participate in planning processes' (Geipel, 1978, p. 89).
But the RCFP, even though establishing project groups and associates in different Liinde,
failed to win over German authorities and teachers. Anticipating failure as a result not of
the project's strategies, but rather of wider changes in the political situation in which
German education found itself, and the play-safe attitudes of teachers and parents, Geipel
was already pessimistic over its prospects by 1978.
Netherlands
A classic example of reliance on a theoretical model for the development of curriculum

units in geography was that of Henrietta Verduin-Muller at the University of Utrecht in the
1970s, which formed the basis of a master's degree programme. It was based on the by then
well-known linear model of curriculum: the specification of aims, goals and objectives,
followed by selection of learning experiences; then of content; then of organising and
integrating content and learning experiences, and finally evaluating the whole process. The
Utrecht model was of course more sophisticated than this. Its distinctive features were
described as involving a genuine systems approach; emphasising the importance of the
subject discipline in informing the conceptual structures and providing high quality
information; incorporating information theory; and giving priority to the importance of
educational media, seeing it as essential that the communication element should function in
harmony with the other components in the process (Verduin-Muller, 1978) The purpose of
the whole endeavour was to promote the ability of students to survive and be successful in
the 'information society', equipping them 'to handle and design educational geography
information' in respect, for example, of spatial planning and understanding of
environmental problems, seen as essential attributes for winning jobs in a range of service
industries, and not only in teaching (Verduin-Muller, 1984).
Australia
In the Australian literature, reference to the 'curriculum process', based on Wheeler's book,
was present in an article by Cox, first published in 1971. As in England and Wales and in
West Germany, the AHSGP was praised, here as 'a noteworthy accomplishment in the
history of geography education' and as a model for curriculum development in the subject.
(Knight, 1973, p. 440). The interest of geographical educationists in Australia in the use of
theoretical models for curriculum planning was exemplified in Biddle's substantial
contribution to the New UNESCO Source Book for Geography Teaching (1982). In this, he
instanced planning schemes at work in the United States, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden
and England (p. 274). Among Biddle's suggestions were a geography syllabus model; a
geography curriculum model (based very much on a Wheeler-type scheme); a curriculum
process system; a conceptual model of geography itself; a set of intersecting paradigms of
geography, conceptual models of curriculum development based in turn on the ecosystem
paradigm and the spatial organisation paradigm; and finally the application of these
theoretical ideas first to a geography curriculum for particular years of the school, then
within this guidelines for course construction, and formats for instructional units.
As in Britain, so in Australia, the watchword from the early 1970s was that school-based
curriculum development was likely to be more effective than imposition of schemes from
above by educational elites. It was said to be essential for curriculum development to run
concurrently with teacher development, in evolving programmes fitted to the needs of
particular students in particular school environments. Equally emphasised was the notion
152 W. MARSDEN
that teaching should be learner-centred and 'the process model of curriculum design'. The
selection and evaluation of resources should be undertaken from 'a process standpoint'(see,
for example, Fien, 1984, p. 244; and Parry, 1996). Again, quite elaborate models for
planning were promulgated (Maccoll, 1984 ). During the 1980s and 1990s, once more
mirroring the case in England and Wales, there was a more intense advocacy of an issues-
based geographical and environmental education as part of a more radical political
education, pointing out quite logically that it was not helpful merely to instil a knowledge
and understanding of these issues if this was not translated into the kind of commitment in
action that would to a sustainable environment and a better world (see, for example, Fien,
2000). Education for sustainability should become the agenda (see, for example, Orr,
1992). In the face of the evangelism, the niceties of process and formal curriculum planning
had a lower priority, and were less represented in the literature. True, a Gerber and Lidstone
collection of 1996 included a major section entitled 'Curriculum Development in
Geographical Education', but this had a quite different slant from that of, for example
Biddle.
United States
Returning to the United States, the geographical lobby of the 1980s, supported among other
organisations by the wealthy and internationally celebrated National Geographical Society,
took advantage of the wider national anxiety over academic standards, interpreted in general
as caused by the emphasis on progressive methods and in particular by integrated social
studies courses, to effect what was claimed by the 1990s to be a renaissance of geographical
education (see, for example, Bednarz and Peterson (eds), 1994; and Grosvenor, 1995). The
content, not unlike that of AHSGP, was to be based strictly on the fundamental themes of
geography, namely location (position on the earth's surface); place (physical and human
characteristics); relationships within places (humans and environments); movement
(humans interacting with the earth); and regions (how they form and change) (see Bednarz,
eta!., 1998).
As part of an enormous in-service training programme, striving to ensure that the take-up
failure of the earlier AHSGP was not repeated, much teacher guidance material was
published, aiming to offer a national leadership over content standards (see, for example,
National Geographic Society, 2000). At state level, 'Geographic Alliance Networks'
assumed major responsibility for dissemination. Members of university departments
conducted workshops for teachers (Salter, 1987). Large packages of teacher guidance and
curriculum materials produced by the National Geographic Society's 'Geography
Awareness Programme' were sent to teachers. In these diagrammatic curriculum planning
models as such were absent. The advice was given straightforwardly as text. The
presentation, as in the K6 Geography: Themes, Key Ideas and Learning Opportunities, was
in some ways not dissimilar to the presentation in the National Curriculum documentation
of England and Wales. While clearly there was considerable theoretical underpinning of the
curriculum framing procedures being promoted by the teams involved, by making the
advice more practical and accessible to teachers at the same time a more prescriptive
element inevitably crept in. Thus was once more illustrated the dilemma of whether to
present raw a theoretical framework, often elaborate, requiring individual and creative
application in practice, or something more ready-made and already applied, but implying a
degree of dumbing-down. Nevertheless, the ideas and materials disseminated reflected a
sensible balance between matter, method and mission with, it has to be said, the
opportunistic element provided by the wider concerns over standards and outcomes in the
United States.
Conclusion
It is dangerous to make too much of generalisations based on so long an historical period

and across so a wide range of educational systems. But some risky general conclusions will
none the less be offered, if only as food for thought.
As noted, educational theory-based curriculum planning endeavours hardly survived the

1980s. Over-ambitious claims had in some cases been made for them. Among other things,
for example, there was evidence to suggest that the advantages claimed by theoreticians for
teacher-led innovation were far from manifest in the idiosyncracies of practice (see
Hargreaves, 1982, and Kirk, 1988). In different countries, different development centres
presented their own individualistic variants, sometimes claimed as the final solution to the
long-standing problems and over-expectations of educational systems. In fact, rational
curriculum planning, although a major advance on some of its predecessors, could bear only
a modest burden. The more deeply-probing the procedures, as with University-based
projects such as those of the AHSGP and the RCFP, the less likely they were to appeal to
the practical world of teachers, and the range of political constraints under which they
worked.
The general body of geographical educationists, and that at the international level, by the
1990s seemed to have lost impetus in researching the broader framework of coordinated
curriculum planning, on the evidence of, for example, the publications of the International
Geographical Union Commission on Geographical Education and in the journal
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. There appeared,
rather, a focus on particular areas of concern such as information technology, textbooks,
values in geographical and environmental education, primary geography, fieldwork, the
status of the subject, and so on. Just occasionally a curriculum planning model has been
introduced, though as a means to an end (see Liiber and Roosaare, 2000, p. 267). No
contributions would seem to have been addressed to ways of curriculum planning, whether
rudimentary, restrictive or rational. The Bednarz study of articles in the Journal of
Geography from 1988 to 1997 (2000) would also appear to suggest that formal curriculum
planning procedures were not in evidence as significant foci of research in the United States,
with greater attention being paid to practical classroom strategies.
154 W.MARSDEN
Interesting tensions therefore emerged in the 1990s. In England and Wales, under the
pressure of centralisation, a formal curriculum planning procedure could certainly be
discerned and, moreover, was imposed. There were protests that the improvements in
curriculum planning of the 1970s and 1980s had been ignored in plotting the new national
Curriculum (see Rawling, 2000). In articles and methodological texts, it was made clear
that there existed a heritage of ideas on curriculum planning, and that this needed
constructively applying to the exigencies of the statutory central curriculum (see, for
example, Graves, 1996, and Marsden, 1995). Naish argued anew the benefits of a
development process based on the idea of the curriculum as a system, obviously demanding
more than the more limiting but increasingly proselytised syllabus statement (1992, p. 35
and p.50).
At the same time, it was important that the kind of elaboration and problematisation
appealing to the academic peer group should be seen anew as not necessarily comfortable
for practising teachers. Compromises were sought. The Geographical Association's
journals, Teaching Geography and Primary Geographer, provided frequent advice on the
frameworks or schemes of work deemed appropriate for teachers engaged with the National
Curriculum, changing in line with the shifting of the goalposts. But as suggested earlier,
these could be construed as promoting a more restrictive model of curriculum planning. By
the late 1990s, some geographical educationists were looking back to earlier curriculum
planning frameworks. Fisher made use of formal and (dare one say) rational curriculum
planning structures, together with diagrammatic models (1998, Chapter 3). But while the
advice on curriculum planning evident in Lambert and Balderstone's text, sub-titled A
Companion to School Experience, was manifestly underpinned by theoretical constructs, it
was consciously targeted at the teacher audience - for 'men and women learning to teach
geography in secondary schools' (2000, p.1). The main title was Learning to Teach
Geography rather than, say, Curriculum Planning in Geography. While diagrammatic
models of planning were deployed, these veered towards the more practical, teacher-
experienced end of the spectrum, and were geared to the standards expected for gaining
qualified teacher status (2000, Chapter 2).
While the exigencies of National Curriculum planning undoubtedly encouraged more

prescriptive ideas and frameworks, it was too easy to make the National Curriculum a
scapegoat for all the ills of the 1990s. In any case, after the initial enthusiasm for a broad
and balanced curriculum, officialdom lost interest in imposing strict appraisal on subjects
such as geography. Paradox, mishap, unpredictability, contradiction, and changing the
ground rules, ensured less than draconian implementation. The idiosyncratic range of
content in textbooks all claiming to meet the requirements of the National Curriculum
testified to ineffective imposition, with teachers able, outside the external examination
forms, to follow their inclinations (see Marsden, 2001, Chapter 11). Unfortunately, a
penalty of the final removal of subjects such as geography in the mid-1990s from the
rigidities of the earlier statutory statements of attainment and formal annual assessment was
a declining status for the subject, reflected in reduced uptake where it became optional, or
reduction of time allocation. More positively, this in Rawling's view created the
opportunity· for a re-engagement with more progressive approaches to curriculum

development (2000). It perhaps offered the prospect for the twenty-first century of the
introduction of a reactive, responsive and resilient curriculum planning process, that at the
same time, unlike those of the previous three decades, respects the need for a Blanca
between matter, method and mission.
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Education, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
11. EFFECTIVE APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT IN GEOGRAPHY
DAVID LAMBERT
Introduction
This chapter discusses curriculum development for an international audience of

geography educators. However, it is noted from the start that the discussion inevitably is
refracted through a particular cultural lens. I am English, educated through English
schools and universities and taught for 12 years in English state funded secondary
comprehensive schools. Furthermore, I have spent much of the last 15 years in a
London university, training geography teachers for English secondary schools.
Although Masters teaching and my research supervision engage me with international
perspectives, I have to admit that, in these contexts too, the English system inevitably
dominates my thinking.
On the other hand, the curriculum development 'story' from England during the last
quarter of the last century and into the present period is an interesting one and offers a
number of insights that are of general application. Eleanor Rawling (2001) has in this
context produced a readable and scholarly account of how educational and political
ideologies, resulting in contested national policy, interacts with other layers and players
in the curriculum development process. She notes the profound role of the curriculum
development process in, literally, 'changing the subject'. In any case, a number of key
influences on curriculum development in England are surely 'translatable' to many
other national contexts as the global age makes its presence felt. For example, notable
trends across the world include national and international debates on performativity,
accountability and value for money; the impact of school improvement and
effectiveness ideologies; the place of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) in teaching and learning and implications of the 'information explosion'; the
increasing part played by the state in national education systems; concerns about
standards and educational outcomes- to name but a few. Factors such as these do not
all pull in the same way of course and different systems can be expected to come to
different 'settlements' in relation to such conflicting pressures. Indeed, they will also do
so in relation to the really big questions concerning education, namely those to do with
its purpose (Ross 2000). Thus, is education meant primarily to serve the needs of the
society and economy (providing skilful and employable people for the 'world of work'
in the 'global market place'), or is it mainly to provide worthwhile experiences and
knowledge to help individuals 'live sanely' in the world? (as James Fairgrieve put it in
1926, referring to geography's role in promoting international understanding and
perhaps anticipating contemporary concerns such as environmental catastrophe,
159
160 D. LAMBERT
population-resource pressures, increasing income inequalities, intercultural

communication and of more recent concern international terrorism). Or has education to
address both these 'purposes', and more besides?
This chapter analyses the way in which the central curriculum development problem -
deciding how to select what to teach and how to teach it - has been undertaken in recent
years, primarily in England. I shall emphasis where I believe 'theory' may well have
run ahead of 'practice' in the past, and where practice has failed in the wake of a (very
Anglo-Saxon!) refusal of policy makers to engage with theory. I shall show how
successful curriculum development can be achieved and, through discussion, identify
some touchstones for 'effective' curriculum planning and development. But, I begin
with a short reprise of curriculum theory, the purpose of which is to force the reader to
engage with a fundamental question or choice: what place has geography in the
curriculum? It is my view that curriculum development that fails to respond fully to this
question may still be judged by some criteria to be 'effective', but could at the same
time be dangerous.
When is a Curriculum 'Fit for Purpose'?
The purpose of education can always be disputed, and inevitably choices have to be
made by those charged with making policy, at all levels. Geography in schools, when it
exists as a separate subject entity in the school curriculum, also has conflicting priorities
- which can broadly be distinguished as attempting to serve the needs of society and the
needs of individuals. If geography is identified as being able to contribute in some way
to the general education project, then it too has to respond by making choices: what
kind of geography, and for what purposes? Choices are not limited to selecting
'contents' of course, for as Frances Slater pointed out some time ago, the selection of
teaching strategies is 'as important as selecting content' (Slater 1982 p 55). This
realisation refers to what Moore describes as the 'inseparability of pedagogy and
curriculum in the practical - rather than the theoretical - world, and the difficulty of
deciding when pedagogy is curriculum and when curriculum is pedagogy' (Moore
2000). Thus, although it may seem that curriculum decisions are made by other people
'out there', individual teachers also have to make 'curriculum choices' about their own
particular classrooms. In summary, curriculum development is not a distant process
owned entirely by the bureaucracy; it is a professional process too (or at least it should
be if teachers see themselves as possessing agency and having a part to play in forging a
democratic ideal), operating on a number of distinct levels (see Rawling, 1996).
What is 'Curriculum'?
To raise the question 'what is a curriculum?' makes a helpful point early on in our
discussion of curriculum development 'theory', for it reminds us that what we mean by
curriculum may in fact vary quite significantly between systems or even between
participants within the same educational system. What I am taking the term to mean in
this chapter is the entire sum of formal and informal experiences of pupils at school,
including all those components planned by teachers to shape the learning programme
EFFECTIVE APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 161
(specifically, of course, in the context of geography for the purposes of the present
discussion). Defining the idea in these terms betrays where I am 'coming from'; note
that my definition does not feature - at least not overtly - the idea of curriculum as
wholly or even primarily concerned with the delivery of prescribed and essentially
stable content. What I imply through the use of words such as pupils' experiences in the
learning programme is something a little more interactive than one-way transmission, or
the 'delivery' of what is considered to be useful to know from teacher to learner. There
is also at least the hint in my chosen configuration of 'curriculum' that much learning
takes place informally, perhaps in an unplanned manner and not necessarily in the
classroom where (at least in theory) the teacher's control is strongest.
Many teachers, and probably the vast majority of their advisers and trainers, would
recognise and support the point being made here, that effective curriculum development
is essentially a process which actively involves both teachers and learners working
together with the notion of learning as discovery and personal development - or ' ... to
travel with a different view' as R S Peters put it (see Slater, 1992). And yet, as has been
widely acknowledged over many years (eg., Fullen, 1982), the power of the 'delivery'
metaphor wields such enormous influence it can impede change and instead reinforce a
rather more static concept of the curriculum - as a means to select and impart a body of
knowledge that society considers sufficiently relevant and worthwhile to pass on to the
next generation: ' ... this is what you need to know' might be the appropriate aphorism
for this model. Clearly then, judging the 'effectiveness' of curriculum development is
heavily dependent on the strength of the prevailing (and perhaps competing) conceptual
framework.
Curriculum Development Frameworks
Significant progress was made in the middle and later years of the last century in
clarifying how curriculum development takes place. Broadly, we can distinguish
behaviourist and phenomenological frameworks (see Hanson, 1995). The former refers
to systems, such as that identified by Tyler (1949), which are concerned with objectives
setting. These are observable 'learning outcomes' that link to the objectives then
determine the curriculum content selection, which in turn usually strongly influences
the instructional methods (or pedagogy). Behaviourist or objectives models of
curriculum development are often concerned primarily with definitions of the subject,
or the supposed needs of society, but rarely with the needs of individual learners - at
least not at the forefront. Phenomenological approaches, on the other hand, start with
the needs of learners and consequently adopt a more flexible interpretation of the
curriculum plan, recognising, for example, that learning environments can change for a
variety of reasons, as can the needs, interests and motivations of the learners, and that
the curriculum may have to adapt accordingly (see Kerr, 1968).
In geography, work on clarifying curriculum development frameworks has been

interpreted and synthesised by a number of commentators, but notably by Norman
Graves (1979, 1996) who shows in his well-known model (Figure 1) that the process of
planning a geography course takes in a range of conflicting influences. These include
. questions concerning the nature of education and the existing school system, the nature
162 D. LAMBERT
of the subject, 'situational variables' and various constraints such as examination

requirements. The model as it is presented takes on a quite linear form, perhaps
emphasising the assumed 'rationality' of the process in its entirety. Whilst
acknowledging that one of the achievements of curriculum development theorising is
exactly. to make the point that what governs the curriculum can indeed result from
rational.decision-making processes (that is, the curriculum is not a 'given' cultural
artefact, but a human creation serving a range of needs and purposes that it is well to
identify), Graves' model may not do justice to the notion of the actuality of curriculum
development in practice being a fuzzy (if not downright messy) process, one which does
not yield easily to a linear, rational pathway. Where, for example, do pupils and parents
feature in the model? If they exist anywhere, they tend to be hidden behind 'educational
research, psychological and sociological considerations', leaving the model to portray
the curriculum as being (merely) the instrument of application, devised by experts for
implementation to the mass consumer. If this ever were an entirely satisfactory
understanding of curriculum, it seems that it is unlikely to apply effectively in the
present 'post-modern' zeitgeist, in which diverse perspectives and multiple truths allow
pupils simply to reject what they see as irrelevant (no matter how worthwhile the
founding fathers of the subject discipline may interpret the same material). Thus, we
may create a dead curriculum, if not literally the 'curriculum of the dead' (ref). Such a
curriculum epitomises the deadening hand of a well-intentioned rational process which
manages to disembowel the subject of its passion, and thereby limit its educational
potential.
In his summary of curriculum development in geography Graves admits that 'I am not
sure that we have made any spectacular strides recently in our understanding of the
curriculum process as a whole.' (1996, p 95). It is as if events during the 1980s and
1990s in England overtook the steady incremental progress that seemed to peak with
Graves' 1979 model. I shall pursue this line of thought further in the next section when I
briefly consider the impact of the national curriculum on effective curriculum
development. However, before doing so we need to explore further some theoretical
perspectives on the curriculum development process, and once more remind ourselves
of the overwhelming significance of purpose.
Means and Ends
Curriculum plans are assumed, to a greater or lesser extent, to be guided by an

overriding principle of 'fitness for purpose'. Thus, the plan may require teachers to
think about how the teaching and learning takes place as well as what is relevant,
worthwhile and motivating to learn; but the background question should be invoked
regularly - for what purpose do we plan this or that sequence of lessons? In other
words, we may establish what we would like pupils to learn, and the way we would
prefer them to learn it, but why do we want pupils to learn these things, in these ways?
Sometimes answers to these questions are not very clear. Worse still, in some cases it
appears that such questions are not examined seriously by the planners at all, leaving the
!?Urriculum (and teachers interpreting the curriculum at the level of classroom
experience) open to all manner of hidden influences, and free to be blown this way and
that by the slipstream of any passing bandwagon.
1. Aims of schooling and education

(i) Developing mind
(ii) Acquiring worthwhile knowledge and
skills
(iii) Acquiring social skills
Selection oi
2. Paradigms of geography
____. (i) Areal differentiation
(ii) Ecosystem
(iii) Spatial organisation
H 2a. Research by scholars in geography
3.
J
Aims of geographical education
__.. (i) Reinforcing communication skills

(ii) Development of spatial concepts and
skills
(iii) Developing an awareness of spatial
aspects
~
~4. Selection of content from
skills, concepts, principles, theories, laws rl 5a. School total curriculum structure
~ 5b Educational research,
l-
psychological and sociological
~5. Structure content in school course considerations
~
~ 5c Situational variables
(i) Location of school and
6. Examinations: GCSE, GCE A-level, school architecture
I~ GNVQ; school tests; curriculum (ii) Local resources
evaluation (iii) Staff available
Figure 1. Model for curriculum planning in geography (Graves (1979, 1996).
This is not the place to open up the question 'Why teach geography?' in a substantive or
detailed way, for whether geography per se is worth studying or not is not my main
concern in the present discussion (but for example, see Lambert 2002b). In any case, for
some time now influential curriculum developers in geography have established that
'geography' is not to be mistaken for an end in itself. Why study geography?- because
it is able to serve educational ends. We can think of Frances Slater's Learning Through
Geography (1982), Michael Naish coining the phrase 'geography as a medium of
education' and more recently David Leat's Thinking Through Geography (1998): all
denote a healthy approach to the notion of a curriculum, in which 'geography' is likened
to a resource for learning, or a means to an end. Thus, briefly, the place of geography in
the whole curriculum can be justified in terms of the subject's enormous potential as an
educational resource. One of the benefits of rational curriculum planning has been the
164 D. LAMBERT
clear enunciation of which of the 'elements of learning' (grouped under knowledge,

understanding, skills and values) can be addressed through the various subjects, and one
of geography's great strengths lies in the range and combinations of knowledge,
understandings, skills and values that it can cover. Geography straddles the arts and the
sciences, uses skills from across the whole spectrum and is concerned with real-world
decision making involving people and their humanly constructed and physical
environments. What is more, it is topical and can engage with the future. And finally,
the subject provides a particular viewpoint about place and spatial relations that,
through the operation of political processes that result in the state's occupation of
territory, provide learners with a means of grasping issues of identity and citizenship
(Lambert and Machon, 2001).
In providing the above glimpse of the potential richness of geography as a resource for
learning, I do not wish to be mistaken in my task for merely promoting or even
defending 'geography'. Some geography may not be worth defending, but in any case
this is not the point. The point is much more to do with the profoundly important
question about the kind of curriculum we want; that is, a curriculum fit for what
purpose? Of course, as the Graves model makes perfectly plain, there are (possibly
conflicting) purposes laid down by the state and/or its agencies, examination
organisations, and other 'interests', all of which are beyond the capacity of individual
teachers to influence. However, as Graves also pointed out, an observation subsequently
strengthened by Eleanor Rawlings' call for school based curriculum development
(1996; 2001), there are 'levels' of curriculum development. Even in the context of a
tightly defined national curriculum parameter, the teacher still needs to design lessons
and sequences of lessons over which he or she can exercise enormous control and
influence, if not in the content then certainly in the pedagogy. As we remarked at the
beginning of this section, it is in this space that 'curriculum' may become
indistinguishable from 'pedagogy' (Moore op cit). What guides teachers' curriculum
decisions (and pedagogic decisions) must be a concern that they be fit for purpose.
The Role and Purpose of Teachers
The distinctive aspect of a teacher's sense of purpose is that it is, justifiably, dominated
by matters to do with children's learning. The state and other infrastructural interests
such as examinations bodies are usually less interested in individuals and more
interested in society wide matters or even issues of efficiency and commercial success.
Many commentators have argued most strongly that the school represents the state's
key apparatus for maintaining stability, fulfilling a conservative function of
guaranteeing quiescence (eg., Apple, 1995; see Moore, 2001 for a general discussion).
Some, referred to as the 'de-schoolers', have even gone further, arguing that schools
have little to do with education at all. Far from being de-schoolers, however, a great
many teachers would find sympathy with what we might call 're-schooling'. Thus,
while understanding the logic of 'teaching as a subversive activity' (Postman and
Weingartner, 1971) and at the same time supporting the 'socialising' role of schools,
many geography teachers are motivated by an essentially 'child-centred' ideal. They are
commonly committed to developing in their pupils independent and enquiring minds,
together with positive dispositions to issues that society at large sometimes finds
difficult, such as respecting diversity, tolerating the different (and the difficult),
supporting the disadvantaged and so on. Pupils are presented with the means to see
alternative viewpoints, encouraged to question naturalised 'facts' and challenge
common-sense or 'hegemonic' views. In order to achieve such goals, pupils need to be
actively involved - meaning intellectually engaged - which is why we might pigeon-
hole such concerns as matters of pedagogy. But the whole authentic learning
experience, including both content and process, needs to be engineered so that it makes
a difference to individuals and is not as Whitehead (1945) put it, just 'plastered on'.
Real, authentic 'experience' is not something that is simply done to us, but something
we take part in and construct, often in the company of others. A great many teachers
and curriculum theorists would argue that such an approach - broadly what Edwards
and Kelly (1998:1) describe as 'education as development through experience'·- can be
equated with notions of an open society which values the democratic ideal. John Dewey
(1916) is often cited in this respect, but also Basil Bernstein (1967) envisaged the
emergence of a more diverse, yet open society and a shift 'from pedagogy which ... was
concerned with the learning of standard operations ... to a pedagogy which emphasises
the exploration of principles; from schools which emphasise the teacher as solution-
giver to schools which emphasise the teacher as problem poser or creator' and 'to more
personalised forms of control where teachers and taught to confront each other as
individuals' (op cit, cited in Edwards and Kelly, 1998:4). Bernstein's anticipation was
somewhat premature, for few would recognise over 30 years later that much progress
towards his vision has been made. And yet, the purpose behind a teacher's actions
planning and implementing a lesson or sequence of lessons can still be linked to such
ideals, even if the ostensible role of school in society is not. Teachers can change pupils
through the experiences they provide. They are not employed to change society, and
few would see this as their role, but they do have a responsibility to 'make a difference'
with the children they teach. It is difficult to imagine any understanding of 'effective'
curriculum planning and development that did not have this in mind.
Thus, merely conducting a 'pedagogic adventure' is not enough to change (or is that
'challenge'?) pupils, for appropriate materials (content) will also have to be selected.
For example, the published curriculum may require pupils to study the changing face of
British industry. The steel industry may be a recommended example or case study-
there is after all much historical as well as current geographical information that is
readily available through textbooks and other sources. However, the scale at which we
study the changing face of the British steel industry (and teachers are free to choose the
emphasis) affects what we study and what we learn. Most of the industry is now owned
by a Dutch trans-national (Corus). The industry contracted rapidly through Britain's
periods of de-industrialisation of the 1980s and 1990s and Corus announced plans in
2001 for further 'rationalisation', largely through the closure of a plant in South Wales.
Whether the industry is studied on a global scale (Wallerstein's [see Taylor, 1985] scale
of 'reality', in which case certain 'inevitable' economic realities may explain the
closure), the national scale (the scale of 'ideology', in which case the role of
government may be examined, for example as to whether the industry should be
strategically protected by subsidy) or on a local scale (the scale of 'experience', in
which case the dramatic impact of closure on people's lives- and not just former steel
workers - would come to the fore) governs to a significant degree the kind of data we
166 D. LAMBERT
need pupils to interact with and the kinds of questions that may be posed, not only by
the teachers but by the pupils themselves. In this way, content and pedagogy closely
inter-relate and closely influence learning outcomes.
When is a Curriculum not a Curriculum?
A former colleague was involved in writing articles with the rest of the team (Graves et
al., 1990a, 1990b) on the proposals for the new geography National Curriculum. We
were having great difficulty with the structure of the proposed curriculum, when she
realised the truth via the traditional English wordplay: 'When is a door not a door?
When it's ajar'. Slater's adaptation runs as follows: 'When is a curriculum not a
curriculum? When it's a national curriculum!' In other words, in the terms of how she
and the rest of us understood the meaning of 'curriculum', what was proposed by the
government's special 'working group' did not measure up. It was called a curriculum,
and the proposals became the curriculum parameters laid down in law (DES 1991), and
so in that sense it was the curriculum. But it was not a curriculum as we understood the
term. To save semantic confusion, I can return to my present chapter title, and suggest
that in hindsight the essential problem with the proposal was not whether or not it was a
curriculum, but whether or not it was effective. The fact that it had been reviewed quite
radically, on two occasions, by 2000 perhaps tells its own story. Rawling (2001) and
others fear that the national curriculum specification was so fundamentally flawed that
it seriously impeded the development of school geography in England during the 1990s.
Lambert (2002a) also argues that it contributed to a deskilling of geography teachers,
particularly new entrants to the profession who quickly learn that 'school geography' is
a quasi-independent sub-set of the wider discipline, and that new know ledges from the
research frontier have a limited role to play in shaping the geography curriculum
experience.
There are signs that this malaise is beginning to be rectified, as teachers and teacher
educators respond to the urgent critique posed by, for example, John Morgan (2002)
who proposes a 'cultural pedagogy' as a means to make the curriculum experience of
pupils connect with their 'geographical imaginations'. But as Graves (1996) observed,
'There is ahead of us a hard road to tread, but schools and colleges must make an effort
to develop curricula that will address the needs of present and future society, so that we
do not fail future generations of our citizens (p 98).
So what was wrong with the original geography national curriculum? Fundamentally, it
was stuffed with too much fragmented content and was utterly devoid of aims. There
was no convincing rationale for the selection of the content, at least not in. terms of
pupils' needs. Finally, the content was strongly suggestive of a delivery or transmission
pedagogy, whilst at the same time lip service was also paid to the idea of 'enquiry'
methodologies: a deeply troublesome confusion, which resulted in many teachers
resorting to a cleverly designed textbook series which claimed to 'cover' everything
(Waugh and Bushell, 1991), rather than try to work out how to operationalise the
'curriculum' for themselves. In short, the national curriculum represented a top-down
authoritarian experiment in curriculum control, and of course, it failed. As Graves'
quote above reminds us, effective curriculum development has to involve the people
who know the children and their needs. If there were any theoretical basis for the
original national curriculum, it was implicit and drawn from a simple interpretation of
behaviourist or 'objectives' thinking. It is unfortunate that curriculum specialists were
not consulted, for as we have seen, theoretical understandings of curriculum
development had advanced considerably from simplistic transmission models. What
followed was a decade of adjustment during which effective curriculum development
had to be rediscovered: not for nothing did Bill Marsden call his 1996 book Rekindling
Good Practice.
An Effective Curriculum Development?
So what constitutes 'effective' curriculum development? The slimmed down national

curriculum framework, that has now replaced the horrific national curriculum 'Orders'
of 1991 certainly makes effective curriculum development possible once again in
England. This is how Eleanor Rawling sees the current possibilities for school
curriculum development, in terms of opportunities and threats (see Figure 2).
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
National frameworks and criteria provide a continuous The national framework may not be as strong as it appears
sequence (entitlement) throughout school education. -weak at the primary level; highly competitive situation at
14-19; declining examination entries. Teachers do not
GNC now provides an acceptable model for curriculum always perceive the flexibility and are constrained by a
planning and scope for teacher input. residual 1991 image and restricted view of
professionalism. The awarding bodies will not move into
The public examinations criteria allow for more innovative more innovative specifications unless a strong lead for
specifications (syllabuses). change and development is given by the subject
community.
Geography is a popular subject with pupils at most ages.
If school geography does not shake off lacklustre image
Given time and resources some teachers are keen to and problems of quality at KS3, pupils may be attracted to
participate in professional activities (eg., Geovisions; Best kore 'exciting' new subjects. If centralised solutions to
Practice Research Scholarships) professional development remain prescriptive and
managerial, then there is unlikely to be a genuine revival
of professionalism.
Source: Rawling (2001, p 173)
Figure 2. The school geography curriculum system: Where are we now? Opportunities and Threats.
The analysis in Figure 2 is interesting and on the surface seems to echo much of the
discussion earlier in this chapter. For instance, it places emphasis of teachers'
professionalism and the implication that effective curriculum development is that
undertaken locally, by teachers, working within a framework that expresses overarching
aims. The table also expresses a kind of 'realpolitik' in that curriculum development is
very much to do with the art of the possible. At the same time, the analysis urges
currency and 'innovation'. These are indeed features of effective curriculum
development.
168 D. LAMBERT
But the table also has contradictions. For example, geography is said to be 'popular' and
at the same time 'lacklustre'. Furthermore, although the space for innovation is there, its
use depends on a 'strong lead' from the subject community, listed under threats! The
analysis is also somewhat uncertain about whether we can reasonably talk about a
geography curriculum 'entitlement'. It is also clearly fearful of the competitive
environment in which predators, such a media studies, citizenship, business education
and psychology, may swallow perfectly good students! All these are familiar problems,
and I do not take issue with the analysis per se. But unless we turn again to wider
theoretical perspectives of the curriculum as a whole, rather than accept the subject
frame as an enduring given, I feel geography curriculum developers in England will for
ever be locked into ultimately senseless curriculum 'turf wars'. Or, to use Rawling's
phrase, end up trying to defend the geography 'subject tribe', which will almost
certainly happen at the expense of considering the needs of learners.
As we have already established, effective curriculum planning has the learners at the
centre. Who are they? What are their needs? What do we know about them? What are
they bringing to the classroom? What motivates and interests them? Such questions are
central and focus the teacher's job on understanding learning. But they are not
exclusive. They do not exclude other questions. I cannot simply say I teach children, for
unless I am deluded enough to imagine that my mere presence is enough, I have to find
something to teach the children. A very important question for all teachers to engage
with, therefore, concerns geography: In what ways can geography be used to help
(these) pupils understand x, y and z? Thus effective curriculum development is 'pupil
centred' within the subject discipline community that is geography. It is probably the
level of 'subject expertise' of the teacher that determines how successfully he or she is
able to plan geography lessons that successfully place the pupils at the centre of the
learning process- at least as important as knowledge of those pupils.
Conclusion
I support expert, scholarly geography teaching in schools. As we have seen, a strongly

subject focussed curriculum in England has not been entirely successful in providing
this. The more we are concerned to define the specifications of school geography -
particularly in terms of the holy grail of pupil 'entitlement' -the more we run risk of
selling pupils short. As Edwards and Kelly (1998) explain: 'The term entitlement is a
moral term; it encapsulates the notion of rights. And, in a democratic context, the rights
any individual has are intended to benefit him/her rather than society at large. Thus, the
right to an 'entitlement curriculum' is a right to a form of education deliberately
designed to promote the development of each individual (p xii). The thought of a
'geography entitlement,' therefore, makes no sense - though I am confident that in
geography there is a rich, disciplined resource to draw on to help fuifil what is the
pupils' entitlement. This entitlement, to return to Edwards and Kelly, means ' ...
offering genuine educational experiences to young people. In order to be genuine, these
experiences must be their own and must relate in some direct way to the development of
their own thinking, their own attitudes, their own values'(p xv).
The argument posited here is that education is the only entitlement; it is a single entity.
Edwards and Kelly advocate an adjectival curriculum based on the 'areas of experience'
(DES 1977) identified by Her Majesty's Inspectors, and this implies is an end to
'geography' as an entitlement. For me, the logical outcome of this thinking requires
such a re-conceptualisation of curriculum organisation that it becomes impractical - and
certainly takes us beyond the scope of this chapter. However, the case is persuasive for
geographers to be less precious about the borderlands of the school subject. Effective
curriculum development is not concerned with protecting geography as if it were an
endangered species, but primarily and relentlessly interested in how to interest and
motivate young people and how to enrich their knowledge and skills for dealing with a
risky and uncertain world. To be sure, geography has a lot to offer in this project.
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development, Active Learning in Higher Education, 2, 2, pp 143-163.
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Cheng, K. Tsui, K. Chow and M. Mok (eds) (2002) Subject Teaching and Teacher Education in the New
Century: Research and Innovation, Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
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Culture and Education (Ch. 8) Dordrecht: Kluwer.
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handbook for secondary teachers. Sheffield: geographical Association .
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170 D. LAMBERT
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von Ernst Trager, pp 99-122, Vienna: Verlag Ferdinand Hirt.
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12. THE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN DEVELOPING SCHOOL
GEOGRAPHY CURRICULUM
JULIE OKPALA AND RICHARD TABULAWA
Theoretical framework
Curriculum as conceptualized in this paper goes beyond the document that contains what
should be taught and how it should be taught. In line with Chipeta (1999) it is all planned
within-class and out-of-class experiences, in a course of study for the purpose of enabling
students to attain the specified objectives. The curriculum therefore includes the document
that often varies in specification as well as the teaching-learning situation, which is its
implementation. It should be noted that in some curriculum documents contain only the
Preamble, objectives (general or specific) and topics. This is often referred to as Teaching
Syllabus. Others are elaborate in varying degrees, giving details of themes, topics,
objectives (specific), content, learning experiences, teaching materials and evaluation guide.
The process of a curriculum is not a linear model such as Tyler (1949); and goes beyond
Wheeler's (1967) cyclic model. See Figure 1.
Objectives Teaching Evaluation

Tyler (1949)
1 Objectives
5 Evaluation 2 Learning experiences
Wheeler (1967)
4 Integration of content and learning
experiences
I
3 Content
Figure 1. Curriculum processes (Tyler, 1949: Wheeler, 1967}
171
R. Gerber (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Education.lll-189.
172 J. OKPALAANDR. TABULAWA
Rather, it is interactionist as advocated by Graves (1979) and Bayona (1995). This process
links the curriculum guide with all the processes· in its preparation to the implementation.
There is a also a continuous program evaluation, which is linked with both the preparation
of curriculum guide and its implementation. The simplified lnteractionist Curriculum
Model is shown in Figure 2.
The interactionist curriculum model emphasizes a continuous process in which there is a

feedback on the implementation of the curriculum document for the purpose of
improvement. The development of such a curriculum according to Shkedi (1998) concerns
all the processes and stages in the preparation of the curriculum guide and its
implementation. In line with the same conceptualization, Munby (1990) defined curriculum
development as a multi-stage process that extends from curriculum-in-theory into
curriculum-in-use.
In order to ensure effective educational improvement, educationists (Graves, 1979; Bayona,

1995; Shkedi, 1998) emphasize the essence of teacher participation in the development of
the curriculum. Bayona argues that teachers are the actual implementers of any curriculum
and therefore should form an integral part of every stage in the curriculum development
process. He therefore advocates the Participatory Curriculum Decision Making (PCDM)
model.
The PCDM model which forms the theoretical basis for this paper refers to "established
curriculum principles, administrative framework and the curriculum process, all of which
lead to the development and management of the curriculum democratically, maximizing
teacher participation from the classroom to the national curriculum decision making
levels." (Bayona, 1995:52). The simplified illustration of this model is shown in Figure 3.
This model recommends the involvement of all geography teachers at the classroom level in
making decision on curriculum matters. Level 1 is the classroom level in which teachers
who handle same classes within same school link with teachers who teach similar classes in
other schools within and across the regions interact in order to deliberate on issue in
teaching and learning of the subject at that stage and make input towards improvement. In
Level 2, geography teachers in the same school and schools across the regions meet to
discuss problems and regulations that affect teaching in schools, and take decisions. It is at
this level that the teachers identity their representatives for the next level.
At Level 3, representatives of classroom teachers from the various schools within and across
the regions meet to discuss curricular matters across schools. Level 4 (Regional Level) is
by representation from Level 3. The Regional/State/District Curriculum Development
experts and professionals in education work with teams of classroom teacher representatives
from Level 3 together with the Teacher's Professional Association and school heads; and
take decisions on curricular issues. Level 5, is the national level in which teacher
representatives work as members of the national Curriculum Development Team with other
members such as indicated.
THE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN DEVELOPING SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY 173
n ------.
Preparation of Curriculum Guide
National Goals ...______
n
Learning Experiences
Objectives of Geographical Education ~ /
,,~~
//
Evaluation Guide
Program Evaluation
Through feedback from: School Inspectors

Research by Geography educators
Professional Association Deliberations
Reports from Practising Teachers
Observation during teaching practice
Observation by markers in external examination
Chief external examiner's report
Curriculum Implementation
Teaching Evaluation
Process Interaction
Figure 2. The Interactionist Curriculum Process

NATIONAL
Subject Panel Curriculum Resource Centre

Educational Media Higher Education Representative LevelS
Teacher Professional Organisation Subject Professional Association
Classroom Teacher Representatives Examining Bodies
Level4
Level3
Level2
Level 1
Figure 3. Simplified Participatory Curriculum Decision Making model Adapted from Bayona (1995).
Bayona (1995) researched the acceptability of the PCDM model in Tanzania using 300
subjects made up of secondary school teachers, curriculum developers, school inspectors,
and heads of secondary schools, ministry officials and teacher educators. While the
acceptability was significant, there were complaints about constraints of time, expertise and
costs. Observation made on the procedure of the model and the constraints pointed out by
the respondents seemed to indicate that implementation of the model would be an onerous
task. The ease of its operation would depend on the educational policy of the country,
provision of funds, and teachers' professional training.
Despite these observations, two key points on teacher participation in curriculum

development could be deciphered from this model. The first is awareness and participation
by classroom (grassroot) teachers. The second is that participation at the higher levels by
teachers is by representation. Representation is essential because it ensures feedback and

demands accountability. Therefore, the concept of PCDM model is recommended in
principle because the basic process is bottom-top, interactive and integrative, which is
partnership-oriented. This would surely benefit teacher professional development more,
when compared to the Receptionist (top-down) approach, which is often used. See Figure 4.
In the RCD model, the already prepared package is handed down to the teachers for
implementation.
National Curriculum Committee Produces Curriculum
Curriculum distributed to Regional Offices
Curriculum package distributed in schools
Document given to Departmental Heads
t
Curriculum Guide distributed to teachers to
break into scheme of work for teaching
Figure 4. The Receptionist Curriculum Development (RCD) model.
Why teacher involvement in curriculum development?
The centrality of the teacher in the educative process is widely acknowledged (Connelly and
Clandinin, 1988). However, it is not so often that teachers are meaningfully involved in
curriculum development. In many cases, curriculum is developed by external 'experts' and
then delivered to teachers for implementation. The assumption here seems to be that once
the curriculum has been developed and made teacher-proof by the experts then its
implementation becomes a matter of technical execution by the teachers. Supported by and

supplied with the necessary materials for implementation, teachers are not expected to have
difficulties implementing the innovation. The weakness of this reasoning is that it treats
teachers as if they were technicians who merely implement the design of an expert. It is
often forgotten that teachers are agents who think. When teachers receive a new curriculum,
they necessarily subject it to their own interpretation and the product of that interpretation is
what is implemented. It is often the case that the curriculum ultimately implemented is not
necessarily identical to the written one. The result of this could be curriculum failure.
To circumvent this eventuality, it is necessary that all curricular matters be looked at from
the point of view of teachers. Shkedi (1998:212) argues that "it should be accepted that
curriculum development is fundamentally a question of teacher thinking and teacher doing"
He stresses that the translation of curriculum guide into practice depends on the teachers'
belief, values, understanding, assumption, and knowledge. Hence, even when a curriculum
element is not clear to teachers, they absorb these elements and use them in familiar ways.
"They apply their personal stories to the incomplete story" (Shkedi, 1998:211 ). Therefore,
circumventing the teacher in curriculum development amounts to circumventing curriculum
success.
Teachers should be actively involved in curriculum development to enhance feeling of

ownership, effective teaching/learning and teacher development.
A curriculum innovation stands a better chance of success if the teachers feel that they own
it. This feeling of ownership is only possible if teachers have been involved in the
conception of the innovation and its subsequent development. The language used by the
eternal expert may not always be the language understood by the teacher. In such cases the
teachers impose their own understanding as a way of compensating for the inaccessible
language of the expert. Such re-organisation of the curriculum by the teachers may be
rendered unnecessary if from the onset they were involved in the conceptualisation and
development of the curriculum. Thus, the propensity towards multiple interpretations of the
curriculum is weakened. People naturally take pride in tangible products of their own
efforts. Recognition of the fruits of these efforts inspires them with confidence and boosts
their morale. Thus, a curriculum developed with the full participation of teachers stands a
better chance of successful implementation.
Furthermore, it is the teachers who know best the needs and interests of their students.
Equally, they know best their own strengths and weaknesses. It is often the case in top-
down models of curriculum development that unsuitable content, and inappropriate and
non-feasible teaching strategies are prescribed without consideration for the teachers'
abilities and situation in the teaching field. Handling such aspects of the curriculum can be
frustrating to the teachers. Such frustration can be obviated by involving the teachers in the
development ofthe curriculum from the onset.
Finally, teacher involvement in curriculum development fosters teacher professional

development. Involvement in curriculum development requires teachers to work together
with other stakeholders. Such an environment obviously leads to the exchange of ideas and
views, and the weighing of one's own ideas against those of others. In this way collegiality,
a quality usually absent in many teachers' work situations is nurtured. A situation in which
teachers are involved in syllabus design, preparation of teaching materials including
teachers' guides, and the setting and marking of examination papers ensures a continuous
process of teacher professional development. In the process of carrying out all these
activities, teachers develop skills and understandings of contents and methods of the
discipline that they may not acquire under any other arrangement.
Thus, teacher involvement is a sine qua non of curriculum development. It is acknowledged

that different contexts differentially constrain teacher involvement in curriculum
development. However, every effort must be made to ensure active and meaningful teacher
participation in the whole process of curriculum development. What, then, is the
international picture of teacher involvement in curriculum development in geography?
Teacher involvement in curriculum development in school geography
Teacher involvement in curriculum development in geographical education tends to differ

from one country to another. For example, in established Western democracies such as
Britain and the USA decentralised education systems have largely given teachers greater
autonomy and freedom. Therefore, they are given substantial powers in determining what
they teach (content) and how (teaching methods). For example, in Britain in the 1960s and
70s, teachers had almost total control of the curriculum. With the advent of the 1988
Education Act, teachers' monopoly of the curriculum was lost. In countries with centralised
political systems, the tendency has been to have centralised education systems in which
teachers have no or very little control of their professional lives. This was the case (and is
probably still the case) in former communist/socialist states where governments wanted to
ensure that what was taught in schools conformed to the overall political project of building
a non-capitalist society. At independence, most African states opted for a centralised
education system because education was viewed as a powerful agent for nation building;
and thus no other agency could be entrusted with this responsibility. All these political
systems engendered differing educational arrangements, which differentially impacted
teachers' professional lives. Chitty (1989) stresses that the extent of teacher involvement in
curriculum development internationally has largely been influenced by political, economic
and social imperatives. To illustrate the nature of teacher involvement in the development
of the geography curriculum we shall take the examples of Britain, Botswana and Nigeria.
The basis of the choice of these countries is that they exemplify varying patters of teacher
involvement in curriculum development due to environmental circumstances.
United Kingdom
Before the Schools Council was established in Britain in 1964, the various Examination
Boards overly influenced subject curricula. Although it had, for decades, been an
established principle that curriculum and methods issues were for teachers to determine, in
practice examinations had the greatest influence (Jennings, 1985). However, this strong
influence of examinations notwithstanding, teacher autonomy and freedom remained
sacrosanct. Bell and Prescott (1975) reported that it was the state's first duty to maximise
teacher autonomy and freedom. The Ministry of Education also emphasised no one except
teachers had any right or any say in what goes on in the school.
It was in this atmosphere of guaranteed teacher autonomy and independence that the
Schools Council was born. With a teacher majority enshrined in its constitution, the
Schools Council proved to be a formidable change agent in its twenty years of existence.
With a platform and clearly stated mandate, teachers regained control of the curriculum.
Through the Schools Council, teachers initiated projects in the various subject areas, which
impacted curriculum development in those areas. In the case of geography, the Schools
Council initiated three influential projects: Geography for the Young School Leaver
(GYSL); the Bristol 14-18 project; and the 16-19 Geography Project. All these projects,
according to Boardman (1985:63), were national projects "committed to promoting modern
approaches to the study of geography". These projects influenced geography textbooks,
examinations and teaching materials Beddis (1983) also observes that the effect of the
Schools Council geography projects on geographical education cannot be exaggerated, but:
... there is little doubt that they were a significant and probably the dominant
influence on geography teaching in secondary schools in the middle and late
1970s. This was seen not only in the widespread use of project resources and
project-related examinations, but also in the thinking behind new courses and
examinations in many boards, and more lately in textbook series. (p.15-16)
In all the projects, a teacher-based approach was consciously adopted as a way of

encouraging teachers' professional development. For example, in the Geography 14-18
Project, the course planning and implementation was done in selected individual school
geography departments and local teachers' groups. Teachers reviewed, designed and
evaluated their curricula within broad frameworks/guidelines set by the project team. This
ensured geography teachers' unfettered involvement in curriculum development. Great
emphasis was put on the professional ability of teachers to develop their own curriculum. In
this way, teachers could see themselves as 'true' professionals just like lawyers and medical
doctors. In a sense, therefore, the Schools Council became a platform from which teachers
could embark upon their political campaign aimed at "enhancing both [their] self-image and
the public image" of the teaching profession (Simon, 1991:314). Huckle (1983) rightly
observes that it was through professionalism that teachers could advance and defend that
privileged position in society. Curriculum development was the major activity upon which
their growing claims for professionalism were based.
With the death of the Schools Council in 1984 and the advent of the National Curriculum, a
child of the 1988 Education Act, geography teachers' professional status took a nose-dive.
At present, with a centralised curriculum, geography teachers in the United Kingdom cannot
claim full control of the process of curriculum development. As Daugherty and Rawling
(1996) state, "the geography teacher is no longer entirely free to devise and deliver a
curriculum of his/her choice" (p.375). The geography National Curriculum was not
developed by the teachers (as was the case in the pre-1988 Education Act period) but by the
Geography National Curriculum Working Group, which comprised various interest groups
including non-geographers. Therefore, with the introduction of the National Curriculum in
the UK, there has been erosion of teacher autonomy, freedom and control in the process of
curriculum development.
Botswana
In the case of Botswana, geography teachers' involvement in curriculum development is a

recent phenomenon. Until the mid-1990s, curriculum and examinations at the senior
secondary level of schooling in Botswana were under the control of the University of
Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, which designed curricula, and set and marked
examinations for all subjects. Teachers had very little input in what they taught. The
decision in 1994 to localise the senior secondary curriculum and examinations brought a
change.
A process to review curricula for all subjects was embarked upon. The curriculum
development model adopted put the teacher at the center of the whole process. Teachers
drafted the syllabi and produced the teaching materials including the teachers' guides. At
present, all the subject panels that are dominated by teachers set certificate examination
questions while the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate moderates.
The teachers mark the answer scripts.
In the case of geography, just like in the other subjects, a Task Force was constituted to draft
a new geography curriculum (Teaching Syllabus). The twenty-one member Task Force was
made up of: seven classroom teachers; eight education officers (the Inspectorate, all former
geography teachers); three from the Curriculum Development Division of the Ministry of
Education (which acted as the Secretariat of the Task Force - all being former geography
teachers); and two university lecturers (both former class geography teachers, of which one
had worked with the Government's National Conservation Strategy Co-ordinating Agency).
Thus, all members of the Task Force essentially had some experience of teaching geography
at the secondary school level. For the first time in the history of Botswana, teachers were to
develop a curriculum of which they could confidently claim ownership.
The seven practising teachers in the Task Force were selected from the two regions into
which the country had been divided for purposes of carrying out the task. Four teachers
represented the Northern Region (because it had more schools) while three represented the
Southern Region. However, it was felt that direct input from the majority of practising
teachers was still essential. This was achieved through conducting workshops with teachers
in the regions. Therefore, after developing the first draft of the curriculum, the Task Force
held workshops with geography teachers in each region. Each of the secondary schools in
the country was requested to send three teachers to the workshops. Copies of the draft
curriculum were sent to geography departments in all the schools in advance. This was to
give all geography teachers the opportunity of making input into the curriculum.
At the workshops, the Task Force and the teachers discussed the draft documents and,
where necessary, made changes as suggested. The Department of Curriculum Development
and Evaluation, Ministry of education then produced the final version. Furthermore, school
representatives in the Task Force were expected to conduct workshops with geography
teachers in their regions to identify and discuss areas of concern as and when they arose.
Teachers in any school were also free to invite members of the Task Force to discuss issues
of concern. Thus, the model adopted was interactive. It was a major departure from the
top-down model that characterised curriculum development under the Syndicate. The
model is shown diagrammatically in Figure 5.
1 National Task Force

Production of Teaching Syllabus
Classroom teachers University lecturers

Education officers (Inspectorate)
Curriculum Division Ministry of Education
5
Final Copy
2
Geography Teachers in Schools
DProcess <1111011111--II!IJo~ Interaction
Figure 5. The Process of Developing School Geography Curriculum in Botswana.

There were two major reasons for adopting this interactive model. Firstly, it was the general
feeling that the innovation stood a better chance of succeeding if the teachers felt that they
owned it. Secondly, it was believed that only the teachers knew best the needs and interests
of their students. Hence, their input in the structuring of the curriculum, based on classroom
experiences, is essential to its success.
It is worth observing that involvement of all classroom geography teachers was possible
because Botswana's population is relatively small, 1.572 million in 1999 (newafrica.com 20
April, 2002). The number of senior secondary schools in Botswana is 26. Therefore, the
population of geography teachers is few. Also, geography is an optional subject and
therefore the population of geography students is not large. The level of consultation
adopted in Botswana would not have been possible in a country as large as Nigeria.
Nigeria
In the case of Nigeria, this discussion is based on the latest geography curriculum package
that was developed in 1985 (Republic of Nigeria, 1985). The organizing body was the
Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council, an organ of the Federal Ministry
of Education. The team that structured the curriculum guide was made up of curriculum
specialists from the Federal Ministry of Education, academic geographers, geography
educators, classroom geography teachers and geography specialists from the external
examining body (the West African Examinations Council). The document is an elaborate
curriculum, which in a tabular layout, by class contains - the themes, topics, objectives,
content, learning experiences, teaching materials and evaluation guide.
Apart from the four classroom teachers involved in this exercise, other hundreds of
classroom geography teachers in Nigeria were not aware of the curriculum package until it
was handed down to them for class use. In general, it could be argued that it was a
receptionist type of curriculum model.
Despite the above scenario, it should be noted that the input made in the curriculum was
based on feedback obtained from schools through research by geography educators in
universities and colleges of education. Such findings were reported during the annual
conferences of the Nigerian Geographical Association, formed in 1957. Such issues that
were addressed and taken care of in the 1985 curriculum included - too wide a scope of the
content, non-treatment of current issues, lack of articulation between school and university
geography and lack of exposure of students to field experience. In the 1985 curriculum
guide, the scope of the previous curriculum was reduced, and current issues particularly on
environment included. For better foundation for university geography, topics such as -
Classification of Climate and Elementary Surveying were included. Fieldwork was
enforced, by making it a compulsory component of the curriculum, which would be teacher-
assessed. It carried 25% of the 30 marks allocated to Continuous Assessment as part of

final (external) examination.
Geography teachers are also actively involved in external examination of the students
because examining bodies source questions from geographers (academic, educators and
classroom teachers) but schoolteachers form the majority of markers. This exercise is often
an invaluable curricular experience because it provides teachers with feedback on the
effectiveness of their teaching. They participate actively in the coordination workshop in
which the marking scheme is exhaustively discussed. This and the marking exercise
provide them with learning opportunities particularly in the content of geography.
Despite the above-mentioned participation of classroom teachers, the majority of geography

teachers are not involved in any facet in development of the curriculum. Two reasons could
be given for their non-involvement. The first is the high population and the second, the
status of geography.
Nigeria with her population of about 113,828,587 in 1999 with the growth rate of about
2.9% (www.wtgonline.com, webmaster@newafrica.com, 20 April 2002) has hundreds of
secondary schools in which about 14 subjects are taught. Currently, there are 36 states
including the Federal Capital Territory. It is therefore doubtful whether the country could
accept the task of implementing a PCDM model, considering costs. Nevertheless, state
governments do provide opportunities, such as workshops to familiarise teachers in "key
subjects"(mathematics, English, sciences) with the national curriculum. Geography has
never been given this privilege because it is not a key subject. It is only a core subject,
being listed in one of the six subject Groupings (with History and Literature in English)
from which every candidate must register at least one subject for valid registration in
certificate examination.
From the discussion above it could be confirmed that various patterns of teacher
participation in the development of school geography curriculum exist. This is dependent
on the peculiarities of the countries. Whatever is the situation, there is room and need for
improvement.
The way forward
From the theoretical framework, the interactionist curriculum PCDM model, that involves
the participation of all teachers from the classroom level in decision-making on the
curriculum, is the ideal. At the national level, the involvement of such teachers in
development of curriculum guide is supposed to be by representation. In all the countries
reviewed, except for Botswana where the population is small, all teachers in the other
countries do not have knowledge of the curricula guide before their implementation. Even
in Botswana where the approach is interactive, geographers should not relax because
geography as an optional subject in most countries has fought hard for its existence in the
school timetable. As Goodson states, "within school subjects there is a clear hierarchy of
status' (Goodson, 1983, 33). Therefore, as a non-key subject, support for the subject often
wanes and is only sustained due to pressure from a strong association as was the case of the
United States of America. Currently, Botswana does not have a national geographical
association, and not much research has been carried out on the teaching of geography in the
secondary schools.
Suggestion on how teachers could be actively involved in curriculum development include

the following:
the Geographical Association should take full responsibility;

the involvement ofteachers in production of teaching materials;
using examinations as a key for curricular improvement;
continuous research and dissemination of results to teachers; and
the facilitation of the recognition of the subject.
The suggestions will be considered, taking cognizance of some problems that could arise in
different environmental situations.
Role of Geographical Association
It is important that there exists a national geographical association of which school

geography teachers should be a part of, as in the case of Nigeria. Where possible, as in the
United Kingdom and Australia, there could be a Geography Teachers' Association. We
assert in this paper that: whether there is a National Curriculum as introduced with the 1988
Education Act in the UK, or centralized curriculum; as in Nigeria and Botswana; or various
geography curricula as was the case before 1988 in the UK, the fact remains that the key
developers of geography curriculum are geographers. Hence, the issue of who controls the
curriculum as posed by Ribbins (1993) does not arise. This is because the Geography
curriculum is structured by predominantly geographers. They determine what should be
taught, how it should be taught, what will be examined and the quality of the external
examinations. While teachers in the UK complain about over-centralisation in the national
curriculum, Nigerian geographers are distressed about the discriminatory treatment in
provisions of facilities and support for different subjects in the schools. This latter issue is
more critical than the former because it has a debilitating effect on the existence of the
discipline. The crucial matter is that geography continues to have a place in the school
timetable.
We argue in this paper that it is the responsibility of the national geographical association to
ensure active participation of classroom teachers, geography educators and academic
geographers in the development of the curriculum. The association should have a school
geography curriculum sub-committee that deliberates on curricular issues and problems,
collates information and findings from research and disseminates such information to the
school level. Okpala (1987, 1992) argues that where the association is active, geographers
in the national curriculum team will be largely representing and presenting the viewpoints of
the association and therefore would be accountable to her. Where the association is non-
existent, the views expressed by the teachers in the curriculum task force would be their
personal opinion. Even if the teachers are reached later, there may not be ample time for
attending to all discrepancies within the time limit.
Where the association is strong, and money available for workshops, as in the UK,
information would easily move from top to bottom and feedback from bottom to top.
Where funds are not available and the subjects stratified as in Nigeria, assuring teacher input
into curriculum becomes purely the responsibility of the association. The association should
take the challenge because it is in her interest that the subject continues to be alive in the
school timetable. Poor teaching of the subject can lead to decline in students' interest, to
poor performance, reduced enrolment in school certificate geography and removal of
geography from the school time table. Such a case was reported in Nigeria (Ndu, 1973).
The onus lies with the geographical association to devise strategies for ensuring active
involvement and representation of school geography teachers in curriculum development.
Where funds are a problem, funds could be generated through the cooperative production of
school geography textbooks. This is one of the strengths of the Geographical Association of
the UK. Quite often in developing countries, individuals, mainly academic geographers and
geography educators, produce school geography texts. Hence, the key actors in curriculum
implementation - the classroom teachers, are excluded from this important curriculum
development stage.
Involvement of teachers in production of teaching materials
Among all the teaching materials, Martin and Bailey (1996) stress that textbooks are likely
to remain a core resource in most schools. Textbooks provide a guide to students, and
teachers. Where an association produces a text, she builds into it her aspirations, needs, and
skills as conceptualized and observed from field experiences and research. Hence, the
experience of preparing a text is essential for classroom teachers, academic geographers and
geography educators. Often, classroom teachers are rarely involved in this important
curricular experience.
Involving classroom teachers in textbook production is not only an educative process, but
also gives them a feeling of ownership and emancipation. The teachers structure the ideas
in styles that will be comprehensible not only to the students but also to their weaker
colleagues and non-professionals who quite often teach the subject. This assertion is borne
out of experience in coordinating the production of a school geography textbook in Nigeria
(Okpala, J. ed., in press). While manuscripts were being produced and ideas shared, some
teachers who came across the work wanted to photocopy sections, which they confessed had
been poorly taught or had not been taught at all. One would ask, what have these teachers
been teaching- probably, their own curriculum stories?
Using the examination as an avenue for curricular restructuring
Teachers make up the bulk of examiners (markers) in external examinations. On the other
hand, they play subsidiary roles in the preparation of curricular documents, vetting and
coordination of examinations. In countries where the geographical association does not
exist or is weak, the external examination marking exercise is the rallying point for
geographers every year. Therefore, it should provide the opportunity for evaluation of the
curriculum and decision-making on curricular restructuring. Coordination and marking
exercises should provide opportunities for revisiting the curriculum in terms of discovering
misconceptions, students' areas of difficulty and areas of weaknesses in teaching.
Examinations requirements provide the professionals with the opportunity of integrating

desired knowledge, values and skills into the curriculum. A typical example is the
geography examinations in the United Kingdom (Orrell and Wilson, 1996; Burtenshaw,
1996). Despite the national curriculum, geographers endeavoured to build relevant core and
essential knowledge, skills and values into the curriculum.
Despite the important role of the examination marking exercise in providing the opportunity
for curricular evaluation, often few academic geographers and geography educators who are
partners in curriculum development participate in this exercise. Geography educators as
teacher trainers should see this exercise as an essential one for teacher production and the
evaluation of their program. Academic geographers who often are relied upon for quality of
content of school geography should also participate in the marking exercise. Quite often the
stipend for marking is a pittance but it is a sacrifice that should be made for curricular
improvement. This exercise should be compulsory for all geographers who are involved in
any aspect of national curriculum structuring in geography.
Continuous research and dissemination of results in schools
Numerous research reports abound in many countries on the teaching and learning of
geography including examinations. Results of such researchers are only presented during
conferences for academic purposes and published in learned journals. Unfortunately, the
feedback of such studies rarely gets back to the teachers. In instances where few classroom
teachers attend professional conferences, the language of presentation of such papers,
particularly where quantitative analysis is acclaimed pitches the ideas beyond the
understanding of an ordinary classroom teacher. This was experienced in 1988 when
classroom teachers complained during the Nigerian Geographical Association annual
conference that papers presented during the conferences did not address their classroom
problems. In 1989, there was a three-day pre-conference workshop for geography teachers.
It addressed problems of school geography. There were academic papers with clear
implications for teaching, reports from classroom teachers on their classroom experiences
and demonstration on teaching some topics (Okpala, ed. 1991). This was well attended by
classroom teachers. In subsequent years, due to funding problems for attendance of both
pre-conference and the main Annual Conference of the association, the pre-conference
workshop was stopped. Rather, papers on High School Geography were presented in
separate sessions during the annual conference. With this new arrangement, the number of
participating classroom teachers suddenly declined. From the Nigerian experience, it could
be seen that teachers are eager to have a forum for discussing classroom issues. This may
explain the active involvement of geography teachers in any association that targets school
geography such as Geographical Association of the UK and the Australian Geography
Teachers Association. A Geography Teachers' Association is necessary where it could be
properly coordinated so that it will not sever teachers' links with academic geographers. On
the other hand, where there is an umbrella geographical association, workshops must be
organized every year on geography teaching.
A Newsletter or Bulletin on school geography should be published. The Geography Teacher

in the UK is a good example. All geographers (classroom teachers, academic geographers
and geography educators) and other stakeholders including students should contribute.
Funding is usually a constraint in such a venture. Strategies should therefore be worked out
for both internal and external raising of funds. An avenue for internal fund raising is
textbook production. This is one of the strategies used by the Geographical Association of
the UK. Funds can also be raised externally if geographers recognize the nature of
geography as an asset.
Facilitating recognition of the subject
Geographers should struggle to publicize the essence of school geography in national

development. We rarely do. That is the reason all and sundry often highjack what
geographers should be doing and often tap all the funds, which could be utilized by the
association for investing in, sustaining and improving school geography.
Sensitising the government and the public on the usefulness of the discipline in addressing
the country's crucial problems can publicise the discipline and also provide an avenue for
raising external funds. Geographers have a vantage point due to the versatility of their
discipline. If geographers have this in mind when school curriculum is reviewed, issues of
national concern can be built into the curriculum. Examples include the topics HIV/AIDS
in Botswana in the Geography Teaching Syllabus (Republic of Botswana, 2000) and
Environmental Hazards in school geography curriculum in Nigeria (Republic of Nigeria,
1985) Such topics will easily attract grants from Government and Non-Governmental
Organizations for organizing workshops for geography teaching.
Summary and Conclusion
This paper justifies the need for teacher involvement in curriculum development because; it
enhances spirit of ownership in the teachers and facilitates professional growth. Curriculum
as conceptualized in the paper involves the whole network in preparation of the guide, the
implementation and the feedback into the programme from various sources- such as external
examinations and research. The theoretical basis for the paper is the Participatory
Curriculum Decision Making (PCDM) model which advocates the involvement of
classroom teachers, who are the implementers, at every stage in curriculum development
from the class, departmental, regional to the national level. Funds and time constraints, and
existing political situation may make hook-line and sinker applications of this model
difficult. Nevertheless, the main thrusts, which are representation, accountability and
dissemination of curricular information to classroom teachers, are essential in geographical
education.
Teachers' participation in geography curriculum development in three countries- United

Kingdom, Botswana and Nigeria- are presented as exemplars to illustrate situational factors
particularly national policy and status of subject that affect teacher involvement. Britain
illustrates a medium populated country with a very strong geography teachers association,
which reaches out to all teachers and disseminates curricular information. Even with a
centralized curriculum that was introduced in 1988 and which reduced teacher control of the
curriculum, the average classroom teacher is well guided on curricular matters. The
examination that involves continuous assessment gives room for teacher initiative.
Botswana provides the situation of a country with small population, only 26 classroom
teachers who are represented in the preparation of the guide and are given the opportunity to
make some input through workshop as a government policy. This is an exceptional
situation. But, it should be noted that this is a fast growing country with no geography
association and little research on the state of school geography. Also, Geography is taught
as a part of Environmental Science in the lone university in the country. The current policy
being nurtured of making Social Studies a Senior Secondary Subject may put pressure on
geography in future, as was the case with the United States of America. Nigeria illustrates
the case of a country with very large number of geographers including school teachers, but
with a long standing geographical association that has not quite given a prominent place to
school geography in its plans. Therefore, teachers involved in structuring the curriculum
plan do so in their private capacity.
In the three countries, geography is not a compulsory subject in the secondary school
curriculum as may be the case in many countries of the world. Situations in these countries
have therefore been used to illustrate circumstances that could promote or inhibit teacher
participation in curriculum development. Various countries could find some of the
circumstances applicable to them. Suggestions made in this paper are lessons, which should
trigger off innovations on ways for greater commitment of geographers for better
participation of classroom teachers in curriculum development. Some of the suggestions
include:
188 J. OKPALA AND R. TABULA WA
A strong geographical association that regards school geography as a major issue,

collates and disseminates issues on school geography through a special
publication/newsletter.
Participation in national curriculum preparation should be by representation from the

association in order to ensure accountability.
As all geographers (academic, educators and class teachers) make input in the
curriculum preparation, educators and academic geographers should show interest in
school geography activities (including external examination) as a contribution towards
teacher development and articulation between school, college and university geography.
Classroom teachers should be involved in the production of school geography

textbooks. In most countries this is still monopolised by academic geographers and
geography educators. This will facilitate the usability and comprehensibility of the
texts by the target group.
Geographers should utilize the advantage of versatility of the subject even at the school
level to attract the attention to the government on essence of the subject, and improve
support for geography teaching in schools. Current issues of environmental concern
should be built into the curriculum (eg. HIVIAIDS). Workshops should be organized
around such issues in order to attract government sponsorship and attention.
Finally, the basic fact still remains that school geography is the foundation for higher-level
geography. Articulation of the two is important for the survival of the discipline in any
country. As geography is a non-key subject in most countries, the onus lies on the
geography association to ensure that strategies are continuously worked out to ensure
enlightened classroom geography teachers and interest of other geographers in school
geography curriculum.
References
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www.wtgonline.com 20 April2002. Nigeria- General Information
13. INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION IN THE FIELD OF
ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION
TAINA KAIVOLA
Introduction
The aim of environmental education is clear, worthy and just. During the last twenty
years it has become commonly acknowledged, that the ultimate goal of environmental
education is to produce environmentally literate and responsible citizens, who can make
decisions that will help check and solve many of the environmental problems that will
arise in the present and near future (Knapp 2000; Ahlberg and Dillon, 1999). However,
the critics have pointed mainly to the difficulties in implementing the idea and activities
of environmental education in school curricula on a practical level and the utmost
varying meanings given to it by teachers. Also, the multidisciplinary approach of
environmental education makes it difficult to adjust the substance and methods to any
school subject. It has far too often happened that good intentions have turned
completely the other way round than was planned (Lidstone, 2000). As Knapp strongly
stresses, some teacher's guides of environmental education urge students to take
political and social stances to the environment without educating them all point of
views. This unethical pedagogy can lead to peer pressure activism and not to that kind
of responsible action as was meant in the first place.
Real world environmental problems are complicated and value-laden, and full, wise and
ethical responsibility must be taken by each of the participants. Environmental and
geographical education are tightly tied to same objectives especially in promoting
environmental awareness, global understanding and spatial thinking as well as
citizenship (Huckle, 2001; UNESCO, 2001). Geography as a discipline gives teachers a
firm frame to face and evaluate change pressures and pedagogical innovations
encountering schools in forms of, eg., environmental and multicultural international
projects. But how can teachers be supported to invest their time and effort to promote
professional development, which is the most efficient way to improve quality of
teaching and learning?
In this chapter I am highlighting and evaluating three different kinds of international

projects I have been involved with as a university teacher, in-service teacher trainer and
researcher in Finland. All of them have different kinds of objectives, but the ultimate
goal is mutual: empowering teachers and their students to take part in international
networks and become committed to foster education for sustainability, care and
international understanding in their own schools and communities. These projects also
191
R. Gerber (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Educationl91-202.
192 T. KAIVOLA
share a pedagogical effort of implementing web based learning platforms as tools to

support networking, knowledge building and professional development.
The first one is GLOBE, a large science and education program. ENO Environment
Online is an independent application of GLOBE with an emphasis on collaborative
interaction in a virtual learning environment. The third one is an OECD/ENSI-project
(Environment and School Initiatives) dealing with pre- and in-service teacher training
and introducing the concept of learnscapes in an interview with professor Mauri
Ahlberg.
GLOBE Program
The GLOBE Program is an international effort to bring together teachers, students and
environmental scientists around the world. Students from over hundred countries are
collecting and analysing data about the Earth as a part of Global Learning and
Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE), an international environmental
science research and education program. This program is designed to be simultaneously
educational for the students from kindergarten through to 12th grade and useful for the
scientific community. The GLOBE program is intended to contribute to scientific
understanding of the Earth, to help all students reach higher levels of achievement in
science and mathematics and to enhance the environmental awareness of individuals
throughout the world (GLOBE, 2001).
Right since the beginning of GLOBE program in 1994, the framers wanted the program
to use the Internet as powerfully as possible. The key idea was to use the Internet as an
infrastructure for sharing, demonstrating and analysing environmental observations and
measurements reported from GLOBE schools to the Data Archive on GLOBE web site.
The program consists of a set of protocols for data collection in four environmental
investigation areas: Atmosphere, Hydrology, Soil and Land Cover. In addition to the
protocols, the GLOBE teacher's Guide contains learning activities which are designed
both to help students understand the scientific contents of the measurements and to
promote guided discovery learning outdoors and in science labs.
The idea of GLOBE program is presented in a form of a concept map in figure 1.

Students can use the web to view visualisation based on the large spatial GLOBE
student database. They can interact with the scientists who use their data in conducting
research and communicate as well as participate in joint research with other students
from different countries. From the point of view of environmental and geographical
education the most valuable features of GLOBE are direct experiences students get by
working outdoors on a regular basis and enhancing spatial thinking by creating thematic
maps and graphs using visualisation tools (Kaivola, 2000 and 2001).
As expected, the interface between students and researchers is difficult to arrange in a

global scale. Also training teachers to implement all the protocols and tackle with the
demands of arranging data collections in a valid and reliable way has met with many
difficulties. This has led to re-invention and skipping the program in many cases.
INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION IN THE FIELD 193
analyse and
improve the
quality of
RESEARCHERS
Figure 1. The idea of GLOBE Program.
The homepage of GLOBE program forms up a large packet of science education,

environmental science and advanced applications of educational information
technology. The unique core of the web site is the Data Archive, which consists of
information collected by student around the world. The most interesting and original
section of the web site are GLOBE visualizations, which give unique opportunities for
students as well as teachers to get a clue of what role geoinformatics can play in
geographical and environmental education.
Using the tools of GLOBE visualizations, one can produce different kinds of thematic
maps and graphs from the environmental data sent to the data archive. Also some other
databases by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) can be used
in a restricted scale. It is easy to produce maps in different kinds of scales focused on
different themes and areas on the earth. Since the actual software of GIS is still
relatively expensive, these free of charge GLOBE visualizations are worth noticing
while implementing educational applications of geographical information systems in
school curriculum.
One of the most concrete examples of joint effort between students and researchers is
the GLOBE budburst investigation. Designed in 1998, budburst protocols were widely
implemented as an optional special measurement. Students marked permanently two
branches of two trees of the dominant upper-canopy species. They were cautioned to
194 T.KAIVOLA
select native species away from irrigation and fertilization sources. Budburst monitoring
took place at the students' GLOBE biology study sites, at quantitative land cover sample
sites, and in some cases on school grounds. The intention was to select trees most
representative of the dominant species. The trees were observed daily until budburst.
Fifty-one schools, half of them in the United States and most of the rest in Western
Europe, participated in this study during the first spring 1999. Students from some
schools reported data for a single species and some for up to six species. Other more
advanced investigations were also made of climate-vegetation interactions with
temperature and moisture. For schools with more than one reported date, the mean date
of budburst was calculated. The usefulness of any satellite information of land cover is
fundamentally determined by an understanding of how ground vegetation conditions
correspond to satellite estimates. Student observations did show that dates of leaf
budburst correspond remarkably well with satellite growing season estimates (White,
Schwartz and Running, 2000).
IMPLEMENTING GLOBE IN FINLAND
In my recent study (Kaivola, 2000, 2001) the objectives and methods of GLOBE
program were evaluated in Finnish context. The research questions focused on gaining
more understanding of phenomena GLOBE teachers face in implementing this kind of
an educational innovation. The amount and quality of all data sent from Finnish
GLOBE schools to international data archive was also scrutinized. Different kinds of
data collection methods, mixed analysing methods and the inside expertise of the
researcher were used to interpret the value of the GLOBE program in the Finnish school
system during a time period of 1995-1999.
As a result, the GLOBE Program turned out to be quite difficult for many Finnish
teachers to implement in the curricula. In about half of the 200 schools represented by
teachers at in-service training courses the innovation was rejected before even trying to
implement it. Teachers in 103 schools started implementing the GLOBE program by
reporting the data collected by their students to the archive. However, the measurements
and observations were still made in only 60 schools during 1999. The most successful
schools had three common features (1.) Their students represented a wide range of age
groups from 7 to 18-year-olds and they had about 300 - 500 students, which in Finnish
scale relatively much. (2.) There were several teachers working more a less tightly as a
multidisciplinary GLOBE team with shared responsibilities. (3.) Schools were situated
in middle or northeastern parts of Finland, away from the most densely populated areas
in the south.
As an innovation the GLOBE program was re-invented greatly, as can be seen in figure
2. Teachers selected parts they could fit into their schedules and curricula. Daily visits
to the atmospheric study site to observe cloud types and cloud cover, measure daily
temperatures and liquid or solid precipitation were the most common field to report than
other fields. Atmosphere was especially preferred to other investigation areas in primary
schools. Teachers in secondary schools took their students to hydrology study site to
measure e.g. water temperature, pH and transparency.
ATMOSPHERE
• Secondary Schools (N=27)
~ Primary Schools (N=37)
c Combined Schools (N=22)

LAND COVER l!il Upper Secondary Schools
(N=17)
Figure 3. During years 1995-1999 environmental observations and measurements of four investigation areas
were reported with varying intensity to the GLOBE Data Archive from 103 Finnish schools.
From the point of view of geographical education, it was disappointing, that land cover
and soils were implemented in only few schools. Land cover protocols consist of
biometric studies in which students follow growth of particular trees and measure
canopy and ground cover twice a year on a permanent biological study site. Vegetation
and land use should be classified on larger area surrounding schools by doing field trips.
Classified areas are localized using GPS navigator equipment in order to create an own
land cover map and compare it to Landsat TM satellite image provided by the GLOBE
program. Geography teachers are familiar with soils investigations in the field, but the
protocols of lab analyses in GLOBE seem to be too time demanding and precise for
teachers to fit into ordinary classes.
MEANINGS GIVEN BY TEACHERS
Eighteen interviewed teachers, who implemented GLOBE actively in their schools,

gave GLOBE quite different meanings in addition to data collecting and analysing. Four
196 T.KAIVOLA
types of empowering identities were discovered: technological, cultural, scientific and

environmental. Technologically orientated teachers considered GLOBE in the first
place as a change to give meaningful use for computers connected to the Internet.
Besides which they were keen on providing their school and sometimes the whole
municipality with a modern, international and environmentally aware image. Teachers
with a dominant cultural approach emphasized the most international extensions. They
found it very rewarding to give students and themselves a change to build real
connections with foreign partners and by that way to gain deeper understanding cultural
and spatial variations. Teachers putting an emphasis on science teaching were in most
cases working as a team in their own schools. They were as well able to create networks
between colleagues from different schools mostly on national and European level.
During the implementation process they set up small geographical projects in which
students investigated for example river drainage and participated in international
research projects like budburst mentioned above.
Surprisingly enough, in this case teachers considering themselves as environmental

educators in the first place ran into most difficulties in the implementation process. On
the other hand they were pleased to be part of GLOBE network, but at the same time
most of them thought it took too much time and effort to organize data collecting and
lab analysing. In spite of being convinced that it was very important for students to get
direct experiences in the environment while working on the GLOBE study sites, they
thought that there was not enough challenge to promote caring and stewardship for the
nature and responsible action for the environment.
To varying extent, several teachers engaged with GLOBE wanted to have something
more than making the daily and seasonal measurements on the school ground and study
sites in the immediate surroundings. More open problem solving and enquiry based
learning aiming to engage students and teachers to deeper meaningful learning
processes concerning their daily activities, local communities and their own learning
environments was demanded.
From these needs and shared interest in promoting web based learning and developing
context bound applications suitable to environmental education a new type of
collaboration emerged from the framework of GLOBE. Web school called ENO
Environment Online web school was created from initiative of an experienced GLOBE
teacher, Mr. Mika Vanhanen. During its first two years of action, ENO received a
remarkable amount of support and success in form of publicity, donations and
international awards (ENO, 2001).
ENO Environment Online
As learnt from several educational innovation diffusion studies (Rogers 1995), new
innovations emerge often from a basis of a larger program. As Taylor (1996) pointed
out, they are often more focused on the initial idea of the main program as the outcomes
of the original ever turned to be. In this particular case, ENO succeeded during its first
years of action to engage teachers and students with environmental discussions on a
regular basis by virtual lessons hosted by different teachers.
The main goal was to create a network of as active as possible for participants from all
over the world. Accordingly, it was especially stressed that also students and teachers
from developing countries should be asked to join this virtual community. There are 73
official ENO schools from 43 countries involved as follows: 14 schools from Africa, 10
from Asia, 3 from Australia, 28 from Europe, 12 from North America and 6 from South
America. The age of students varies from 12 to 18 years. The objectives of ENO are:
learning to work collaboratively in a web based environment;

enhancing environmental awareness;
increasing global understanding and real internationality among participants;
fostering sustainability;
connecting schools from developing countries to a learning network; and
developing and study teaching and learning methods in a web based learning
environment.
The planning and implementation process of ENO Environment on Line started fall
1999. Compared to the GLOBE program, the focus of ENO was to include more
monitoring of social and cultural life worlds of students. However, the monitoring of
school surroundings, weather and potentially interesting local features of landscapes
was included in the agenda. But, this time the curriculum of one school year was formed
in four major themes. Regular themes are based on four ideas:
The Place we live in (physical and social environment)

This is our Life Style (cultural environment)
This is our Earth (physical environment and global education)
The way we lead our lives (education for sustainability).
Figure 3. The logo of ENO web school is a flying kite.

198 T.KAIVOLA
In each theme virtual lessons are arranged in the form of chats, questionnaires, quizzes,
and pre and after lessons activities involving students to share ideas, monitor their own
environment, collect different kinds of data and reflect on what has learnt (Masalin
2001 ). During each theme period, there is an action week engaging students to do, eg.,
make interviews, and other kinds of activities during regular classes. The difference
ENO makes, is the change to share all this information and discoveries with other
students from all over the world.
According to the project manager Mr. Mika Vanhanen (2001), ENO is planned as easy
as possible for teachers to implement. Different kinds of ENO modules are facilitated
with bulletin boards, regular chats with a chair to foster to keep in the topic, discussion
boards and several types of databases of all the information sent by ENO schools.
What can be learnt within a program like ENO from a point of view of environmental
and geographical education? First of all, compared to the idea of GLOBE program,
ENO seems to have far better chances to commit teachers and students in the
community of learners with several types of multi- and interdisciplinary approaches
facilitated by devises of information technology. Secondly, since the amount of
participating schools is restricted to 50-75, coordinating is easier and due to a
demanding application process the requirements of implementation are made clear to
the. teacher right in the beginning. Last but not least, the level and contents of real
interface between participants is the key factor in evaluating the value of so called e-
Iearning, learning in a web based environment. According to an ongoing study (Kaivola
and Ahlberg 2001) regular virtual lessons using a chat platform have created interesting
virtuallearscapes for knowledge building among studentsand teachers.
However, as found in several other developing programs, the key persons are the
teachers in the classrooms. Their professional abilities, enthusiasm and caring about
environmental issues is the utmost important feature to set up innovative ways of
promoting geographical and environmental learning. Due to this, the last section of this
chapter is going to deal with empowering collaboration between teachers and demands
of national level educational policy in OECD/ENSI project (Ahlberg eta/., 2001).
OECD/ENSI Project in Finland
Each country has its own project which share important general principles of general
ENSI project (Environment and School Initiatives), e.g. transforming whole school
organizations to ecoschools, promoting collaboration between schools and surrounding
society, dynamic qualities like creativity, problem solving, learning how to learn etc.
and the use of action research. The idea to use co-operative learning environments and
collaborative knowledge building to promote Environmental Education was presented
by Ahlberg in the international OECD/ENSI strategy workshop in Norway. In the fourth
phase of ENSI project (1999 - 2003) the main themes are: 1) eco schools, 2)
learnscapes and 3) teacher education (Ahlberg and Houtsonen 2000a- 2000b.).
Learnscapes - project as a part of OECD/ENSI project and teacher education

Interview with Professor Mauri Ahlberg, PhD
(Savonlinna Department of Teacher Education, University of Joensuu at

Savonlinna, Finland), October 9th, 2001
What are your major interests in the field of environmental education?
As a teacher educator, I took up the ENS! project, because I have since I 960s
a long personal interest in research and development of environmental
education, sustainable development, good environment and good life. I was a
participant already in the third phase of OECDIENSI project 1996 to 1999.
Together with Docent Lea Houtsonen, we suggested in 2000 to representatives
of Finnish Ministry of Education, that we would like to take part in the fourth
phase of the international OECD/ENSI project (Ahlberg ja Houtsonen 2000a
and 2000b). So we became leaders of the project. Later on Lea Houtsonen
became a counsellor in the National Board of Education, and now she is an
official national coordinator of the project. But in the issues of research and
development we share the leadership. As concerns of my work as teacher
educator at University of Joensuu, I have the full responsibility of learnscape
theme in teaching and learning.
What do you mean by learnscapes?
The most common definition on learnscapes are views opening up on school

grounds. A learnscape in seen on one sight and behind a ridge or a corner
there is another /earnscape to be discovered and explored. Especially in
Australian schools there has been going on several large projects to support
building up variable and multidisciplinary /earnscapes around the school
yards (Learnscapes 2001). But besides concrete learnscapes outdoors, there
are also e-learnscapes. By this we mean the visual landscape that can be seen
on computer screen on one sight. E-learnscapes can be different kinds of
sections on educational web sites like GLOBE program or notes written by
participants dealing with same problem e.g. curricula of eco schools on a
discussion board or on a more advanced learning platform deliberately built to
promote knowledge building.
Learnscapes are one of the three main areas of the fourth phase of
OECDIENS/, and a part of good environment, which is an important concept
in my theory of environmental education. Fourteen schools and their teachers
were involved and a number of university experts and doctoral students. All
agreed that we should try collaborative knowledge building by Knowledge
Forum® database program. In September 2000 we had the first proper in-
service training session for teachers. All learnt easily to use Knowledge
Forum®. Since then we have discussed problems and issues of learnscapes in
the Knowledge Forum®. During the first academic year, knowledge building
has sometimes been very active, sometimes very slow (Ahlberg eta/., 2001)
We wanted to achieve improvements in our physical learnscapes, but also to

collaboratively construct knowledge to promote that objective. We think it is
important in the globalizing Knowledge Society. I have included the idea of
200 T. KAIVOLA
learnscapes into all my teaching. It fits very well the curriculum, national
school system and policies. I teach it to all my students starting from the first
year freshmen to doctoral students. My long term plan is to continue in
teaching theory and practice of learnscapes, and to make research on it in
order to improve my teaching continually, and to promote construction of
better learnscapes.
What problems have you encountered?
From the beginning we have had serious problems with lack of money and time
in the project. As I have taken the idea as part of my regular teaching, I have
been able to spread the idea. However, very few other teacher educators in
Finland are interested in the idea. Nevertheless, in future I will try together
with Counselor Lea Houtsonen to get more money for research on
learnscapes. Our main problem has been lack of research money, which is
needed to attend international conferences, e.g. Annual Summer Institute of
Knowledge Forum. The national education policy system ought to give more
funding for research and development, which tries to monitor and promote
quality of its work, learning and teaching. Research has an important task as a
quality control and tool for continual quality improvement of learnscapes. As
concerns Savonlinna Department of Teacher Education, we have a good
learnscape surrounding us. It could be improved, but too few administrators
are interested in it.
What long-term benefits occurred because of the learnscapes project?
I have observed positive changes in both pre-service and in-service teachers.

Many of them are getting more and more interested in learnscapes and try to
create them. Many others think that they already have good enough
learnscapes. Community of scholars has benefited from the project, since most
just have a possibility to the option of creating and using learnscapes in their
work. Unfortunately I am the only teacher educator in my department who uses
learnscapes concept. I try to discuss the idea with collegues, but there are so
many other interesting ideas spreading that it takes time.
Did the project relate to environmental education?
Our learnscapes project is an integral part of environmental education and

education for sustainability. According to my theory of education (Ahlberg
1998a and 1998b) the main aspects of environmental education for
sustainability are promoting sustainable development, good environment
(including learnscapes) and quality of life (or as the Americans say: good life).
What are your plans for future?
As described above, the idea of learnscapes is a part of our eco school model
and part of our theory of environmental education for sustainable
development, good environment, and good life. During the next 12 months we
will continue our research and development project, which includes

learnscapes. We will build collaboratively more knowledge on our Knowledge
Forum®. We shall try to start one of more international projects where
knowledge could be built collaboratively to promote learnscapes and other
aspects of environmental education in OECDIENSI project. I will supervise
and promote by all possible means doctoral dissertations of my students
concerning learnscapes.
Conclusion
After having been part of innovative projects like GLOBE, ENO and ENSI, the question
of a proper teaching and learning material in a form of worksheets and prescription does
not seem to be so essential and notable issue any more. Teachers should know the key
substance and research methods of their discipline and central pedagogical methods
connected to them. Geographical and environmental educators should be particularly
aware of values tied-up with meanings given to environmental issues. Successful
education must focus on more than the learner's thinking and knowing. Feeling and
action are also important and with thinking they can lead to empowerment for
commitment and responsibility among our students (Novak, 1998; Slater, 2001).
Evaluating educational innovations is a demanding task. Things that work in one school
context might not work in another. In many cases saying no to superficial reforming
pressures coming to schools from outside is a wise and responsible choice. However, in
the field of geographical education many new meaningful approaches are emerging and
most of them are connected to applications information technology. These devices give
changes to build up new types learning communities and to foster professional
development of teachers. Sharing ideas and getting to hear about useful educational web
sites like Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable future by UNESCO (2001) are one of
the best benefits of collegial networks.
References
ENO (2001) ENO- Environment Online. <http://www.enoschools.org>.

GLOBE (2001) Homepage of the GLOBE program. <http://www.globe.gov>.
Huckle, J. (2001) Towards ecological citizenship. In Lambert, D. and P. Machon (eds.) Citizenship through
secondary geography. Routledge/Falmer, London, 145-160.
Kaivola, T. (2000) GLOBE program as an innovation of environmental education in Finland. Department of
Teacher Education. Research Report 218. University of Helsinki (In Finnish).
Kaivola, T. (2001) Students, teachers and scientists collaborate to collect Environmental data: evaluative case
study of implementing the International GLOBE Program in Finnish Schools. In L. Lahti, L. Talve, S.
Tuhkanen and J. KayhkO (eds.) CLJC: Climate Change and Variability in Northern Europe. Climate Change
Symposium June 6-8th, Turku, 47-48.
Kaivola, T. and Ahlberg, M. (2001) ENO Environment Online: how do students learn on virtual lessons?
Manuscript.
Knapp, D. (2000) The Thessaloniki Declaration: a wake-up call for environmental education? The Journal of
Environmental Education 31:3,32-39.
Leamscapes (2001) Schools Learnscapes trust. <http://www.learnscapes.org>.
Lidstone, J. (2000). The road to hell is paved with good intentions: A personal perspective on the state of
geographical and environmental education in Australia in the 1990s. In P. Kansanen (ed.) Discussions on
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some educational issues IX. Department of Teacher Education. Research Report 211. University of Helsinki,
69-87.
Masalin, T. (2001) Students' perceptions on environmental issues in an international Web-based learning
environment. In Houtsonen, L. and M. Tammilehto (eds.) Innovative practices in geographical education.
Proceedings of Helsinki symposium August 6-IOth. International Commission on Geographical Education.
Tummavuori, Helsinki, 233-237.
Means, B. and Coleman, E. (2000) Technology supports for student participation in science investigations. In
Jacobson, M. J. and R. B. Kozma (eds.) Innovations in science and mathematics education: Advanced designs
for technologies in learning. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Novak, J. (1998) Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative tools in schools and
corporations. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rogers, E. (1995) Diffusion of innovations. 4th edition. New York: Free Press.
Slater, F. (2001) Values and values education in the geography curriculum in relation to concepts of
citizenship. In D. Lambert, and P. Machon (eds.) Citizenship through secondary geography. London:
Routledge/Falmer, 42-67.
Taylor, C. (1996) Environmental education: a project approach. In W. Leal Filho, Z. Murphy and K. O'Loan
(eds.) A sourcebook for environmental education: A practical review based on the Belgrade charter.
ERTCEE: University of Bradford, 156-165.
Unesco (2001) Teaching and learning for a sustainable future. <http://www4.gu.edu.au/ext/unesco>.
Vanhanen, M. (2001) ENO- Global network of education for environmental awareness. In Kaivola T. and T.
Masalin (eds.) GLOBE in Finland. National Board of Education. <http://www.edu.fi/projektit/globe/GLOBE-
kirja!ENO> (In Finnish).
White, M., Schwartz, M. and Running, S. (2000). Young students, satellites aid understanding of climate-
biosphere link. EOS 4(1). <http://www.agu.org/eos_elec>.
Ahlberg, M. (1998a) Ecopedagogy and ecodidactics: Education for Sustainable Development, Good
Environment and Good Life. Bulletins of the Faculty of Education N:o 69. University of Joensuu.
Ahlberg, M. (1998b) Education for sustainability, good environment and good life. In Ahlberg, M. andW.
Leal Filho (eds.) Environmental education for sustainability: good environment, good life. Frankfurt am
Main: Peter Lang, 25-43.
Ahlberg, M. and P. Dillon (1999) Materials for constructivistic environmental education. In M. De Paz, and
M. Pilo (eds.) European project for environmental education. A curriculum for European schools. Quadeno 2.
Morino Grafica, Genova, 3-33.
Ahlberg, M. and Houtsonen, L. (2000a) OECDIENSIIFINLAND: a 21st century project. A presentation in the
workshop arranged by Ministry of Education and National Board of Education. March 17th, Helsinki.
Ahlberg, M. and Houtsonen, L. (2000b) OECDIENSIIFINLAND 2000 project uses Knowledge Forum® for
collaborative knowledge building. Poster in the Summer Institute of Knowledge Forum®, August 9 - 12th ,
University of Toronto, Canada.
Ahlberg, M., Kaasinen, A., Kaivola, T. and. Houtsonen, L. (2001) Collaborative knowledge building to
promote in-service teacher training on environmental education: First year preliminary results. Paper
presented on the 26th Annual Conference of the Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE),
August the 27th- September 1st, Stockholm.
SECTION 5: INNOVATION AND CHANGE IN GEOGRAPHICAL
EDUCATION
14. NEW MEDIA WILL ACCELERATE THE RENEWAL OF
GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION
JOOP VANDER SCHEE
Introduction
The introduction of new media is changing geography education fast. Especially the
introduction of the Internet offers the opportunity to study almost every place in the
world anytime anywhere. Although there are some problems related to the introduction
of new media in geographic education, the advantages far outweigh the problems. To
make optimal use of new media in geography teaching systematic international research
and development in this field should be developed to enhance the quality of modern
geography teaching.
New Opportunities
The large-scale revolution in the use of computers is not older than 20 years; the use of
mobile phones is even younger. Research in the Netherlands showed that 25% percent
of all secondary school students had Internet at home in 1999. Two years later it was
more than 70 percent. Between 1999 and 2001 the use of mobile phones by 15-19 years
olds in the Netherlands grew from 21 percent to 78 percent (Giesen 2001:3). Most
children use Internet to chat and they use mobile phones for more intensive contacts
besides their not diminishing face-to-face contacts.
It is a fair guess to say that within another five years everybody who can pay for it can
have mobile and satellite oriented Internet. Think of what this means for geography
teaching. Students can email anytime and any place with everybody. In and outside
school they have at hand not only a lot of geographical facts and concepts but also
satellite images, maps and videos. The possibilities to manipulate data and to handle
information in an interactive way will assume large proportions. Unknown
opportunities will open up. Virtual excursions around the world are no longer science
fiction (Fluck, 2000: 114). Already now you make a virtual flight around the globe,
make a stop in a selected country and listen to the national hymn while watching a slide
show or video of a particular natural or cultural element. And that is just the beginning.
The digital revolution just started. This digital revolution will be as important as the
discovery of the art of printing.
For secondary school students in 2010 school will probably be a workstation for
Computer Supported Collaborative Learning and a meeting place to discuss the results
205
R. Gerber (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Education 205-213.
206 J. VANDERSCHEE
of their work with peers and teachers. Teachers will do the briefing, coaching and
debriefing. Students will be involved in a more active and independent way of learning.
Using e-mail and online communication like videoconferencing modern geography
lessons will be more than traditional geography lessons interactive with the world
outside school. The gap between school and the world outside school will diminish.
Although the scenario sketched above already started in some schools in rich countries,
nobody knows how the process will go exactly. It is certain that the gap - sometimes
called the 'the digital divide'- is great between poor and rich areas. Teachers working
with chalk and blackboard in one part of the world are in flagrant contrast with teachers
that can use new media.
In this chapter, I first want to describe shortly some different types of new media used
in geography teaching. Then, I will give an overview of arguments that are given for
the use of new media in geography teaching and discuss some problems of using new
media in geography teaching. The last paragraph gives some starting-points for a
perspective on what seems to be needed to enhance the use of new media in
geographical education. Doing so, I hope to sketch roughly some opportunities,
problems and challenges for using new media in geography teaching.
The literature and websites used to write this chapter illustrate what is available in the
area. I do not pretend to treat the literature exhaustively. The abundant information
about initiatives in the field of new media and geography teaching is dispersed and
changing fast. However, it is a pity that empirical research in this field is scarce.
Nevertheless, it is not the question whether new media will be involved in modern
geography teaching but how it will be involved.
Different Types of New Media in Geography Teaching
'Since all information is conveyed through a medium, we need media to acquire

knowledge and skills. Geographical education has long been known for its use of a
wide range of different information carriers including voice, blackboard, book, model,
poster, whiteboard, overhead transparency sheet, slide, film, video and computer disk.
The above list is ordered chronologically from 'old' to 'new' media. Nowadays only
the use of the computer is regarded as new and even then it depends on the type of
hardware and software whether is it really new or not' (Trimp, 1996: 113). New media
is a catchall term for all forms of electronic communication that have appeared or will
appear since the original mainly text and text-and-static picture forms of online
communication disappear. New media encompasses for instance 3-D and virtual reality
environments; one-to-one and one-to-many visual communication; telephone and digital
integration; highly interactive user interfaces; special audiovisual effects; live Internet
broadcasting; CD en DVD media; etc., (http://searchwebmanagement.techtarget.com
2001). In computers, 3-D (three dimensions) describes an image that provides the
perception of depth. When 3-D images are made interactive so that users feel involved
with the scene, the experience is called virtual reality. New media encompasses
multimedia, a term originally used mainly for not online presentations integrating text,
maps, photographs and video, as well as hypermedia, which emphasises interactivity
NEW MEDIA WILL ACCELERATE THE RENEWAL 207
and specifically means the ability to selectively link one form of content to another.
Besides new media, ICT (Information and Communication Technology) is another
popular but also not sharply defined term. ICT describes the application of new
technologies. The use of ICT in education had to do with the use of hardware
(computers) as well as software (eg., Word, Excel or searching machines).
Continuously, new technology will mean new frontiers for teaching. Nowadays, more
and more people in and outside geography work with search engines, instant messaging
(eg., ICQ), email, interactive computer simulation programs, remote sensing images,
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
Without saying this is a complete enumeration of what modern technology offers, it
gives an idea of some important ICT or new media applications, which are also
available for geography education.
Geography educational technology tends to fit into two broad categories. Fitzpatrick
(1990) differentiates between database systems, exploratory computer programs and
simulation systems. The difference between the last two categories is less substantial
than between these two categories and database systems.
• Database systems include geographic information display software, geographic

information systems, remote sensing image processing systems, and computer
mapping software. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can be seen as a
sophisticated mapping system. GIS is the one application of ICT that is mostly
unique to work in geography (Martin, 2000: 67). The essence of GIS is that it is
like stacking layer upon layer of transparencies, each with a different set of
information drawn onto the same base map. Each of these layers can be switched
on or of off or combined on a computer screen map. GIS provides a means of
integrating information to understand and address some of the most pressing
problems faced today like tropical deforestation, rapid urbanisation, and pollution.
• Exploratory computer programs and simulation systems aim to inspire students to

discover the world by playing a role in a specific geographic setting. Many
exploratory computer programs in geographic education are games based upon
real or fictitious information about places and regions of the world. For over a
decade, many kids all over the world have been chasing the elusive Carmen
Sandiego and her gang, learning about geography and cultures. The award
winning 'Carmen Sandiego' challenges kids between 9 and 12 to discover the
world around them. The game develops a spatial sense as well as research skills
(Nellis, 1994: 53).
In contrast to most games computer simulations offer the opportunity to change

parameters. Students can compare the effects of certain decisions concerning the
modification of parameters in the simulation model. Albrecht (1996) presents
Geolab, a simulation programme that represents the causes and effects of natural
threats in the Alps. Students can compare the effects of different precipitation
patterns on the regional distribution of threats with and without modification of the
model. The main goal of the application is to enable reflection about the method
208 J. VANDERSCHEE
of knowledge acquisition with reference to geo-ecological processes and to their

representation in models. Computer simulations develop an awareness that the
knowledge of so-called 'true facts', and the insight of processes of a given part of
reality to which these facts relate, depends upon the intentions and actions with
which a given reality is approached (Dewey, 1975). Most geography teachers
report positively about the use of games and simulations in geography teaching
saying it motivates students for learning about geographic patterns and processes.
Because of their capacity to store large amounts of information and to work in an
interactive way, computers are a great help to introduce games and simulations in
the classroom.
The introduction of Internet makes database systems, exploratory computer programs

and simulation systems easier accessible. The international digital highway or Internet
is the most spectacular innovation in the field of ICT. Internet can be seen as an
enormous international digital communication system. Leask (1999:44) states that
Internet provides students and educators with:
• Access to a huge range of free and high quality information sources.
• The opportunity for students, teachers and schools to publish information eg., on
their own website.
• Synchronous (e.g., video conferencing and on-line chat groups) and asynchronous
communication (e.g., email).
A marginal note to the above is that not all information on Internet is free and high
quality. This is one of the core problems of Internet. Nevertheless, Internet offers great
opportunities for teaching in general and for geography teaching in particular. It is a
fascinating medium to open the world. If you want to have a text or map or photograph
of a special subject or of some nearby or remote region there is a good chance that you
can find it on the Internet. But, it is also possible to read newspapers from all over the
world, to look television programs, to consult the latest information about all the
countries in the world, to speak with someone at the other side of the globe or to
observe a variety of changing and dynamic geographic patterns on the globe viewing
satellite images, and what not.
Advantages of the Use of New Media in Geography Teaching
There is a lot more literature about the advantages of introducing new media in
geography teaching than about the disadvantages. The two main advantages of using
computers in geography teaching are a quick availability of enormous amounts of
information and the opportunity of interactive individual learning and testing. Search
engines underpin the first aspect, web-based tests the second aspect. A good example
of the latter is the European Geography Test. It is a multilingual, interactive and
international web-based test that enables citizens to test their general knowledge about
geography (Foskett and Bradshaw, 2000: 49). The test is scored and marked by the
computer and at the end of the test the respondent receives feedback on how well the
performance was. Under construction is a set of modules to help respondents to acquire

missing geographic knowledge and skills.
Research suggests that the use of computers stimulates student learning. When a
computer is used for interactive multimedia methods of instruction, retention is raised
much more than in the case a lecture approach with visual aids or a discussion is chosen
(Northup, Barth and Kranze, 1991). Research carried out for the National Council for
Educational Technology in the United Kingdom in the mid-1990s provided evidence of
reasons for using ICT in schools (Leask, 1999: 41). A selection of these reasons
includes the following statements:
• ICT gives students immediate access to richer source materials.
• ICT can present information in new ways that help students to understand,
assimilate and use it more readily.
• ICT removes the chore of processing data manually and frees students to
concentrate on its interpretation and use.
• ICT motivates and stimulates learning.
ICT has the flexibility to meet the individual needs and abilities of each student.
ICT allows students to reflect on what they have written and to change it easily.
Many governments stimulate schools to use more ICT in education. The European
Union asked Community members to capitalise on the potential of Internet, multimedia
and virtual learning environments for better and faster realisation of lifelong learning as
a basic educational principle and for providing access to educational and training
opportunities for all, in particular for those who have access problems for social,
economic, geographical or other reasons (Gutierrez-Diaz, 2001:1).
Problems Related to the Use of New Media in Geography Teaching
Using new media is no panacea for all problems currently faced by geography teachers.
On the contrary, introducing new media in geography teaching may as well cause
problems as solve problems. Some of the often-mentioned problems are:
• Lack of good software and hardware.

High costs.
• Computer related diseases like RSI.
An enormous amount of unstructured and fast changing data.
Restrictions on data accessibility, eg. for working with GIS.
Teachers missing ICT skills (Watson, 2000).
Teachers missing time to explore software.
Teachers missing a reward structure or incentive system (Bednarz and Audet,
1999).
210 J. VANDER SCHEE
Gender related differences (Durndell and Thomson, 1997).

Dependency on technique (McCluskey, 1994).
Besides these points there is are some other problems connected with the introduction of
new media in geography teaching. They have to do with a major change in geography
teaching. In traditional geography lessons it is the teacher who is explaining the world
to the students. Modern geography lessons challenge students to explore the world
themselves. Many authors believe that new technologies will accelerate a shift in
teaching and learning from behaviourist to constructivist approaches (Hill and Solem,
1999; Sharpe, 2000). Gillespie (1998) refers to this shift as a change from traditional
approaches towards a new paradigm (see Figure 1).
Traditional Approaches to Instruction The New Paradigm
Teacher-directed Learner-centred
Didactic teaching Student exploration
Short blocks of instruction on a single subject Extended blocks of multidisciplinary instruction
Passive or one-way modes of instruction Active and interactive modes of instruction
Individual, competitive work Collaborative, cooperative work
Teacher as a knowledge dispenser Teacher as a facilitator or guide
Ability grouping Heterogeneous grouping
Assessment of knowledge, specific skills Performance-based assessment
Figure 1. From traditional learning to a new paradigm (Gillespie 1998)
The interactive, user-centred and open structure of the new technologies, particularly
the Internet, is ideal for the creation of constructivist learning environments (Sharpe,
2000: 263). Although there are different traditions within constructivism, they share the
view that knowledge is not transmitted directly from one knower to another, but is
actively built up by the learner (Driver, eta!., 1994).
New media are not just another tool for geography teaching. They have the potential to
do far more than that. They can move the teaching and learning of geography in new
directions. But revision of curricula to incorporate modern media has the danger of
throwing the baby out with the bathwater. It can lead to so much attention for the use of
new media that geography is pushed into the background. At the end of the course
students are good at carrying out particular techniques, but not so good asking the right
'research' questions, or knowing how to go about answering them once they have
formulated them. Procedural and instrumental knowledge should be seen as important
and necessary additions to, and not a replacement for, geographical declarative
knowledge.
There are more problems related to this new way of learning, which is accelerated by
the introduction of new media. One related problem is that assisting pupils to organise
their own experiences is often difficult (Wiegand and Tait, 2000:19). Teachers are
trained to keep lessons moving. They are not trained in dialogue and diagnosis, which
seems to slow down lessons. Another problem is that some teachers fear that pupils
know more about computers than they do themselves, although the role as a mediator
between the pupils and the machine is often crucial in developing their understanding.
Questioning pupils about what they are doing, and why they are doing it in that way,
demands that they have to articulate their understanding and in so doing can consolidate
their learning (Leask, 1999:43).
Not only for teachers but also for students new ways of learning can be a threat. Many
students are used to be passive receivers of information. For these students it is a major
change in attitude to become active learners and responsible for what they learn (Healy,
1992:17). In the optimistic view new media can help to facilitate this process, because
new media offer not only give access to an enormous amount of different source
materials and data processing facilities but also offer the opportunity to follow
individual pathways to acquire knowledge and skills.
A New Challenge for Geography Teaching
Although many problems exist for integrating new media in geographic education, most
obstacles will be overcome in time. The advantages of using new media in geography
teaching far outweigh the problems related to it. Developing the level of ICT
competence of geography students and teachers will go step by step. Changing the
curriculum is rarely straightforward and the process of change is usually less structured
than is often rationalised after the event (Healy, 1992: 9). In many countries the use of
new media in geography teaching would accelerate if new media should be incorporated
in examinations and assessment requirements. Besides this top down approach there is
a bottom up development. For instance, the widespread adoption of GIS in geography
curricula at universities will contribute in time to the transfer of GIS to schools by GIS
trained teachers (Nichol and Chuan, 1996: 201).
Nellis (1994: 56) claims five points to capitalise fully on the technology available for
enhancing geographic education:
• Develop exemplary curriculum materials for all levels.

Create a group of geography teachers specialized in /CT.
• Get funding to facilitate the diffusion of software and hardware.
• Develop strategies for ensuring quality standards and proper ethics.
• Ask the major geographic organizations to coordinate.
During the last decade some of these points were carried out successfully. After
analysing two surveys of about 300 UK school geography departments that were carried
out in 1995 and 1997 by the Secondary Education Section Commission of the
Geographical Association in the United Kingdom, Martin (2000: 65) concludes that the
use of ICT in geography has been increasing at an extremely rapid rate. Nevertheless, a
lot of work still has to be done. To make systematic international progress it would be
good to start an international research and development group on the issue of new
media in geographic education. Such a group should:
212 J. VANDERSCHEE
• Classify and referee on a central spot, for instance on a website of the Commission
on Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union, what the new
media have to offer to geography teaching.
• Underpin the effects of the use of new media in geographic education with
empirical research done by geography teachers and researchers in the field of
geography teaching.
• Develop standards for the use of new software in geographic education.
• Develop, test and evaluate geographic models to make sense of all the information
coming to us.
• Start a teacher training that encompasses the issue how teachers should help
students to structure the information new media give us about the world.
Geography teaching without new media is no longer desirable. Geography teachers and
students have to deal with an enormous amount of data, texts, maps and figures.
Modern technology is very helpful to handle all this information (Fitzpatrick, 1993).
All the different forms of modern teaching aids can help geography educators and
students to analyse a broader range of spatial questions than was previously possible.
The effective use of new media in geographic education stimulates not easier
geography, but more demanding enquiry (Kam, 1996: 212). Modern technology helps
to get a better view of the world and it creates more time in geography lessons than
before for enquiry and reflection on what is happening in the world.
However, for students it is frequently not easy to find a way through the enormous
amount of continuously changing information. Good geography teachers are
indispensable to help students to make optimal advantage of the opportunities that new
media can offer to geographic education. Cognitive structuring - assisting pupils to
organise their own experiences by providing explanations or meta-level strategies - is
difficult in practice (Watson, 2000: 19). Geographic models can be helpful (Van der
Schee, 2000: 227). The secret is to make the right choices when coaching students to
help them see 'the wood for the trees'. If this is true geography teachers need not only a
good training in ICT and coaching techniques, but even more important a training in
structuring geographic information. The last point will mean a challenging job for
geographers in education.
Geography is about tourists and terrorists, about retirement areas and refugees, about
the Triad and El Nino, about acid rain and volcanic eruptions. It is the ever-fascinating
story of our changing planet. New media can help students to discover it and think
about it better than before provided that their teachers are good guides.
References
Albrecht, V. (1996) Computer simulation and environmental learning: an approach to Geolab. In Innovation
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15. CAREER-LONG PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR
GEOGRAPHY TEACHERS
SIMON CATLING
Introduction
As professional educators, teachers of geography in primary and secondary education

recognise the need to sustain their own professional development across the length of
their teaching career. In some parts of the world this is a matter of professional
requirement as a teacher. Continued registration and career promotion depend on
explicit evidence of career development. In other countries, personal and professional
development as a teacher is assumed to be intrinsic to the motivation to be and continue
as an effective teacher.
Development as a geography educator, working in or outside the school system, is

underpinned by personal and professional attitudes and values. These include:
• the love oflearning in one's specialist interests- to have and show enthusiasm
• the intention to provide a role model as a learner - to encourage and engage others
in learning
• a desire always to improve teaching and to try out new ideas and opportunities - to
provide stimulating learning
• engaging with the developments in areas of personal interest - to be up-to-date

with knowledge and pedagogic developments in order to use them in teaching
• having high expectations of oneself - to have high expectations of others, as

students and colleagues
• an appreciation that personal learning is a career-long engagement - to enable

professional development and advancement to be achieved.
Such attitudes and values can be encouraged and developed, but they are as important in
the initial stages of an education career, as they are throughout. This is because
teaching is not simply a personal activity. The teacher is a member of the school
community and team, the focus of which is the learning achievements of pupils. As a
teacher professional development throughout a career is both a personal and a school
matter, and it needs to be a priority not just for the maintenance of teaching quality but
215
216 S.CATLING
in order for a school and its staff to engage with change and improvement, to achieve
the best outcomes for their pupils in geography and in any other area of the school
activities.
At the heart of professional development for geography - indeed all - teachers need to
be well-informed in current geographical subject knowledge and understanding, to be
aware of curriculum developments in geographical education, to be critically aware of
pedagogic practice in one's own school geography teaching and elsewhere, and to be
seeking new topics, ideas and ways to approach teaching geography, trying these out
and evaluating them. The initiation into a teaching career will introduce new
possibilities which will be set alongside and supersede the experience of geography
teaching as a pupil and student which new entrants bring to courses and their career.
But, it is vital that during the early years and in advancing a teaching career, teachers of
geography continue to be open to examining, adopting and adapting new geographical
information, concepts and theories, innovative teaching strategies and techniques and
emerging approaches to curriculum organisation. Professional development - through
reading, courses locally and regionally, further qualifications, and in discussion with
one's own and neighbouring colleagues in schools - is the way in which personal
development as a teacher and for the school is undertaken. The following sections
focus on aspects of initiation into a geography teaching career, the early years of
professional development and advancement through a geography education career.
These points are drawn together towards the end of this chapter. Throughout, five
cameos of geography educators illustrate some of the aspects of their careers and
professional development.
Initiating a Geography Teaching Career
STARTING POINTS
Some people decide while still at school that they want to be a geography teacher.
Others make that choice at university or, perhaps, many years later in life having
worked in another career. This decision is based on the first two requirements for
teaching:
• being motivated within the particular area of specialism, whether a

discipline/subject or in relation to an age phase, to the extent that one wants to pass
that fascination on to others;
• having the personal interest and determination to understand and know enough
about the specialism to be able to teach effectively.
In some parts of the world matriculation at school will be the basis for becoming a
teacher in the elementary stages of education. In an increasing number of countries the
opportunity to teach advanced students or to teach in any school requires formal post-
school qualifications in the subject and to teach: that is, a geography certificate or
CAREER-LONG PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 217
degree and a teacher's certificate, or the two combined. For many prospective
geography teachers, then, the third requirement to be met will be:
• gaining a place at university or a higher education college in order to gain

qualifications in geography and teaching.
Embarking on a geography degree and a teachers' training course, or moving from

school matriculation into a teaching role, means entering the period of initiation into
professional development as a teacher. The focus at this point is very much on initial
professional development as a teacher of geography. Figure 1 outlines the phases of a
professional career as a teacher (Berliner, 2001). The novice teacher phase as that first
step in a career is likely to continue from initial training into the first, even second, year
of teaching, when this first phase moves into the second, advanced beginner teacher
phase. It is not just knowledge and understanding that concern novice teachers;
particularly, they also wish to feel in control, to be secure and supported and to gain a
sense of success during this stage of initial professional development.
NOVICE TEACHER COMPETENCIES AND QUALITIES
To qualify to teach in primary and secondary schools, new teachers need to develop
their capabilities and qualities in a number of areas, so that they might begin their
teaching career with essential knowledge, understandings and skills and positive
attitudes. Figure 2 outlines a set of core initial teaching competencies. A novice
teacher of geography needs also to be able to uphold a core set of values important to
effective teaching, including respect for their pupils and colleagues, valuing diversity of
pupils' background, showing consistency, and consideration in dealing with pupils and
colleagues, promoting positive attitudes, motivating and engaging pupils and
communicating effectively (TTA, 2001). This requires novice teachers to be self-
reflective and self-critical, with the purpose of improving the quality and effectiveness
of their teaching and of their pupils' learning (Lambert and Balderstone, 2000).
The confidence of a novice teacher is built through well-planned and guided

introductory experience in teaching geography. This will involve observing effective
geography teaching by proficient and expert teachers, with debriefings about the quality
and nature of the practice seen. It will require reading about both geography and
geographical education, alongside taught inputs, workshops and seminars about the
subject and its curriculum, pedagogy, resources and political context. Essential will be
a wide variety of opportunities to plan and try out a range of teaching strategies with
pupil groups of different sizes and levels of experience and achievement, which will be
observed and debriefed by experienced teachers with the novice teacher being trained to
be reflective, looking to ways to improve their teaching based on a self-critical analysis
which identifies achievements, key concerns, core needs and appropriate resources in
order to make progress (Lambert and Balderstone, 2000).
218 S.CATLING
Level Phases in the Examples of characteristics exhibited by the teacher of

development as a geography
teacher
Novice teacher • Needing induction and explicit guidance and support

• A desire to learn how to teach geography
• Learning the 'information': the facts and features of the subject and its
teaching and of appropriate learning situations
• Time to develop, respond to and learn from initial geography teaching
experience
• While wanting to feel secure, trying new approaches to geographical
understanding and teaching
2 Advanced beginner • Beginning to develop their initial episodic knowledge of geography

teacher teaching into a coherent 'story' of experience
• Developing strategic knowledge about more appropriate approaches to
geography teaching and class management of pupils
• Though in charge of a class for geography teaching, not yet responsible
for decisions and actions about the syllabus being taught
• Motivated to continue to develop teaching experience, skills and
understanding
3 Competent teacher • Geography teaching based on personal responsibility for planning

involves making conscious choices about the timing, teaching strategies,
appropriate content, etc of geography lessons and topics
• Acknowledges personal responsibility for what happens in the classroom
and accepts success or failure for actions and outcomes in geography
teaching
• Stimulated to continue to learn about teaching and becoming effectively
reflective as a practitioner
4 Proficient teacher • Has developed a store of experience, knowledge, understanding and skills
in geography teaching, which is drawn on as situations require
• Appears almost intuitive in style in planning geography teaching and in
responding to pupils during teaching sessions
• Takes an analytic and reflective approach and is deliberative in the
planning and selection of teaching strategies and content in geography
well linked to pupils' experience, needs and achievements
5 Expert teacher • Well planned, organised and prepared for teaching geography, though
this might appear to be effortlessly undertaken, with timing perfect, etc
• Well developed understanding in relation . to the needs of pupils and
thoughtful and responsive in meeting these in a way which engages and
motivates pupils in geographical teaching and learning
• Can deduce what needs to be done with clarity and can communicate this
effectively to pupils and colleagues
• A capacity to operate flexibly and appropriately in response to situations
in and outside the geography classroom
• In circumstances where things do not go to plan, responds analytically
and often creatively, involving geography colleagues and/or pupils and
giving them a sense of ownership in the solution
Figure 1. The Stages of a Teaching Career in Geography (based on Berliner, 2001)

A novice teacher qualifying to begin teaching geography as a specialist geographer in a primary or a

secondary school should be able to:
• demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of geography as a discipline to an advanced level
• show they know and understand the geography requirements at school level
• articulate their advocacy for geography in the curriculum
• plan topics and the sequence of lessons in geography in relation to the school scheme or syllabus
• plan the effective teaching of geography lessons
• use a range of appropriate strategies and techniques for teaching geography safely
• manage pupils' good behaviour in teaching geography lessons
• match teaching in geography to the levels of pupils' geographical understanding while maintaining
high expectations of them
• use, as far as possible, a variety of resources to teach geography
• assess pupils' achievements and needs effectively and using these to help plan appropriate subsequent
geography teaching
• where necessary, learn to prepare pupils to be able to take external examinations in geography
• keep up-to-date in topic and current matters from the local to the global
Figure 2. Core Initial Teaching Competencies for the Novice Teacher of Geography during Initial
Professional Development
Developing a Geography Education Career: The Early Years
Newly qualified teachers enter the profession either still in or emerging from the novice
phase, still in the period of induction. During the next few years they will move into
and through the next three phases in their development as a teacher (see Figure 1): from
advanced beginner teacher, through their development as a competent teacher and into
the phase of the proficient teacher. As they move through the advanced beginner phase,
the new teacher enters the period of consolidation in their knowledge, understanding,
skills, attitudes, values and confidence as a professional teacher. As advanced
beginners, new teachers of geography aim to achieve well as teachers and extend their
self-confidence. It is during this period that it is vital for the new teacher to consolidate
their experience and learning, moving from initial professional development into early
professional development. To support career development in geographical education,
as in any other direction, it will be important to plan for professional development
(Banks et al., 2001).
220 S.CATLING
Cameo I: Sarah -developing from a novice to an advanced beginner teacher of geography
Sarah was stimulated to study for her geography degree as a result of her excellent teaching at school. She
completed her initial teacher education at the same university and found her first post in a local secondary
school geography department. During her first year in teaching she followed a programme for new
teachers in her school and local authority, meeting other new geography teachers while attending a course
locally on various aspects of geography teaching and on the geography curriculum. Her Head of the
Geography Department was her mentor and observed her teaching fortnightly, supporting her developing
confidence, skill and understanding as she moved from novice to advanced begiuner teacher. She felt her
self-esteem grow because she was able to contribute her strength in physical geography in teaching
throughout the school and in up-dating the geography syllabus.
OBJECTIVES FOR EARLY PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
It is important to recognise and appreciate the importance and purposes of early

professional development [EPD]. For teachers of geography, the objectives ofEPD will
be for them to:
• keep abreast of developments in geography and current affairs relevant to their

geography teaching;
• extend, develop and modify the range of teaching strategies and techniques they
use in the classroom;
• reflect on the nature of their teaching experience and their reading about
geography teaching and research in order better to respond to pupils' needs and
achievements;
• maintain up-to-date awareness of developments in geographical education and

education in general to which to relate their teaching; and
• begin to contribute to the professional life of the school and to its relationships
with its community, linking these to geographical education and learning.
These are broad objectives that form the basis for more focused goals for individual
teachers who, in turn, will need to draw up an action plan for their personal
development. Figure 3 outlines some of the areas of geography teaching that are
important to follow through during the advanced beginner and competent phases of
teachers' development. These areas can be extended further during the proficient
teacher phase, when it may well be that the fifth objective of EPD is introduced.
A teacher of geography in the early years of a teaching career should focus on the development of their
knowledge, understanding and skills in:
• the geography they are teaching, its locus within geography and advances in geography as a discipline
• pedagogic content knowledge in geography, that is, ways in which the pupils will best understand the
geography they are to be taught
• relating the geography being taught to the geography curriculum of the school and the wider national
requirements for geographical education at school
• particular teaching strategies and techniques that are personally less well-developed
• developments in the ways in which pupils learn most effectively in geography and in which teachers
teach to support that learning
• managing one's workload and organisation, for example, time management, resource management,
marking, administration
• managing one's initial professional development, such as undertaking courses related to geographical
teaching or taking responsibility for particular aspects of work, such as fieldtrip planning
• managing people, for instance, pupils and colleagues on fieldwork
Figure 3. A Basis for the Early Professional Development of the Teacher of Geography (based on Banks et
al., 2001)
TYPES OF EARLY PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
There are a variety of approaches that can be used to facilitate teacher development,
whether at primary or secondary school level (Blandford, 2000). This is not only a
matter of personal determination. Schools have a clear interest in the early personal
professional development of their staff. In particular they want to support the
development of new and less experienced teachers in order to improve the quality of
teaching so that the quality of pupil learning and achievement is maintained and
enhanced. For the novice, advanced beginner and even the competent teacher, a school
that has planned its staff development well will appoint a mentor to support, monitor
and help reflection upon personal development as a teacher (Blandford, 2000; Burgess,
2001).
Mentoring is a formal role and responsibility, usually undertaken by an experienced and

senior colleague. In a secondary school this person might be the Head of the
Geography Department. In the primary school s/he might be the subject leader or co-
ordinator for geography or the deputy headteacher. The focus will be on professional
development through the setting of goals for development, identifying ways to achieve
these through a personal action plan. In addition to developing knowledge,
understanding and skills in teaching geography, EPD should encourage the individual to
222 S.CATLING
develop their values as a geography teacher, and should support teachers to make
contact with other similarly placed geography teachers to continue to share experience.
EDP is also about interpersonal development through providing supportive feedback,
including praise, in order to build the individual's self-confidence and to encourage the
reflection and analysis of teaching. The purpose is for the less experienced teacher to
identify ways to improve and overcome obstacles, while the mentor shares, even
models, good practice to provide insight into approaches to teaching geography and
personal organisation.
Throughout the early years of teaching, it is important to undertake professional

development in a number of ways. These should cover both direct classroom practice
and wider professional development. Figure 4 outlines four approaches to supporting
the early professional development of a teacher of geography. The choice and timing of
different approaches will depend on a number of factors, such as access to time,
resources and funds, the availability of courses, the priorities of the school, and even
personal finances and commitments. The developing advanced beginner teacher and
the proficient teacher will plan this through formal and informal appraisal with their
head of the geography department. Practitioner development and professional support
are, essentially, school-based and involve working with the secondary school head of
department or primary school subject leader and colleagues. Professional training and
professional development will depend on opportunities locally or regionally and may
require funding to be undertaken. Some resources will come from the school, but it
may be that for particular professional development personal finances will need to be
used.
CHALLENGES TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT
The early years of teaching are vital to every geography teacher in establishing a
personal sense of worth and achievement. These interests arise from feeling valued,
being involved and seeing one's contributions, however small, making an impact on the
quality of teaching and pupil learning in the school. It might appear that this is
straightforward, and in an ideal school the points made above will help the individual
teacher progress well, to a point of feeling proficient as a teacher. But there may be
barriers to be overcome. Some may be personal, others related to understanding of and
experience in teaching geography, some contextual and yet others interpersonal.
Figure 5 indicates some of the challenges that may be faced, hopefully by few
geography teachers, in seeking to undertake professional development. In a variety of
guises, these can appear at different times during a teaching career. More often than not
it is persistence and determination that overcomes them. Sometimes it may involve a
move to another school. Rarely one hopes will drastic action be needed. In tackling
any barriers that may be put in the path of planning effective professional development,
one or more of the following approaches can be tried:
• identify personal priorities for professional development;

Type of professional Examples of ways to undertake early professional development in relation to teaching
development geography
Practitioner • During the early years of a geography teaching career:

development • Having lessons observed and evaluated by the Head of the Geography Department [HoOD]
• Observing the HoOD and other geography staff teaching, with follow up discussion
• Sharing teaching plans with the HoOD
• Team-teaching with a geography colleague
• Beginning to research one's own teaching, for example by videoing lessons and reflecting
on what is observed
Professional • Seeking opportunities for a postgraduate qualification in geographical education or

development geography
• Maintaining reading of journals, books, etc about geography and geography teaching
Professional training • Being involved in school-based workshops in geography teaching

• Attending locally or regionally based courses on geography teaching
• Attending national geography education conferences
Professional support • Periodically discussing the geography job description and evaluating one's work in relation
to it through formal and/or informal appraisal
• Supporting or leading the development of parts of the school geography curriculum
• Working with colleagues in other aspects of the school's provision to widen experience and
understanding
• Making contact with teachers of geography in other schools to share experience and ideas
about teaching geography
• Discussing career developments and moves with HoOD and colleagues
Figure 4. Approaches to Early Professional Development as a Teacher of Geography (based on Blandford,

2000)
• contact the local education authority geography advisor and the university
education department geography tutor for discussion and advice;
• join and become engaged in, or even set up, a local geography educators group;
• develop knowledge and understanding about teaching through reading;
• develop knowledge and understanding of classroom research through reading and

advice and try something simple out (Williams, 1996; Catling, 2000).
• identify personal priorities for professional development;
• contact the local education authority geography advisor and the university
education department geography tutor for discussion and advice;
• join and become engaged in, or even set up, a local geography educators group;
• develop knowledge and understanding about teaching through reading; and

224 S.CATLING
develop knowledge and understanding of classroom research through reading and

advice and try something simple out (Williams, 1996; Catling, 2000).
Possible barriers to development Possible ways to overcome such barriers
Personal barriers
Save funds to attend conferences, for fees, etc
• Difficulty in financing a further qualification or course • Plan ways to apply to the school, the local authority or
or conference attendance another source for funding to support course or conference
• Family commitments that limit time for personal attendance, and link applications to school priorities
development Work with family to plan reserved periods of time for study
and course or conference attendance
Teaching barriers
• Inexperience in the range of teaching strategies and Discuss teaching approaches with colleagues and try them
techniques that are expected to be used out to build up experience
• Being limited in the range of geography teaching • Discuss with HoOD or school deputy head/head re-
undertaken, perhaps in age groups or variety of pupils' balancing geography teaching to broaden and deepen
abilities experience
• Access to a limited number and range of resources • Discuss with HOOD the type and number of resources
• Lack of know ledge about research approaches that can available and needed for teaching, with the objective of
be used in the classroom to examine and develop one's ordering more
teaching • Seek out readings on educational research, particularly
action research, and/or register for a postgraduate course to
learn about and undertake classroom research
Contextual barriers
Taking time out of a geography teaching career • Try to remain aware of developments in geography
perhaps to raise a family education; seek out a course to update skills/know ledge
• Where the status of geography in the school is low and when wanting to return; be positive about past experience
priorities for staff development in geography are low • Identify how geography can make a contribution and
• Promotion lying outside geography because the where it can be supported, perhaps to achieve a non-
incumbent is not likely to leave geographical priority for the school, eg in citizenship
• Lack of accessible courses and qualifications in education
geographical education • Apply for posts in other schools
• Talk to local authority advisor or university geography
teacher education tutors about developing provision or
where else to look
Interpersonal barriers
• Where there is a lack of mentor support, perhaps in • Discuss initially with the mentor, but if unsuccessful then
giving time or in the quality of advice talk to the HoOD or deputy head/head the problems
• Where poor personal relationships get in the way of encountered with the mentor, or even request a change of
working together mentor
• Hard though it is, always try to work at maintaining a
working professional relationship, but seek a colleague
with whom to discuss ways to keep going and with whom
you can express your concern
Figure 5. Some Potential Barriers to Career Development for the Teacher of Geography
Cameo 2: Sue -a competent teacher of geography
Sue completed her primary teaching degree in social and environmental studies and moved into her first
post in a suburban primary school. During the past 4 years she has been a class teacher for two age groups
and has developed her strengths in geography, history and science. She has been supported by her mentor,
who is the deputy headteacher. She has taken courses in all three subjects locally and has made visits to
several other school in the city to observe good practice, especially in geography teaching with younger
primary children. This has built her confidence, widened the range of her teaching skills and encouraged
her to develop her interest in the use of information technology in teaching geography, history and science.
Advancing a Career in Geographical Education
The third stage in a teaching career is the period of achievement and development. It
should be a period of success and development as a teacher of geography. This will be
a time when there are a variety of possible opportunities and outcomes for the
individual teacher. Many teachers of geography will decide to remain as classroom
teachers in primary or secondary schools, not seeking promotion to leadership levels or
wanting to move out of the school environment where they enjoy teaching geography
(and possibly other subjects). They are very likely to have a very strong sense of
satisfaction with achieving and developing as an expert teacher, drawing on further
professional development to enhance their teaching qualities and skills. Their interests
will be served through their continuing professional development [CPD] of advanced
skills in geography teaching. However, some teachers of geography will look to
advancing their career using CPD to develop the high quality of their teaching with the
intention of gaining to promotion.
During this stage of their career the objectives of CPD for teachers of geography will be
to:
• draw critically on their experience of geography teaching, on research evidence

and on published advice and course information to develop, extend and adapt the
variety of teaching strategies and techniques they use in their geography teaching,
in order to continue to improve pupils' achievements and standards and to
maintain and extend interest in geography;
• take courses and improve qualifications which support keeping up-to-date with
developments in geography, geographical education and education more broadly,
to improve and sustain the geography curriculum;
• develop leadership and management skills in geography, taking on the role of

subject leader in geography, whether head of a secondary school geography
department or leader of geography in a primary school;
226 S.CATLUNG
• work within the middle and with senior management teams of the school to
promote interest in and commitment to geographical education , for example
through fieldwork, community activities and local industry links; and
• take opportunities to contribute to the debate about the role of geography in society
and its value in educational policy and practice, locally, regionally or perhaps
nationally, through courses, conferences and publication.
Cameo 3: Phil- a proficient teacher

Phil completed his teaching degree specialising in geography and moved into his first post in a large urban
primary school. The geography co-ordinator in the school acted as his mentor and encouraged his
geography teaching with both his class of 7-8 year olds and her class of 10-11 year olds, to widen his
experience beyond his class teaching. During this time he attended courses on teaching geography and
other subjects in the primary curriculum and joined a group of teachers looking at ways to improve
geography teaching. After 4 years Phil moved to a suburban school to take up subject leadership for
geography, history and information technology. He provided encouragement, resources and ideas to
develop the geography teaching through the school and introduced the use of IT linked to fieldwork. He
has now registered for his masters degree in primary education and is interested in doing research into an
aspect older primary children's geographical understanding.
TAKING UP LEADERSHIP FOR GEOGRAPHY IN SCHOOL
Teachers of geography seek promotion for a variety of personal and professional

reasons (Dunham, 1995). It is rare that there is just one reason. A few can be noted
here:
• to be stimulated by a new direction in work;

to enhance status and salary;
a move to a different place for personal, social, educational or financial reasons;
• to gain a greater sense of achievement;
• to take responsibility and authority;
to engage in a greater challenge than the current role offers; and
to use the outcomes of experience and development to support and develop others.
While financial gain may be a motivator for some teachers, for many the desire for
advancement lies in putting their own ideas about improvement into practice, in having
the opportunity to make an impact on the focus, nature and quality of pupils' learning,
and in taking forward their sense of enjoyment in the teaching they do, trying to engage
and stimulate others through their own vocational motivation. In themselves, these are
also forms of CPD, in which the self-learning arises from desire to motivate others and
the challenge to generate positive developments in geography teaching and learning in a
school.
The move to take up subject leadership in geography involves the active seeking of
promotion either within the school or a move to another school to an appointment in
CAREER-WNG PROFESSIONAL DEVEWPMENT 227
that role. This is a move into middle management. Head teachers and senior managers
will look for particular qualities and attributes in those seeking to lead geography. They
will recognise that the experience of exercising such responsibilities will be lacking, so
they are looking for potential. The sort of expectations they might have of a geography
head of department in a secondary school or a co-ordinator of geography in a primary school
are indicated in Figure 6 (Busher and Harris, 2000; GA, 1999a, 1999b; ITA, 1998).
Subject leadership qualities and skills Examples of tbe expertise to develop
DiscipUnary dimension
• Knowledge and understanding of geography • Keeping up-to-date in developments in geographical debates and
as a discipline, a school subject and its research
purpose, role and relationships within the • Understanding developments in school geography, including
school curriculum where state or nationally set
• Developing a vision for geography within the school and its
curriculum
Subject pedagogie dimension

Knowledge, understanding and skill in Being able to lead the interpretation and planning of either team-
teaching geography agreed or externally set geography requirements into a school
scheme or syllabus
• Using a variety of information about effective teaching, learning
and assessment to advance the teaching of geography in the
school, enabling gains for pupils in their learning and deeper
understanding of geography
Subject management dimension

• Making decisions, planning development • Working with senior school managers and colleagues to reach
and solving problems that arise in decisions that have a benefit for geography
implementing the geography curriculum • Analysing and interpreting internally and externally derived
information, eg from pupil assessment, to enable the development
• Managing and leading colleagues to agreed of'geography teaching
goals for geography in the school • Identifying needs and problems, eg a new fieldwork site, and
looking creatively for ways to resolve them
• Effective interpersonal and communication • Knowing when to guide, support or enable colleagues to lead
skills developments in geography teaching, eg in the use of information
technology
• Gaining commitment of staff to the aims for geography in the
school
• Setting and modelling standards in geography teaching and
achievement by pupils
• Writing clear geography policy documents for staff, governors and
parents
• Keeping colleagues and senior managers informed about
achievements, needs, developments, etc. in geography
Personal dimension
• Self-management skills • Be able to prioritise and manage personal time effectively, eg to
review geography schemes and resources and monitor pupils'
• Valuing oneself and others progress in geography
• Set and achieve personal targets, eg implementing teaching ideas
gained from a course or from reading about geography and its
teaching
• Knowing oneself and one's colleagues strengths and limitations as
teachers of geography
• Respecting the interests, aspirations, needs and qualities in
colleagues as geographers and in pupils as geographical learners.
Figure 6. Developing Geography Subject Leadership Qualities and Skills

228 S.CATLING
These expectations give some pointers to the forms of CPD in which teachers of
geography should participate. At this point in a career CPD is about building on and
taking forward the early professional development illustrated in Figure 4. Suggestions
for continuing professional development are set out in Figure 7. These will become
'rolling' areas of CPD for a secondary school head of a geography department or a
primary school geography leader, because it will always be important to maintain and
develop these qualities and skills throughout a career, through advanced subject
leadership professional development. CPD is as vital and valuable a means to sustain
and retain enthusiasm for geography subject leadership and development, as it is for
teaching in the classroom.
MOVING INTO GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION OUTSIDE SCHOOL
Extending knowledge, skills and quality in geographyteaching and leadership provides

a foundation for movement between schools and/or promotion to other roles in or
beyond geographical education. There are many who have led geography in primary
and secondary schools who have moved on to become deputy headteachers and
headteachers, but this career path usually sets geography to one side, and CPD becomes
school leadership and management focused. While there are limited openings, there are
avenues that can be followed to develop a career that is a vital contributor to the
development geographical education. These include:
• The role of a local, regional or national advisor and/or inspector for geography.
This might involve working to support the teaching of geography in schools in an
educational authority and/or might lead to a national role in geography curriculum
development. This career route will involve organising and leading courses that
support the continuing professional development of teachers of geography.
Alternatively, such a career move can lead into a national role monitoring the
quality and development of geographical education in the school system and
through this approach having an impact on improvements in geography
curriculum, teaching and learning.
Cameo 4: John -an expert teacher
Following his geography degree and teaching qualification, John's first post was in a stimulating and
forward-looking secondary school geography department. This enabled him to gain good experience in
teaching geography across the age ranges and examination classes during 6 years. He moved with a good
reputation as an innovative and enquiry-oriented teacher to a Head of Geography Department role in a
nearby school, where he has led the department for 8 years. During this time, he took courses in a variety
of aspects of geography teaching, curriculum planning, assessment and subject leadership. He began to
contribute to local and regional geography courses and has run workshops at national geography education
conferences. He has now changed the examination syllabus and increased both the examination results
and the number of pupils opting for geography. He completed his masters degree in geographical
education, with a dissertation on motivating learning in geography for 11-14 year olds.
Type of professional development Examples of ways to undertake continuing professional development in

relation to teaching geography
Practitioner development As a teacher of geography advancing one's career:

• observing, evaluating and reflecting on one's own and colleagues'
geography teaching
• engaging colleagues in planning geography teaching
• team-teaching with geography colleagues
• mentoring newly appointed teachers and trainee teachers working for
periods teaching geography
Professional development • completing a postgraduate qualification in geographical education or

geography
• undertaking action research in one's own classroom into aspects of one's
geography teaching
• subscribing to one or more journals and collecting books, etc about
geography and geography teaching
• if possible, making contributions to initial teacher education and continuing
professional development courses
Professional training • contributing to and leading school-based workshops in geography teaching

with colleagues
• attending and contributing to locally or regionally based courses on subject
leadership and other aspects of management as well as on geography
teaching
• attending and, perhaps, sharing experience at national geography education
conferences
Professional support • monitoring and evaluating one's job description as a geography subject
leader in and outside the context of appraisal
• leading the development of the school geography curriculum
• working with other middle and senior management colleagues on aspects of
the school's curriculum provision
• building a network of contacts among geography subject leaders in other
schools and with geography educators in the local authority and university
to share experience and ideas.
Figure 7. Approaches to Continuing Professional Development as a teacher of geography (based on

Blandford, 2000; Bright and Leat, 2000)
• The role of a teacher educator in primary or secondary teacher education in

geography. A different route is into work in initial and continuing teacher
education at university or higher education college level. Here, the career move
could be into a similar structure to that in school, with promotion prospects within
a geography education team or beyond. CPD will be vital to developing and
extending this role. With secondary geography teachers in training there will be
work strongly focused on links with local and regional secondary school
geography departments. For primary trainee teachers work might be with
geography specialists but it is also likely to include stimulating, inducting and
enhancing the understanding of geography of many who have limited, even
negative, experience of geography in school themselves. There may be good
opportunities to make links with a number of primary schools where effective
geography teaching is taking place. Increasingly, the minimum qualification
230 S.CATLING
needed to be considered for a post in higher education is at least masters degree in

a relevant area of education.
• Teaching in a university or higher education college geography subject

department. This is a less usual pathway because of the rising qualifications
demanded of those entering university geography departments to teach and
research. A doctorate in an area of geography is often the minimal requirement to
gain an interview. Again, if appointed, the career path offers possibilities up to
head of department level and beyond. Maintaining academic and professional
development is essential.
In all three careers, personal CPD will be important for the individual to remain closely
in touch with developments in geographical education in schools and within the sector
of work. Many of the professional development needs and requirements are similar to
those needed by teachers in schools. For those involved in advisory and teacher
education work, both attending and contributing to, even running, CPD courses will
keep them in close touch with their counterparts in schools.
Cameo 5: Anna- an expert teacher
Following 16 years teaching in secondary schools, during which time she was Head of a Geography
Department for 6 years, and 4 years as an advisor for geography in her regional authority, Anna moved to
the local university Education Department. During her school, advisory and higher education teaching
career, Anna has maintained CPD in geographical education, attending and contributing to to local,
regional and national courses and conferences. Once she moved into teacher education, she completed her
MA in geographical education. She led the secondary initial teacher education course and taught the
primary school geography specialists. She worked with mentors in secondary school geography
departments to develop her students and with geography subject leaders in primary schools to build her
knowledge in primary geography teaching. She has encouraged primary and secondary geography
specialists to develop their understanding through courses she has provided in the university and for
groups of schools. She has developed a pathway in the education masters degree for geography. She has
begun her PhD researching enquiry-based teaching through secondary sources.
Career opportunities are not limited to these areas of work within geographical
education. Other options include the move into a teaching and leadership in a field
study or environmental education centre and into media and resource development,
including television and publishing. A different direction might be to build a second
carer alongside teaching as an author of materials for use by pupils and by teachers.
Working in these fields will require constant awareness of current and evolving
developments in geography. Continuous professional development will be an essential
aspect of such a career.
Stmcturing Career-long Development in Geographical Education
A career in geographical education must be developed - if it is to make a contribution to

pupils', students' or teachers' learning and achievements - upon the foundations of the
love of geography, the enjoyment of teaching, the fascination with learning about
teaching, and the desire to engage and support to the best of one's ability the learning of
those with whom one is working, pupil or colleague. Novice geography teachers enter
the profession with these aspirations and are set on course by those who teach them.
Initial and early professional development will, to a fair degree, be set by those with
whom novice and advanced beginner teachers interact and to whom they are
responsible.
Increasingly, competent, proficient and expert teachers take responsibility for their own
continuing professional development. The following guidelines (Dunham, 1995) can
act as a basis for taking forward personal professional development in geographical
education. Each teacher should:
be responsible for planning and enabling his or her own career development: for
example, by identifying courses to take about geography teaching, being willing to
accept responsibilities for geographical activities in school, and learning from
colleague teachers of geography;
• reflect thoughtfully on and assess personal experience of geography teaching to

date and identify personal learning needs, which can be set as targets for
professional development: for instance, seek to teach age groups or syllabuses
where experience is lacking, and identify particular geography teaching strategies
or opportunities in which to gain or extend experience, eg., fieldwork leadership or
the use of new developments in information technology in geography teaching;
plan a career path in (or beyond) geographical education and set goals to work
towards along this path: for example, extend relevant qualifications in
geographical education, apply for promotion and offer to contribute to or lead
courses for colleagues and other geography teachers locally; and
• be alert both to ways in which career intentions can be sidetracked, such as into
taking responsibility for community liaison which may take one away from
geography teaching, and to the fact that career opportunities may change, for
example, unexpected appointments may appear in a funded geography project or
no jobs are advertised in geography teacher education. It is important to keep
career plans under consideration.
Figure 8 presents an overview of the approach to professional development outlined

above. It is a summary of points for reflection and consideration in planning the early
and continuing professional development to consolidate and advance a career as a
teacher of geography.
232 S.CATLING
Periods in career and Career Development Examples of career development in geographical

Stages of professional point phase as a edncation
development teacher
Period oftinitiation Initial Teacher • Novice teacher of Initial qualifications in geography and teaching to teach in
Education, geography primary and/or secondary schools
Initial Professional into the 1st Entry to teaching proression as a teacher of geography
Development year of • Advanced beginoer Satisfactory completion of first year as a teacher of
[IPD] teaching teacher of geography
geography Initial support in proressional practice development in
school
Initial attendance at geography education coorses
Period of Como/illation Years 112 to • Advanced beginner • Further support in proressional practice development in
Years 5/10 of teacher of school
teaching geography Consolidating experience as a teacher of geography
Early Prnressional career Developing attendance at coorses in geographical
Development • Competent teacher education
[EPD] of geography Discussion of next StePS as a teacher of geography, eg
extension of roles in schoo~ move to another school/field
• Prnficient teacher centre/etc to expand teaching experience
of geography Consideration of next qualification as a teacher of
geography
Period of Advancement and Years 5 +to • Prnficient teacher Continue professional development as a teacher of
Development end of of geography geography:
teaching a) developing advanced skills as a geography teacher
career • Expert teacher of b) developing particular support and development skills,
Continuing Professional geography such as mentoring in geography teaching
Development Gaio further qualification as a teacher of geography
[CPD] Involvement with local/regional/national geography
education coorses: attending and contributing to
• Periodically (eg every 3-5 years) consider decisions on next
steps in geographical education, such as:
a) Continue as a class teacher of geography
b) extend roles as a teacher of geography in schoo~ eg as a
subject leader/HoOD
c) move into a related area of work in geographical
education, eg lo an advisory or inspection role in
geographical education, into geography teacher education,
or move into more general school management
d) develop career as an author of geography education
resources, etc
Extend and enhance professional development through
coorses, eg in advanced subject leadership in geography
Figure 8. Life-long Professional Development in Geographical Education
While individual teachers may have aspirations for their teaching career, this is rarely
thought about deeply in the period of initial professional development. Nonetheless, in
order to take and retain control of both early and continuing professional development
in geographical education, it is important to develop a sense of direction for a career.
Every three to five years it is vital to take stock of what has been achieved and will be
moved onto next. This should build on annual or biennial appraisals and reviews with
senior managers. Career possibilities and related professional development should
always be kept under review. It is important to be flexible in outlook and to look at,
consider and, if appropriate, act on opportunities.
Opportunities and activities in professional development will require the balancing

across time of personal interests, professional needs and resource availability. It will
inevitably be a matter of identifying and working within priorities. Nonetheless, the
following questions can be used when making decisions about continuing professional
development in geography. These questions can be used to focus on current interests
and benefits as well as for future needs (Fisher, 1998).
• What would I enjoy and what would be challenging and engaging to undertake as
professional development in geography education next?
• Which aspects of my current work as a geography educator do I need to improve?
• Which aspects of the geography provision in our school, or department, would

benefit from improvement?
• How do I continue to improve my knowledge and skills as a geography educator?
• Have I balanced my interests and priorities in my action plan to enable a

reasonable approach to my professional development in geographical education?
Conclusion
Professional development is fundamental to an enjoyable, effective and advancing

career. It begins with initiation into the profession, requires early sustenance and needs
the support of continuous infusions and stimulation. Opportunities and decisions about
professional development will be matters for both the individual and the school being
taught in at the time. It is important to have a sense of direction, if not a highly
structured career path, in order to search out and select support, courses and further
qualifications at appropriate times. It requires commitment and giving priority to
personal and professional development both consistently and in depth at key moments.
The approach to teaching as a reflective practitioner of geography (Kent, 2000; Lambert

and Balderstone, 2000) involves an interest in professional development which is
founded on a concern to improve and develop teaching to facilitate pupils' learning and
achievements in geography. The values of open-mindedness, responsibility and
wholeheartedness which lie at the heart of reflective practice (Elliott, 1991; Pollard,
1997) are fundamental to high quality geography teaching, to well-founded pupils'
learning, to effective decision-making about personal professional development, and to
making a worthwhile contribution to the life of a school and its community. They
involve a positive sense of oneself as a learner, commitment to what one has set out to
do, an ability to prioritise, flexibility in approach, an understanding and acceptance of
professional responsibilities, the determination to see worthwhile tasks through,
willingness to work with and for others, and a capacity for empathy. These values also
imply a spirit of enquiry, an awareness of fallibility and a sense of modesty. In many
senses these are the qualities of the expert geography teacher and the expert geography
education subject leader, school inspector and teacher educator, who sees their career
development and professional learning always as the starting point for the next part of
the journey. The development of a professional career in geographical education should
234 S.CATLING
always be constructed around the interest in, commitment to and informed decisions
about current and future personal and professional development.
References
Banks, F., Mayes, A., Oaks; M. and Sutton D. (2001) Teacher early professional development: the context, in
F. Banks and A. Mayes (eds.), Early Professional Development for Teachers, London: David Fulton
Publishers.
Berliner, D. (2001) Teacher expertise, in F. Banks and A. Mayes (eds.), Early Professional Development for
Teachers, London: David Fulton Publishers.
Blandford, S. (2000) Managing Professional Development in Schools, London: Routledge.
Bright, N. and Leat, D. (2000) Towards a new professionalism, in A. Kent (ed.), Reflective Practice in
Geography Teaching London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Burgess, H. (200l)Working with others to develop professional practice, in F. Banks and A. Mayes (eds.),
Early Professional Development for Teachers, London: David Fulton Publishers.
Busher, H. and Harris, A. (2000) Subject Leadership and School Improvement, London: Paul Chapman
Publishing.
Catling, S. (ed.) (2000) The importance of classroom research in primary geography, in R. Bowles (ed.)
Raising Achievement in Geography, Occasional Paper No. 1, Register of Research in primary Geography,
London.
Dunham, J. (1995) Developing Effective School Management, London: Routledge.
Elliott, J. (1991) A model of professionalism and its implications for teacher education, British Educational
Research Joumall7, 310-314.
Fisher, T. (1998) Developing as a Teacher of Geography, Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing.
Geographical Association (1999a) Leading Geography: National standards for geography teachers in
secondary schools, Geographical Association, Sheffield.
Geographical Association (1999b) Leading Geography: National standards for geography teachers in
primary schools, Geographical Association, Sheffield.
Kent, A. (ed.) (2000), Reflective Practice in Geography Teaching, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Lambert, D. and Baldestone, D. (2000) Learning to Teach Geography in the Secondary School, London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Pollard, A. (1997) Reflective Teaching in the Primary School, London: Cassell.
TTA (1998) National Standards for Subject Leaders, Teacher Training Agency, London.
TTA (2001) Standards for the Award of Qualified Teacher Status and Requirements for the Provision of
Initial Teacher Training: consultation document, London: Teacher Training Agency.
Williams, M. (1996) Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research,
London: Cassell.
16. ALLIANCES, NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS IN
GEOGRAPIDC EDUCATION
DAVID LANEGRAN
During the past fifteen years several changes in the structure of geographic education have
occurred in various parts of the world. Along with the infusion of technology, and increased
emphasis on the trends toward globalization of national economies and culture, geography
educators have shown a tendency to restructure they way they create and deliver the
geographic curriculum. One of the more interesting trends has involved the breaking down
the rigid boundaries of the craft of geographic education and seeking new relationships
within and outside of the academic community. These new relationships are called by
various names but in general we can think of them as networks, partnerships and alliances.
All entail teachers working outside the confmes of the local education authority and
traditional membership organizations for teachers.
There is not space in this essay to do a truly international survey of what is happening and
so several case studies of the types of relationships will be presented. This set is not
intended to be comprehensive. For purposes of this essay, the concept of a network will be
taken to mean a loose non-membership organization of individuals that enables teachers to
communicate about issues of mutual concern. Individuals may or may not be connected
electronically. Partnerships are taken to be more formal, some times contractual,
relationships between organizations, and are entered into to accomplish a particular goal.
Alliances are long term associations of organizations and individuals for the
accomplishment of general goals. Specific objectives generally change over time. These
organizations are differentiated from membership organizations such as teacher associations
which that involve a formal membership protocol. Membership organization may enter into
partnerships and alliances, however.
The nature of networks, partnerships and alliances vary in ways that reflects cultural
differences and the variations in the size of governments and their ministries of education.
There seems to be a great difference between the United States and the rest of the world. In
the United States the private, for profit sector has entered into a series of partnerships and
alliances that differ from those found elsewhere. Because limitations on government funds
may result in educational establishments outside of North America emulating in some
235
R. Gerber ( ed)International Handbook on Geographical Education 235-244.
236 D.LANEGRAN
degree the public-private partnerships of the United States I will describe this situation in
more detail than the other examples.
Alliances and Partnerships Outside of North America
The concept of partnership was not invented in the United States. In countries with well
developed geography curriculum and teacher organizations such as the United Kingdom,
Australia, South Korea, Singapore, Russia, and Japan a variety of partnerships exist.
However, where the education system is highly governed by a Ministry of Education there
are not many opportunities of special partnerships or cooperative ventures by small groups
of teachers. It was said that in the Soviet Union that the Ministry of Education knew what
was being studied on any given day throughout the country because every student was
expected to learn the same thing at the same time· (Kondakov, 2000). The Ministry
commissioned, published and distributed the textbooks and there was little if any variation
among the books. In contemporary Russia, however, teachers and university faculty are
experimenting with partnerships and alliances. For example, in November of 1999 the
faculty of the Moscow Pedagogic University began holding meetings with geography
teachers throughout the metropolitan region to discuss what should be in the new
curriculums. The Ministry was still interested in the curriculum but is now more concerned
with the process of education rather than controlling the details of the content. As a result,
groups of teachers are networking in new ways to develop lessons and curriculum, and an
interesting private newspaper for teachers was created. Named "First Tuesday" for the day
in September when classes traditionally started, the newspaper has slowly been expanding
its circulation and coverage. This paper, published twice a week carries news and relevant
material for teachers in all subjects. Every month there are supplements for each discipline.
This publication represents a dramatic change from the former ministry dominated structure.
The new public - private partnership seems to be thriving and producing material of great
value for teachers. However, alliances have not yet emerged.
The Korean Ministry of Education also would like to maintain a national curriculum.
Universities may seek Ministerial grants to offer summer in-service program. All teachers
are required to take these classes for continued certification and so an intensive system of
Summer Institutes has developed. For example, in the Seoul Metropolitan Area, the
Department of Education of the City of Seoul offers institutes through local universities. In
addition, the Department of Geographic Education in Seoul National University offers a
series of courses for teachers from other parts of the Metro Region. Similar summer
programs exist throughout the country. Although change is underway neither a sense of
partnership or school-university alliances have emerged (Ryu, 2000).
The situation is somewhat different in Japan where alliances have developed in the context
of a strong National Ministry of Education. Professor and Dean Hiroshi Nakayama of
Hiroshima University has developed an alliance based on the National Geographic Society
Model. Nakayama is a professor of geography and global education with strong ties to the
ALLIANCES, NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 237
United States. He translated the Guidelines for Geographic Education into Japanese and
partnered with the ARGUS and ARGWORLD curriculum projects of the Association of
American Geographers. He has worked hard with local teachers and encourages them to
become active in the Geographic Education Commission of the IGU. Thus, he has
transferred the notion of equality and respect for all members of an Alliance. However, the
Hiroshima Alliance is based on one university, and the concept has diffused very slowly to
the rest of Japan.
The model for many countries has been the very successful Geographical Association of the
United Kingdom. This organization works closely with the National government, local
school authorities, colleges and universities. Within the context of the professional
connections formed by members of the Geographical Association, a range of highly focused
projects have emerged. Once again the strong governmental role has reduced the need to
form new networks or alliances.
In nations that were strongly influenced by the United Kingdom, such as Singapore and
Australia, similar organizations exist. In Singapore, geographic education is directed by the
Ministry of Education. There is a Teachers Association, patterned it seems, after the
Geographical Association of the United Kingdom. Because of the strong governmental
structure there have been no efforts to create new sorts of partnerships. There also seems
little movement toward partnerships within Southeast Asia.
Australia also has teacher organizations that function on the membership model of the
Geographical Association. However, there are also strong organizations in each state. Each
organization maintains an extensive web site that offer a wide range of services. Some have
discussion boards, others post electronic newsletters. All offer professional development
programs. The presence of such strong membership organizations seems to have precluded
the need for alliances.
In Canada, education is largely under the control of the provinces. As a result there are
variations in the curriculum over the country and a set of provincial geography teacher
organizations. In the last two years there has been a move to form a national alliance of
geography teacher organizations. There is also a Canadian geography education alliance.
France provides us with the most fantastic example of partnerships in the world, the Festival
International de Geographie de Saint-Die-des-Vosges. To call this extraordinary gathering
of geographers, citizens, publishers, government employees and students a partnership
seems to a great understatement, but a partnership it is. There is nothing like this elsewhere.
It truly is La plus grande fete mondiale de Ia geographie.
Networking geography teachers in Europe is proceeding at two levels. One is at the

organizational level, the other reaches out to individual teachers and schools. At least 16
national Geographical Associations in Europe sent delegates to ftrst conference of the new
organization EUROGEO held in Liverpool in September 2001. The new organization seeks
238 D.LANEGRAN
to create a network of Geography Teacher Associations across Europe and is presently

seeking funding to enable this to take place. EUROGEO may develop partnerships with the
private sector as it seeks funding to carry out its initiatives (Donnet, 2001).
In addition to the geography associations other more inclusive alliance/networking

organizations have begun in Europe. European School Net is a multi national effort
supported by the European Union and some national ministries of education. ENU is
headquartered in Brussels and operates a large website
(http:///www.eun.org/eun.org2/eun/enlindex.html), promotes schools collaboration activities
and plans open computer architecture and technical developments for schools networks. An
important example of a European public-private partnership was the joining of Cisco
Systems with The ENU to support eSchola week in the spring of 2001. ENU also supports
myEUROPE a web-based project and schools network aimed at teachers who want to raise
awareness of European issues, among pupils and colleagues. myEUROPE is first and
foremost a network of teachers and schools who share innovative methods for teaching
about Europe, set up European collaborative projects and integrate the European dimension
to daily life by taking part in a broad range of teaching activities. The website is a wealth of
educational projects, activities and resources. As yet there is little formal geography in
these web based networks and alliances, but there is great potential here for European
geographers.
The Private and Public Partnerships of the United States
Over the past quarter century a range of partnerships/alliances were formed in the United
States to prevent geography from disappearing as a school subject and to facilitate the flow
of information from the research sectors of the discipline to the teachers in elementary and
secondary schools. In order to understand the potential of this type of teacher organization
it is necessary to place them in an institutional context.
In the United States and Canada common parlance identifies the schools supported by the
public or private organizations as formal education while all other forms of education are
called informal. There are a myriad of educational enterprises and educational
constituencies. While some strive to relay the broad constructs of cultures, others are
extremely specialized and support activities that contr~ict general cultural values. This
plethora of viewpoints and vested interests have produced a bewildering array of
organizations that have some involvement in education.
The Need for Alliances in Geographic Education
In the United States, university faculty belong to organizations centered on a research/

teaching of geography or one of its sub field. On the other hand K-12 teachers typically
belong to organizations based on pedagogy or unions that are concerned with workplace
issues and compensation. As a result there has been little communication between the two
groups of geography educators. However, the need for better communication has long been
recognized.
In 1914, a few decades after the discipline was incorporated into American school and
college curricula, Dr. George Miller wrote in a letter to the editor of the Journal of
Geography: We have no association devoted to the educational phase of our science and at
most educational meetings, Geography discussions are therefore little more than side issues.
Is there not need of a National Association of Geography Teachers to encourage the
expansion of the science in our schools, to better what is now taught, and to unify ideals
among teachers (Lanegran, 1998:3).
The efforts of Professor Miller and others led to the creation of the National Council for
Geographic Education (NCGE), a membership based organization that has brought together
geographic educators at annual meetings and publishes a journal with a focus on educational
issues. Unfortunately, this organization has attracted a small fraction of the individuals
engaged in geographic education despite its very modest annual dues. Because no large and
inclusive professional membership organization for geography teachers exists it was
necessary to create other sorts of alliances and partnerships to break down the barriers
among sectors of the geographic education enterprise.
Because there is not a powerful Ministry of Education in the Unites States, leaders of
education policy must direct change by establishing special funding programs. In response
to awareness of the need for greater communication among academics and K-12 teachers
the National Science Foundation in 1984 issued a request for proposals for Summer
Institutes that would produce networks of teachers and faculty. The NSF guidelines were
not prescriptive and in retrospect were naive. It was expected that a network could be
created during one year and that the network would somehow become self sustaining. None
of the NSF networks were able to survive without government support. Fortunately another
institution was about to become fully engaged in the establishment of networks - the
National Geographic Society(NGS).
Linking Formal and Informal Educational Organizations: The Alliances of sponsored

by the National Geographic Society
The greatest change in the development of networks occurred when the National
Geographic Society (NGS) developed the alliance movement. By the mid 1980s, the
Society and more particularly its President Gil Grosvenor determined that they would be a
catalysts for change in geographic education. In June 1995, Grosvenor wrote that he was
"angry and embarrassed and determined" about the level of geographic literacy in the
American population (p.510). His determination and the power of the National Geographic
Society, however, were not sufficient in themselves to make significant change in the
complicated system of geographic education, however. The Society needed partners.
240 D.LANEGRAN
The first important partnership was the Geographic Education National Implementation
Project (GENIP). This Committee has representatives from the Association of American
Geographers, The National Council for Geographic Education, and the American
Geographic Society, and the NGS. The first action of this group was to publish with
funding from NGS, a map that illustrated the five fundamental themes of Geography
developed in the publication Guidelines for Geographic Education. Millions of copies of
the map were published and distributed free to teachers across the United States.
The second step occurred when the leadership of NGS developed a partnership with
Professor Kit Salter (1999) of the University of California Los Angeles who had created a
collaboration with local teachers. The UCLA model was taken up NGS and promoted
throughout the United States. According to the NGS (1990:17):
A geographic alliance is a university-based, grass-roots organization that brings

together the content expertise of academic geographers and the experience of
classroom teachers to improve geography instruction. Alliances are energy
centers that initiate local and statewide activities aimed at establishing and
maintaining interest in geography.
NGS invited Professor Salter to join the organization and organize a four-week summer
institute in Washington for teachers from the state alliances. These institutes were
significantly different from others because they included sessions on the development of
leadership and communication skills.
NOS's global vision led the leadership of the geography education program within NGS to
launch a plan to create an alliance in each of the fifty states, The District of Columbia ,
Puerto Rico, and Canada. The geography alliances were different from other organizations,
professional or academic in the United States. Funded by a grant from NGS they became a
grass-roots arm in the geography reform movement. Teachers and university faculty
combined their efforts in a cooperative adventure to enhance education within the local
areas. The state alliances were expected to provide teachers in their area with summer
institutes, workshops, newsletters, and to promote the involvement of teachers in the
discussion over the place of geography in the state and local school districts' curriculums.
The state alliances have programs that resemble those of the Geography Teacher
Organizations of Australia , the United Kingdom and elsewhere.
The alliances working with NGS elevated geographic education to the top of all school
reform agendas in the US and Canada. In 1994, the Geography for Life standards were
published and the existing network of alliances implemented all, or major parts of these
standards in most state curriculums.
ALUANCES, NETWORKS AND PARTNERSHIPS 241
Increased Role of Private Sector in Geographic Education
The greatest departure from earlier partnerships came when the Society forged a number of
working relationships with corporate America that were unprecedented in American
geographic education. The Society also expected the state alliances to seek private sector
support and involve all elements of their community.
This may be the most significant aspect of the alliance movement; teachers had come
together in various combinations all through the 20th century, yet the geographic education
continued to wane. When the Society a non-profit corporation and non-formal educational
organization showed the way to a new kind of collaboration in geographic education,
interest in geographic education increased dramatically, and the reform began.
In 2000, the Society reiterated its interest in the alliances, but announced a new policy of
opening the grant process to all educational organizations that were interested in
environmental issues and geographic education. It is too soon to know if the state alliances
can be self sufficient. Approximately twenty have endowments that were created with the
generous help of Society. These endowments are managed by the National Geography
Society Education Foundation and return a basic operational budget to the alliances. Only a
handful of alliances charge fees.
The size of the alliance movement is truly amazing. Many of the alliances have
membership lists in the range of two to four thousand. In 1998, it was estimated that
somewhere around 150,000 teachers were members of the 54 alliances. This membership
count is approximate because most states do not require membership dues. Nonetheless, if
we compare the 150,000 interested in geographic education and claiming alliance
membership with the 3,000 members, of the National Council for Geographic Education,
the magnitude of the alliance movement is clearly visible. If this huge number of teachers
became active and directly engaged in improving geographic education instead of passive
recipients of materials and opportunities from the NGS, the nature of geographic education
in North America could truly be revolutionized
What Alliances Actually Do: The Minnesota Alliance for Geographic Education
The Minnesota Alliance for Geographic Education (MAGE) was formed in 1987 by the
Geography Department at Macalester College (Lanegran, 2001). In 1999, the State of
Minnesota and the National Geographic Society created a one million dollar endowment
fund to support some of the Alliance's programs.
Like all the NGS state alliances, MAGE has focused energy and programs in four areas,
professional development, public awareness and support for geographic education,
curriculum development and special assessment programs. Approximately 1500 teachers
have attended MAGE institutes and workshops during the last decade and one half. In order
242 D.LANEGRAN
to continue to offer a range of interesting and valuable programs it was necessary for
MAGE to create a series of partnerships with organizations such as the State of Minnesota
Departments of Children Families and Learning , Agriculture and Aeronautics; with local
school districts, the Minnesota Viking Football Organization, the Minnesota Humanities
Commission, other teacher organizations. In addition, several corporations donated funds to
our programs. MAGE also collaborated with Moscow State Pedagogical University to offer
two summer teacher institutes in Russia.
In 1991 MAGE received a major grant from the Fund for the Improvement of Post
Secondary Education to produce an integrated K-14 curriculum. This project- GeoLinks is
now located on the MAGE web site and consists of 1100 lessons. MAGE played an integral
role in developing and assessing of the Minnesota Graduation Standards. Assessment now
occurs at several grade levels and geography is required at grades four, six and eight and is
optional for grade twelve.
A primary mission of MAGE is to provide support, resources, and professional development

opportunities for geography teachers. To accomplish this, we publish a newsletter, The
Geography Connection, and post it on our website The MAGE web site and emaillistserv
will become more important in the future. The experience of the Minnesota Alliance is
representative of the larger alliances in the United States. The sagas of the state alliances
have been recorded in a series of articles in the Newsletter of the Association of American
Geographers.
Factors Promoting Networks and Partnerships
The experiences of the Alliances and partnerships created under the auspice of the National
Geographic Society demonstrates significant education reform can occur once we change
the cost-benefit ratio that keeps cross grade and cross sector networks of teachers from
forming. However, the experience of the United States indicates that a crisis must exist
before people and organizations are prompted to change that cost-benefit ratio.
There are powerful forces working to isolate teachers and research geographers from each
other. Incentives for working together must be created. It is hard to envision the success of
organizations like the NGS Alliances without a source of funding. The availability of funds
made it possible to create the summer institutes that not only provided content to interested
teachers but provided illl opportunity and structure for group development.
Funding of professional development programs for K-12 teachers, or museum outreach

programs or curriculum development projects will not produce effective alliances, however.
In order for an alliance to be developed the members must have some sense of equality.
Teachers must play a major role in the determination of alliance activities, and group
building programs that exalt teachers must be a feature of all activities. In addition,
members of major informal educational institutions must be involved.
One of the essential elements of closely knit teacher alliances in geography and other
subjects is effective communication. Hierarchically structured mass media outlets such as
television, journals and books do not promote the necessary continuous interpersonal
communication. Newsletters of various organization were the first attempt to break away
from the formal journal based communication patterns. These have been very effective
when a variety of teachers contribute articles and a range of opinions is expressed. But not
all teachers are interested in writing for newsletters. The advent of digital communication
was thought to be a solution to lack of communication among teachers. However, bulletin
boards and listservs are surprisingly quiet. In the same measure the web technology now
enables communication in a variety of forms, and vast amounts of material are now
available to teachers with web access. While this technology and projects have the potential
to free teachers from textbooks and other mass produced curriculum material it is hard to
judge the impact of technology on interpersonal communication. It is also hard gauge the
impact of the technology on alliance formation and the recruitment of new members.
Organized partnerships, alliances and networks are not the same as teacher membership
organizations. Alliances emerge and have greatest impact when the need for saving
geography as a school subject becomes critical. They are developed in situations where the
geography educators do not wield sufficient power on their own to protect the discipline.
Conclusion
The patterns of networks, partnerships and alliances in geographic education that are
emerging around the world have several common features. Most have developed in
response to some external stimulus, either a calls for reform, changing political settings, or a
need to save geography in schools. The rise of the World Wide Web and digital
communication in general has reduced the cost of interpersonal communicating and made
communication less hierarchical. There seems to be some potential for continental alliances
to form. While the future of the NGS Alliance system in the Unites States is not clear, the
initiatives in Europe hold great promise. There are also indications that a Eurasian Russian
language based alliance may develop through newly forged public and private partnerships.
Alliances involving Korean, Chinese and Japanese geography educators seem to be unlikely
in the near future, however. No matter what the actually number and ranges of partnerships
that eventually develop the last few years have shown that alliances and public-private
partnerships have great potential for the enhancement of geographic education.
References
Donnet, K. (2001) Personal communication.

Grosvenor, G. (1995) In sight of the tunnel: the Renaissance of Geography Education, Annals of the Association of
American Geographers, 85(1), 409-420.
244 D.LANEGRAN
Kondakov, A. (2000) Tacis Project White Book: The Development of Education in the Russian Federation.
Moscow: Ministry of Education.
Lanegran, D. (1998) Standing on the shoulders of giants: George J. Miller and the Future of Geographic Education,
NCGE Perspective, 26(5):3.
Lanegran. D. (2001) News from Geographic Alliances -The Minnesota Alliance for Geographic Education, AAG
Newsletter, August.
Salter, K. (1999) A reflection on the Geographic Alliance Phenomenon, AAG Newsletter, 34, 33.
National Geographic Society (1990) The National Geographic Society Education Program 5 Year Report.
Washington D.C.
17. A QUESTION OF STANDARDS IN GEOGRAPHICAL
EDUCATION
PHILLIP STIMPSON
Standards, standards-based curricula and standards-based assessment have become

buzzwords in the late-20th and early 21st centuries. Who in geography and in education in
general, for that matter, could be against such a move that implies quality (where perhaps
before it was lacking)? Standards are, rather like apple-pie and motherhood, something that
have inherent goodness, desirability and self-appeal cannot be brought into question. It has
thus become a focus and a direction in geography being taken or explored in a number of
educational systems including, for example, in North America, Australia and the UK (see
Naish, 2001 and his review of contemporary trends in geography curricula). However,
standards are also political and herein lies a dilemma. The central argument in this chapter
follows the views expressed by Michael Fielding (2001) that there are indeed benefits to be
gained though the adoption of a standards based approach but that there are, as with so
many innovations, also challenges to be met and risks to be run if issues are ignored and
uncritical implementation takes place. Innovation demands scepticism. Most good ideas
also contain unwanted side effects (Rowntree, 1977). Questions of side effects need to be
recognised at the outset.
The chapter addresses three questions with respect to standards-based curricula and
assessment in school geography, namely: (i) What is it? (ii) Why use it? (iii) How to defme
standards and whose task should this be? The perspective is not empirical in essence; it is
philosophical encouraging critical exploration of meanings and underlying assumptions.
Above all, it seeks to open up rather than close down discussion on the question of
standards. This issue needs to be seen as problematic.
What are standards-based curricula and assessment?
It is the USA that can probably claim to have led the way. Bettis (1997) notes efforts by
various commercial organisations, professional geography societies and government
agencies in the USA to develop standardised tests in geography implying either directly or
indirectly a statement of the nature school geography should be. However, by the late 1970s
and 1980s the concept of standards based geography using a wide variety of nomenclatures
was visible. As well as efforts in the USA by geographic educators since 1989 and the
245
246 P.STIMPSON
frontier work of the Geography Education Standards Project (GSEP, 1994), work also
carried on apace elsewhere. In the UK, for example, implicit standards, although not
expressed as such, were apparent in early projects such as Geography for the Young School
Leaver (GYSL, 1974, 1981), where key ideas were set out as objectives (rather than
standards). Explicit standards in the National Curriculum for geography in England (DES,
1991) followed. In New South Wales in Australia, there was a similar initiative. The broad
nature of these standards is illustrated in Figure 1 using the example of contemporary
geography standards from the USA. These focus expected understanding on qualities with
respect to six dimensions that young people should be expected to reach to be considered
geographically literate.
What is perhaps surprising, however, is the paucity of critical discussion in the geographical
literature on the conceptual nature of standards and what is implied. Standards, standards-
based curricula and standards-based assessment are conceptual terms. They are codes for a
range of meanings that have evolved in education over recent years and no one set of
definitions is agreed. This contributes to somewhat of a sense of confusion. On the other
hand, it is just this ambiguity and problematic nature that if addressed and harnessed
creatively and critically can carry geographical education forward.
The concept of standards goes beyond everyday notions of a prescribed quality, a criterion,
a degree of excellence or a quality to which pupils should aspire in geography. Usage in
educational circles has led it to taking on a technical meaning situated in a particular style of
education and learning and in a socio political framework of achievement. One might also,
in an analogous way, see standards in geography within the military context of the standard
as a rallying point for the populous but more of that later. Such technical views might be
seen as controversial with negative side-effects and the vernacular notion be seen to have
value or even more relevance than the technical. However, in the technocratic
organisational climate in which most of us now operate, it is the former, the technical, that
generally holds sway, or threatens to hold sway, despite deficiencies, as some would see it.
As a starting point, standards in geography can be thought of as clearly stated expected

outcomes or benchmarks that allow learners and third parties in particular to make
statements of student learning and achievement. Standards based geography curricula are
therefore those curricula with their assessment dimension that above all emphasise
outcomes. Outcomes express the observable criteria in terms of particular actions or
capabilities that are the results of attempts to achieve those standards. Thus, loosely
adapting a general educational definition from Alison Wolf, it is possible to defme
standards-based curricula and assessment in geography as
A form of geography curriculum with its assessment dimension that is derived from
the specification of a set of expected outcomes (which reflect standards) that so
clearly state those outcomes -general and specific- that teachers, assessors,
students and interested third parties can all make reasonably informed and
A QUESTION OF STANDARDS 247
objective judgements with respect to student geographical achievement (or non-

achievement) in whatever educational setting the student is involved.
(Adapted from Wolf, 2995, p.l.)
GEOGRAPHY FOR LIFE

The National Geography Standards
THE WORLD IN SPATIAL TERMS
1. How to use maps and other geographic presentations, tools and technologies to acquire,
process and report information from a spatial perspective
2. How to use mental maps to organise information about people, places and environments
in a spatial context
3. How to analyse the spatial organisation of people, places and environments on Earth's
surface
II. PLACES AND REGIONS
4. Physical and human characteristics of places

5. People create regions to interpret Earth's complexity
6. How culture and experience influence people's perceptions of places and regions
ill. PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
7. Physical processes that shape the patterns of the Earth's surface

8. Characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems on Earth's surface
IV. HUMAN SYSTEMS
9. Characteristics, distribution and migration of human populations on earth's surface

10. Characteristics, distribution and complexity of Earth's cultural mosaics
11. Patterns and networks of economic interdependence on Earth's surface
12. Processes, patterns and functions of human settlement
13. How the forces of co-operation and conflict amongst people influence the division and
control of Earth's surface
V. ENVIRONMENTANDSOClliTY
14. How human actions modify the environment

15. How physical systems affect human systems
16. Changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution and importance of resources
VI. THE USES OF GEOGRAPHY
17. How to apply geography to interpret the past

18. How to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future
Source: Geographic Education National Implementation Project brochure
Figure 1. The National Geography Standards, USA

248 P.STIMPSON
Wolf's original definition was in its turn borrowed from Grant et al. (1975) and used to set
out the meaning of competency based assessment but because of the close linkage to the
standards movement it offers a useful starting point. Competency based education and
assessment are often linked with vocational contexts and highly specific performance-
oriented outcomes whereas standards are associated with mainstream education and a
broader range of outcomes. As such, however, curricula and assessments based on targets,
standards, competency, performance and targets are variants and dimensions within a wider
collective expressed as a contemporary formulation in the broad church of objectives based
curricula and criterion referencing. Some, such as DES (1990), but not DES (1995), see
standards or targets defined a narrow sense, others, such as the U.S. National Geography
Standards, in a broader way. What ever, the meanings implicit in the definition of
standards-based curricula and assessment incorporate:
• An emphasis on outcomes that define what is understood often in the form of levels or
benchmarks and provide valid and reliable evidence of geographical achievement.
They provide statements of what it means to have reached an "acceptable level" of
geographical literacy. In this sense, standards can probably be seen as largely
descriptive.
• A focus on learning outcomes in geography that are stated in ways that render them
transparent to all stakeholders. In this sense, standards are largely descriptive.
• The decoupling of defming geographical outcomes, and hence assessment, from

particular courses or institutions or examinations authorities and in so doing creating
"universal" criteria. In this sense, standards are prescriptive.
Distinctions between descriptive uses and prescriptive uses create tensions that need to be
addressed. Further, what is meant by "acceptable" and "universal" is open to question and
these points will be returned to later.
Examples within geographical education vary considerably in the ways that standards are
expressed. Some, such as in the U.K. National Curriculum, seek an holistic descriptive
definition of the level geographical literacy reached by young people. Thus, for example,
young people at level three (the lowest level expected of a 14115 year old) in an eight level
scheme would be able to:
... describe and make comparisons between the physical and human features of
different localities. They offer explanations for the locations of some of those
features. They show an awareness that different places may have both similarand
different characteristics. They offer reasons for some of their observations and
judgements about places. They use skills and sources of evidence to respond to a
range of geographical questions (DES, 1995, p. 18).
On the other hand, a boy or girl at level eight (the standard reached by very able minority of
14/15 year olds) would have demonstrated the ability to:
... show their knowledge, understanding and skills in relation to a wide range of
places and themes, at various scales. They offer explanations for interactions
within and between physical and human processes. They explain changes over
time in the characteristics of places. They begin to account for disparities in
development and show some understanding of the range and complexity offactors
that contribute to the quality of life in different places. Pupils recognise the causes
and consequences of environmental issues and show understanding of different
approaches to tackling them. They understand and apply the concept of
sustainable development. Drawing on their knowledge and understanding, pupils
show independence in identifying appropriate geographical questions and
implementing and effective sequence of investigation. They select and use
effectively and accurately a wide range of skills from the Key Stage 3 programme
of study, and evidence, to reach substantiated conclusions (DES, 1995, p. 19).
These broad statements are amplified and specified in programmes of work.
In other countries, educational systems are reductionist focusing, as did the National
Curriculum for England and Wales initially, on individual aspects. The State of Oregon's
interpretation of the US standards is of this type (Figure 2) with quite specific standards to
be addressed and very specific statements of what is expected at each level expressed at
each benchmark.
The South Australian use of standards (Figure 3) demonstrates another reductionist

approach but standards statements are broader than those used in Oregon with specificity
achieved through an extended statement of the sorts of evidence that might be used in
accepting that a young person has reached a particular standard.
Why use standards-based curricula and assessment?
Geography teachers seek improved levels of geographical literacy; after all, for what other
reason are they engaged in this endeavour in the long run. The standards movement, one
can argue, represents a politico-administrative move in the face of perceived weaknesses in
the learning of young people and in particular that of schoolleavers entering the job market
and, by implication, in the competence of their teachers. Geography teachers have either
seized the opportunity to use this movement as a mechanism to respond to concerns over
low levels of geographical knowledge portrayed in surveys reported in the popular press or
have highjacked it for other purposes or have seen no other course of action but to comply
with standards set by governmental agencies. Standards give a credibility to young people's
learning by making it clear to society what young people have achieved. For example,
250 P.STIMPSON
society might be assured that young people have awareness and understanding of the
economic and environmental challenges faced by their country and what needs to be done or
why new developments are taking place in one location rather than another. Standards also
give credibility and legitimacy to the work of geography teachers and teachers' professional
standing. Standards are a basis for accountability whether at the level of the national or
regional education system, the school geography department or the individual geography
teacher. They can be a means to realise our expectations of what young people can do in
geography in a climate under-expectation and self-fulfilled under-achievement in some
quarters. They can act as an insurance for students against incompetent and wildly
innovative teachers. Through the degree to which our students achieve success, they open
up methods of teaching to external scrutiny in ways that are readily understood by society.
If one is needed, standards can act as a wake up call. They can act as a catalyst for
curriculum development in geography.
Geography: Understand and use geographic skills and concepts to interpret contemporary
and historical issues.
Common Content Benchmark I Benchmark II Benchmark III CIM

Curriculum Standards Grade3 GradeS GradeS (Assessment)
Goals
Understand the Understand View and draw Define basic Understand Understand and
spatial concepts and use spatial simple maps geography fundamental use geographic
oflocation, concepts of and pictures to vocabulary such geography information using
distance, geography. locate, describe as concepts of vocabulary such a variety of
direction, scale, and show location, as concepts of scales, patterns of
movement and movement direction, distance, latitode, distribution and
region among places. distance, scale, longitode, arrangement.
movement, and interdependence,
region using accessibility and
appropriate connections.
words and
diagrams
Eligible Content: Eligible content: Eligible Content:
Know and use Use maps, charts Understand the

basic map and graphs to advantages and
elements to understand disadvantages of
answer patterns of using various
geographic movement over geographic
questions or time and space. representations
display to depict and
geographic solve geographic
information. problems.
Source: State of Oregon Board of Education (cited in Naish, 2001)
Figure 2. Example of performance-based, criterion-referenced assessment adopted by the Oregon State Board of
Education, USA, in April200 1
Strand: Place, Space and Environment
STANDARD2 STANDARD3 STANDARD4 STANDARDS
At Standard 2, towards the end At Standard 3, towards the end At Standard 4, towards the end At Standard 5, towards the end of
of Year 4, the student: of Year 6, the student: of Year 8, the student: Year 10, the student:
2.5 Uses symbols, maps, 3.5 Interprets and represents 4.5 Hypothesises, then collects, 5.5 Reports on an issue related to
models and flow-charts to data about natural and built records, organises and evaluates peoples' sustainable use of
describe the location of places environments, resources, data from field-work, print and resources or places, after
and demonstrate relationshlps. systems and interactions, both electronic sources, in order to critically analysing information
global and local, using maps, analyse local and global, from multiple sources and
Examples of evidence include graphs and texts. environmental and socio- discussing the political
that the student: economic issues. implications of decisions.
Examples of evidence include
• identifies and asks questions that the student: Examples of evidence include Examples of evidence include
about particular continents, that the student: that the student:
oceans, countries and cities • identifies and reports some
on various maps and the ways in which people interact • identifies a suitable geographic • discusses current issues and
globe; with environments; issue for research (e.g. present selects one which involves a
• uses latitude and longitude or • locates natural and built and likely future jobs in the political decision-making
an alphanumeric grid to features and systems, and local area/region, areas of dimension;
locate significant places on associates them with remnant habitats); • uses inquiry strategies to
an atlas map; particular concepts on maps • seeks relevant information (e.g. collect, analyse and synthesise
• explains which kind of map and statistical data; on employment opportunities data from graphs, statistics,
(e.g. wall, atlas, globe, • examines the implications of in the local area, on possible reports, texts, maps and
electronically genemted) is interrupting or changing uses of such areas) from a electronic media;
best for showing particular interactions and relationships variety of sources and • summarises and presents
features and relationships; in natural and local perspectives, and develops relevant data from field
• demonstrates understanding environments, using relevant surveys to collect information investigations, interviews and
of different scales used on Australian or global (eg., from local business, Spatial Information Systems;
various maps and models; examples; community and conservation • compiles and makes public a
• uses electronically generated • selects and uses suitable groups, councils or geographic multimedia report
maps, models or photographs media and modes of employment offices); on an issue, including
to describe the relationship of presentation (e.g. diagrams, • analyses infonnation through appropriate graphic
places to particular relevant maps, photographs, ouilne applying mapping, Spatial representations and
features (e.g. cities located resources) to illustrate and Information Systems and emphasising evaluation of
on coasts and rivers, present researched graphiog skills to show the decisions made.
transport patterns following information (e.g. to describe location and relationships of
topography, mining areas ways in which people are a relevant data;
linked to ports) and flow part of the water cycle and • electronically exchanges
charts to describe resource dependent upon water as a information and critically
relationships. resource. reports on the same issue with
students in other areas or
regions, and makes
comparisons and draws
conclusions about the issue.
Source: SACSA Framework, South Australia
Figure 3. Example of Standards in the South Australian Curriculum Standards and Accountability (SACSA)
Framework (cited in Naish, 2001)
Added to these extrinsic considerations for adopting standards based curricula are five
intrinsic considerations that Fielding (2001) captures in the SMART acronym from the
business world referring to attributes of activities that are specific, measurable, attainable,
relevant and time related.
252 P.STIMPSON
The creation of standards forces us to clearly identify the specific (S) geographical learning
that is intended. It is no longer acceptable to see the curriculum in terms of broad general
statements such as 'the development of values arid attitudes supportive of actions leading to
a sustainable environment' or 'the ability to present information in a variety of ways. This,
proponents argue, is too full of uncertainty as to meaning, open to wide interpretation and
may result in under-expectation. Specificity is needed to be able to state clearly the values
and attitudes we intend our students to become aware of. Unless we can do this, how can
geography students know what they should be working towards and gain the motivation that
comes from successful learning. The central proposition is that the increased clarity that
comes with standards can raise levels of geographical literacy. Standards, where they are
sufficiently detailed, facilitate the translation of curriculum statements to something that is
meaningful in teaching and learning terms. However, Fielding raises the point that there are
attendant potential dangers lurking within this for the unwary. As we become more specific
in search of clarity. There is the risk, in reductionist vein, that we focus on detail and miss
the overarching linkages and broad ideas that define a geographical awareness. As Fielding
stresses, 'Target setting is a means to a wider educational end, not an end in itself' (Fielding,
2000, p. 145). The search for clarity may, if we are not careful, result in greater confusion
and ambiguity in the minds of young people than previously with an albeit fuzzy, but broad,
focus.
Recognising success is, in the SMART argument, dependant on our ability to measure (M)
achievement. For the sorts of qualities sought in geography and the values laden
understanding that permeates much of school geography, a view of measurement that is
quantitative is probably too restrictive and measurement might be more profitably thought
in terms of qualitative records of achievement. The ability to assess enables geography
teachers to understand the problems young people have in building new awareness (i.e.
learning) and direct remedial action appropriately. As with specificity, potential dangers are
hidden with measurement. Stenhouse (1967) commenting on objectives, but the same holds
true for standards notes that they do not have to be realised in assessment but can be, and
perhaps be more fruitfully, realised in the process of learning. Fielding observes that 'The
objection is not to measurability per se but rather to the idolatry of measurement which is
both more likely and more necessary within a context that sets its standards and rests its
future on attainment of publicly accessible, readily understandable outcomes" (Fielding,
2000, p. 146). The potential problem is that, despite innovations such as portfolios and
projects that offer the opportunity of a more authentic approaches to assessment in
geography are highly limited in what they can tell us. This is exacerbated when, in the
pursuit of accountability, issues of comparability and reliability raise their heads above
those of meaningfulness and validity and in doing so push geography teachers down
psychometric testing routes such that we end up 'mis-measuring the measurable' and
misrepresenting the immeasurable'. This problem is highlighted by Bennetts (1995) in
discussing how in England pupils can be allocated to the level descriptors. He notes that
"Each level descriptions is a cluster of interrelated elements and ....boundaries between
successive levels are not sharply defined ... " (p. 76).
Standards or targets - call them what you will- must be attainable (A) and realistic if they
are to motivate and encourage learning and to enhance self-esteem and a 'can-do' attitude in
geography classrooms. There is no value in setting standards or targets that are beyond the
young people for whom they are intended. For example, it may be felt that it is right that
upper primary children should understand map scale, the three types (linear, statement and
RF) and be able to convert from one type to another. Yet developmental psychology
suggests that most pupils aged say 10 years have little meaningful understanding of ratio
and therefore RF. Perhaps if pupils can use a simple linear scale then teachers should be
content. Deciding what is realistic and what is not is challenging varying as it does with
pupil and context with the every present risk of encouraging underachievement. However,
experience and theory provides some basis. The work on progression in geography (see, for
example, Bennetts, 1981, 1996; SCAA, 1994; Rawling, 1996; Williams 1997) makes a case
for what can, and probably cannot, be understood. Theories provide, however, general
guidelines of what is appropriate for an individual young person at any given age.
Quantifiable data, derived from accurate measurement of achievement can provide useful
evidence to define levels with in standards (see, for example, Courtney, 1989; Stimpson,
1992). However, if standards are to be of a 'one-size-fits all' type then there is the risk of
focusing on convergence of thought and minimum performance rather than on creativity and
excellence. As Fielding notes, 'There is nothing the matter with (basic) competence, but
competence is not enough" (Fielding, 2000, p. 146). Teaching to the standard in a narrow
way is unlikely to raise levels of geographical literacy in any real, long term way. If
standards are to be used for accountability purposes as well as with learning in mind, they
may encourage teachers and pupils alike to work to the requirements of the test. One may
fairly ask how can a teacher afford not to? Unpredictability, vicariousness and risk taking
are likely to be lost.
The fourth and fifth intrinsic arguments in support of adopting a standards approach to
curriculum development in geography emphasise the ways in which standards result in
learning that is both relevant and able to meet the needs of the moment, i.e. timeliness. In
themselves, they are valuable; if learning is not seen as relevant, how can it motivate?
However, conceived narrowly both run the risk of exposing classroom geography to
external instrumental pressures that may not support longer terms goals for geographical
literacy. In an extreme situation, building geographical ideas in the minds of individuals
ceases to be important and geography becomes just the medium for other goals, for
example, IT. Such risks are present whatever the curriculum approach but one can argue
that they are greater where curricula are standards based because the chances for geography
teachers in the classroom to mediate are reduced.
How to define standards for geographical education and who should define them?
Standards, it was argued in the second section, are an attempt to find statements of what it
means to have reached an "acceptable level" of geographical literacy and create ''universal"
criteria. This, however, is to ignore the point that standards are the creation of curriculum
254 P.STIMPSON
developers and the milieu they inhabit. Creating standards is a curriculum decision-making
issue in which political considerations are never far from the surface. A curriculum could
be constructed by a single person, usually a teacher. However, in the case of standards-
based curricula, though not impossible, it becomes a corporate responsibility involving not
only geographers in schools but also the wider geography community including
geographical associations, school principals, government curriculum agencies and
ultimately politicians. Co-operation is necessary, but friction occurs no matter how well
defmed the roles of stakeholders seem to be (Marsh and Willis, 1995). Resolution
inevitably requires negotiation and power-play between participants. So, too, it is with
standards as key players seek to have their views mount the high ground.
In the educational world of the late 20th/early 21st century, there has been increasing central
control of the school curriculum as governments have sought to address emerging problems,
largely concerned in the more developed countries with stagnant economies and
unemployment and in less developed countries with nation building and economic growth.
It is, thus, not surprising that governments have sought to infuse ideas consistent with their
policies into curricula. Standards in this context tend to be prescriptive and implemented
within an instrumental context. Governments often seem more concerned with geography
as a medium say to improve IT skills or generic skills than geography per se. They may see
geography as a medium to transmit environmental awareness and an understanding of the
solutions that government adopts to problems. We could think of others but a common
concern might be that the focus would be rationalist and closed rather than critical and open.
Of perhaps even more concern would be government's use of standards as largely an
accountability and control device.
The other main player, one can contend, are the geography teachers represented by
professionalassociations and/or key figures in the profession. For Rawling (1996), the latter
are the key people. They try to promote the education of young people and the discipline's
role in this, as they see it. Standards, for them, are largely used to describe attainment often
more in a formative than a summative way. In the U.K. and in the U.S.A. such geographical
groupings as the Geographical Association (G.A.) and various Geographic Alliances have
played a major part in the process. Yet, no group is immune from the influences of
government and bringing together government agencies and professional bodies sometimes
with diverging goals is problematic. On the other hand, it is something that cannot be
shirked. Unless there is co-operation there is unlikely to be successful implementation; no
one party can have the prerogative. The geography profession must accept that it has to
engage in political debate and, in the U.K. and in the U.S.A., the GA and various Alliances
have played their part in this process. No group is immune from the influences of
government.
Whoever is involved the question of the actual process arises. In essence one might view
this as either a building up or a breaking down process. The former involves listing all the
attributes that would defme a geographically literate young person. Such a procedure
usually leads to an inordinately long list of increasing detail as individual's favourite ideas
are included. Coherence is put at risk and the central point of learning geography may be
lost. For this reason a breaking down process in what Wiggins and McTighe (1998) call at
the curriculum unit level 'Backward Design", is preferable. They quote an apposite
comment from Stephen Covey 'The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People':
To begin with the end in mind means to start with clear understanding of your
destination. It means to know where you're going so that you better understand
where you are now so that the steps you take are always in the right direction.
(p.7)
The ultimate goals for geography in schools as Lambert and Balderstone (2000) among
others have pointed out are contentious. In the end each educational system has to find its
own. Fortunately we do not have to start from scratch. The aims for geography set out in
the International Charter of Geographical Education, a consensual document produced by
the International Geographical Union Education Commission, offers one short cut. Once
overall aims are agreed, the next step is to list descriptors indicative of and providing
evidence for, achievement of the stated standard. The descriptors are the key for the
classroom geographer because they translate general standards into classroom/pupil learning
terms. They make specific what has been achieved but are, or should be, sufficiently
flexible the schools, classes or individual pupils can develop in their own direction and so
not close down creativity and innovation.
Conclusion
The argument that I have sought to examine with respect to the issue of standards can be
encapsulated in the following quote from Rowntree (1977):
One way of evaluating human activity is to ask whether it is achieving what it was
meant to achieve. A rather more sophisticated way is to ask what it is achieving.
This second approach recognises a truth that has become routinised in the clinical
trials of new drugs -that the most well intentioned acts often produce results other
than were intended. We faii to comprehend the phenomenon being studied if we
concern ourselves with a narrow range of pre-identified or publicly proclaimed
effects and overlook its side effects. (p. 36) ·
The issue of standards is full of tensions. Standards can provide clarity to the classroom
geography teacher but detail can also blind the unwary, stunt creativity or support
broadening horizons, encourage authenticity or lead to superficiality, promote more
dynamic geographical experiences for young people or rigidity. Above all, there is the
tension between supporting geographical learning and accountability and whether a system
of standards can in the end serve two masters. I do not wish to say that it can or can't; there
is not the evidence and what happens in practice depends on the educational/socio-political
256 P.STIMPSON
structures and belief systems into which standards are adopted. The important point to
remember is that standards are geographical curriculum tools to use critically.
References
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London: Longman.
Bennetts, T. (1995) Continuity and Progression. Teaching Geography, 20 (2), 75-79.
Bennetts, T. (1996) Progression and differentiation. In P. Bailey and P. Fox (eds) Geography Teachers' Handbook.
Sheffield: The Geographical Association.
Bettis, N.C. (1997) Assessment and Reform in Geographic Education: 1930-1997. In R. Boehm and J. Petersen
(eds) The First Assessment: Research in Geographic Education. San Marcos, TX: The Gilbert M. Grosvenor
Centre For Geographic Education, Southwest Texas State University.
Board of Studies (1998) The School Certificate Grading System. Sydney: Board of Studies, New South Wales.
Courtney, T. (1989) The significance of the SOLO taxonomy. Geographical Education, 5, 47-50.
Ccovey, S. (1990) The Seven Habits ofHighly Effective People. New York: Fireside Book.
Department of Education and Science (1991) Geography in the National Curriculum (England). London: HMSO.
Department of Education and Science (1995) Geography in the National Curriculum (England). London: HMSO.
Department of Education and Science (1999) Geography in the National Curriculum: Handbook for secondary
teachers in England Key stages 3 and 4. London: HMSO.
Fielding, M. (2001) Target setting, policy pathology and student perspectives: Learning to labour in hard times. In
M. Fielding (ed) Taking Education Really Seriously: Four Years' Hard Labour. London: Routledge/Falmer.
Geography Education Standards Project (GESP) (1994) Geography for Life. National Geography Standards,
National Geographic Research and Exploration, Washington DC.
Grant, G., Elbow, P., Ewens, T., Gamson, Z., Kohli, W., Neuman, W., Olesen, V. and Riesman, D. (1979) On
competence: A Critical Analysis of Competence-based Reforms in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
GYSL (1974) Geography for the Young School Leaver: Man, Land and Leisure; Cities and People; People Place
and Work. London: Nelson.
GYSL (1981) Geography and Change. London: Nelson.
Lambert, D. and Balderston, D. (2000) Learning to teach geography in the secondary schooL London: Routledge.
Marsh, C. and Willis, G. (1995) Curriculum: Alternative Approaches, Ongoing Issue. London: Prentice Hall.
Naish, M. (2001) Curriculum Issues in School Geography: An International Study. London: Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority (QCA).
Rawling, E. (1996) The impact of the National Curriculum on school-based curriculum development in secondary
geography. In A, Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds) Geography in Education. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
SCAA, (1994) Geography in the National Curriculum: Draft Proposals. London: SCAA
Stenhouse, L. (1967) Culture and education. London: Thomas Nelson.
Stimpson, P. (1992) Assessment in Geography: an evaluation of the SOLO taxonomy. In H. Schrettenbruner and
Van Westrhenen, J. (eds.) Nederlandse Geografische Studies: Empirical Research and Geography Teaching,
142:157-175.
Wiggins, G. and McTighe, J. (1998) Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Culriculum Development.
Williams, M. (1997) Progression and transition in a coherent geography curriculum. In D. Tilbury and M. Williams
(eds) Teaching and Learning in Geography. London: Routledge.
Wolf, A. (1995) Competence-based assessment. Buckingham: Open University Press.
SECTION 6: A FOCUS ON RESEARCH IN GEOGRAPHICAL
EDUCATION
18. RESEARCH IN GEOGRAPIDCAL EDUCATION: THE
SEARCH FOR IMPACT
MICHAEL WILLIAMS
Introduction
Establishing causal relationships between fmdings from educational research and

subsequent behaviour, whether it be policy making, pedagogical changes or further
research, is extremely difficult. It would be very satisfying to be able to identify
seminal research studies that led directly to clearly demonstrated changes, especially to
substantial changes in policies or practices. This is true of educational research in
general and it is echoed in research in geographical education. In geographical
education it is difficult to detect ongoing, large scale studies that have been sustained
over a long period of time by internationally respected research groups. Commonly,
researchers in geographical education determine their own personal research agendas,
developing projects of limited duration with very small or non-existent research
funding, and publishing their findings in conference proceedings, edited books or highly
specialised academic journals (Williams, 1997, 1998 and 1999). Many geographical
educators would agree with the comments of an American author who described
research in geographical education as 'lacking direction, a research agenda, and focus'
(Bednarz, 2000, p.129 quoting from Brown, 1997).
If researchers in geographical education were to be asked to assess the effectiveness of

their work, we would expect a variety of responses. They would be unlikely to agree on
a single definition of effectiveness. Intrinsically, they could argue that effectiveness
was simply a measure of the degree to which their instrumental research objectives had
been met. Accordingly, effective research would be characterised by a close match
between research objectives and research findings, with validity and reliability of the
findings figuring prominently in the criteria used to judge the quality of the findings.
Extrinsically, effectiveness would be a measure of the impact of the research findings
on audiences identified either before or after the research commenced. Depending on
the research field and the motivations of the researchers, these audiences could include
curriculum policy makers at various levels, classroom teachers, examination authorities,
authors and publishers of textbooks and atlases, and, of course, other researchers.
Clearly, the impact of any completed research study may extend beyond anticipated
audiences to include unanticipated audiences.
259
260 M. WILLIAMS
Contextual Considerations
Research in geographical education shares with other fields of educational research a

haziness about what constitutes research. At its crudest, this finds expression in the
perpetual discussions about the strengths and weaknesses of particular research
traditions. There are those positivists who respond favourably to the pressure to
measure, seeking to use increasingly sophisticated forms of scientific data collection
and analysis in their search for a quantification of the objective truth. Others are
attracted to qualitative and interpretivist approaches, gleaning meaning by using a range
of methods that can be grouped under such approaches as ethnography, phenomenology
and phenomenography.
It is much easier to locate a research study within a research tradition than it is to

determine the quality of that research. Submitting studies to rigorous, anonymous peer
review in the public domain is important in judging the quality of research. Even a
cursory review of recent writing (Foskett and Marsden, 1998) in geographical education
will highlight a broad quality spectrum that ranges from personal, non-peer reviewed
descriptive accounts of classroom practice through to substantial international research
studies. There is clearly a quality hierarchy which, depending on your perspective,
places international, collaborative research at the top and accounts of individualised,
personal accounts of classroom practice at the bottom. As you climb up the hierarchy
one moves from vernacular descriptions based on experience through opinionated
writing to reflective writing based on critical judgment and on to systematic research
enquiries. The distinction between opinion and reflective, critical judgment based on
reliable evidence is crucially important and drawing the line between the two is
sometimes difficult.
Inevitably, researchers in geographical education experience two sets of conflicting

pressures. The first set relates to the professional background of most geographical
education researchers. They have often studied geography as their major subject in
undergraduate, and sometimes postgraduate, studies. Many will have taught geography
as a subject in schools, colleges or universities. There is clearly an attraction in
undertaking research in geographical education that has a close relationship to the issues
concerning academic geographers and that employs research methods commonly used
in mainstream geography. Against this pressure from academic geography is the
pressure from classroom focused research where geography as a subject takes on a
second order character.
The second set relates to the conflicting pressures derived from research methods and
research motives. On the one hand, researchers in geographical education are drawn
towards the disciplines from which their research methods have been largely drawn.
Those who have intense interest in aspects of learning veer towards educational
psychology, while those interested in policy making will be drawn towards sociology
and, sometimes, political science. Researchers in educational aspects of maps fit easily
into cartography and those interested in textbooks, particularly the analysis of text, may
be drawn to socio-linguistics. On the other hand, motivated to contribute to the
improvement of pedagogical practices, they are drawn away from the disciplines
towards the pragmatic day-to-day concerns of classroom practitioners, where research
RESEARCH IN GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION 261
may be perceived as a contribution to solving problems of the moment. Researchers

who are drawn to the disciplines may well persist with particular lines of research for
considerable periods of time. Those who are drawn to immediate pedagogical problem
solving may move from one research issue to another and from one research method to
another over relatively short periods. What is important is the generally low level of
interest in theory construction amongst researchers in geographical education.
Generally, there would appear to be little interest among geographical

educators in undertaking research that is narrowly defined in terms of theory
construction or the refinement of research methodologies. There appears to be
a strong interest in practitioner based research. Much research in
geographical education originates in the contemporary school classroom, is
not linked closely to a social science discipline and is intended to contribute to
improved professional practice (Gerber and Williams, 2000, p.212).
Yet, this practitioner based research is commonly ignored by policy makers. Possibly,
the best exampl~ of this neglect can be found in the process of centralised policy
making for the school geography curriculum in England. Rawling (2001) has
documented in considerable detail the way the government appointed National
Curriculum Geography Working Group set about defining attainment targets and
programmes of study for school geography in England in the period 1989-1990. She
represents the discussions in the Group as a power struggle between lay members and
professionals and within the professionals between supporters of the subject
('geographers') and supporters of pedagogy ('educationalists or curriculum developers')
(Rawling, 2001, p.55). From a research perspective, what is striking is the absence of
research findings to support any of the arguments promulgated in the group. No
reference is made to any research input to the proceedings. Partly this is explained by
the failure of the geographical education research community to articulate a coherent
contribution to the discussions. It lacked the requisite organisation and, more
importantly, a substantial body of relevant research evidence. Further, this was
reinforced by the failure of well-documented English curriculum development projects
in geography to have a strong research dimension. They were development projects
rather than research and development projects. Their ouput was most obvious in the
teaching materials and examination papers they generated though the impact of these
and the projects on geographical education beyond the relatively small number of
enthusiasts who were closely involved with the development work has not yet been
thoroughly researched. Beyond the projects, there has been a dearth of intensive and
sustained research studies in England into aspects of curriculum development in school
geography. It was this research evidence, validated and rendered reliable by various
key sectors in the geographical education research community, national and
international, that was seriously lacking in the intense debate about what should
constitute school geography in England.
To clarify some of these contextual considerations, in the next sections I shall review
research reports drawn from three popular sources: an influential anthology of
geographical research and subsequent publications; proceedings of selected conferences
organised by the Commission on Geographical Education of the International
Geographical Union (IGU); and articles in recent volumes of International Research in
262 M. WilLIAMS
Geographical and Environmental Education. These publications illustrate the

contemporary concerns of researchers in geographical education and the methods used
in the various studies.
An Influential Anthology
One of the most influential stimuli to geographical education research did not emerge
from the work of geographical educators. It was the collection of papers edited by
Downs and Stea and published under the title Image and Environment (1973). The
book is concerned with cognitive mapping and cognitive maps. It brought to the
foreground a number of emergent fields of study that attracted the attention of
geographers and psychologists and carried such titles as behavioural geography,
environmental perception, environmental psychology, ecological psychology and
human ecology (ibid. p. xiii). Interestingly, the editors did not include educators or
educationists in the audiences they identified for the book. Further, the list of
contributors does not include anyone from a School of Education.
The papers reviewed research work accomplished, ongoing work and made suggestions
for future endeavours. It is a seminal milestone in the research field and is of interest to
researchers in geographical education since it contributed to a number of studies in
various countries that have added to the store of knowledge about geographical learning
and impacted in various ways on geographical pedagogy, teaching resources and
curricula.
The term graphicacy was coined by Balchin and Coleman in 1965 to cover
'communication or relationships that cannot be successfully communicated by words or
mathematical notation alone' (p. 81 in Bale, Graves and Walford, 1973). Particularly it
was concerned with 'spatial relationships as in maps'(ibid). It has been used for nearly
forty years as a shorthand expression that unifies a rich and diverse field of research
fundamental to teaching and learning in school geography. Not all of the researchers
active in the field have been drawn from the geographical education research
community. For example, the studies by Blades Darziveh, Matthews, and Spencer,
although focused largely on the mapping knowledge and skills of children, and
especially very young children, have been published in mainstream geographical
journals and psychological journals with only a small number of papers appearing in
journals concerned with geographical education. By way of contrast, the graphicacy
studies of such researchers as Boardman, Catling, Gerber, Sandford and Wiegand, while
using methods similar to those employed by those just mentioned, have sought to
communicate their findings directly to the geographical education community. Indeed
the findings from all of these studies have been utilised by curriculum planners and to
develop courses that take into account the incremental, developmental learning of
school students from early childhood to late adolescence. Further, some of these
authors are closely associated with the publication of atlases and other map-based
curriculum materials published for use in school classrooms.
Methodologically, researchers have generally used small samples in a school context

and they have designed a variety of exercises to seek clearer understanding of the ways
children acquire and utilise a range of skills, including the ability to draw maps,
understand maps and use maps. What has emerged is a substantial body of theoretical
and applied knowledge of considerable importance in the development of geographical
education. Of particular importance is the fact that much of this research is grounded
on strong theoretical and methodological foundations, especially the seminal studies of
Piaget and his colleagues (e.g. 1954, 1956, and 1960). Most readers will be familiar
with Piaget's stage theory and the impressive array of experiments that were used to test
the hypotheses generated from the theory. The potential for using 'toy landscapes', that
have been so successful in childhood cognition studies, in studies focused on adults has
been highlighted by Stea and Blaut (1999). The possibilities for developing theories of
adolescent and adult learning initially in graphicacy are worthy of close attention by
geographical education researchers. At a time when national and international attention
is strongly focused on lifelong learning, this work is likely to be of increasing
importance.
However, despite the efforts of the environmental cognition researchers, it would

appear that only the surface of the field has been scratched. Notice these conclusions
written in 1994 by American scholars (Gregg and Leinhardt, p.351) after a substantial,
comprehensive review of the state of school geography and geographical education
research in the USA:
As yet there has been very little research that seeks to apply to the classroom
what has been learned in the laboratory about the cognitive processes that
underlie map reading and use. As a result, the people who teach map skills
have very little idea about the most effective educational
practices.... Educational researchers need to begin to investigate how the
cognitive processes that underlie thinking in geography affect teaching and
learning in geography.
The Commission on Geographical Education of the International Geographical

Union(IGU)
Every four years the IGU organises a World Congress, held in a different continent each
time, and comprising a programme of symposia arranged by each of the IGU's twenty-
two Commissions, and a plenary conference that includes presentations made by
members of the Commissions. In terms of membership, the Commission on
Geographical Education (CGE) is the largest. In addition to the World Congress, the
CGE is responsible for a programme of regional and national conferences that are held
in the years between the World Congresses. An important feature of these meetings is
the publication of proceedings, specially commissioned edited books and reports on
projects initiated by members of the Commission.
I have chosen two IGU-CGE publications that serve to illustrate the range of work
undertaken by researchers in geographical education who participate in IGU-CGE
activities. Separated by a period of five years they share a similar title: Innovation in
Geographical Education (van der Schee, Schoenmaker, Trimp and van Westrhenen,
1996) and Innovative Practices in Geographical Education (Houtsonen and
264 M. WILLIAMS
Tammilehto, 2001). Each of these books is divided into a number of sections,

indicating the range of innovation in geographical education in the last decade of the
twentieth century. These sections and the number of papers in each of them (in
brackets) are listed below:
Innovation in Geographical Innovative Practices in Geographical

Education Education
(1996) (2001)
1. Knowledge and skills (8) 1. Curriculum changes and policies (9)

2. Old and new media (4) 2. Developing learners' skills and abilities
3. Environmental learning (5) in geography (8)
4. International cooperation (2) 3. New technologies in the geographical
5. Curriculum development (3) education systems (10)
4. Developing and using resources for
teaching and learning in geography (7)
5. Evaluation and assessment in geography
(2)
6. Teaching geography for a sustainable
world (9)
7. Geography and education for the future
(6)
8. Cooperation organisations of the IGU-
CGE Helsinki Symposium (1)
As the editors of the 1996 book indicate in their introduction, the five sections were
selected after a review of current international educational journals. Invited authors
were required to fulfil four requirements (p. 17):
• to indicate on what geographical and (learning) psychological theories their

contribution was based;
• to indicate what method had been used to translate these theoretical notions into
instructional materials;
• to add examples of instructional materials; and/or
• to build in assignments and suggestions that would be useful for student teachers.
There were no such criteria used for the papers included in the 2001 Proceedings. The
papers were brief and three of them were included only as short abstracts. I have
divided the papers in both publications roughly into three very broad categories: those
that are concerned with conceptual clarification and descriptions; those that are based
on qualitative research; and those that are based on quantitative research. Four papers
in the Proceedings used a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods and they
are indicated by question marks in Table 2.
Table 1. Papers from Innovation in Geographical Education (1996)
Sections Conceptual and Qualitative Quantitative

Descriptive
1. Knowledge and skills (8) 3 2 3
2. Old and new media (4) 3
3. Environmental learning (5) 4
4. International cooperation (2) 2
5. Curriculum development (3) 2
Total 14 5 3
Adding the totals in the two Tables together, it can be seen that 45 of the papers were
conceptual and descriptive, 13 were qualitative and 16 were quantitative. The papers
not only reveal a variety of research methods but also variations in the amount of
attention paid to reliability and transferability of the data collected. With regard to the
research methods, many were designed for use with a variety of different subjects
including school pupils, student teachers and teachers while others focused on various
courses, syllabuses and teaching materials. In the quantitative studies, questionnaires
were commonly employed sometimes with very small samples of convenience, e.g. a
single class of school students, while others were international in scope. In the
qualitative studies, in-depth interviews were commonly used as was content analysis of
various documents, from policy documents to curriculum materials, especially
textbooks. There was an interesting example of a study using action research. It was
difficult to find evidence of novel methodological approaches to research in
geographical education.
As might have been expected, there was evidence of increasing interest in the impact of
information and communications technology on geography teaching and also of the
continuing interest in aspects of mapwork. Teaching and learning about the
environment, especially the current interest in aspects of environmental sustainability
were popular topics, as was the continuing interest in the European dimension,
associated with citizenship education.
266 M. WILLIAMS
Articles from International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education

(IRGEE)
This journal, sponsored by the Commission on Geographical Education of the

International Geographical Union, was initiated in 1992. It is worth noting that this was
the first journal with research in geographical education in its title and it is, perhaps,
surprising that it was introduced so recently. On its cover page it is stated that the
journal aims to publish quality research studies, promote an interest in research, provide
a forum for critique and discussion, encourage the dissemination of research, and
demonstrate the relevance of research studies to professional practice.
Table 2. Papers from Innovative Practices in Geographical Education (200I)
Sections Conceptual and Qualitative Quantitative

Descriptive
I Curriculum changes and policies (9) 8
2. Developing learners' skills and abilities 3 4

in geography (8)
3. New technologies in the geographical 8 I?

education systems (1 0)
4. Developing and using resources for 4 1? 1and1?

teaching and learning in geography (7)
5. Evaluation and assessment in 2

geography (2)
6. Teaching geography for a sustainable 4 2 3

world (9)
7. Geography and education for the future 3 2 1?

(6)
8. Cooperation organisations of the IOU-

CGE Helsinki Symposium (1)
Total 31 8 13
To gain some understanding of current interests in research in geographical education I

have chosen to refer to articles that were published in the two most recent complete
volumes- 1999 and 2000- available at the time of writing. It must be noted, as the
title of the journal indicates, the editors accept not only geographical education research
articles but also articles about research in environmental education. Unlike the papers
in the two publications discussed in the previous section, all of the articles are reviewed
by specialists drawn from across the global community and unsatisfactory submissions
are either rejected or revisions are proposed. Once accepted, the articles are published
in a section titled Major Papers, usually three papers per issue. Short articles on a
selected theme appear in a Forum section and these are more numerous.
Twenty-one 'major papers' were published in 1999-2000 and of these five were
specifically concerned with environmental education. I shall focus on the sixteen
geographical education articles.
Corney focused his research thesis (1999) on graduate student teachers following a
course of geographical education in an English university. Using interpretive inquiry
and the collection of qualitative data he presented a case study of student teacher
thinking. In particular, he sought to find out in detail how his small sample of five
student teachers thought about teaching environmental at the commencement of their
course and how they thought about environmental topics and they way they were taught
as they proceeded through the course. He designed and administered a structured
writing exercise and semi-structured interviews at the start, mid-point and end of the
course. Additional data were gathered through studies of lessons conducted by the
student teachers. This variety of methods was seen as strengthening the reliability of
the data. His findings, he claims, are of importance to both teacher educators, who need
to take account of student teacher's pre-conceptions of the subject geography and how it
should be taught, and to researchers who are encouraged to replicate the study and focus
on particular aspects of teacher education programmes in geographical education in
order 'to re-address the balance in which policy and practice in initial teacher education
are more frequently based on opinion and ideology than empirical research evidence'
(p. 323).
Images of geography and the relationship between these and the teaching of geography
by postgraduate student teachers were also investigated by Martin (2000). Unlike
Corney, his focus was on primary school specialists (preparing to teach 5-8 year-olds).
In his study he used the personal construct psychology technique of repertory grid to
elicit images of geography and these were compared with the images portrayed during
teaching and with the preferred teaching styles of the student teachers. He devised an
innovative geography curriculum map that was used to explore how school geography
can be divided into its components. It was the basis for the construction of a lesson
observation schedule. He also devised a schedule for recording lesson contextual
details. His conclusions confirm the assumption that 'expertise in a subject does not
mean expertise as a teacher of the subject' (p. 242) and the image of geographical
education is a more appropriate base than the image of geography as a subject from
which to act as a primary geography teacher.
In similar vein, Ballantyne (1999), too, studied subject perceptions and his focus was on
environmental education as perceived by geography educators. He reported the results
268 M.WllLIAMS
of an inquiry conducted with a sample of 419 geography teachers and teacher educators
in eighteen countries. He used a postal questionnaire to investigate ·'geography
educators' understanding of the purpose of environmental education and their
perceptions of the desirability of teaching environmental concepts, attitudes and
behaviour in geography lessons' (p. 40).
Graphicacy is the subject of Kwan's doctoral study and this is the theme of her article
(Kwan, 1999) and two others in the two selected volumes (Harwood and Usher, 1999,
and van der Schee and van Dijk, 1999) and all of them report empirical studies
undertaken with school students.
Kwan administered a questionnaire to a sample of 87 children aged 11-12 years from

two urban Hong Kong secondary schools. She sought to find out their intuitive and
vernacular map knowledge, understanding and experience before they commenced
learning about maps in secondary school geography lessons. She reported the kinds of
maps that these pre-teenage students had encountered and what meanings they
conveyed. An interesting finding was the difference in experience between boys and
girls. This takes on more interest when read alongside the findings of Wridt (2000) in
her cross-cultural study of boys' and girls' experience of environmental exploration.
She used geography travel diaries with a sample of 60 13-14 year-old boys and girls in a
multi-cultural Texas intermediate school and set the data gathered alongside individual
results from the National Council for Geographic Education's intermediate level
geography competence examination. An important finding was that boys who
'travelled greater distances taken as a group performed better on a standardised
geography examination than those who travelled less' (p. 219). Further, a group of
girls, mainly Hispanic, who spent more time outdoors performed better in the
examination than those girls who did not. Wridt claims that the 'cross-cultural
differences in test scores as they vary by gender offer an important contribution to
theories of gender difference in geographic performance' (p.221).
Harwood and Usher (1999) used a two phase design to study two pairs of matched
groups - a control group and a research group - of 8-9 year old boys and girls attending
the same school in central England. They had designed a new system for grading six
mapwork elements that take into account the previous research of Piaget and Inhelder
and Matthews. Thirty-nine children were in the frrst phase and thirty-four in the second
phase. The pupils in the research group, in each phase, were carefully and
systematically taught the skills needed to draw a map of the route from their school to a
nearby church. Surprisingly, the researchers found that 'For most children the
improvements after teaching were relatively modest, suggesting, in accord with
Piagetian research, that (map drawing) is still a difficult task for primary children'
(p.237). Further, 'teacher input was more beneficial to the children than route
knowledge' and 'in both phases, boys achieved more than the girls, suggesting that they
were more strongly motivated than the girls, to improve in this area of work' (ibid,
p.237).
In the same journal issue van der Schee and van Dijk (1999) reported an investigation
conducted with 397 12-13 year-old boys and girls attending a Dutch secondary school.
They used a pre-test post-test design with experimental and control groups. A
standardised motivation test and a map skills test were administered before and after the
students followed a training programme based on a series of assignments. Central to
the study was the freedom given to students in the experimental group to choose the
order in which the assignments were studied. This article is of especial importance
since it addresses the vitally important issue of motivation in the learning of school
geography. The findings distinguish between motivation to study the subject
geography, to mapwork and to the training. They contribute to a greater understanding
of the links between motivated students and their investment in cognitive strategies and
metacognitive skills (ibid. p. 265).
Cognitive strategies and metacognitive skills are the subject of an article by Leat and
Nichols (2000). Leat derived his stimulus from the work of the Cognitive Acceleration
in Science Education Project based in London (Leat, 1996, p. 255). In their IRGEE
article Leat and Nichols argue that in devising an assessment task for school pupils they
took the opportunity for 'putting into operation one of the most compelling education
concepts of the century - Vygotsky's notion of a Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD)' (p. 20). Using the notion of 'mystery' they devised a task that was undertaken
by small groups of 13-14 year-olds. The students were photographed and videotaped as
they worked on the task and interviewed using a stimulated recall technique. In
addition, the researcher took observation notes. In the conclusion the authors state,
'Mysteries allow teachers, through observing and listening, to gain access to pupils'
cogmtlve processes, in a way that is rarely available through other
methods ... Observation, therefore, can give critical information to teachers about pupils'
cognitive skills and quality of thinking' (p. 29).
From the intensive systematic observation of Leat and Nichols we can turn to the quite
different study of geographical learning conducted by Lai (1999a and 1999b). He was
interested in 'interpreting the nature of the relationship between the learner and
phenomena in geographical education' (Lai, 1999b, p. 241). Using interviews,
participant observation, and .documentary evidence he engaged in a qualitative case
study of a group of 109 Hong Kong secondary school boys and their four teachers on a
field trip to the island of Cheung Chau. From an inductive analysis of his evidence, he
highlights the relative freedom of the outdoors as a 'learning environment which
facilitated active and deep learning and changed the social relationship between the
participants' (p. 253). Much of Lai's findings relate to the affective domain and serve
to balance the findings of other researchers in the cognitive domain.
Bridging the studies of Lai and Leat is the article by Rickinson (1999) who studied
students' learning experiences and the relationships between teachers' and students'
perspectives on classroom teaching and learning. The students, aged 12-13 years,
attended secondary schools in England. Data were gathered using classroom
observation and audio-recording of lessons, teacher and pupil lesson impression sheets,
and semi-structured teacher and student interviews. In his conclusion, Rickinson points
to the need to close the dichotomy between research studies that focus on teaching
geography and those that focus on learning geography. If curriculum occurrences in
geography lessons, he argues, are co-constructed between students and teachers, and
students and their peers, then there is a need for a more integrated perspective.
270 M.WllLIAMS
A quite different perspective is offered by Lyle (2000) who worked with a group of
student teachers to collect data that included audio- and video-tapes of classroom
interactions, field notes, written artefacts and video-tapes of group interviews to gain an
understanding of how upper primary school children in a Welsh school negotiated to
gain a meaning of people and places through talk. In particular, Lyle was concerned to
demonstrate the relationship between geographical learning and pupils' acquisition of
literacy skills.
Two articles have a broader curriculum focus. Claudino (2000) explores the European
dimension of the Portuguese geography curriculum from a constructivist perspective.
Student teachers used a questionnaire to gather data in two surveys conducted six years
apart. Interestingly, over the six years students had improved their knowledge about
Europe though the students' idea of Europe as a cultural, historical and ideological
construct had declined in importance as had national identity. Adopting a different
approach to curriculum research, Papadimitriou and Probald (2000) studied a selection
of Hungarian primary and secondary school geography textbooks to find out how much
attention had been paid to landscape-related issues. A quantitative and qualitative
evaluation was made of the contents of the books and they concluded that 'although the
new curriculum has set out a theoretical framework for addressing landscape-related
features, it appears weak in its presentation of landscape-related problems' (p. 302).
Finally, there are three articles that seek to explore conceptual issues. Bednarz (2000)
developed a typology of research in geographical education and uses this for a review of
articles published in the US Journal of Geography between 1988 and 1997. Fien
(1999) mapped out an 'openly-ideological, socially-critical approach to geography and
education' and Kirchberg (2000) discussed the implications of changes in youth culture
for geography teaching.
Conclusion
What emerges from these brief reviews of three sources of evidence of research in
geographical education is that, in the English language community of geographical
educationists, there is a great variety of topics being studied and research methods being
employed. Much of the research is conducted by individuals though some of these
individuals have sustained a strong interest in a particular aspect of geographical
education over decades (e.g. Saarinen, 1973 and 1999; Stea and Blaut, 1973 and 1999).
In studies undertaken over a long period there is clear evidence of the use of more
refined research methods and a deliberate attempt to construct theories on the basis of
the evidence. Alongside this theory building there is also evidence of attempts to
translate the research findings into curriculum design and classroom pedagogy. There
is also evidence in recent publications, especially in the pages of IRGEE of deliberate
attempts to span the difficult bridges linking teaching and learning. It is in this crucial
area for geographical education in schools that some of the more interesting innovative
research methods are being developed and employed. Little research has been done to
track thoroughly and systematically the impact of research studies in geographical
education on national curriculum policy making or decision making in government
curriculum development centres, publishing houses, examination boards and

classrooms.
References
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Balchin, W.G. and Coleman, A.M. (1973) Graphicacy should be the fourth ace in the pack, (originally
published in The Times Educational Supplement, November 5th 1965) reprinted in J. Bale, N.Graves and
R.Walford (eds.) Perspectives in Geographical Education, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
Ballantyne, R. (1999) Teaching environmental concepts, attitudes and behaviour through geography
education: findings of an international survey, International Research in Geographical and Environmental
Education, 8, 1, 40-58.
Bednarz, S. (2000) Geography education research in the Journal of Geography 1988-1997. International
Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 9, 2, 128-140.
Brown, L.A. (1997) The good research agenda: what it is, what it might be, what ... ?, in R. G. Boehm and J. F.
Petersen (eds.) The First Assessment, San Marcos, TX: Gilbert M. Grosvenor Center for Geographic
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Claudino, S. (2000) European Union: the Portuguese geography curricula in check, International Research in
Geographical and Environmental Education, 9, 2, 98-127.
Corney, G. (1999) Geography Student Teachers' Conceptions of Teaching Environmental Topics,
Unpublished PhD thesis, London: University of London Institute of Education.
Corney, G. (2000) Case studies in student geography teachers' conceptions of teaching environmental issues,
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 9, 4, 305-326.
Downs, R. M. and Stea, D. (eds.) (1973) Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior,
London: Edward Arnold.
Fien, J. (1999) Towards a map of commitment: a socially critical approach to geographical education,
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8,2, 140-158.
Foskett, N. and Marsden, B. (1998) A Bibliography of Geographical Education 1970-1997, Sheffield: The
Geographical Association.
Gerber, R. and Williams, M. (2000) Research and geography teaching: overview and international
perspectives, in A. Kent (ed.) Reflective Practice in Geography Teaching, London, Paul Chapman/Sage.
Gregg, M. G. and Lienhardt, G. (1994) Mapping out geography: an example of epistemology and education,
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Harwood, D. and Usher, M. (1999) Assessing progression in primary children's map drawing skills,
Houtsonen, L. and Tammilehto, M. (eds.) (2001) Innovative Practices in Geographical Education,
Proceedings of the Helsinki Symposium of the IGU-CGE, Helsinki: International Geographical Union-
Commission on Geographical Education.
Kirchberg, G. (2000) Changes in youth: no changes in teaching geography? Aspects of a neglected problem in
the didactics of geography, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 9, 1, 5-18.
Kwan, T. (1995) Hong Kong children's understanding and experience ofmapwork tasks, Unpublished PhD
thesis, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology.
Kwan, T. (1999) Pre-teenage children's vernacular perception and experience of maps in Hong Kong,
Lai, K.C. (1999a) Geographical fieldwork as experiential learning: a multiple case study of secondary school
field trips in Hong Kong, Unpublished PhD thesis, Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology.
Lai, K.C. (1999b) Freedom to learn: a study of the experiences of secondary school teachers and students in a
geography field trip, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8, 3, 239-255.
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Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: the Role of Research, London: Cassell.
Leat, D, and Nichols, A. (2000) Observing pupils' mental strategies: signposts for scaffolding, International
Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 9, 1, 19-35.
Lyle, S. (2000) Enhancing literacy through in geography in upper primary classrooms, International Research
in Geographical and Environmental Education, 9, 2, 141-166.
Martin, F. (2000) Postgraduate education students' images of geography and the relationship between these
and students' teaching, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 9, 3, 223-244.
272 M. WILLIAMS
Papadimitriou, F.and Probald, F. (2000) Landscapes, land degradation and aridification in geographical
education: the case of Hungary, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 9, 4,
296-304.
Piaget, J. (1954) The Construction of Reality in the Child, New York: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1960) The Child's Conception of Geometry, New York: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. and Inhelder, B. (1956) The Child's Conception of Space, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Rawling, E.M. (2001) Changing the Subject: The Impact of National Policy on School Geography I980-2000,
Sheffield: Geographical Association.
Rickinson, M. (1999) People-environment issues in the geography classroom: towards an understanding of
students' experiences, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8, 2, 120-139.
Saarinen, T. (1973) Student Views of the World, in R.M. Downs and D. Stea (eds.) Image and Environment:
Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior, London: Edward Arnold.
Saarinen, T. (1999) The Eurocentric nature of mental maps of the world, Research in Geographic Education,
1, 2, 136-178.
Stea, D. and Blaut, J. M. (1973) Some Preliminary Observations on Spatial Learning in School Children, in R.
M. Downs, and D. Stea (eds.) Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior, London:
Edward Arnold.
Stea, D. and Blaut, J. M. (1999) Geographic education, universal mapping and public participation: the search
for umbrella theory, Research in Geographic Education, 1, 2, 179-193.
van der Schee, J. and van Dijk, H.(l999) The effect of student freedom of choice in learning map skills,
van der Schee, J., Schoenmaker, G., Trimp, H. and van Westrhenen, H. (eds.) (1996) Innovation in
Geographical Education, Utrecht/Amsterdam: IGU and the Centre for Geographical Education of the Free
University of Amsterdam.
Williams, M. (ed.) (1996) Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: the Role of Research,
London: Cassell.
Williams, M. (1997) Research in geographical education: retrospect and prospect, Geographie und ihre
Didaktik, 3, 26, 124-135.
Williams, M. (1998) A review of research in geographical education, in A. Kent (ed.)
Issues for Research in Geographical Education, Research Forum I, London: University of London Institute of
Education, pp. 1-10.
Williams, M. (1999) Research in geographical education, International Research in Geographical and
Environmental Education, 8, 3, 301-304.
Wridt, P. J. (2000) The influence of environmental exploration on geographic performance among adolescent:
a gender and cross-cultural analysis, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education,
9, 3, 211-222.
19. GEOGRAPHY TEACHERS AS ACTION RESEARCHERS
GRAHAM BUTT
The Concept of Action Research in International Geography Education
The origins of action research lay back in the 1940s when Kurt Lewin, a social
psychologist with an interest in group dynamics, devised with colleagues a research
methodology which sought to generate practical solutions to social problems (Lewin,
1948). This methodology attempted to enable groups, with the support of external
consultants, to explore their problems objectively with a view to effecting change.
Central to the success of this process was the use of an 'action cycle', which included
elements of analysis, fact finding, conceptualisation, planning, implementation and
evaluation of action (McKernan, 1991; Naish, 1996).
Action research in education developed in the 1970s largely based upon Lewin's
original principles, although Corey (1952), Taba and Noel (1957) and Shumsky (1958)
had attempted to bring related methodologies into education in the 1950s. In the
humanities, action research had its foundations in teachers acting as a stimulus for
curriculum innovation using their own classroom-based research evidence, reinforcing
the notion of the 'teacher as researcher'. Indeed the influential Schools' Council
Humanities Curriculum Project of the late 1960s and early 70s, led by Lawrence
Stenhouse, emphasised that 'curriculum research and development ought to belong to
the teacher' (Stenhouse, 1975 p.142). Self-reflective approaches to research were seen
as a powerful means of generating theory from practice, whilst at the same time
contributing to the professional development of the teachers involved in the research. In
the early 1970s John Elliott and Clem Adelman helped to further develop the emergent
principles of educational action research through their leadership of the Ford Teaching
Project, which sought to support teachers who wished to introduce new curriculum
materials and enquiry methods into their classrooms (see Elliott and Adelman, 1976).
Importantly, successful curriculum innovation was envisaged as not merely resulting
from supplying teachers with externally produced curriculum materials, but from their
involvement in researching and evaluating the materials and methods which they would
use in the classroom. From these foundations a wide range of action research
methodologies were developed during the 1980s and 90s, resulting in a variety of
publications, networks of researchers and themed conferences (see Carr and Kemmis,
1986; McNiff, 1988; Elliott, 1991).
In essence, action research aims to achieve both research outcomes and action outcomes.
It is therefore a term given to 'a group of research techniques which seek to bring about
change as a direct result of the research process' (Fien and Hillcoat, 1996 p.36). Action
research is carried out by practitioners on their own practice; it is inappropriate for an
'outsider' to conduct action research on the problems of others, although he or she may
273
274 G. BUTT
support the action research of another person. In its most successful forms it can be
pertinent to the needs of both teachers and students, contributing directly to the
professional standing of the former and the learning of the latter (Naish 1996). Slater
(1996a) captures a flavour of the recent popularity of this form of qualitative research in
geography education when she states:
action research is seen by some to be the only really 'with-it' and valid way of
tackling educational research. It is described as the research stance which
gets into classrooms, it describes the teachers as teacher and researcher.
Action researchers participate in and initiate action in order to try to effect
some improvement in the educational enterprise. Their aim is to be part of the
research, to understand better what is going on, to bring about change and to
evaluate that change (p.299).
However, because of the range of methodologies which action research now

encompasses the intentions, form, scale and results of such research may be quite
diverse. Chesler (1991), for example, believes that the action researcher should be
committed to 'personal action-taking, and to improving the human and social condition
directly' (p.760), whilst Cohen and Manion (1998) visualise action research at a smaller
scale, emphasising its role in 'diagnosing a problem in a specific context and attempting
to solve it in that context' (p.186). The structure of action research projects regularly
emphasise the cyclical components originally outlined by Lewin (1948)- namely those
of reconnaissance, planning, acting, observing, collecting evidence and reflecting on the
evidence gathered - a cycle which can be repeated according to outcome and need.
Recent commentators have refined this model to allow for a restructuring of the original
research questions within action research cycles, as well as accommodating the shifts in
emphasis that often occur during the research process.
The action that results from such research is not simply a practical solution to a problem,
but represents a more in-depth, critical, analytical and reflective understanding of the
particular problem studied (see Tripp, 1990). Action is thus contingent upon the
creation of high quality, research-based information, rather than simply resulting from
applying 'sensible' responses to everyday issues.
THE PLACE OF 'THEORY' WITHIN ACTION RESEARCH
Although 'theory' has inevitably been involved in the construction of action research
methodologies, many believe that the overall purpose of action research is largely
pragmatic - to achieve practical solutions to real problems. Action research is therefore
not primarily driven by theoretical structures, or by any deep-seated desire to either
explore or create educational theory. However, it must be acknowledged that this view
of action research is contested - theoretical frameworks can provide the structures
through which teachers interpret their problems and indicate the appropriate research
methodologies to help investigate and solve these problems. In many action research
projects theories are generated as a result of practice, rather than being created through
philosophical reasoning at the start of the research process.
GEOGRAPHY TEACHERS AS ACTION RESEARCHERS 275
Because of its distinctive, practical, problem solving approach action research has
become favoured among classroom-based practitioners in many countries. Examples of
such research, often supported by university-based academics, might be cited from
South Africa (Walker 1993), the Netherlands (Wals, 1994), Austria (Posch, 1993;
Schlinder, 1993), Slovenia (Pozarnik, Skerbinek, Murko and Mlinar, 1993), Spain (de
Gauna, Diaz, Gonzalez and Ganaizar, 1995) and Hong Kong (Keuber, Ha, Lam, Lee,
Ng, Yan and Yum, 1997). As Gerber and Williams (2000) state, this style of research is
popular within the international geography education community for 'there would
appear to be little interest among geography educators in undertaking research that is
narrowly defined in terms of theory construction or the refinement of research
methodologies' (p.212). Recent examples of the growth of classroom-based research in
the UK can be found in the 'Theory into Practice' series published by the Geographical
Association (GA) since 1999. A number of these monographs aim to fulfil an action
research agenda, inviting teachers 'to revisit essential questions like: Why am I teaching
this topic? Why am I teaching it this way? Is there a more enjoyable/ challenging/
interesting/ successful way to teach it? What, how and why are the students learning?'
(Butt and Biddulph, 1999). These approaches echo the work of others, who also
consider the main role of contemporary research in education to be closely tied to
solving problems in the classroom (see Smyth 1987; Tripp, 1990).
Internationally, action research is often initiated as a result of teachers enrolling on

award bearing courses (such as Masters in Education or BPhil Ed courses) where a
'research led' dissertation is required of the candidates. Some Higher Education
Institutions (HEis) publish monographs and compendiums of such research, which
include numerous examples of practitioner-based action research (see Bale and Slater,
1997; Graves, Kent, Lambert, Naish and Slater, 1989; Slater, 1994, 1995, 1996b, 1997).
Teachers may also be attracted to participate in government led initiatives, such as the
Best Practice Research Scholarships currently funded by the Department for Education
and Skills (DfES) in the UK, which involve the creation of research partnerships
between teachers and academics in HEis; or may join research groupings such as the
Thinking Through Geography Group initiated by David Leat amongst geography
teachers in the North East of England (Leat, 1999; Leat and Nichols, 1999). In service
training (INSET) and part or day release from normal teaching and administration loads
have also encouraged teachers in a number of countries to become involved in action
research projects.
Hillcoat (1996) usefully summarises the impact of action research in geography

education, illustrating how it can have a number of outcomes different from those
normally associated with more 'traditional' research, such as:
• Advancing practical knowledge relevant to a particular situation.

• Raising consciousness and empowering those involved in the research.
• Taking into account the needs of all those involved in it.
• Respecting and utilising the expertise and skills of all those involved.
• Sharing control by both researcher and participants of the questions which the
research is addressing.
276 G.BUTI
Somewhat controversially the role of theorising within action research in geography

education is omitted from Hillcoat's list.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION RESEARCH
Fien (1992) and Naish (1996) remind us that many teachers share a healthy scepticism
about educational research, viewing it as an activity that 'goes on elsewhere, outside and
beyond school . . . .. undertaken by experts who make use of teachers, schools and
children to undertake their research' (Naish 1996, p.321). This research is often seen as
being largely irrelevant to the needs of the practising teacher, usually being reported in
obscure books and journals to which they have little access.
Action research has made significant strides in removing the unhelpful divide which has
previously occurred between the 'researcher' and the 'practitioner', forging useful
partnerships between the two and encouraging 'practitioners who research' (see
Hammersley, 1993). Drawing upon this fact Naish (1996) helpfully lists five typical
characteristics of action research, namely that it can be collaborative, bringing together
researchers and practitioners to work on a particular problem; that it involves critical
reflection on an issue or question; that it is often concerned with social situations; that it
involves reflective teachers (see Schon, 1983); and that it is systematic, involving clear
phases within an action research cycle with the results of the research being made public
in some way.
Given its current location firmly within the qualitative research tradition, action research
was partly founded from positivistic perspectives which sought to generalise findings
about the resolution of specific problems to wider contexts. As such, this research was
more concerned with 'ends rather than means' - concentrating upon generalisable
conclusions, rather than upon the research processes and questions used to get to these
end points. Many believe that 'positivistic action research' is flawed: it tends to focus
too closely on the aims of the researcher who has devised the original research questions
(a researcher who may be external to the school context), rather than on the needs of
other practitioners involved in the research (see Hillcoat, 1996). More significantly,
researchers who adopt a positivitic approach may be tempted to apply their findings
from small scale research projects to wider communities without the justification of an
appropriate breadth of evidence that would enable them to do so. It is also possible that
the positivist forms of action research do not necessarily fall within a 'critical tradition' -
that is, they do not necessarily aim to change the social context in which the research is
conducted and may actually serve to reinforce it.
Participatory (or 'emancipatory') forms of action research aim to bring together all the
people involved in the research process to critically reflect upon practice, in order to
improve some aspect of the teachers' work. This may help the participants understand
their practice better, question previously accepted practices and become more aware of
the consequences of their actions. Here the aim is to achieve a critical perspective
resulting in practical and reasoned action. Some researchers would juxtapose this
approach to what could be called 'technical action research' which is driven by the aim
of eventually achieving efficient practice, often judged against criteria that may be
externally imposed or that remain unquestioned within the research (Tesch, 1990).
Unfortunately by focussing only on practice, at the expense of considerations of the
contexts of that practice, the researcher may adopt a 'must do better' approach, even if
the aim of the research is emancipatory. An awareness of how the findings and
processes of action research can impact on the context in which the research is carried
out is therefore important.
ACTION RESEARCH TECHNIQUES.
An overview of the different research paradigms (Table 1), here described as

'frameworks', is provided by Bell (1993) who notes that the variety of aims,
methodologies and techniques used within these research frameworks may be combined
to reach particular research goals (cited in Slater 1996a).
Table 1. An overview of the different research paradigms.
Framework Aim Methodology Techniques
Scientific To test relationships Inductive or deductive, Experimental, testing, pre-

among variables, to hypothesis formulation test, post-test formulae,
understand hypothesis testing,
interrelationships, to observation and survey
describe, explain, predict.
Interpretative To find meaning, to Anthropological, Observation, note-taking,
illuminate meaning in ethnographic, interviewing, (structured
written and spoken phenomenological, case and unstructured),
accounts, past and present study, context respecting. conversation, diary-
events and situations and keeping, illuminative
interactions among people, descriptions, thick
to portray, to paint a descriptions.
picture.
Action To effect an improvement Critical stance, working Acting, observing, refining

by action within a situation within a situation and re-planning
alone or with others.
Postmodem To highlight the Working within a Experiments with writing

'constructedness' or situation, case study, that blur the boundary
contingency of knowledge, ethnographic, critical between facts and fiction,
to draw attention to the stance, self-reflexive, textual analysis,
hidden agendas of foregrounding of research collaborative research and
knowledge claims. subjectivity. collective authorship of
research texts.
278 G.BU'IT
If we focus upon the range of research methods and techniques which fall within the
boundaries of action research, as described above, a broad and eclectic list can be
produced. The table below (Table 2) gives an overview of these methods:
Table 2. An overview of action research methods (after McKernan, 1991: Elliott, 1991; Naish, 1996).
Observational/ Non observational, Discourse analysis and Critical-reflective and

narrative methods survey and self problem solving evaluative methods
reporting methods methods
participant questionnaires, content analysis, triangulation, lesson

observation, outsider interviews, attitude document analysis, profiles, student/teacher
observation, scales, checklists, episode analysis, evaluation forms,
shadowing, case inventories brainstorming, group critical trialling.
studies, diaries, discussion
journals, photos, video
audio taping, rating
scales
This diversity of techniques and methods is both a strength and a weakness of action
research. Action research has attracted criticism precisely because of the breadth of its
methodological parameters, which make the definition of a specific methodological
approach within such research impossible. However, reflective diaries and journals
have become a major source of evidence within action research, often being favoured by
practitioner researchers because they are manageable and have little disruptive impact
on the practice one seeks to observe.
The Strengths and Weaknesses of Action Research in Geography Education
For geography educationists action research offers many attractive features. In its
participatory forms it involves practitioners within the research process from start to
finish - engaging them in formulating the research aims, questions and methodologies, as
well as actually undertaking the research. Participatory action research should therefore
directly serve the needs of the practitioner, whose expertise and experience is both
recognised and valued. The research process should therefore neither be externally
determined nor imposed upon the teacher. Good participatory action research should
also serve as a vehicle for professional development, enabling participants to question
and change the ways in which they work based upon a critical reflection on their
previous practice (Keiny, 1993). Many action research projects use small samples and
low cost methods, both of which are obviously attractive to lone (or small groups ot)
researchers in the classroom.
A IIUijor strength of action research is that classroom practitioners can become critical
theorists, who can 'test' or create theories in practice in order to solve their own
problems. As a result teacher researchers often become better at articulating their
professional difficulties, as well as becoming more active in practical problem solving.

The autonomy of these teachers should therefore increase as a direct result of their
growing confidence in applying methods of solving their own problems. Teachers know
their classrooms and students in ways that the 'outside' researcher cannot- they can
observe and act over long periods with greater insight than any 'outsider'.
However, there are limitations to the potential achievements of participatory action

research. The wider significance of the findings of critically reflective practice may be
limited if the research process focuses too narrowly on the interests of the participants,
for this focus may not take into account other, equally valid and important, perspectives.
In this way the research may become 'blinkered', only recognising and valuing the
findings that coincide with the specific interests of the researcher. It is also impossible
to be critically reflective all the time, for at some point the validity of a situation must be
accepted before the research can move forward. Perhaps the biggest danger is that
emanicaptory action research may promise more than it can deliver - in the real world
the ultimate goal of generating realistic solutions to practical problems is often
unachievable! Consciousness of the limitations of given situations, structures or systems
does not necessarily lead to their rational solution. Nonetheless, some researchers
recognise this as a perennial problem to which action research has arguably contributed
more answers than many other forms of research. Usher and Bryant (1989), for
example, describe action research as leading to 'informed, committed doing, which
recognises the limits of its own situatedness and has an understanding of what is prudent
in given circumstances' (p.139). Although it is difficult to visualise how truly
emancipatory forms of action research can function within the existing (geography)
education systems in certain countries, their methods could (if applied) keep alive the
tension between the 'teacher as professional agent' and the inhibiting social structures
within which the teacher operates. This dynamic is an important feature of the
contribution of action research to teachers' professionalism.
Naish (1996) identifies one of the main weaknesses of action research as teachers being
unable to find the occasion and the time to undertake research activities. He reports on
research undertaken by Kwan and Lee (1994) amongst geography teachers in Brisbane
and Hong Kong whose involvement in, and understanding of, action research was
limited - with respondents citing reasons for non engagement as lack of time, heavy
workloads, lack of familiarity with techniques, and little support for research within
schools. Similar responses are reported from other countries where the geography
curriculum is centrally determined and overly bureaucratic, often resulting in heavy
workloads and lack of opportunity for curriculum innovation. In addition, practitioner
involvement, which is central to action research, can limit its scope and scale, at the
same time making the wider application of results more problematic. The researcher's
interest in the findings can also bias the research process, as certain teacher researchers
experience difficulties in remaining impartial and detached. Further, some would claim
that a weakness of action research is that it is not necessarily aimed at 'producing
knowledge' but more narrowly at 'improving practice'.
Issues concerning the scale, relevance and replicability of findings from action research
have recently been challenged by Bright and Leat (2000), who claim that by working
280 G. BUTT
together teacher researchers can 'provide generalisable conclusions and add

considerably to the professionalism of teachers' (p.260). This is evidenced by the
results achieved by the Thinking Through Geography Group in the UK, who have
applied action research methodologies and then broadcast their findings nationally
through a series of influential publications (Leat, 1999; Leat and Nichols, 1999; Nichols,
2001). The group visualises its research results as being valid for others to interpret
within their own practice - although this may create a divide between those who 'do' the
research and those who 'use' the results of the research; a boundary which action
research seeks to remove. At the international scale, similar concerns might be
expressed about various small scale research projects, each of which contain some
elements of action research methodology, whose findings have been conveyed to wider
audiences through international journals. Examples might be chosen, almost randomly,
from a number of countries - Botswana (Seke, 2000), England (Butt, 1991; Jones,
1996), Israel (Livni and Bar, 1998), USA (Barton, 2000), Wales (Lyle, 2000) -where
the aims, context and specificity of the research may make replicability and
generalisation problematic. More importantly in some countries, and indeed across
some continents, there are concerns as to whether action research is having any
significant impact on educational theory and practice - see, for example, Stuart and
Kunje's (1998) account of practitioner research in Malawi/Africa and Li, Yu, Lam and
Fok's (1999) work in Hong Kong/China.
As in any form of research, weaknesses within action research are partly eradicated
through validation. Validation is a cornerstone of research in that it seeks to ensure
objectivity and rigour by removing bias. The concept of bias is a challenging one with
respect to action research, for arguably it has a greater relevance within positivistic
forms of research. If action research is about extending professional practice - that is,
enabling teachers to interpret and act upon their practice informed by published research
and practitioner enquiry - then it is essentially a biased activity, for it is founded upon
the teacher's partial views of his or her own practice. Action research can also be
conceived of as a means of developing teachers' personal theories and then connecting
these to existing theories. Consequently, issues of validity may not be central to action
research, although all researchers need to operate from a base of established
methodologies.
Hillcoat (1996) mentions four forms of validation that might be applied to action
research methods: triangulation, face validity, construct validity, and catalytic validity.
In essence these involve the use of a variety of research methods (often on the same
data) to help minimise bias, recognising that each method has its own particular
strengths and weaknesses; enabling participants in the research to explore the findings
and comment on these to the researcher(s); allowing participants in the research to help
construct new theories and/or approaches; and using research findings as a catalyst for
change.
Making decisions in geography education through action research projects: the

role of researchers and practitioners in the action research process
Problems can arise if there is a gulf between the knowledge, understanding and skills of
the researcher and those of the situated participants. According to Hillcoat (1996), there
may be tensions between the 'theoretical or expert knowledge' of the 'outside'
researcher and the 'practical knowledge, which will get things done' of the practitioner -
although in successful forms of action research the aim would be for all parties to
achieve both forms of knowledge and therefore understand problems and issues from the
perspective of the other. Nonetheless, dichotomies can create conflict, particularly if
'outside' researchers are perceived as being removed from 'reality' and the need to
pursue practical solutions to problems.
Those involved in the action research process, even if it is of a participatory nature, will
have different roles, responsibilities, expertise and status. To be truly participatory (and
emancipatory) these differences will have to be acknowledged and dealt with such that
no-one feels sidelined by the research process. The means by which this may be
achieved is not always straightforward for even the most democratic approaches may
leave some participants feeling as though they are merely being used as sources of
information, or unenlightened bit part players. A major question arises as to whether
such a state of affairs constitutes 'action research' -for the 'outside' researcher's role
should be to act as a critical friend/support to the practitioner who is undertaking the
action research into his or her own practice. 'Outside' researchers who narrowly pursue
their own research agendas often feel uneasy about giving up the control and direction of
the research process, although this is inevitable if a truly democratic and emancipatory
form of research is to result. Issues of facilitation, power, influence and autonomy
naturally arise.
Action Research and Professional Development
Ultimately the most significant impact of action research may be somewhat detached
from its immediate research base. Many writers see action research as being
instrumental in the creation of a new professionalism within geography education
(Hickman et al., 1973; Fien, 1992; Naish, 1996; Gerber and Lidstone, 1996; Bright and
Leat, 2000). Indeed, Naish (1996) and Ghaye (1996) specifically highlight the central
role of action research in promoting teachers' professional development, noting its
important function in providing a vehicle for career-based lifelong learning for
geography educators.
The significance of action research within the professional development of teachers

should not be underplayed (Keiny, 1993). Professional status is deservedly sought and
jealously guarded by all those involved in education. It is characterised by the use of
methods based on theoretical knowledge and research; by members of the profession
being committed to the well being of their clients; and through members having
individual and collective rights to make autonomous, independent judgements regardless
of external non professional controls (Carr and Kemmis, 1986). Action research can
282 G. BUTT
directly support teacher researchers in their aspirations to achieve, develop and maintain
their professional status within geography education.
Conclusion
Action research is not the solution to all our (research) problems in geography
education. However, by enabling classroom-based practitioners to directly question and
interpret their own educational situations, structures and ideologies, it does offer hope
beyond those methodologies which leave such aspects unquestioned or unresolved.
Action research is primarily a vehicle for professional development, rather than a
research process that can lead to generalisable results. Fundamentally, action research is
predicated on the notion that research can 'make a difference', through seeking to find
practical solutions to real problems. It can also serve to question current assumptions
and can usefully inform research and policy agendas.
The significance of participatory and collaborative forms of active research in

geography education, involving partnerships between teachers as researchers and
researchers/tutors in Higher Education Institutions (HEis ), should be stressed. The role
of the latter within these partnerships is not unproblematic - HEI based researchers may
sometimes disrupt the main function of action research, which is broadly to enable
teachers to develop the geography curriculum (defined broadly as including aspects of
teaching, learning and subject knowledge). Here, the Schools' Council Humanities
Curriculum Project of the 1970s may still serve as a touchstone for the development of
teacher professionalism through action research.
At the international scale action research is enabling geography teachers to challenge the
everyday problems that confront their classroom practice, often leading to a re-
conceptualisation of their work. Reflection and action are essential in an environment as
complex as the classroom if progress is to be maintained and the professional status of
geographers enhanced. The influential growth of action research, and indeed the growth
of other forms of qualitative research in geography education, is partly reflected in
Gerber and Lidstone's (1996) comment that:
twenty years ago the main researchers amongst geographical educators were
university lecturers in a few centres in a few countries such as the United
Kingdom, Germany, France and the USA. Currently the researchers consist of
university academics, teachers, post-graduate and undergraduate students,
community members, professional organisations and school students. This
diverse band of researchers are distributed widely across the countries of the
world. They are not only working with colleagues in their own country, but
with colleagues from other countries in similar and contrasting contexts (p.5).
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20. EXPLORING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TEACIDNG
AND RESEARCH IN GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION
FRANCES SLATER
Introduction
WHAT RELATIONSIDPS?
Just before starting to write this chapter, I mentioned its title to a small group of geography
educator friends. One said quite firmly, "there are none". She cited as evidence a
conversation she had had with teachers about research. She meant that teachers do not read
research, generally speaking, and do not use its findings in their teaching practices.
Teachers can be disdainful about and even hostile to research and research jargon. In this
sense there is no chapter to be written. Certainly, many teachers see themselves as
practitioners dealing with the practical, not the theoretical. This chapter, at heart, is about
relationships between two cultures, the one stereotyped as busy, responding minute by
minute to classroom demands, the other quiet, deliberately reflective and contemplative,
surrounded by books and index cards. This is a commonly held picture of two different
activities having conflicting priorities in which the teacher is on the receiving end of
research.
In this chapter, I shall identify relationships between teaching and research at a number of
different levels from the personal to the theoretical. First, I choose to analyse a piece of
research on fieldwork to clarify a set of relationships which arise firstly from the personal,
and secondly, out of processes characterising the diffusion of innovations. The first piece
will then be contrasted with a second also on fieldwork in order to comment on how
relationships are influenced by positions people take. The chapter however, is not primarily
or most significantly about fieldwork. Other publications including Gerber and Chuan (eds)
(2000) have done this recently. Later in the chapter a more theoretical approach will be
taken through examining the theory/practice divide in educational cultures with reference to
the development of action research and research in teacher education. Throughout the
chapter, it is assumed that private, personal research should move into the public domain. It
needs to be remembered however, that people can and do undertake research in relation to
their teaching which may never be written up or when written up does not find many
readers. If the research impacts positively on their understanding and /or teaching, then the
285
R. Gerber ( ed)International Handbook on Geographical Education 285-298.
286 F. SLATER
work has been useful. I make this point as a rebuttal to the sometimes heard comment,
"What's the use of research, nobody reads it".
RELATIONSHIPS REVEALED IN AUTOBIOGRAPHY
In 1991 P.K. Harvey submitted his PhD thesis to the University of Durham for examination.
The outcome was successful. As often happens however, his work remained unpublished
except for a joint article on work in progress (McPartland and Harvey, 1987). One
presumes he was too busy hunting a job to write extensively. Then he took a position in
university administration and did not return to teaching. Given his subject, fieldwork, and
its prominence in geography teaching in the UK, and worldwide, his work deserved
dissemination among teachers. I touch again on one of the most apparent relationships
between teaching and research: the difficulty of getting much good, relevant, valuable and
useful research into the minds and practices of teachers. Harvey's research is valuable,
firstly, for his initial approach through autobiography to formulate his research. Valuable,
that is, in relation to this particular chapter, since his autobiographical reflections give
evidence of some of the personal relationships between teaching and research.
His introduction opens with a description of a field experience at school, which Harvey then
a pupil, found disappointing. The same was true of early experiences at the then, Oxford
Polytechnic, now Oxford Brookes University. Later, some positive experiences,
conceptually engaging, linked to stimulating ideas and followed up through small group
seminar discussion, lifted fieldwork on to another plane for him. After he had completed his
teacher training year, and led field studies with students, backed by his tutors, he sat down
and wrote a research proposal on residential fieldwork for sixth formers taking the
Advanced level examinations. The role of fieldwork as a vehicle for learning had become a
research project for him, as an independent researcher, about to research the practice of
other teachers.
On my reading, Phil Harvey's story illustrates how the experience of being a learner and
being a teacher led to a motivation and interest to research. Such a relationship between the
experiences of being a learner, teaching and taking on a piece of research is common.
Experience, including the experience of teaching and the development of personal theory
raises questions, stimulates and motivates .. Against experience, formalised, published
research ideas and arguments play their part in stimulating and raising further questions. A
complementary relationship exists. Teaching and research inform and support each other.
Opportunities for research arise and significant others influence.
In addition to his own history, Harvey documents the roots of a research interest in
fieldwork teaching which a former tutor outlined to him. Jenkins, as quoted in Harvey
(1991), was firstly influenced by a desire to do research and marry an interest in research
with an interest in the teaching of geography; secondly, he had had a significant discussion
with another teacher/researcher L.Dee Fink in 1974/5; thirdly, he had read a study
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TEACHING AND RESEARCH 287
evaluating a curriculum experiment in physics and recognised a parallel with fieldwork and
fourthly, he talked to Harvey about a gap between the pedagogical aims for fieldwork and
the actual outcomes. The four points reinforce the complementarity of the relationships
between the activities of thinking about teaching, doing research, using research and being
influenced by personal contacts.
RELATIONSHIPS MEDIATED THROUGH CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
As I tum the pages of the thesis and focus more on Harvey's research, further relationships
are illuminated. ·
In researching, he documents influences on teachers and their teaching. From a survey of

thirty-six geography method tutors (i.e. geographers working in teacher education) who
were asked to identify key influences on their ideas about teaching fieldwork since 1970, he
distilled a list of what are in effect, channels of communication down which messages flow.
These include personal friends and acquaintances; good fieldworkers; teaching colleagues;
geographical education innovators, book and article authors and curriculum project teams. I
emphasise Harvey's identification of these people as channels of communication. Like the
points which Jenkins makes, this list highlights significant people mediating relationships
between research and teaching/learning processes.
Harvey also writes of what is absent. He notes that the tutors do not refer to learning
theorists or other educationalists (with the exception of Bruner); to educational research
(including their own); to data from educational research specifically investigating fieldwork;
nor to evaluation of their own teaching as a source of influence. So there is little revealed
connection here between teaching and educational research. Rather, as Harvey sees it, the
influences are very pragmatic and subject based, and deal with the practical implications of
changes in the methodological and techriical aspects of geography, or the conceptual
changes prompted by a major reorientation of the subject's philosophy. The evidence here
is of no apparent recognition of research and background theory outside the subject of
geography. The quote used at the beginning of the chapter to some extent holds good.
GAPS BETWEEN IDEAL AND REALITY OR THEORY AND PRACTICE
From the autobiographical and biographical, Harvey's research moves into the traditional
examination of literature, in his case that in geography and geography education and also in
education and curriculum and curriculum evaluation more generally. He finds a good deal
of rhetoric relating to the aims and benefits of field experience or in other words, a gap
between ideal and reality, theory and practice. This gap research illuminates. A similar
theme emerges from his analysis of general education literature and he again becomes alert
to mismatches or gaps between aims, practices and outcomes. Researching research
288 F. SLATER
provides Harvey with pointers while his personal research provides him with a mirror in
which to view teaching.
So looking into his research mirror after interviews with field tutors, teachers, students and a
critical assessment of the context provided by the field centre, Harvey identifies among his
substantive results a placing of content above the process of enquiry. He found that
although teachers held that fieldwork would develop pupil ability to conduct their own
investigations, such an objective was not translated into practice.
Moreover, staff at the field centre recognised a tension between closing an enquiry around
an explicit structure with prespecified aims, methods and content, and opening the learning
process by involving students more in negotiating the direction and course of an
investigation. Tutor, teacher and student aims and expectations were often in tension
something he saw as negative and militating against maximum learning. Harvey's fmdings
touch a chord. They have a ring of authenticity in a teacher's ears - an important
relationship between research and teaching. Above all, his research tells us more about
teaching processes and outcomes. It follows that teachers can make more informed
decisions about their teaching. In this way research is supporting teaching (see also
Roberts, 2000).
EVIDENCE OF DISSEMINATION, ACCEPTANCE AND ADOPTION
To substantiate further relationships between research and teaching I would have to have
knowledge of the spread of Harvey's specific findings and their implementation by teachers.
As I have already indicated adoptors. and rates of adoption have not been high. K.C. Lai
(1999) in Hong Kong, in his recent research is aware of Harvey's work and of much other
research in fieldwork. This is evidence of diffusion to another researcher, but not however,
of teachers acting on research fmdings.
Mention was made earlier of influential people acting as mediators to move research ideas
into the teaching world. One such possible mediator, David Job, was involved in Harvey's
research as a tutor where Harvey did his research. He brought into his teaching as well as
his writing (Job, 1996) an awareness of Harvey's findings including the stage-management
of hypotheses; the tension between the cognitive and the emotional; and that between the
technocentric, utilitarian stance taken in fieldwork and the possibility of addressing
environmental issues. How far others took up Job's adapted teaching practices is also
undocumented. I know, personally, that he had influence on teachers in training at the
University of London Institute of Education for a period, and on teachers more widely,
through in-service work. The fact that some of Harvey's ideas are now discussed in Job's
text (1999) will facilitate further dissemination some ten years after the completion of the
thesis. Relationships between teaching/learning and research are dependent and contingent,
dependent on time, place and people and contingent on opportunities and equally, subject to
barriers of many kinds.
Research findings, including reflective conceptual writing as well as paradigm changes in

both geography and education, may be viewed as instances of innov&tions spreading in
landscapes of educational endeavours; these innovations developed outside the immediate
classroom, need a strong network of accepted leaders and others communicating about the
innovation if it is to find its way into the practices of usually conservative teachers; some
will be early, others, late adaptors and yet others resist in perpetuity for what, given the
teacher's and classroom circumstances, may be very good reasons. Taina Kaivola (2000),
for example, has shown in her research on the GLOBE programme innovation (Global
Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) that half the teachers in her sample
rejected the innovation before even trying to implement it while others selected parts they
could fit into their daily schedules. Ideas and practices get filtered through the minds of
teachers and their working conditions acting as interventions.
Chi Chung Lam in Hong Kong in his case study of a curriculum implementation in moral
education found that the level of change achieved was not satisfactory, largely unsupported
as it was by teachers unwilling to commit themselves to what they saw as an extra duty
(Lam, 1991).
Adoption of new concepts, new narratives and stances leading to changes in the
philosophical and conceptual underpinnings of subjects and educational thinking do
however, take place. Significant people and significant research lead to changes in a
discipline and to fresh developments in a teacher's repertoire for thinking or for practice.
Each reader of this chapter, from whatever country, will be able to name influential people,
publications, institutions, and mediators acting as channels of communication, to put
concepts into a public arena. Each reader will also be able to recall points of resistance.
Innovations meet barriers and need support.
Educational Research Flowing into Geography Teaching
Thus far I have emphasised two-way relationships between geography teaching and research
in geography education, relationships arising out of the personal and the processes. From
another example, I shall draw out a different point. One teacher, unhappy with examination
results in his department, used his private research opportunity to evaluate the course and
carry through improvements (Hones, 1988). Hones (like Harvey) selected from the public
landscape of curriculum evaluation, concepts and methods for his particular purpose. He
was hearing messages about evaluation, and adopting them in his teaching.
Geography teaching is being continuously directly and indirectly enriched by research from
outside. It is being used as a testing ground for concepts and theories developed elsewhere
(Francis, 1994). But rarely, I think, does research in geography teaching flow back into,
modify, or become part of the body of general educational research. We may recognise that
a one way relationship prevails.
290 F. SLATER
As a particular landscape, geography education, is one of many within the general landscape
of educational thinking and endeavours. Indeed, its landscape is partly constructed and
shaped by movements in areas known as the philosophical, sociological, historical,
psychological and general educational and curriculum research. All are enveloped in a
changing weather and climate generated by wider society, culture and economy and its
beliefs, attitudes, values, ideologies and imperatives. Recent reports from the Baltic
countries (Liiber, 2000) illustrate just this. And indeed, though not explored in this chapter,
strong government initiatives in England and Wales have changed the climate in which
teachers work (Rawling, 1996, 2000). In their research, Ferreira and Rikkinen equally show
up government influences in Portugal and Finland (Ferreira, 1992, 1995; Rikkinnen, 1982).
RESEARCHING IN SOCIOLOGICAL LANDSCAPES
As a brief example, I shall use a second thesis on fieldwork, which illustrates, outstandingly,
interaction between sociological landscapes, feminist research and geography teaching. As
a pupil, and later teacher and head of geography in New Zealand secondary schools, Karen
Nairn (1998 and 1999) has been on the receiving and delivery end of fieldwork. Her
research, in contrast to Harvey's, uses another language, another discourse, another "take".
She is journeying in different scenery. From a feminist post-structuralist point of view, she
reconsiders fieldwork. The literature on which she bases her reconsideration does not
include writing or research in geography education. She examines the impact of fieldwork
through her key question: ''how are the embodied disciplinary identities of "geography
student"/"geographer" socially constructed and reproduced through the culture of residential
fieldtrips in Aotearoa/New Zealand in the 1990s?" While Harvey does not ignore the social
dimension in fieldtrips, Nairn puts this into another discourse, expressed in the language of
identities, hegemonies and resistances. She finds confirmation in her research of a
masculinist dominance feeding into the constructed identity of a geographer. Hers is
another percipience conditioned, like Harvey's, individually, educationally and culturally
but informed by different ideas and theories generated in different landscapes.
THE ROLE OF BELIEFS AND STYLES OF RESEARCH IN FILTERING

RELATIONSHIPS
So, with different philosophical and methodological stances in research, results and
meanings generated are mediated and nuanced differently. Schrettenbrunner and Van
Westrhenen (1992) with their contributors from Hong Kong, Germany, the Netherlands and
Australia work in a scientific tradition. Their volume is a handbook of research in scientific
method. Scientific and qualitative research studies stand differently in relation to teaching.
Research showing the superior effectiveness of one method of teaching over another would
relate to our practise very differently from research informing us about geography's
masculinist gaze, for example. The first would seem to give a clear choice on how to
proceed for maximum effectiveness, the second perhaps refigure our own personal
understanding and diffuse into our teaching. But with any philosophy or style of research
and its mediating effect, we still face the question: " to what extent does research generated
knowledge find its way into teaching?" only to find another very theoretical question
waiting, "what counts as research knowledge?".
But What Counts as Research Knowledge?
I well remember being one of an interviewing panel discussing the merits of candidates for a
teacher training post, one of whom had research experience, the other not. A colleague
commented most appositely, that the candidate without research experience, nevertheless,
used lots of theory in responding to questions. He meant that she had considerable
knowledge which could be dignified as theory and on which she was operating to inform her
practice. Educational theory and research have developed from centuries of speculation,
theorising, position taking on and investigations of, practice. This presents us with a large
range of ideas and research through time and at scales from national and international
surveys to individual efforts. From a teacher's early engagement in the teaching/learning
process, one can say, that teachers' heads are full of knowledge and theories. For example,
from general educational thinking and research, teachers use theories of motivation .or
psychological development (from Piaget to constructivism) or have cultural predispositions
to conceptions of school knowledge from encyclopaedism to humanist. In this sense,
teaching is a research/theory driven process based on the codification of experience down
the ages and/or a personal codification evolved during a life span.
Scott (2000) in a recent commentary on the theory/practice relationship posits a division

first, between technical rationality models of the relationship which hold to the belief that
theory or research stands above practice and informs it. Secondly, there is the practitioner
knowledge position which I have outlined anecdotally above. It involves continuous cycles
of deliberation and action by teachers so that theory enters into and emerges from practice.
A third alternative is suggested: that research and teaching are separate activities and that
they operate with different criteria as to what constitutes knowledge. The recent and
ongoing quality control and assessment exercises in higher education encourage this view as
they separate teaching and research. And as I have already hinted at, government policy
makers see teachers as technicians delivering a curriculum, not professionals. They are
required to conform to policy, i.e. theory set out by others in positions of authority with
supposedly superior knowledge. This is a world-wide trend. The philosophical and
practical discussions to untangle and understand theory/practice relationships will continue.
I find it helpful to think of practitioner knowledge as more personally based and research
knowledge as publicly held but the distinction is not a water tight one as the personal and
the public interact. It seems to me that we could shift from arguments about whether we
value theory more than practice or teaching more than research and move to developing
conversation and connection. This can happen in any location where people wish to talk,
think and examine their knowledge and practice. Between theory and practice stands
292 F. SLATER
communication. This chapter has in fact begun to show that teachers as researchers and
researchers as teachers do talk to each other for some of the time at least and that networks
of people talking to one another are central to the dissemination and adoption process.
ACTION RESEARCH
Without doubt the British curriculum projects depended for much of their success, i.e. their
adoption by teachers, on setting up local and regional networks of teachers to develop
materials and influence other teachers in their use. The project and teacher teams were not
sole researchers working alone and they had fmancial and institutional support. It is
interesting that initiated by Charles Namafe (2001), who studied in London, a curriculum
project in Zambia is adopting something of the 16-19 project's ethos and strategy with
British Council support. The dissemination of ideas continues, some twenty-five years after
the research (Naish et al., 1987).
Slater (1996) and Naish (1996a) have both made cases for curriculum research to be
classified as action research on the grounds that teachers in such research are intervening to
reflect on and improve practice in the geography curriculum and their teaching. In the
concept, action research, the relationship between teaching and research is integrated and in
fact, it has been developed by teachers and educational researchers in order to close the gap
between the two previously stereotyped cultures. The development of teacher as researcher
ideas in curriculum research in the 70s and 80s and action research in the 80s and 90s draws
attention to relationships which are both complementary and in a sense simultaneous. These
developments recognise teachers as actively asking questions about their own practice to
plan and act in ways to improve that practice. Observation and reflection are researcherly
activities which allow evaluation and further thought. Substantive bodies of published
research may well be consulted in the process. The important point is that the idea for the
research starts in the teacher/researcher's own practice. I well remember when action
research first developed that I decided to keep a diary (a favourite action research method)
to give myself more time for thinking about supervision of students in schools, the term then
used. As a result I moved my position from one of evaluator to facilitator (Slater, 1988).
Bright and Leat have recently given an account of the relationship between curriculum,
teaching and research in their action research stance. Leat (1997) some years ago like many
of us felt that in some geography teaching there was not enough concern with the
intellectual development of pupils. The problem identified, he was encouraged by the
Cognitive Acceleration in Science Education project (CASE) (Adey and Shayer, 1994).
Since 1992 he has been working with his beginning teachers at Newcastle University and
local geography teachers to develop geography lessons that teach thinking. Materials are
developed, trialed and revised. Leat and his team (Leat, 1998) hold that the strategies
devised started life with no theoretical basis. Yet, they were structured to make lessons
more interesting, to make pupils more excited it seems theories of motivation at least are
there! A close reading of their book suggests a lot more besides. The positions we take in
relation to being teachers or researchers tease us. Bright (1999), researching for a master's
dissertation, decided to introduce some of the Thinking through Geography ideas into her
department, evaluate the consequences and look at the effect on the teachers/researchers.
Her conclusions are positive claiming deeper understanding of many facets of teaching and
student learning (Bright with Leat, 2000). This research by Leat and others and Bright
spells out the close relationship between teaching and research in action mode. It is research
not brought to an end by the climactic changes in government policy and attitudes to
teachers in England and Wales.
The Finding A Way project, which is an in-service teacher education project, sponsored by
The National Council for Geographic Education in the US is another example of action
research (Monk, 1997, Sanders, Tuason and Wridt, n.d.) Its aim is to help teachers stimulate
interest and achievement in geography among girls of diverse racial and ethnic
backgrounds. It manages the diffusion process by bringing teachers into Summer Institutes,
teachers who have already demonstrated leadership in their state geography organisations.
Mter participation, the teachers are assisted to follow up work in their own schools and
regions and to help towards the publication of model teaching activities. The evaluation
data for the first year showed that the teachers were re-thinking their assumptions about
content, students, the teaching process, and their own roles as teacher practitioners and
action researchers able to see the landscape as gendered and to recognise how spaces and
places connect to one's gendered and ethnic identities. Alexius Seke (Seke, 2001) indicates
that he is hoping to set up a Finding A Way type project in Botswana where he researches
and teaches. Teacher involvement in the change process is also reported to be a key
ingredient in the success of an international joint project to exchange and evaluate
geography teaching materials between Japan and the U.S.A. (Nakayama, 1996).
CHILDREN'S LIFE WORLDS
In this chapter, I have located research known as geography education, as very much the
research which teachers in schools and tutors in teacher education carry out. There is
however, a field focused on children's life worlds and undertaken most often by
geographers and others in higher education institutions. Roger Hart's (1979) study of
children in a New Hampshire village established such research in geography education.
Stimulated by his work, Hannele Rikkinen (2000) set up a Children's Living Environment
Project in Finland. Student teachers were the researchers. So this was not learning about
children from psychology texts but learning about children from themselves. Teaching and
research in another complementary relationship. A second example is Pamela Wridt's
(2000) graduate work with Hart at New York. She and others funded by GENIP (The
Geography Education National Implementation Project) are working with children to
research and produce personal atlases of their neighbourhoods. The results are organised
and published by the children with assistance from teachers. There is also a developing
research field, geographies of youth cultures which teachers and students could begin to
294 F. SLATER
research together to facilitate learning of different geographies (Skelton and Valentine,

1998).
RESEARCH IN TEACHER EDUCATION- MORE MEDIATED RELATIONSHIPS
As Phil Harvey and Karen Nairn made a journey in their chosen educational landscapes, so
teachers, student teachers and pupils travel in their own personally constructed educational
landscapes. From such journeys they bring home with them individually selected souvenirs
which strongly influence their preconceptions, beliefs and values about teaching, research,
policy and learning. Roberts (1995) for example, found that teachers' interpretations of the
National Curriculum were affected by their ideologies of geography and education. In a
Forum in IRGEE (Naish, ed. 1996b) a number of writers report research on student
teachers' images of geography teaching and conceptions of geography. The implication is
that their teaching is consequently moulded. Not all teachers are travelling with the same
view (Slater, 1992).
Stimulated by teacher education research (Elliot and Calderhead, 1993 and Shulman, 1986),
Elisabeth Barratt Hacking (1996) found that novice geography teachers hold diverse
interests and perspectives or theoretical positions on the study of geography and appear to
suspend their geographical persuasions in their thinking and planning in school. They
experience interventions of all kinds between their theory based persuasion and their
planning. Corney's (1998 and 2000) vignettes give a detailed sense of the many influences
contributing to and filtering relationships between teaching/learning and research/theory
(see also Martin, 2000). This type of research is based on a concept drawn from teacher
education, that of pedagogical content knowledge which includes a teacher's subject
knowledge, knowledge of education, teaching approaches and pupils. Once again,
geography teaching is being used as a seed bed to test ideas developed more theoretically in
teacher education writing. Cantell's study (2001a,b) of fifty-five teachers in training
examined their concepts of teaching, learning and their aim of geography education. The
way these ideas filtered and informed their thinking led to the identification by Cantell of
five different types of pedagogical geographical thinking. This type of research into the
thinking of teachers in training valuably shows up the relationships between theory
(knowledge of geography, knowledge of education, etc.) and teaching positions.
Teachers minds' filter, students' minds filter. Rickinson's (1999) research draws attention to
preconceptions and experiences of students in classrooms, which act as filters and even
barriers on how they variously experience and evaluate carefully constructed geography
lessons. Alongside Corney and Rickinson, Fido (2000), also at Oxford, found a relationship
of dilemma and interruption between research/theory knowledge and teaching. Teachers
who believed in the teacher as neutral chair (a concept from curriculum research)sometimes
stepped outside their belief when they detected racist, xenophobic attitudes in discussion.
The teachers were not always aware of the contradiction between their belief and their
practice. Another relationship untangled - the learner as a barrier to a teacher's ideal
concept. Some years ago, the Institut National de Recherche Pedagogique (INRP) which
acts to bring geography teaching and research together in France held a themed conference
on representation which was getting very much at this sort of idea, i.e. what teachers and
learners bring to the classroom as intervening variables in teaching as well as in research.
Another meeting on this theme in Grenoble led to a publication (Andre, et al., 1989; Graves,
forthcoming).
Conclusion
"What relationships?". This chapter has shown that there are actual and theoretical
relationships between teaching and research and/or between theory and practice. That there
is a belief in two separate cultures and that this affects research and teaching cannot be
denied. However, there is sufficient evidence in the examples cited in this chapter that close
relationships exist at the personal and professional levels between geography teaching and
research in geography education. Involvement in one often leads to involvement in the
other in a two way relationship.
In the case of action research, the categories research and teaching or theory and practice are
intended to be blurred and the relationships between the two cultures more fully integrated.
One of the pivotal points on which defming the relationships in action research turns is that
of the researcher to the teaching being researched. Phil Harvey and Karen Nairn were
deeply informed by their own experience and practice when researching the practice of
others. Those researching their own practice are all informed by personal or public theory at
some level. This theory they may be calling into question in their action research as they
call their practice into question. The categories theory and practice dissolve when we
picture the teacher as researcher and the teacher as reflective practitioner.
Most broadly speaking though, educational research and thinking has been shown to have
many one way relationships with geography teaching and research. Knowledge, concepts
and ideas flow into research projects in geography education and also directly into
geography teaching and its practices. I cannot however, think of examples where ideas
generated in the research and teaching of geography in education flow back the other way.
Francis' position holds.
Acknowledgement
I should like to thank Michael Weller for his helpful comments during the preparation of
this chapter.
296 F. SLATER
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SECTION 7: INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION
FUTURES
21. LIFELONG GEOGRAPIDCAL EDUCATION
HANNELE CANTELL AND HANNELE RIKKINEN
Changing World, Changing School
The reality of the world today is shaped by changes. The vast and rapid changes under
way in today's world are familiar to all of us. However, Gardner (1999, 41-42) points
out that few institutions have changed as little, in fundamental ways, as those charged
with the formal education of the next generation. This contrasts sharply, and possibly
also dangerously, with children's experiences outside the school walls. In modern
society, children have access to a range of media and their habits, attitudes, and
knowledge are influenced by the heroes and heroines presented in television.
Gardner (1999, 45) states that much of education has been calibrated to make sure that
individuals could carry out a regular job throughout their productive adult years.
Nowadays, this assumption is no longer valid. Few people will remain in the same
occupational niche for their whole lives. The explosion of new and rapidly changing
roles in the workplace complicates education in many different ways. Most adults will
not be experienced in how to prepare young people for such a reality. Youths will have
to prepare themselves for rapidly changing "career paths" and life situations. But one
thing will be sure: The media of communication will be a dominating (if sometimes
unintentional) agency of education throughout the world.
Schools are inherently conservative institutions. However, educational experimentation

has never been wholly absent. There have been charismatic educators, like Maria
Montessori, Rudolf Steiner, Shinichi Suzuki, John Dewey, Paul Freire and A.S. Neill,
but still they have had relatively little impact on the mainstream of education throughout
the contemporary world, claims Gardner (1999, 42). And he continues by saying that
"if schools do not change quite rapidly and quite radically, they are likely to be replaced
by other, more responsive (though perhaps less comfortable and less legitimate)
institutions".
Fien (1993), on his part, has distinguished three ideological orientations towards
education, which differ from each other in the way they perceive the social role of
school and the fundamental purpose of education. According to the conservative
orientation, a school is an institution, which maintains and legitimises existing social,
economic and political structures. The reformative orientation, however, perceives the
task of the school as the preparation of students to participate in the reform of society.
The transformative orientation takes this thinking even farther: School has a definite
301
302 H. CANTEIL AND H. RIKKINEN
role to play in challenging social, economic and political inequalities. Its task is then to
transform itself and society.
According to Fien (1993), transformative education requires the boundaries between

school, the surrounding community, and society to be flexible. Various other
educationalists are also of the opinion that education, which prepares children for the
future must have a stronger social action component than it so far has had (Dalin and
Rust 1996, 139; Delors et al. 1996, 53-58; Hicks and Holden 1995, 10). Children
should get both maps of the complex world in constant turmoil and the compass that
will enable them to find their way in it (Delors et al. 1996, 85). Children should learn
ways and get concrete experiences about how they, as individuals, can act on their own
behalf. It is simply not enough to supply each child, early in life, with a store of
knowledge to be drawn on from then on. Each individual must be equipped to seize
learning opportunities throughout life, both to broaden her or his knowledge, skills and
attitudes, and to adapt to a changing, complex and interdependent world.
Defining Lifelong Education: Towards Holistic Education
The idea of learning and education as a lifelong process is nowadays widely recognized
and popular. Like Garrison and Archer (2000, 16) have argued, there is no one, correct
approach to teaching and learning, but there is, however, increasing agreement that the
ultimate goal of education is to have students "learn to learn" so that they may continue
learning throughout their lifetime. Delors et al. (1996) use the concept "learning
throughout life" and regard it as the key to the twenty-first century. It meets the
challenges posed by a rapidly changing world, since no one can hope to amass during
his or her youth an initial fund of knowledge or skills, which will serve for a lifetime.
According to Delors et al. (1996, 111), learning throughout life also links up with
another concept often put forward, that of the "learning society". The society is to
continuously learn as well and, without hesitating, correct its behaviour accordingly. In
addition, this view of lifelong education presupposes that each individual is able "to
learn how to learn" (Delors et al. 1996, 22), an ability which should be emphasized
already at the initial stage of education.
UNESCO took the concept of lifelong education into use already in the 1970s (Faure et
al. 1973). In its frrst report on education, "Learning to be", it stated that education is
above all an inner journey, the stages of which correspond to those of the continuous
maturation of the personality. Education as a means to an end for a successful working
life is thus a very individualized process and, at the same time, a process of constructing
social interaction.
The second lengthy report on education for UNESCO, Learning: The Treasure Within,
calls for holistic education as well as lifelong learning. This requires, moreover, that the
education of the future needs to be built upon four basic "pillars" which include
"Learning to know", "Learning to do", "Learning to live together" and "Learning to be"
(Delors 1996, 85-97). They represent different dimensions of learning, which are all
essential to human development, both individual and social. Of course, these four paths
of knowledge all form a whole, because there are many points of contact, intersection
LIFE-LONG GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION 303
and exchange among them. However, the following paragraphs explain each dimension
more accurately.
"Learning to know" does not primarily refer to acquiring accurate information, but
refers, rather, to mastering the instruments of understanding. Understanding different
aspects of the environment enables one to make independent choices, and thus to
participate in the world's affairs. Nevertheless, a sufficiently broad, general education
with the possibility to work in depth on a small number of subjects is considered a
"passport to life".
The dimension "Learning to do", on the other hand, aims both at the practical
application of theoretical knowledge, and at enabling an individual to act creatively and
meaningfully in her or his environment. In order to learn the rich skills and
competencies to which this dimension refers, students should be offered opportunities to
develop them also outside the school environment in different areas on the social
horizon.
Developing respect for other people and their different ways of living and thinking is at
the core of the dimension "Learning to live together". It is believed to be the key to
non-violent conflict resolution and peaceful human interaction worldwide. A gradual
"discovery of others" by developing an understanding of the diversity of the human
race, as well as concrete action with other people, are considered to be the paths to reach
this aim.
Finally "Learning to be" refers to the all-round development of individuals - mind and
body intelligence, imagination, sensitivity, aesthetic sense, personal responsibility and
spiritual values - aiming at the complete fulfilment of their personalities and a feeling of
autonomy and responsibility in their lives.
It is argued (Delors 1996, 86) that traditional school education has focused almost
exclusively on the frrst and, to a lesser extent, on the second dimension. The two others
have either been undervalued or considered as self-evident, derivatives of "knowing"
and "doing".
Larsson (1996, 9-27) states, that the lifelong learning has become a positive general
term with regard to learning and that the concept should be examined more critically.
According to his opinion the everyday-life learning experiences are the most significant
components of the lifelong learning. Larsson considers that in the learning process the
personal interpretations, meanings and the varying contexts of everyday life are the key
factors. Longworth's (1996) definition of the concept articulates "lifelong learning is
the development of human potential through a continuously supportive process which
stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills and
understanding they will require throughout their lifetime and to apply them with
confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances and environments".
304 H. CANTELL AND H. RIKKINEN
Contextuality - what is it?
During the past two decades one of the central ideas held by the educators' and
researchers' of teaching and learning has been that the learning process is the
multifaceted construction of information. Especially in the 1990s, the constructivist
concept of learning and the general thinking skills in learning were emphasised.
Phillips (1995, 5) stated that constructivism has reached a position as a central article of
faith among pedagogical researchers. At the same time though there has been a great
variety of definitions and differences as well as practices related to the concept of
constructivism.
Constructivism can be divided into two main categories: 1) individualistic

constructivism and 2) social (socio-) constructivism. The individualistic constructivism
is based on the cognitive understanding of learning. According to Enkenberg (2000, 12)
cognitive ideas of learning do not adequately observe the values, appreciations, culture
and emotional factors, but concentrate mainly on the development of the individual
thinking skills. Consequently, not enough attention is paid to the contextual and
cultural characteristics of learning. Figure 1 presents an interpretation on the trends and
the classification of the concepts' of learning.
Cognitive science Psyhchology
Constructivism
Socio-cultural theories
Socio-constructivism (Contextuality)
Figure 1. The main categories of constructivism (Cantell2001,19).
In socio-cultural theories, learning is viewed as a phenomenon that cannot be

understood out of its social, cultural and historical framework and context. Lave and
Wenger (1991, 29) stress that learning is taking place, also when people through the
socio-cultural processes become a part of the community and do live their lives in that
specific environment. Lave (1991, 63-82) stresses perception: how every learner in the
specific socio-cultural context perceives and relates new elements to the earlier
information and experiences of oneself. According to her views it is extremely
important to relate the issue, which is to be learned, to real life so that this very issue
acts as a tool in understanding reality. Sliljo (2000, 135) reminds us, however, that the
context should not be perceived so that it is influencing people in a one-directional,

deterministic manner. He points out that context is rather an essential part of all our
actions and thoughts.
The development of the contextual concept of learning has been affected by pragmatic
thinking. In pragmatic theory, the reflection of the learner's own actions and
reconstruction of earlier concepts and knowledge are emphasised. The idea is that in
school we should find new things, which could be immediately applied and utilised in
everyday life.
Table 1 presents the characteristics of the four central concepts of learning. In addition
to constructivist and contextual approaches, also the humanistic and empirical-
behavioristic approaches are presented to enable the comparison between various
theories.
Table 1. The characteristics of central concepts of learning.
Empirieal·behaviorlstic Humanistic- Constructivist Contextual

!:!J!erimental !Soclo·oonstructivist)
The Idea of human Technocratic Humanistic Humanistic/ cognitive Humanistic/ socio-cultural

beings idea of knowledge
Thep~ofteaclrlng Build up aod command Personal growth Development of general The transfer aod use of
new information thinking skills knowledge in school aod
the outside world
The strutegies of Impulse-reaction-learning Learning through personal The processing of Socio-cultural
learning experiences information, interpretation, the
understsnding processing of information
The role of the student Passive, receiving Active, through personal Active, constructing Active in socio-cultural
information experiences context
The role of the teacher Authority, transferring Interest arousing, Supervisor of processing An expert, guide,
information organizer of experimental information supervisor aod a college
learning situations in socio-Cultural context.
Assessing Quantitative Feedback based on Resource based exercises, Self aod peer assessment
measurements, exams and personal experiments, learning process itself, has an important role.
tests. through eg. essay writing, learning diaries, essays, Resource based exercises,
picture analysis project reports, portfolios, learning process itself,
peer assessment learning diaries, essays,
project reports, portfolios.
Source: Cantell2001, 41.
The examination of the past clearly indicates that at the present time it is not possible to
predict precisely or at all extensively what sort of geographical knowledge and skills are
required in the future. In future, the requirements concerning the spatial understanding
can include such components that are not possible to calculate in our day. This is
clearly demonstrated by the globalisation process: the earlier models of international co-
operation, communication and relations do not help us to understand the present reality,
and clearly do not predict the future to come (Gerber, 2001). Determined by our
unfamiliarity with Qle future, the concept of lifelong geographical education should
include other components in addition to content and methodological advice. These
issues are related to the concept of learning in general: how to learn and how the learned
knowledge is related and given individual significance on behalf of the learner and in
the wider community. Lifelong learning is essentially related to the fact that the learned
knowledge can be applied and transferred into altering contexts in different situations in
varying times and areas. Also motivation is an important component of lifelong
learning.
Towards Contextual Geography Teaching
The learner's own life experiences are taken into account in geography education, when
there is appreciation and respect for the learner's life-world as well as the realisation of
its various components and characteristics. The teacher cannot define what exactly
''reality" is or ''the real world", rather the teacher's task is to be or become aware of the
pupils' realities and their understanding of the so-called "real world". Thus, the teacher
cannot base instruction inside the classroom too heavily on delivering truths about the
world. Rather, the understanding of peoples' varying life experiences and realities
brings out the non-formal aspect in learning. Despite the differences in curricular
contents in different countries, there should be such flexibility in the curriculum that
allows the strong presence of life experiences beyond the classroom.
Contextual geography teaching relates the subject to the social phenomena and pupils'
everyday life experiences. The rationale of the geography teaching ought to be the
linkage between the regional knowledge with the pupils own relevant life experiences
and questions. Figure 2 presents the principles of the contextual geography teaching
and its confluence with the humanistic and constructivist concepts of learning, and thus
its confluence with the premises of critical geography. In the humanistic view of
geography teaching there are many similarities with the principles of environmental
education, which focus on the reinforcing of awareness, knowledge, attitudes, skills and
participation concerning the environment. The contextual geography teaching is also
characterised by strong links to reconstructive valuing, to the society and to community-
based learning (Cantell, 2001; Lambert and Slater, 2000; Cantell, 1999; Huckle, 1997,
241-250; Tilbury, 1997, 93-104; Slater, 1996, 217-220;).
Rather than a set of new techniques, or contents, contextuality brings to geography

teaching profound, critical approaches and a tendency to take root in the pupils' life
experiences. As a consequence, nearly all geographical subject matters can be dealt
with in a contextual way by trying to find out and relate students' subjective and
personal meanings from their own perspective. An example for this could be the
planning of students' own living environments. If this would be the case, then in
teaching, in the spirit of the humanistic geography teaching, the pupils' own
experiences and observations concerning the environment (both social and natural)
should be strongly recognised. The humanistic viewpoint offers the idea of meanings,
values and implications given by individuals to places, regions and spaces that can vary
from person to person. With the critical geography teaching tradition there are certain
similarities, like the perspective of social and political analysis and questioning.
Humanistic idea of geography Critical idea of geography Constructil'ist Idea of geography

teacbing teacbing teacbing
observations questioning the processing of knowledge

experiences society based the development of thinking skills
meanings, interpretations political, social and blstorical
the spirit of entironmental interpretations
education values
~ ~ ~
Contextual idea of geography teacbing
..
..
application of learned knowledge and information
the personal relevance of learned knowledge
co-operation and shared expertise
.. active influence on social matters and the society at large
change of attitudes
.. growth to citizenship and increased participation
the co-operation betweeo home, schoo~ organisations and the labour market
reconstructive, valuing social change
Figure 2. The principles of contextual geography teaching.
Pupils' everyday and real-life experiences connected to the geography teachers'

education: geography teacher as a pedagogue
The geography teaching cannot change unless the teacher education and the teachers'
deeds in the schools change. Geography teacher training should take into account not
only the variety of methodologies but also the differing contexts, situations and
appropriate lines of action to this wide range of realities. The different methods of
teaching are not enough, in isolation, to ensure the learning process. In addition, a
teacher should also be able to master the specific situations and to monitor and
appreciate differences of the pupils. The relationship of the contents to the method can
be portrayed by GIS (Geographical Information System) which offers a tool for
geography teaching. That method combines the discipline's spatial character with the
new technology. GIS has been warmly welcomed as a new chance for geography
teaching. However, it should be kept in mind that the value of this method is not only
in the new information technology itself, but in its' geographical application. The
promotion of geographical thinking should have the central role with regard to the use
of the GIS method, as well as with the geography teachers' training and their further
education.
The competence to apply and adapt various methods is undoubtedly part of the
development process of the geographical thinking skills, but the methodological
virtuosity cannot replace geographical thinking and regional understanding. In teacher
training the development of the geography student teachers' own and the school
students' geographical thinking skills should be lifted to top priority· in the supervisory
discussions. The growth of the geography teacher's profession does not solely mean
achieving the teacher's pedagogical skills, but also the development of the thinking
skills of her/his own subject. With regard to geography this means especially the spatial
and critical approach to value and understand critically the reason-consequence

relationship. In addition to this, the active participation, empowerment and
responsibility should be promoted in the teaching as well (Leat, 1998; Calderhead and
Sharrock 1997; Barratt Hacking, 1996).
Teacher training should equip the future geography teachers with better qualifications to
function in the school and in the wider society. The targets should be more clearly
related to the competencies to act in collegial co-operation within the school
environment, but also to be able to relate with other partners and to utilise new open
learning environments. The teacher training should also try to take more effectively
into account the changes in the concepts of learning, the challenges of the information
society, capacities required by the multicultural societies, ethical considerations and, in
the main, the development of the teachers' own professional identity (Kirchberg, 2000).
From the viewpoint of geography as a school subject it is fruitful to consider whether

the geography teacher is only a specialist in her/his field or to consider that should one
take a more conscientious role as a holistic educator of the teenage pupils. The
assessment is a topical and relevant one, for the reason that teachers must, in any case,
whether they like it or not, bear responsibility for the young people and clarify many
dilemmas beyond the strict lines of any subject matter. It is important that teacher
training observes these pedagogical imperatives and qualifications. In her research
Cantell (2001) interviewed young, newly graduated geography teachers, who clearly
point out that present day geography subject teachers must intervene rather like a social
worker than as a teacher. The young teachers claim that the requirements and desires
towards teacher training should be related to the skills of managing the cases of conflict
situations and acts of harassment in the school. These are time-consuming and
challenging issues.
Teachers mentioned also the important viewpoint about the changing role of being a
teacher as not necessarily a threatening thing. On the contrary, teachers reported that
nurturing and holistic education is productive and valuable! It is certainly useful to
contemplate why normally in the discussions concerning the teachers' work the
negative or burdensome aspects of the educational issues are highlighted and the
positive qualities are easily left on the margins. Teacher training could deal more with
the everyday encounters and incidents in the school - not only as a matter of
maintenance of disciple and order, but in providing the positive alternatives to these
challenges. The point of departure could, for example, be to ponder what an
exceptional chance it is for the elementary school teacher to observe the life of young
people. In the lives of young people during the upper grades of elementary school,
dramatic changes in personal history do take place. In the best cases the teacher will
have an opportunity to be an important mature adult person in the life of these young
people. Teacher training cannot stress too much the importance of this privilege to be
able to work with the young people in these decisive stages of their life (Cantell, 2001).
The holistic and future-orientated model for curriculum
Futurologists share the opinion that, though education is always implicitly attached to
the future, future orientation is seldom explicitly expressed in curriculum guiding
schoolwork (Hicks and Holden, 1995, 10-15; Beare and Slaughter, 1993, 50). What
then should a future-oriented geographical curriculuni contain? Curriculum cannot only
consist of collections of classroom activities, however innovative and effective they
may be. They should be constructed on the four basic pillars mentioned above and
studying should concentrate on the central areas of human life. They can be defined as
"Nature", "Culture", "Myself', and "Others" (Dalin and Rust 1996, 159-163).
"Nature" focuses on ecologically sustainable development by emphasizing the

interdependence between humans and nature, people's responsibility for the well-being
of the environment, and experiences in nature and outdoor life. Learning about
"Culture" concentrates on the work, actions and history of humankind by dealing with
economically and culturally sustainable development. The area "Myself' concerns
personal development and gives students space to practice their communication skills
and artistic abilities, and to learn to take care of their physical and mental well-being.
The purpose of the area "Others" is to gain understanding about other people and
cultures and develop co-operation at both the local and global levels. The fulfilment of
this part of the curriculum specifically requires schools to open up to the surrounding
society.
Dalin and Rust (1996, 12) argue that the curriculum has so far focused mainly on the
areas "Nature" and "Culture" thus neglecting the other two areas "Myself' and
"Others". However, all the four elements are considered equally important, and thus
should be balanced in curricula of the future. In addition, Dalin and Rust believe that
values should form the core of every curriculum and help teachers, along with the
curriculum, devote equal attention to all the four areas in their work.
Sarkijarvi (1999), in her study concerning UNESCO schools curriculum in Finland,

formulated a model based on the UNESCO's four educational pillars and Dalins and
Rusts ideas mentioned above (Figure 3). The combination of these two ideas seemed
interesting. They had a similar four-dimensional structure, and they required the
dimensions to be balanced. It seemed attractive to investigate that balance, and to what
extent it is realised in the school-based curriculum of UNESCO schools (Sarkijarvi,
1999, 42). Sarkijarvi analysed ten primary level schools using the statistic content
analysis categories based on the model. The combined results of all schools concerning
the four study areas were the following: The areas "Culture" (34%) and "Myself' (32%)
were almost equal in strength. In addition, the proportions of the areas "Nature" (19%)
and "Others" (15%) are fairly close to each other. However, clearly less emphasis is
paid to the latter areas than to the former areas in the school-based curriculum
(Sarkijarvi, 1999, 62). The extent of the four pillars were the following: The most
stressed dimension of learning was "Learning to do" (39% ), yet the dimension
"Learning to know" (32%) did not come far behind it. "Learning to be" (22%), on the
other hand, took a clearly lower proportion of the references but was still considerably
higher than the dimension "Learning to live together" (7% ), which had a very marginal
role in the studied school-based curriculum (Sarkijarvi, 1999, 63).
New objectives for geography curriculum
In many national geography curricula, a goal is set of bringing up young people who
will have an active approach to their physical and social environment. That is a very
important goal and it should be taken seriously both in the teaching of geography in the
schools as well as in the teacher training. As a guideline for geography teaching it is
not enough to know the concepts or understand various phenomena, but the overall
objective should be transformed as one of equipping the pupil for the challenges and
action required by active global and local citizenship. If the goal is only to understand
the phenomena the pupil can descend into despair and hopelessness.
Learning to know
Nature Culture
Myself Others
Learning to be
Figure 3. A model of educational pillars and curriculum focuses (Siirkijiirvi 1999).
New objectives for geography curriculum
In many national geography curricula, a goal is set of bringing up young people who
will have an active approach to their physical and social environment. That is a very
important goal and it should be taken seriously both in the teaching of geography in the
schools as well as in the teacher training. As a guideline for geography teaching it is
not enough to know the concepts or understand various phenomena, but the overall
objective should be transformed as one of equipping the pupil for the challenges and
action required by active global and local citizenship. If the goal is only to understand
the phenomena the pupil can descend into despair and hopelessness.
At the contextual level, the objective of teaching is related to the improvement of a

pupil's own activism and influence over her/his actions in a constructive way. The
contextual approach is well founded also for the reason that the contents to be learned
are linked to the pupils' life-world and motivates all the more and will also decrease the
restlessness in the setting where the learning is taking place. If the geography teaching
is very much characterised by summarising place names and concepts, then frustration
is likely to be expected. The motivating methods for geography instruction could be
various local and regional planning and lobbying exercises and projects related to young
peoples' life experiences. Comparison, imagination, simulations and methods involving
empathy such as role games, plays, debates and the analysis of mental images and
prejudices are essential from the angle of the development of thinking skills.
The daily news and the medias representation of various areas, regions and other levels
of territorial information are vital methods of teaching and sources of information. The
current and contemporary issues that are constituting and added to the contents of the
teaching ensure the relevance of geography as an up-to-date and relevant discipline.
The global environmental and social issues and the idea of having an effective impact
on these topics do provide ingredients for a contextual approach to environmental and
development-related questions according to the lines of the slogan "think globally - act
locally". Table 2 presents an example of the types of goals there are according to
different concepts of learning. The example here exposes the global warming of the
climate.
Table 2. The geographic treatment in light of different objectives and concepts of learning. Here the
various approaches are exemplified through the theme of global warming.
Goal/objective The content ofleaming Concept ofleaming
Mastering the concepts Learning by rote the concepts related to the Empirical-behavioristic
warmiog of the climate
Identifying the relationsship between Presentation and mapping oftbe reasons and Empirical-behavioristic/ humanistic-
nature and human action consequences of the warmiog of the climate experimental/ constructivist
Understanding the relatinnssbip between Analysing and identifying the relations to other Constructivist
nature and human action global issues and the reasons and consequences of
the warmiog of the climate
Active influence on the social and To influence one's own choices in order to prevent Contextual
natoral environment and wider society the warmiog of the climate; to make one's own
well-founded opinion and to act according to it.
In the planning and preparation of the curriculum it is important, that they do not only
consist of the subject matters and the methods, but would also point out clearly the
objectives of the learning. It is easy to assert that various aspects of the given
curriculum have been touched. Instead it is much more challenging to value whether
the way the topics were dealt with have had any effect on pupil's life or if the student is
interested in acting in her/his own local environment. In this way, the fundamental
challenge for the curriculum would be to present goals for action in school, home, one's
own living environments, not solely during the classes. Bearing this in mind, the
curriculum does not equip properly for the planning of learning and teaching if it
includes only a skeleton of the thematic finesses abilities for different age groups and
grades.
The challenge thus is how best the epistemological questions of geography and its
specific methods are integrated with the holistic curriculum. With regard to lifelong
geography learning it could be good to deal with same issues several times during the
school time, in different contexts. This implies that there is an understanding that
certain knowledge, once gained, would not be completely absorbed or fully learnt, but
these geographical themes and the understanding of them could be increased during
different phases of a person's life and varying contexts. The spirit of lifelong learning
is illustrated as a cyclical pattern of learning. Always when the same issue is studied, it
is necessary to focus, deepen and widen the subject again or to relate it to one's own
personal life. The goal is that the pupil understands that not any single geographical
theme is "finished" completely by any lesson or school year. So, the pupil would
probably have a continuous interest towards the geographical phenomenon and also get
a feeling that people can have an effect and active role in their own societies and
environments.
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22. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING AND SELF-DIRECTED
LEARNERS IN GEOGRAPIDCAL EDUCATION
TAMMYKWAN
Introduction
In the past decades, statements on international trends have focused on the revitalization
of teaching Geography in schools (GEC, 1992; Conolly, 1997; GA, 1999) in which they
stress its importance and significant contribution to fulfill the aims of education through
the advocacy of geographical learning via:
• Issue-based and skill-based activities that stress the acquisition of relevant

geographical knowledge and skills to be mastered through close connection to daily
life issues and applied in order to form justifiable values and attitudes.
• Project-based activities that have more to do with the enhancement of action based
and experienced learning.
IT based activities that maximize the use of information technologies, such as

Internet and Email to communicate to access geographical information related to
Geographical Education).
All these approaches refocus in teaching and learning in geography. The rationale
behind them is to ensure and prepare students/children to learn how to learn
meaningfully and actively through the assistance given by the teachers. The ultimate
intention of such an international trend is to create a new culture in teaching and
learning geographical education and to make learning open, explicit and flexible.
Participatory learners are being promoted rather than rigid, close-minded, passive
recipients or learners. Also, the advance in IT development has shrunk the world to a
much smaller unit. Therefore, it becomes more convenient and easier for people and
countries to get in contact with each other and to access global geographical information
to enhance geographical study.
These observations indicate the need to understand the meaning of self-directed/self-

managed/self-instructed learning that enable students to learn geography actively and
meaningfully. Hence, this chapter focuses on the development of self-directed learning
to produce self-directed learners. Some of the issues arising from the implementation
and implication of self-directed learning will be discussed. Suggestions will be offered
"on how geographical educators should position themselves in this millennium to offer a
plausible direction for teaching and learn through geographical education.
315
316 T.KWAN
New aims and meaning of learning in geographical education
Morris (1996) summarizes four images of general educational aims, which to a large
extent are echoed in and supported by Geographical Education. They are:
• academic rationalism which is essentially subject centred;

• personal development which is basically student centred;
• social and economic efficiency which is really society centred; and
• social reconstruction which is principally future centred.
Though one may not regard all four images as new entities to geographical education,
one certainly sees the dominance of academic rationalism in the chronological
development of the subject in the past decades. However, recent advocacy for alternate
aims of education has drawn attention to the provision of education through various
academic disciplines to fulfil a new mission. The new images of educational aims,
taken up by geographical education, also imply the advocacy for alternate ways of
seeing learning occurring. This is reflected in a number of statements collected from a
range of international educational documents, which highlights the new images in
relation to students, economic development and future society. For instance (italics
highlighted by the author):
• Over the next decade the central purpose of schooling in Queensland should be to
create a safe, tolerant and disciplined environment within which young people
prepare to be active and reflective Australian citizens with a disposition to lifelong
learning. They will be able to participate in and shape community, economic ad
political life in Queensland and the nation. They will be able to engage confidently
with other cultures at home and abroad (The State of Queensland, Department of
Education, 2000).
• Education must nurture the whole child. Apart from skills and knowledge, children
need to cultivate sound morals, strength of character, healthy habits, team spirit and
an aesthetic appreciation of the world around them. We want to help our children
develop as individuals, according to their talents and abilities, and to grow into
responsible and committed citizens (Wee Heng Tin, Director General of Education,
Singapore, August 1998)
• The Report of the South African Curriculum Review Committee held the view that
curriculum should be clearly steered by principles that promote personal and social
development and transformation for the 21st Century. Since the role of schools
should be both to assist the achievement of wider goals of social justice, equity and
development and also to develop the intellectual abilities, critical faculties and
social values of school students, it is necessary to review Curriculum 2005 in terms
of both the broader social and educational goals in terms of which it was
established (South Africa Department of Education, 2000).
SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING AND SELF-DIRECTED LEARNERS 317
• The government has carried through major reform over the last few years to bring
our educational system in line with the needs of a modem competitive economy.
Our vision is a prosperous Britain in the 21st century with a strong economy in
which the skills of each individual are developed through education. Thus, we
must do all we can to help young people acquire the skills, knowledge and
understanding they will need to be part of a highly adaptive workforce (Gillian
Shepherd, U.K. Secretary of State for Education, 1996:1).
The overall aims of education for the 21st century should be: To enable every
person to attain all-round development in the domains of ethics, intellect, physique,
social skills and aesthetics according to his/her own attributes so that he/she is
capable of life-long learning, critical and exploratory thinking, innovating and
adapting to change; filled with self-confidence and a team spirit; willing to put
forward continuing effort for the prosperity, progress, freedom and democracy of
their society, and contribute to the future well-being of the nation and the world at
large (Education Commission, 2000:30).
White (1982) declares that education is now clearly geared towards different foci, such
as education for the development of individuality, for academic excellence, for the
creation of a literate workforce and to the needs and for the future strengthening of an
intelligent participatory democracy, which works parallel to complement each other.
With these newly evolving and changing aims of general education, together with the
latest development in geographical education, which emphasizes an issue-based,
inductive inquiry learning (the 3Is) approach, students are expected to become active
responsible learners to set the agenda and pace for their own learning. Kent (2000:xix)
made a comment that "geography is able to challenge all young people in a way that can
help them behave and operate to more intelligently in the future. . . . the process of
learning to teach turns into a lifelong experience." To become young people of that
caliber, the geography students have to learn to become active self-directed learners
who develop the abilities to:
question, inquire and problem solve;

• keep an open mind to other's viewpoint;
• locate and choose relevant data and resources;
collect evidence through self evaluation and comments from others to substantiate
self standard of performance;
set reasonable and workable targets to improve the self learning performance;
critically observe and model from others to improve self performance; and
• maintain self intrinsic motive to work towards materialization of the learning
targets.
These abilities are essentially the characteristics of the 31s learning which prepares
students to become informed citizens of the future society. By achieving some if not all
of these abilities, one can see how learners are expected to adopt a new meaning of
learning which is different from the conventional sense of passive academic learning.
This new meaning of learning embraces the following attributes:
318 T.KWAN
• it is lifelong;
• it relates to learner's personal experiences;
• it has to come from within the learners; and
• it is a personal and natural unique process.
Self-directed learning and self-directed learners (SDL)
WHAT IS SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING?
The term "self-directed learning" can be understood in different ways. Keirns ( 1999)
puts forward three conceptual meanings of understanding self-directed learning,
namely, as a methodology for instruction without the direct supervision or guidance
from teacher; as a means to provide skills and abilities to individual learners to guide
their cognitive experiences in learning situations; and as a philosophical connotation
and belief that students themselves are actual directors of their own learning.
Merrill (1990, in Keirns, 1999: 5-6), claims that 'intent' and 'evaluation' are two
essential criteria for the development of a quality instructional self-learning situation. It
is also the presentation of well designed learning materials to ensure that students
embark on a systematic way of learning and then the subsequent evaluation without the
presence or direct guidance from a teacher or instructor, that self-directed learning is
said to have taken place. Keirns (1999) suggests two core theoretical principles for the
design and construction of self-instruction materials to follow. They are active
responding by the learners to the presented material and the availability of immediate
interactive feedback that takes place between the learner and the self-instruction
material designer. To materialize these two core theoretical principles, Keirns (1999)
goes further to suggest two core practical principles: 1) that the materials have to be
designed in small steps, and 2) they allow the learners to progress along at their own
self pacing.
Candy (1991) and Knowles (1975) both advocate that learners should learn and be
given the opportunity to take control over their learning on what to learn, how to learn
what and when to learn what. To achieve this, Merrian and Caffarella (1989) highlight
the primary responsibility of learners to plan, carry out and evaluate their own learning
experience. Hence, Fischer and Scharff (1998) see that self-directed learning is a
continuous engagement of learners in acquiring, applying and creating knowledge and
skills in the context of their individual unique problems.
Brookfield (1985) states that the concept of self-directed learning has the connotations
of autonomy, independence and isolation. It is also easy to conceive the self-directed
learner as one who pursues learning with a minimum of assistance from the
conventional external sources from teachers and schools. Hence, it is the individual
self-control over learning being seen to be the distinctive characteristics of self-directed
learning.
Mezirow (1981:21) states that "enhancing the learner's ability for self direction in
learning [is] a foundation for a distinctive philosophy of adult education". While self-
directed learning has its origin in the adult workplace environment and continuing
education, the concept is brought into the educational arena to help students to empower
themselves through this self-learning philosophy. Its purpose is to bring about
meaningful learning, which is expected to go beyond the four walls of the conventional
classroom and benefit the students lifelong. This is, it aims to prepare and empower
them to play a constructive role in their future contribution to the society at large.
With the meaning and background of self-directed learning having been explored, I
would like to mention briefly here that I see self-directed learning occurring in two
formats. The first one mainly involves an individual learner who pursues a personal
agenda of study on a topic or course of his/her own geographical interest. This I call
individual self-directed learning. The other format mainly involves a group of learners
who work together to pursue self-directed learning by each contributing their own
strengths and abilities. This I call group self-directed learning. To a certain extent, this
is quite similar to the geographical project based learning with the concept of self-
directedness embedded in it.
HOW ARE THE ROLES OF TEACHERS AND LEARNERS CHANGE IN SELF-

DIRECTED LEARNING?
In the past, educational institutions such as schools and universities gave precise
prescription to geography programmes and syllabi concerning what would be taught,
and when the lessons were conducted and how classes were formed. Krogh (1998)
observed these traditions; rules and regulations provided a rather rigid structure, policy
and procedures to the learning process. In both theory and practice, only those capable
students who could function in such rigidity survived while those who could not lost
out. Geography teachers were largely seen as information providers and experts of
geographical knowledge and their role was mainly as a transmitter of knowledge rather
than as a stimulator of learning. Students obviously took a submissive, recessive and
passive role in conforming to the stipulated learning environment. However, in reality,
all students are diverse, different and yet unique. They each bring along their own
personal, family and cultural experiences to the learning situation. It is through the
acknowledgment of this diversity that education has to provide an alternate venue to
address this uniqueness.
Grow (1991, 1996) proposed a four-stage self-directed learning model through his own
observation and experience of teaching journalism. The four stages are learners of low,
moderate, intermediate and high self-direction. One can obviously see the progression
of the degree of self-directedness in the model. However, it also reflects the respective
different learning and teaching roles of learners and teachers at each stage. Figure 1
summarizes Grow's idea of his self-directed learning model, which also indicates the
role changes between teachers and students through the degree of control that is
exercised by the former and the degree of empowered self-directedness in the latter.
320 T.KWAN
Grow's model explains the degree to which geography students are engaged in various
levels of conducting social geographical and environmental investigation through
projects and field studies. While students are still so used to clear prescription and
instruction given by teachers, there is no point of forcing the students to become
immediate high degree self-directed learners. This development should be sequential
and progressive so that students are given a breathing space and a buffer zone to learn to
take up their responsibility and perform a new role to allow them to follow their interest
in order to pursue a course that enables them to capture the maximum joy and
opportunity for learning. Teachers also need to beware of the degree to which they
allow more students to develop their independent learning.
Teacher's changing teaching role between stages as:
Expos1tor GUl"ded motivator 1\ac1"litator consultant
Passive and Interested and Involved and Self-directed

dependent motivated committed and initiated
Students changing learning role between stages as
Stage 1 Stage2 Stage3 Stage4

(lowSDL) (moderate SDL) (intermediate (lligh SDL)
SDL)
Figure 1. Changing Roles of Teachers and Students in the 4-stage Self-Directed Learning Model (modified
from Grow, 1991; graphically presented by Kwan)
WHAT ARE THE FACTORS THAT NURTURE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING?
From Grow's model of self-directed learning, one can infer two factors that will nurture
the doing of self-directed learning. One is the personality factor, which involves
personal nature, style, and preference of learning of the students and whether they are
willing to take up a different if not a completely new role of learning. In other words,
they need to have that capability and capacity to motivate self-interest I momentum to
embark on self directed learning to fulfill their personal desires, interests, strengths and
preferences. This echoes the concept of 'intent' as raised by Merrill (1990). If the
students remain as passive learners and are unwilling to make the change, there is
probably little chance for self-directed learning to take place.
The other is the institutionalised factor which provides an established external human
and material supporting mechanism, (Tough, 1979) to allow learners to seek advice and
assistance to enable them to embark on self directed learning to fulfill a personal interest
and institutionalized prescribed interests.
The adoption of self-directed learning implies that learning is not just confined within
the four walls of the classroom or. that all students are expected to follow a set program
irrespective of their different learning abilities and needs. In fact, the trend of
geographical education is to prepare learners to extend learning away from the
conventional learning environment and keep learning beyond traditional schooling to
make it an on-going process whenever and wherever the learners have the desire and
motive to do so to understand and interpret social, geographical and environmental
issues and events that occur day-to-day in our living social context.
Though on one hand it looks as though the personality factor is more difficult to change,
self-directed learning will occur easier if the learning institutions and teachers can
provide an adequate and sophisticated external environmental learning support to back
up self-directed learning. This is especially the case when we talk about the 3Is
approach of learning geography where students are expected to be able to access, locate
and select useful and relevant data and resources before they can make meaning out of
such to understand the issues or problems under investigation.
Effective supporting and nurturing self-directed learning is one of the critical challenges
to meet in preparing learners to engage in this self directed learning behaviour. Fischer
and Scharff (1998) realize that self-directed learning creates new challenging
requirements for learning technologies, which allow learners to engage in their own
problems by providing contextualized support, and by exploiting breakdowns as
opportunities for learning.
With reference to Grow's model, it becomes sensible to ask the geographical educators
to think of ways for preparing students and teachers to face this new challenge so that
both parties can raise the level of self-directed learning from Stage 1 to Stage 4 and to
play the more sophisticated roles in teaching and learning.
Issues arising from school children practicing self-directed learning in geography
The provision or allowance of self-direct learning has drawn attention to the issue of
who gets the opportunity to enjoy self-directed learning better in geography. In terms of
the conventional mode of education which emphases formal institutionalized teaching to
students, then those children who get the opportunity to attend school can benefit from
the group self-instructed learning which is predominantly directed by teachers as one
can position in Stages 1 and 2 of Grow's model. In terms of the innovative mode of
learning where students are encouraged to take initiative in establishing the agenda for
their own learning, then gifted students appear to benefit more and hence are able to
stretch further each individually through the learning process.
The rationale behind these statements is sound. The learning context may be
characterized inequality in a sense that students from middle to upper social class
families whose parents can afford and provide the facilities, in terms of computers,
chances to travel in order to open up their vision of children, books and other support,
can enjoy self-directed learning with greater ease and convenience. Students from the
322 T.KWAN
developing countries and families of lower social stratum may not be able to enjoy the
same. Having said that, Brookfield (1985) did announce in one of his observations that
successful independent learning among adults seemed to have been achieved without
formal participation in any planned school programs of instruction. Hence, their
activities were independent of the sustained external instructional support and resource
backup. However, when one puts the learning context to geographical education where
students are able to get access to first hand field data and experience and then second
hand sources of geographical information that are obtained through traveling, internet,
books and other means, will certainly benefit their self-directed learning, either as an
individual or in a group setting.
The personality of learners, in particular their learning style, is very much related to the
concept of field-independence and -dependence as advocated by Witkin (1969). This
personality trait is of particular importance and exercises significant influence on
children learning geography. It has a strong link to spatial recognition and landscape
appreciation. Witkin describes field-independent learners as being analytical, socially
independent, inner-directed, individualistic, and possessed of a strong sense of self-
identity. They are presumed to be found most commonly in open, democratic societies
which emphasize self-control and autonomy. On the other hand, field-dependent
learners are deemed to be more comfortable in highly structured and regulated
educational settings where norms are well defined and unchanging and unlikely to make
compromise. Such learners are most commonly found in cultures that highlight clear
role definition, social control, straight upbringing of children and respect for authority
(Witkin in Brookfield, 1985:8). In other words, both Witkin and Brookfield suggest
that children of good field-independence benefit more from self-directed learning and
field-dependent children are likely not so. Together with the background of better
external educational resource support and the possibility to get more exposed and
diverse geographical experiences from better family background and educationally
advantaged populations, certain groups of children are bound to benefit more from self-
directed learning due to better access to the availability of the nurturing conditions.
Hence, with the formation of the new images in educational aims and new expectations
from geographical learning, we have to ask if the promotion of self-directed learning in
children is giving them all fair treatment and the provision of equal opportunities. This
is probably not easy to answer irrespective of the learning approach we are referring to.
A concluding remark to suggest a future direction
The four images of the latest educational aims proposed by Morris (1996) and supported
by Geographical Education (GA, 1999) clearly reflect the trend moving away from
subject academic orientation to education for: personal preparation, enlightment and
empowerment; global futures; and economic and social efficiency, which also embraces
the notion of democratic citizenship, human rights and cultural inheritance to strengthen
national and international identities. All these point to the need for geographical
educators to develop ways of teaching and learning in order to cater for the different
needs and backgrounds of the students. Self-directed learning appears to be the one
receiving much attention in the latest education arena, especially beyond the four walls
of the classroom. Its salient features and characteristics have been addressed in this
chapter and particular attention is given to the needs of the changing roles between
teachers and learners and the conditions that nurture the occurrence of self-directed
learning. However, issues concerning fairness and children's getting fair chance to
embark on self-directed learning and become self-directed learners, is also discussed.
In conclusion, self-directed learning should not be just viewed as a means or an

approach to teaching/learning. Rather, the preparation of self-directed learners should
be seen as the outcome to fulfil the new images of the new educational aims. The
expectation of seeing students become self-directed learners should ben~fit our future
society and environment via a lifelong on-going learning process. With the intention of
promoting the quality of personal growth and preparing for committed self-learning
attitude, geographical education plays a significant role in helping the students to
achieve this through the advocacy of self-directed learning. Self-directed learning can
then be seen as a means to supplement the ideology of issue-based inductive
geographical inquiry. Learning is hence seen to be active, meaningful and within the
control of the learners. They then can decide their pace of progress according to their
own learning needs and interest to fully develop all kinds of self-directed learning
abilities.
References
Brookfield, S. (1985) Self-Directed Learning : a critical review of research. In S. Brookfield (ed.) Self-
Directed Learning: From Theory to Practice, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Chapter 1, pp.5-16.
Candy, P. (1991) Self-Direction for Lifelong Learning: A Comprehensive Guide to Theory and Practice, San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Conolly, G. (1997) Rediscover Geography, Sydney: Geographical Teachers Association of New South Wales.
Department for Education on Employment [DtEE] (1996) Equipping Young People for Working Life, London:
DtEE.
Education and Manpower Branch/Education Department (1993) School Education in Hong Kong: A
Statement of Aims Hong Kong: Education and Manpower Branch.
Education Commission (2000) Education Blueprint for the 21st Century, Learning for Life Learning Through
Life: Reform Proposals for the Education System in Hong Kong, Education Commission: Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region of The People's Republic of China.
Fischer, G. and Scharff, E. (1998) Learning technologies in support of self-directed learning, Journal of
Interactive Media in Education, 98 (4) [www-jime.open.ac.uk/98/4].
Geographical Association (1999) Geography in the curriculum: a position statement from the GA, Geography,
84 (2}, 164-167.
Geographical Education Commission (GEC) (1992) International Charter for Geographical Education,
International Geographical Union: Geographical Education Commission.
Grow, G. (1991) Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education Quarterly 41 (3), 125-149.
Grow, G. (1996) Teaching learners to be self-sirected. Expanded version available online at:
<http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow>.
Keirns, J. (1999) Designs for Self-Instruction: Principles, Processes and Issues in Developing Self-Directed
Learning, Allyn and Bacon.
Kent, A. (2000) Forward. In D. Lambert and D. Balderstone (eds.) Learning to Teach Geography in the
Secondary School, London: Routledge Falmer Press, pp. xix-xx.
Knowles, M. (1975) Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers, Chicago: Follet.
Krogh, L. (1998) Self-Directed Learning, in www.granny.web.tjnola_krogh/paper_self-directed_leaming.htm.
Merriam, S. and Caffarella, R. (1991) Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide, California, Jossey-
Bass.
Mezirow, J. (1981) A critical theory of adult learning and education, Adult Education Quarterly, 32 (4), 3-24.
Morris, P. (1996) What are our intentions? The Hong Kong School Curriculum: Development, Issues and
Policies, Hong Kong University Press, 2nd edition, Chapter 2, pp. 11-22.
324 T.KWAN
South Africa Department of Education (2000) A South African Curriculum for The Twenty First Century:
Report of the Review Committee on Curriculum 2005 Pretoria: South Africa Department of Education,
Chapter 1. Also in <http://www.education.
pwv.gov.za/Policies%20and%20Reports/2000_Reports/2005/chapter_1_2005.htm>.
The State of Queensland, Department of Education (2000) Queensland State Education 2010, The State of
Queensland, Department of Education. Also in
<http://www.education.qld.gov.aulpublic_medialreports/2000/2000-03-09-lifelong.html>.
Tough, A. (1979) The Adult's Learning Projects : A Fresh Approach to Theory and Practice in Adult
Learning. (2nd Edition), Austin: Texas.
Witkin, H.A. (1969) Social influences in the development of cognitive style, in D. Goslin (ed.) Handbook of
Socialization Theory and Research. New York: Rand McNally.
White, J. (1982) The Aims of Education Restated, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Wee, H. (1998) Desire Outcomes: Moulding The Future of Our Nation in
<http://wwwl.oe.edu.sgldesired.htm>, print date on 9th December 2000.
23. IMPROVED INTERCULTURAL GEOGRAPIDCAL
EDUCATION
HELENA ALLAHWERDI AND HANNELE RIKKINEN
Globalisation in the world
There are many holistic approaches describing the state of the world in the context of
contemporary, global trends in development (Castells, 1996, 1997, 1998; Global
Trends, 1994; UNDP Human Development Report, 1999, 2000; Huntington, 1996).
This development is impacted by several factors, which are based on the conflicts of
global/local culture, state/civic society, governmental/non governmental organisations,
collective/individuhl identity and public/private society. According to Castells (1997,
291-310) this post-modern world is mirrored by the media as fractured, continuously
changing, uncontrolled, unsafe and momentarily appearing world. The global character
of the world emphasises cultural diversity, but also global risks, which threaten the
availability of basic needs.
The main indicators of development are internationalisation and globalisation. The

concepts overlap each other and it is difficult to find a definition acceptable to
everybody. Pekka Kosonen (1999, 181-191) defines them as follows:
The concept of intemationalisation emphasises relationships between national

states or at least relationship between organisations and individuals in
different national states. The concept of globalisation includes the
perspectives of global processes and the impacts of the global world orders.
Globalisation can be studied as a process in which geographical and governmental

indicators are less apparent in economic, social and cultural relationships. Different
interpretations of the global processes are ignored and there is tendency to emphasise
the interrelationships between the states as it is done in Human Development Reports
(UNDP, 1999, 2000). From a liberal point of view globalisation is supported and
promoted by economists and multicultural corporations. Critical interpretations reveal
globalisation as a real, pragmatic process which offers new opportunities and at the
same time new types of tensions and conflicts (Castells, 1996, 1997, 1998).
Castells analyses global development from the perspectives of the information and
technology linked to it. The multinational, intercultural network society creates
conflicts in people's lives as well as in local, individual identities. He emphasises that
societies are increasingly structured around a bipolar opposition between the Net and
the Self (Castells, 1996, 22-28). A part of humankind in this world of well educated
325
326 H. ALLAHWERDI AND H. RIKKINEN
experts many are relating to the fourth world, which exists everywhere. These
marginalised people can be found in all societies and cultures.
Five clear perspectives appear when global development is described:
• economic trends;
• political, war/peace/security related trends;
• administrative, state/civic society related trends;
• ecological trends; and
• cultural, intercultural trends.
Each perspective has a counterpart in education. Efforts are being made to indicate
them in national educational curricula.
One cannot escape the world. Since the realities change quickly and influence everyday
life, it is important that people have the ability to understand the complexity of global
development trends. This is an educational imperative. Schools should give the
necessary foundation: values, knowledge and skills needed in understanding the
contemporary world. This is vital because according to today's concept of learning,
individuals choose the meanings and images of phenomena in the world according to
their education and experiences and act on them. As time and space diminish in the
globalisation process, and obstacles are removed, new needs, feelings of insecurity and
threats appear. In order to succeed in post-modern society, teachers should take the role
of a co-operative learner alongside their students.
What do these developmental trends reveal about international education mainly

intercultural education (see Table 1)? And how does geographical education reinforce
growth into global citizenship?
Perspective of international education
In the documents of 1974, 1995a and b, 1999 on international education, the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United
Nations and its organizations emphasise the vital and important role that education has
in teaching students to understand intercultural issues and other cultures. The duties of
the educational sector of UNESCO are to promote Human Rights, intercultural and
environmental education.
In the information society the role of nation states and the idea of nationality become
less important than before. Samuel Huntington (1996) has given a new definition to the
old concept of civilisation, which he uses instead of the concept of a nation state.
Huntington emphasises the role of religion as a threat to peace and intercultural
relationships but ignores the fact that the majority of societies are historically multi- and
intercultural.
IMPROVED INTERCULTURAL GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION 327
Table 1. Trends of education and global development based on the references mentioned before.
Global development Indicators International education
Economic trends Global economy, global markets, Development education, education for
multinational corporations, changing development, education about
work, development assistance, development
network economy.
Political trends in war and peace ill wave wars, war technology, Peace education, disarmament
and security issues nuclear states, computer wars, instant education
wars, no frontiers, speed, intelligent
professional soldiers/terrorists;
criminals, war pirates and
mercenaries, biological weapons,
disarmament.
Governance trends of states/civil Network society, meeting the basic Human rights education, democracy
societies needs, state/citizen, human rights, education, tolerance education.
political human rights, cultural
minorities, marginalisation, poverty,
migration/immigration, refugees, IV
world, nationalism, racism,
fundamentalism
Ecological trends Environmental problems, acid rain, Environmental education.

disappearing forests, availability of
sweet water, ozone issue, warming of
climate, energy issues, biotechnology.
Cultural trends Intercultural society, religious, Education for cultural understanding,

national, political, local, family and intercultural understanding,
gender identity crisis, woman's multicultural education, intercultural
position, individual/collective education, cultural literacy.
identity, life worlds, diversities of the
ways of life.
An individual, cultural identity is not static but is developing dynamically through the
support of diverse, local groups and which serve as safety nets when needed. The oldest
and most lasting significance of the traditional safety net has been the patriarchal
family. In the information society, however, its significance shows signs of weakening.
Information technology is bringing with it new educators in addition to parents and
schools. Social movements such as the women's liberation movement have influenced
societies by renewing value systems. Economic independence has also influenced the
traditional family structure. In its development strategy the UN emphasises women's
status as an indicator of development (Human Development Report, 1999, 229-241). A
person living alone without a family is becoming a more common phenomenon around
the world.
Cultural education and cultural literacy
Education and the media are the major institutional forms of ideological reproduction in
modern state. Particular stress will therefore be put on the "pedagogy of space", that is,
on the role of school geography in the creation of regional knowledge, images and
stereotypes which include "national character", cultures or identities differentiating

between "we" and "them" (Paasi, 1995). Spatial representations are understood as being
socially constructed, not merely "assumed" expressions of the supposed isomorphic
relations between "space" and "culture".
UNESCO documents on international education (1974; 1995a, b; 1999) use concepts

such as cultural understanding, multicultural education, intercultural education and the
culture of peace, and emphasise tolerance and democracy as tools for intercultural
understanding. The abilities and skills to understand other cultures imply a demand for
teaching and learning cultural literacy.
Intercultural understanding has always been a cornerstone of international education.

All areas of international education can be studied from the perspective of intercultural
education. Culture can be a micro or macro structure. As a macro structure, social
institutions, their functions and people's roles in them are studied. They include
institutions such as religion, the state, the economy, family, justice, politics, the arts and
science. As a micro structure, the point of departure is the individual, her/his
relationships, values and lifestyle. These include the ability to understand oneself, one's
identity, society, the environment and the world and one's ability to go through the
socialisation processes. Intercultural understanding means in practice the ability to go
beyond one's own culture and society. It means the ability to move easily from one
culture to the other and to feel at home in each of them.
Education supports the integration of our own culture as a way of life with its values,
beliefs and realities. Meaning perspectives (Mezirow, 1995) are based on what we have
learnt. Everyone has her/his own personal maps of meaning perspectives. This map
helps us to navigate in the world and confront its realities. A real confrontation with
other cultures means that one can unlearn to a certain extent the old meaning
perspectives in order to be open to new perspectives and motivated to learn more. One
tends to defend familiar lifestyles and points of view as the only truth. This causes
collisions and conflicts. Perhaps it is easier to understand how other cultures differ
from ours, but we are not ready to accept values and lifestyles that are too different. In
order to be interculturally and culturally literate, however, one has to understand the
opposite views on many issues and see them as cultural resources as well as a basis for
cultural sustainment. Achieving global citizenship means that one must learn to
understand the diversity in personal, cultural meaning maps. This intercultural
openness renews and revises our meaning maps. Globalisation and international,
interactive collaboration reinforce our skills to function in an intercultural world.
School geography textbooks and cultural education
Textbooks used in schools are part of the state's socialising system and inculcate
youngsters with society's values and traditions, political and social culture. Besides
being collections of regional knowledge, textbooks of geography are one mirror of the
dominant ideologies of a nation, which are crucial in the construction of the narrative of
a nation (Bhabha, 1990). Based on the goals and content of national education their
analysis illustrates the legitimate portraits of the Other and the Self. Textbooks can be
an important medium in shaping social consciousness and various forms of normative

control (Paasi, 1999).
The facts, metaphors and allegories concerning nature and culture, as well as the
problems connected to the way they are presented, have constantly played a major role
in the construction of geographical texts and images. According to the Finnish
geographer Anssi Paasi (1995, 1999), they have always been crucial to the tradition of
aesthetically oriented regional geography, but it was along with the rise of humanistic
geography during the 1960s and "70s that these themes gained more emphasis. Since
the "cultural breakthrough" in geography in the second half of the 1980s, the problem of
presentation has come to the fore - especially in the context of "post-colonial"
geography, which is interested in the ideological and political motives behind the
representations of the Other. Stereotypes have been common in the teaching of regional
geography, which has usually taken place in primary education. Stereotypes are not
confined to any specific spatial scale but may vary, forming a continuum extending all
the way from the human to the global scale. Stereotypes regarding the Other have,
however, often been explicit pictures of the enemy.
According to a Finnish geographical textbook analysis by Anssi Paasi (1999) the model
of national socialisation set forth in the textbooks has been Eurocentric, while the Other
has been part of a hierarchical order: the Other in Europe- especially Western Europe-
has always been more respected than the Other originating from outside Europe,
especially from Third World countries. Both texts and pictures have been effectively
used in producing images of the Others. Stereotypes have varied, reflecting broader
social, cultural and geopolitical contexts. Stereotypical depictions and illustrations have
in most cases been connected with nation states and "races". Paasi speculates that in the
future a more typical situation will be that of several nations, nationalities and
minorities existing in the same state. This will be a challenge for geographers and the
teaching of geography since there will be an acute need for analysing how space, spatial
representations, identity and differences are produced and reproduced. The analysis of
textbooks used in schools is therefore an important task for academic geographers.
Education for development
International education is linked with many other concepts that reflect the views of
different interest groups. One such concept is education for development, which is used
by UNICEF (United Nations International Children's Fund) and defined in the following
way:
... it promotes the development, in children and young people, of attitudes and
values such as global solidarity, peace, tolerance, social justice and
environmental awareness which equips them with knowledge and skills which
will empower them to promote these values and bring about change in their
lives and in their communities, both locally and globally (Fountain, 1995, 13).
In the UNICEF handbook on development education five different concepts are chosen
as the basis: interdependence, images and perceptions, social justice, conflict and
conflict resolutions, change and future (Fountain, 1995, 13). Every concept has
concrete objectives regarding knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. In the handbook
on development education edited by Susan Fountain (1995) there are detailed,
methodological guidelines and lesson plans according to different age groups. Oxfam
(1997) has also published a curriculum plan for a study programme on development
education.
Media education
The use of mass media education as a helping tool was mentioned in the first UNESCO
recommendation concerning education for international understanding, cooperation and
peace, relating to human rights and freedoms (1974). Later the name was changed to
information and media education (see Table 2). Media education supports learning in
all fields of education. When the development of media technology at the end of the
20th century changed the principles of learning and education, demands were heard for
intercultural education in real time. This up-to-date information made it possible to
react quickly to any global happening. Digital media literacy is a must for the citizens
of today and media education offers the skills needed to gain this literacy.
The Evaluation Council of the Finnish universities (1999) proposed that the main areas
of development in teacher training should be intemationalisation, skills relating to
multi- and intercultural interaction and literacy in media technology. The European
Council has also emphasised the importance of media education in lifelong education
(Isohookana and Hakala, 2000). According to Castells (1996) the citizen of the network
society defines her/himself on the basis of interactive media competence, which
includes media literacy as well as analytical and ethical media criticism.
Table 2. Development of information and media education according to Kotilainen and Kivikuru (2000, 16-
28).
Stages Concept of information Indicators and aims of Targets Research

and media education information and media
education
Stage of moral issues Behaviourist model of Obstacle in becoming literate, Press, advertisement, Leavins, 1932
1930·1971 medical injection degenerating culture, movies, radio, TV
strengthening violence, media
criticism
Stage of estethic Movie education Media/product criticism, type- Movies

interpretation 1950- and author criticism
Stage of critical Mass media as a Social criticism: references, Media Masterman, 1995
interpretation 1960- teaching tool (UNESCO language of the pictures, values, Minkkinen, 1980
1974) ways to interpretation, critical
mass media consumption
Stage of media culture Distance education, Civic activism Networking, Castells, 1996,
1990- teaching technology multimedia, 1997, 1998
(UNESCO 1995) hypermedia
Stage of collaboration Network societies, Civic activism e-mail, www, chat Castells, 1996,
2000- social action nets, networking, cd 1997, 1998
-roms
The Finnish UN Association and intercultural education
Some 20 000 international non governmental organisations, about 2 000 international

governmental organisation and countless numbers of grass root organisations are
involved in intercultural activities. When Finland was accepted as a member of the UN
in 1955, Finland's political status was at the crossroads between east-west and north-
south. Usually when a state is granted UN membership, the NGOs form a UN
association. The main duties of these UN associations are to distribute information
about UN activities and to educate the general public about global issues according to
the educational recommendations and objectives of the UN, especially those issued by
UNESCO. As a NGO, the Finnish UN Association (www.ykliitto.fi) has functioned as
an umbrella organisation for public and private organisations. It is a member of the
World Federation of the United Nations Associations (WFUNA), which has a
consultative status in UN. Teachers are active consumers of the services of the Finnish
UN Association as their professional association (www.oaj.fi) is an official member.
The Finnish UN Association promotes the aims of education as recommended by

UNESCO (1974, 1995a and b,1999). It follows the debates on international and
national educational policies and initiates discussions on intercultural education and
values. The Finnish UN Association participates in the development of curriculum
plans for intercultural education. It has organised annual courses on intercultural
education as part of the basic and further training of teachers implementing experiments
and publishing learning materials. The Finnish UN Association publishes a quarterly
journal on contemporary global issues. The journal is distributed without charge to
government offices, libraries and schools.
The challenge to global citizenship maturity test
During its existence, the Finnish UN Association has been an important actor in
promoting intercultural education for lifelong learning in Finnish society. One very
successful, modern method for implementing intercultural education is the educational
programme called The Challenge to Global Citizenship Maturity Test (Allahwerdi and
Rikkinen, 2000), planned and developed by Helena Allahwerdi, an official in charge of
international education.
The Maturity Test (www.ykliitto.fi/maakansa) was first used in some UNESCO schools
in 1994. The following year saw its breakthrough, when it was successfully introduced
to all Finnish primary and secondary schools. The Challenge to Global Citizenship is a
flexible, holistic, multidisciplinary learning method independent of age, place or time,
and its contents are renewed by each learner according to her/his motivation and skills
in self-directed learning and progressive inquiry. Individual objectives reinforce
creativity, collaboration, critical awareness and multiple communication skills in
finding oral, written and electronical references and using them in action. The structure
of the test (Figure 1) supports the concept of constructive and humanistic learning,
taking place for the most part alone or/and in groups and self directly, independently
and reflectively utilising progressive inquiry while supporting and strengthening the
development of the participatory expertise.
Media·/tbeme journal
In depth studies
collected in personal portfolio
Reflective action
Reflective action
Figure 1. The structure of the Challenge to Global Citizenship Maturity Test
More detailed information can be found on the homepages of the Finnish UN

Association (www.ykliitto.fi/maakansa) and Kyongju Symposium Proceedings
(Allahwerdi and Rikkinen, 2000, 59-64). English leaflets can be ordered by e-mail:
toimisto@ykliitto.fi or by fax 358 9 1352173 or by post: The Finnish UN Association,
Unionink. 45 B, 00170 Helsinki, Finland.
The maturity test functions well as an independent course, project, team paper or as a
method in student exchange programme. As an example, it serves as an excellent
support in the teaching of basic geography in primary or high schools. The maturity test
lasts anywhere from a few months to several years, depending on the content, depth and
breadth of the chosen theme.
In the contemporary era of information technology it is especially important for learners

to navigate easily through international, national, local and personal learning
environments. The learner has the opportunity to differentiate between the cultural
characteristics of each environment and at the same time practice critical awareness.
Information technology as a part of geography teaching
The world of learners in a geography classroom can no longer be contained

within its four walls. Access to computers and the Internet now allow our
students to reach any part of the world and hence make the geography
classroom boundless. The World Wide Web serves as a gateway to a virtually
limitless amount of information (Lee 2000, 107).
For three decades IT-pages have been an essential part of the contents of international,
geographic periodicals. Presentations related to them have added colour to IGU-CGE
symposiums and diverse publications. In his interesting article, a Finnish geographer
Tommi Inkinen (2001) elaborates on how research on information technology is related
to cultural geography.
In reference to Livingstone (1993), Inkinen (2001) states that different fields of science
are narratives told by the storytellers of each era. Geography also has its own
development narratives and storytellers. Now, at the turn of the millenium, the debate
on information technology has expanded into new geographical areas. Though the
storytellers have changed, the work of geographers culminates in three primal concepts:
locality, space and environment. Geographic research on information technology is
based on these as well. The same concepts have taken on new meanings and elements.
According to Inkinen, reasearch on cultural geography emphasises more than ever an
experimental understanding of spatiality. Without doubt, the development of
information technology is one of the most important factors in the process of
globalisation. People can be simultaneously "everywhere with everybody the whole
time" as a Finnish corporation in the telecomunication business advertised in 2000.
Researchers of the knowledge society and information technology often emphasise the
postmodern, constructive approach to research in learning and education. Traditional,
quantitative thinking has changed into an interpretation of human meanings, which, in
fact, is the main purpose of creating the tools of technical communications. According
to Inkinen (2001, 78) geography as an interdisciplinary area of the sciences is well
suited for this type of research, because the issues concerning local cultural identity are
based on questions relating to geographic research on information technology.
The spoken language incorporates concepts of the knowledge and information society.
According to Inkinen (2001, 79) this easily leads to misunderstandings. The
information society should be understood as a network society producing technical tools
through technological innovations. The knowledge society, on the other hand, refers to
meanings of existing, available knowledge. It is important to understand the difference
between a tool and a meaning. If the information flow from several sources becomes
knowledge, it must be added as an essential, adopted, accepted and formulated part of
earlier, individual experiences. The information can develop into awareness and take
on meaning in the life of the individual.
The basic principles of learning and teaching have not changed at all. Thus, for
example, learners doing the Challenge to Global Maturity Test and expanding their
world view with the help of international networks should not be left alone to download
information from the Net. They need a partner or a tutor to help them to think about
and analyse the meanings, truth and characteristics of the information collected. In the
knowledge society, schools and teachers are needed more than ever. The old proverb,
"The deeper and bigger the ocean of knowledge the longer the shoreline of ignorance",
is true even today. The Net alone cannot teach tolerance in an intercultural network
society. One must confront "Others" in real life. Geography as a school subject can at
best reinforce an understanding of interculturality as a vital element enriching everyday
life.
References
Allahwerdi, H. (2001) Kansainvliisyyskasvatuksen suosituksista maailmankansalaisen kypsyyskokeeseen.

Suomen YK-liitto kansainvlilisyyskasvattajana I970-2000, Helsingin yliopiston opettajankoulutslaitoksen
tutkimuksia 230, Hakapaino, Helsinki.
Allahwerdi, H. and Rikkinen, H. (2000) The challenge to global citizenship study programme. In Jae-Myong
Ryu and Tae-Yeol Seo and Jong-Von Lee (eds.) Geographical Education at the Cross Roads: Directions for
the next millennium Proceedings, 59-64, Korea: IOU Commission on Geographical Education.
Bhabha, H. (1990) Instruction: Narrating in nation. In H. Bhabha (ed.) Nation and Narration. London and
New York: Routledge, 1-7.
Castells, M. (1996) The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, Vol L The Rise of Network Society,
Oxford: Blackwell.
Castailes, M. (1997) The Information age: Economy, Society and Culture, VoliL The Power of Identity,
Oxford: Blackwell.
Castells, M. (1998) The Information Age :Economy, Society and Culture, VoliiL End of Millennium, Oxford:
Blackwell.
Delors, J. et al. (1996) Learning: The Treasure Within, UNESCO, Paris. <WWW.unesco.orgldelorsl>
Fountain, S. (1995) Education for Development, A Teacher's Resource for Global Learning, London: Hodder
and Stoughton.
Global Trends (1994) The World Almanac of development and peace, in J. Hauchler and M. Keunedy (ed.), A
Development and Peace Foundation Books, New York.
Human Development Report (1999) United Nations Development Programme, New York: Oxford University
Press. <www.undp.org/hdro>
Human Development Report 2000, Development and Human Rights, Oxford University Press, New York.
<WWW. undp.org/hdro>
Huntington, S. (1998) The Clash of Civilisations and the Remaking of World Order, London: Touchstone
Books.
Inkinen, T. (2001) Informaatioteknologinen tutkimus kulttuurimaantieteen osana: kolme tulkintaa
sovellusesimerkein, Terra, Vol. 113, No 2, 77-88.
Isohookana, T. and Hakala, M. (2000) Mediakasvatuksen asema on vakiinnuttava, Kanava 8/2000, 527-532.
Kosonen, P. (1999) Olobalisaatio sosiologisena kiisitteenii, Sosiologia 3/1999, 181-191.
Kotilainen, S. and Kivikuru, U. (1999) Mediakasvatus ihanteiden ja todellisuuden valossa, Teoksessa
Kotilainen et al. (toim.) Mediakasvatus, 13-30, Edita, Helsinki.
Lee, H. (2000) Geography-related attitude changes in the use of Web-based instruction by high school
students, in Jae-Myong Ryu, Tae-Yeol Seo and Jong-Von Lee (eds.) Geographical Education at the Cross
Roads: Directions for the next millennium Proceedings, 99-106, IOU Commission on Geographical
Education, Korea.
Oxfam (1997) A Curriculum for Global Citizenship, Oxfam's development education programme United
Kingdom and Ireland, Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
Paasi, A ( 1995) Constructing territories, boundaries and regional identities, in T. Forsberg (ed.) Contested
Territory. Border Disputes at the Edge of the Former Soviet Empire, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 42-61.
Paasi, A (1999) The changing pedagogies of space: presentation of the others in Finnish school geography
textbooks, in A. Buttirner, B. Stanley and U. Wardenga (eds.) Text and Image. Social Construction of
Regional Know/edges. Institut fur Liinderkunde, Beitriige zur Regional Geographie 49, 226-237, l..epzig.
UNESCO (1974) Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Cooperation and
Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (1995a) Declaration and Framework of Action on Education for Peace, Human Rights and
Democracy, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (1995b) Declaration of Principles of Tolerance and Follow-up Plan of Action for the United
Nations Year of Tolerance, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (1999) Declaration on a Culture of Peace and Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace, Paris:
UNESCO.
24. GEOGRAPHY AND INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES: SOME FUTURES
THINKING
W. ASHLEY KENT
Introduction
Twenty or so years ago, (Kent, 1992) I began a piece of writing with the following, 'Anna,
our ten year old, came in from school and immediately sat down at the micro - a rather
elderly BBC B and very much part of the furniture in our family room. She proceeded to
write and word process a play with parts for herself and her school friends. She then set up
the equally ancient and rather primitive printer and printed off six copies. Then it was time
for tea ... '. How quaint and dated that now feels! Since then how rapidly information and
communication technologies (ICTs) have developed and by all accounts there is no slow
down in their incorporation by education. I do so remember Deryn Watson then a research
officer on the Computers in the Curriculum Project based at Kings College, University of
London corning to my own institution and speaking of the large and wide-ranging potential
for education and particularly geography education of the micro-computer. It was about
1979 and I remember being struck by the huge and likely future implications of what she
was saying. And so it came to pass! Our lives are now directly influenced by the latest
ICTs.
For this chapter I was asked to engage in a bit of 'futures thinking' as far as ICTs are
concerned- both a seductive prospect and a difficult challenge! Futures thinking related to
geography education and ICT is not new. In particular, Allen in 1988 as part of his PhD
research at Cambridge employed a panel of 24 UK experts with national reputations and
credentials in computer assisted learning in geography (the then fashionable term for what is
now ICT). He used a DELPHI study on the use of computers in the teaching of geography
to discover what were the experts' consensus opinions on likely futures, 12 years ahead in
2000. Figure 1 shows the final consensus predictions for tlie year 2000.
In the summer of 2001, and based on Allen's concept I asked a number of experts from
around the world to: firstly determine how the Allen predictions compared with the present
state of play of ICT and geography in their country; and secondly using the same categories
(see Figure 1) to predict the likely (probable) future of ICT and its impact on and
337
338 A. KENT
relationship to geography teaching in their country in the year 2010. My data came from 10
correspondents (see note 1) in 7 countries.
Introduction
The following predictions of the likely scenario for the role and effect of recluwlogy in the teaching of Geography in secondiJry schools by
the year 2000 are based on a Delphi Study employing a panel of experts with a national reputation and credentials in computer assisted
learning (CAL) in geography. Each smrement has been agreed by at least 21 of the 24 panellists.
Overall the panel are happy with the way they foresee things developing: unless otherwise indicated, their consensus view is that every
expecred change mentianed below is desirable or very desirable, though a few other highly desirable improvements such as additional
technical suppart sfiJjfand expanded resources centres in schools were thought likely to occur only to a limited extent.
Teaching methods
Computers will be regarded as a routine resource for azt similar to paper, pencil or book and they will be used in virtually aU areas of the
curricuhon Teachers will be keen to use new tecluwlogy and through the National Council for Educational Tecluwlogy, the
Microelectronics Education Suppart Unit (MESU) initio! and in-service training, they will be folly trained in its use.
The teacher-pupil relationship will change: teachers will not dominare - they will become focilitators. There will be greater pupil activity
and nwbiUty in the classroom, increased pupil-centred learning through compurerised project work of all kinds, more experiential and
enquiry-based learning and more group learning activities (eg focused on computer-based decision-making or problem solving exercises).
In fieldwork, there will be greater use ofperipherals and data loggers to gather dam, such as weather readings or noise levels. Portable
and lap-top computers will be used actually in the field.
Although all these were seen as highly desirable changes, it was thought rather unfortunare that there might be a slight reduction in the
breadth or geographical study resulting from increased in-depth project work using computers.
The Curriculum
There will be more emphasis on skills and less on knowledge, and a general rise in academic sf/Jndards as technology removes the boring
mechanical tasks, such as graphics and sfiJtistics, leaving more time for investigation and analysis. Similarly, some topics will be taught to
younger age groups because computers will handle the necessary complex mathematical calculations. Graphicacy will improve through
the use ofgraphics packages, ploners, three dimensional projection, digifiJI mapping, etc.
Greater use of computers to administer tests for prescribed assessment of the National Curriculum was also seen as likely, but was
regarded as undesirable because of the extra burden such assessment imposes on teachers and the way computerized resting will affect the
curriculum.
DaJobases, data files and databanks
Databases and data files will increase in imporfiJnce, becoming as imporlnnl as texts in a few classrooms, but not replacing them. A
greater range of dam files will be commercially available for the major inrerrogation systems such as GRASS, KEY and their successors.
Pupils will make increased use of CD-ROMS storing vast amounts of dam. A Geographical bifonnation System will be in operation, and
teachers will foirly routinely use huge on-Une databanks and picture-banks, like PRESTEL, NERIS and the Times Network for Schools
(1TNS), although pupils will not hove much access to these. The expected changes mean that enhanced skills ·of dafiJ handling aad
analysis will be required by both teachers and pupils.
Simulations and problem solving
Computers will be used to a considerable extent for exploring alternative scenarios and "what ifs". Pupils will be more involved in
complex computer-based simulations and role-plays, which will be nwre accurate and much more reaUstic than now, and in particular
computers increasingly able to handle qualitative infonnation will improve simulations involving values. There will be grearer use of
conrentfree problem-solving programs like RESOLVE, FORUM and PROBLEM SOLVER but these will usually be used with specific
geographical subject maner, and only in a few classrooms will decision-making and problem-solving skills be formally fiJUghl in a content-
free context.
Interactive video and satelli/JJ Imagery

Both hardware and software jbr interactive video (I. V.) will become much cheaper and very much easier and faster to use. Ordnance
Survey maps and atlases on I. V. will be in fairly general use and demiled discs will be available for many countries. It will be easier to
obmin "hard copy" of LV. images. All this will lead to increased use ofI. V., particularly for data retrieval and imuginative simulations.
Similarly, reductions in cost both for receiving and processing "live" satellire imagery, and even more so for producing "hard copies" of
satellire images, means that both "live" and "non-live" remorely-sensed images will be in greater use and that new skills ofinrerpreting
them will be included in the Geography curricuhon
GEOGRAPHY AND INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES 339
Wonl processing, desk-top pubUshing and electronic mailing
Probably the nwst significant change by the year 2000 will be the greatly increased use of word processors by pupils, though wonl-
processed work will not completely replace hand-written work except in a few classrooms. All pupils, both male and female will be taught
basic keyboanling skiUs, as speech recognizing input devises are unlikely w be in use in schools by then. Wonl processors will enable
pupils' work w be put through a draft stage before being finally printed out for marking, and the general standard of presentation of
pupils' work (text and graphics) will improve considerably, a "professional" design and layout being quite common. Pupils will also
make more use of desk-wp publishing, or example to simulate investigative journalism on world affairs.
However electronic maiUng, either by teachers to share ideas and teaching resources, or by pupils to communicate with other children in
this country or overseas, is unlikely to be used much more than at present.
Lln1cs wllh Industrial Software
Escalating costs may reduce the amount of software produced specifically for the educational market a possibility which worried
panellists. Schools will use more generic software, such as 8preadsheets, rather than "topic-specific .. programs. Such content-free
software, often designed for use in business or for industrial training wlll create stronger links between education and the world of work.
Anyway, educational software will become more Uke business software as the latter becomes more user friendly and both adopt "Apple
Mac" type WIMP systems (which in the case of educational software will supersede touch screens and concept keyboards). Also greater
use will be make of educational software produced or sponsored by commercial I industrial organisations such as B.P and British Gas, a
development which received only a guarded welcome from the paneL
(Allen, 1988)
Figure 1. Delphi Study on New Technology in the Teaching of Secondary School Geography by the Year
2000: The Final Consensus
The Situation in 2001
I intend to summarize the views of the correspondents with comments when appropriate on
the accuracy of the 1988 predictions. In 2001, ICT was generally accepted as a vital tool to
help facilitate the teaching and learning of geography but by no means was there a pervasive
and equal use of the new technologies in all geography classrooms. Inequalities of access to
tlJ.e hardware and software as well as variable availability and quality of teacher training
have proved major constraints. In particular, training was still needed to boost the
confidence and expertise of older teachers. Furthermore, teacher-pupil relationships were
not seen to have greatly changed in spite of the potential of ICT to do just that. Perhaps
surprisingly, ICT was not generally used during fieldwork at the data collection stage, but if
at all used, it was at the data analysis stage.
Allen's predictions were confirmed with a greater emphasis on the teaching and learning of
concepts and skills rather than knowledge acquisition alone. This of course could be just as
much to do with the changed focus of curricula than to do directly with the impact of ICT.
The use of computers to administer tests did not happen as predicted but they were helpful
in recording and processing test marks_
The prediction that databases and data files would increase in importance was confirmed but
through the Internet rather than CD ROMs whose popularity is diminishing. Geographic
Information Systems, in spite of predictions and huge potential, are still at an early stage of
use in schools. The use of simulations and problem solving was certainly not pervasive as
predicted in 1988. Interactive video is absent in 2001 and has been replaced by widespread
use of the Internet. Remotely sensed imagery, and not the least, 'live' imagery is not
340 A. KENT
common apart from weather images accessed by teachers. Predictions for widespread use of
word processing and DTP were accurate and especially pervasive in the submission of
assessed work. Email has become ubiquitous and the prediction about its popularity was,
therefore, wrong but it tends to be for personal use rather than for geography specific
applications. The prediction that generic software would be used more has been confirmed
with the dominance of Microsoft products particularly for word-processing and graphing
data.
Predictions for 2010
Naturally, there was some variation in response from the ten correspondents but a good deal
of consensus was evident. The view was that there would be increased access to PCs and
the use of email, text messaging, web browsing, digital video and still cameras, GPS
(Global Positioning Systems) and GIS (Geographical Information Systems) would be
widespread. However, school to school, country to country, there will still be unequal
access to hardware.
The level of ICT skills held by teachers will be high since initial teacher education and in
service education will be compulsory. Teachers will become more facilitators, monitors and
assessors of learning and e-learning might cause students to become more isolated from one
another and their teachers, so face-to-face content will still be deemed to be essential.
Examinations will increasingly require the use and application of ICT skills and publishers
will provide more online materials to complement their textbooks. The virtual classroom
enabling lifelong learning will be common and virtual field-work, perceived to be lower cost
and less hazardous than the real thing, will gain in popularity but not complete! y replace
'real' fieldwork. Online teaching and learning will increase and the dominance of the
classroom as a teaching and learning centre will decline. In fact, some feel that most
geographical work will be done on the computer and the traditional text-book will decline.
Also, ICT will act as a series of tools to process data quickly so for instance there will be
more refined use of GIS and three-dimensional models to describe geographical data. Use
of the Internet will widen and so the storage of data, its access, use and retrieval will
increasingly be online. Furthermore, it is felt that a variety of levels of simulation problem
solving and models are likely to be developed as will expert systems to guide pupils and
teachers through a range of geographical concepts and issues. More and better software will
be available and used as a tool for problem solving. Teachers and pupils will have ready
access to a wide variety of digital, visual and audio material which they will be able to
manipulate to answer a variety of geographical questions. In particular, a range of GIS will
enable pupils to access a rich range of data and answer 'what if' and other questions. Use
and interpretation of a range of remotely sensed images will increase.
The emergence of more distance learning suggests more time may will be spent at home
than at school and more geography departments will have developed their own websites.
Discussion
For those interested, there is no shortage of written material on the use of ICT in geography
education. There are those who discuss the history of the innovation (Kent, 1992) which
goes back probably as far as 1980 when the seminal work by Shepherd et al. was published.
Others survey the contemporary scene (Hassell, 2000; Jackson, 2000; and Freeman, 1997),
while yet others have a research focus, such as Kent (1997, 1998, 2000) and Watson (2000).
A recent IGU Commission on Geographical Education Conference had a large number of
papers, each focusing on some aspect of ICT (Houtsonen and Tammilehto, 2001) which
gives some indications of the high priority this area is given by geography educators. The
range of ICT developments is considerable and is illustrated in Figure 2 which gives some
indications of the many ways in which ICT can support the teaching of geography. Many
teacher oriented professional journals such as Teaching Geography in the UK have regular
features on the latest ICT developments and King's (2000) book gives a flavour of that
richness since it is a selection of articles from that journal.
Some of the most imaginative and 'at the frontiers' development work is being fmanced by
the European Commission. Examples such as Eurogame (see Jackson, 2000, pp. 164-165)
and YoungNet (see Brooks and Kent in Houtsonen and Tammilehto, 2001, pp. 125-129) are
large scale European research and development projects involving partners in several
countries and are exciting examples of online cooperative learning between children from
different cultural and national backgrounds.
In spite of all the rhetoric and literature supporting, indeed. often promoting, the use of ICT
in geography classrooms, the take up nationally and internationally has been patchy. Watson
(2000) amongst others has researched why this is the case. Key constraints appear to be
unequal access to hardware and software, yet probably of greatest importance is the
availability of training for teachers. For instance in the case of England £230 million is
being spent between 1999 and 2003 to provide the opportunity for every teacher to have
training in the use of ICT to support teaching and learning in the curriculum. The money
comes from the National Lottery via the New Opportunities Fund and is managed by the
Teacher Training Agency (TTA). The scheme aims both to bring teachers up to a minimum
standard and also to ensure that teachers fmish the programme with improved competence
and confidence and with an action plan for future continuing professional development.
This is a start, but the funding is not generous! Similarly, the statutory standards for initial
teacher training in England ITA (2002) specifies:
2.5.1 They (student teachers) know how to use JCT effectively, both to teach
their subject and to support their wider professional role;
2.8 They have passed the Qualified Teacher Status skills test in JCT;
342 A.KENT
3.3.10 They use ICT effectively in their teaching.
Technology Sample geographical application
Presentation packages (word when researching information for an investigation use a word processor to analyse and manipulate a text,
processing, DTP and presentation eg. to edit and extract useful infonnation from an article copied from a CD-ROM or the Internet;
software, eg. Powerpoint) as one of the products from an investigation to use a desktop publishing package to produce a leaflet
promoting the case for or against a local by-pass;
to support decision-making on sustainable use of rainforests, use a word processor to present a coursework
report (combining text, maps and graphics);
use a presentation package to combine various types of infonnation to argue the case to the class on the
new superstore location.
Data logging in an investigation into depressions to record hourly weather information with an automatic weather
station to investigate the passage of a depression;
use data~logging equipment to record and compare river flow along a river's length;
use a weather satellite system to collect, record and investigate the daily timing of equatorial rain cells
(this could be also completed as ao Internet activity).
Data handling (databases and to analyse the environmental impact of housing developments on a number of sites by using a spreadsheet
spreadsheets) to analyse and present fieldwork scores;
use data~handling package to analyse information collected from a land use survey in an urban area;
as part of a locality study to compare and contrast climatic data using a spreadsheet to present data
graphically;
use a database with graphing facilities to display infonnation about global economic development in
graph/chart form.
Simulations and modelling use a simulation package to investigate the effects of migration on population change in a region;
software as part of course work use a modelling package to investigate the length of time it takes for a drainage
system, eg. the Aral Sea, to find equilibrium;
use a spreadsheet to calculate the costs of alternative development proposals for a derelict site.
Mapping and geographic use a mapping package to present comparative socio-economic data about the European region;
information systems (GIS) to investigate the changing traffic pressure in a locality using a mapping package to present flow rates over
time from a series of observations of major roads;
use GIS as a tool to support decision-making in a local issue such as the location of a new retail park.
Digital images (from the Internet, to record infonnation on fieldwork either to exemplifY what has been seen or to use in presentations, such
digital cameras, or scanned as views of the buildings, areas to be assessed for environmental quality or physical features;
images from film cameras, photo to provide materials either for class or individual work, these can be used to stimulate discussion and the
CD, or other sources) images can also be used in pupils' work or annotated to develop and illustrate understanding.
Electronic communication (email as part of an exercise to compare contrasting pupils can exchange information with other schools on
and web links) by asking agreed topics or
questions to investigate contrasting climate or to investigate the movement of weather systems, schools can set up a
partnership to exchange weather data by e-mail.
Multimedia authoring (on as part of a class activity on tourism the class cooperate to produce a multimedia package to present
machines or via the Internet) information on a number of holiday destinations to help other students;
developing web pages on the school site to display the arguments on a local issue and to collect views
from others.
Information-rich sources (CD- to provide up~to-date infonnation such as weather satellite images or weather information on any countty
ROM and the World Wide Web) in the world;
to investigate leisure and tourism through access to information on localities, services and travel in this
country and abroad;
as part of an investigation into employment use a CD-ROM of UK census data to find and display
information on patterns in chosen areas;
use the Internet to find infonnation on recent tectonic activity before exploring the impact, causes and
effects of a specific earthquake somewhere in the world.
Figure 2: Examples of ICT opportunities to support Geography.

Source: Hassell, D. (2000) in Fisher, C. and Bimts, J.A (eds) Issues in Geography Teaching, Routledge Falmer.
In other words, there is a government commitment that new and experienced teachers have
to develop ICT skills which cannot but boost the quantity and quality of ICT supported
geography in the next few years.
However, underpinning all of this interest and activity is the unspoken assumption that ICT
is good and worthwhile and effective. Little consideration is given to the opportunity costs
of government and schools investing in these initiatives. Generally, there is a lack of
research surrounding ICT and a lack of critical perspective. Some large scale research has
been conducted such as the ImpacT project (Watson 1993) but that is rare. Generally,
research in ICT and geography education is small scale and piecemeal (see Ingram 1998 and
Kent 1997 and 1998). Not sufficiently, in this writer's opinion, are questions asked such as
those posed by Freeman (1997, 216):
• Are you using IT for a real purpose?
• Are you using IT to further your students' geographical understanding?
• Is incorporating IT an efficient use of both your time and the students' time?
• Have you a clear aim and understanding about what learning is/should be taking place
when students use IT?
• Have you talked to your students about their views on IT and asked for their evaluation
of the use of IT in geography?
It is this writer's experience that many geography lessons he has observed have been more
ICT than geography oriented.
As geography educators, we face a particular challenge with increasing use by students of

resources, data and material from the Internet. There is a danger that such resources assume
greater legitimacy in the eyes of students and we need to develop ways of evaluating such
resources and educating our young people to have a critical understanding of their use and
the dangers of bias and inaccuracy. As Huckle put it in 1989, IT needs to be 'a vehicle for
social literacy, not control' and at the time he put forward a useful set of criteria to be used
for evaluating software. Similar criteria need to be used for all the material students access
from the Internet.
Finally, we as geographers need to be aware that ICT developments in education are

beginning to further reinforce inequalities of resource access and provision both within and
between countries. There is evidence of a 'digital divide' and increasing social exclusion of
countries and people with restricted financial means (Papadimitriou 2001).
Perhaps this emerging divide is an important geography of education we should be regularly

monitoring and studying?
344 A.KENT
Note 1: The ten correspondents were: Paul Keown (New Zealand); Sheila Waddington, (Republic of Ireland);
Geoff Conolly and Margaret Robertson (Australia); Sybille Reinfried (Switzerland); Ilta-Kanerva
Kankaanrinta (Finland); Michael Solem (USA): Peter Fox and Kate Russell (England); and Ernest
Munowenyu (Zimbabwe). Many thanks are due to these colleagues for their helpful responses and to
Ernest Munowenyu who helped me analyse the data.
References
Allen, R. (1988) Delphi study on new technology in the teaching of secondary school geography by the year 2000.
The final consensus predictions', unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
Freeman, D. (1997) Using information technology and new technologies in geography, in D. Tilbury and M.
Williams (eds) Teaching and Learning Geography, London: Routledge (pp. 202-217).
Hassell, D. (2000) Issues in ICT and geography, in C. Fisher and J. Binns (eds) Issues in Geography Teaching,
London: Routledge Palmer (pp. 80-92) ..
Houtsonen, L. and Tammilehto, M. (eds) (2001) Innovative Practices in Geographical Education, Proceedings
IGU Commission on Geographical Education, University of Helsinki, Helsinki.
Huckle, J. (1989) Social and political literacy, in Learning Geography with Compu~ers Pack, NCET.
Ingram, P. (1998) Multimedia in Secondary School Geography: a critical understanding of the present state of use.
Unpublished MA dissertation, London: University of London Institute of Education.
Jackson, S. (2000) Information and communications technology, in A. Kent, (ed) Reflective Practice in Geography
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London: University of London.
Kent, W. (1998) The process and pattern of a curriculum innovation, in M. Smit (ed) Geography Education in
Multicultural Societies, Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch (pp. 47-64).
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London: Institute of Education University of London (pp. 163-176).
Kent, W. (ed) (2000) Information and Communications Technology, Research Forum 2 IGU Commission on
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King, S. (ed) (2000) High-tech geography- ICT in Secondary Schools, Geographical Association, Sheffield.
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achievements in primary and secondary schools, London: University of London, Kings College.
Watson, D. (2000) Information and communication technologies; researching the reality of use, in A. Kent (ed)
Reflective Practice in Geography Teaching, London: Paul Chapman Publishing (pp. 219-227).
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ISBN 90-277-1762-1
2. S.H.U. Bowie, F.R.S. and I. Thornton (eds.): Environmental Geochemistry and
Health. Report of the Royal Society's British National Committee for Problems of
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South Asia. 1985 ISBN 90-277-1938-1
4. Y. Gradus (ed.): Desert Development. Man and Technology in Sparselands. 1985
ISBN 90-277-2043-6
5. F.J. Calzonetti and B.D. Solomon (eds.): Geographical Dimensions of Energy. 1985
ISBN 90-277-2061-4
6. J. Lundqvist, U. Lohm and M. Falkenmark (eds.): Strategies for River Basin Manage-
ment. Environmental Integration of Land and Water in River Basin. 1985
ISBN 90-277-2111-4
7. A. Rogers and F.J. Willekens (eds.): Migration and Settlement. A Multiregional Com-
parative Study. 1986 ISBN 90-277-2119-X
8. R. Laulajainen: Spatial Strategies in Retailing. 1987 ISBN 90-277-2595-0
9. T.H. Lee, H.R. Linden, D.A. Dreyfus and T. Vasko (eds.): The Methane Age. 1988
ISBN 90-277-2745-7
10. H.J. Walker (ed.): Artificial Structures and Shorelines. 1988 ISBN 90-277-2746-5
11. A. Kellerman: Time, Space, and Society. Geographical Societal Perspectives. 1989
ISBN 0-7923-0123-4
12. P. Fabbri (ed.): Recreational Uses of Coastal Areas. A Research Project of the
Commission on the Coastal Environment, International Geographical Union. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0279-6
13. L.M. Brush, M.G. Wolman and Huang Bing-Wei (eds.): Taming the Yellow River: Silt
and Floods. Proceedings of a Bilateral Seminar on Problems in the Lower Reaches
of the Yellow River, China. 1989 ISBN 0-7923-0416-0
14. J. Stillwell and H.J. Scholten (eds.): Contemporary Research in Population Geography.
A Comparison of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0431-4
15. M.S. Kenzer (ed.): Applied Geography. Issues, Questions, and Concerns. 1989
ISBN 0-7923-0438-1
16. D. Nir: Region as a Socio-environmental System. An Introduction to a Systemic
Regional Geography. 1990 ISBN 0-7923-0516-7
17. H.J. Scholten and J.C.H. Stillwell (eds.): Geographical Information Systems for Urban
and Regional Planning. 1990 ISBN 0-7923-0793-3
18. F.M. Brouwer, A.J. Thomas and M.J. Chadwick (eds.): Land Use Changes in Europe.
Processes of Change, Environmental Transformations and Future Patterns. 1991
ISBN 0-7923-1 099-3
19. C.J. Campbell: The Golden Century of Oi/195D-2050. The Depletion of a Resource.
1991 ISBN 0-7923-1442-5
20. F.M. Dieleman and S. Musterd (eds.): The Randstad: A Research and Policy
Laboratory. 1992 ISBN 0-7923-1649-5
21. V.I. llyichev and V.V. Anikiev (eds.): Oceanic and Anthropogenic Controls of Life in the
Pacific Ocean. 1992 ISBN 0-7923-1854-4
22. A.K. Dutt and F.J. Costa (eds.): Perspectives on Planning and Urban Development in
Belgium. 1992 ISBN 0-7923-1885-4
23. J. Portugali: Implicate Relations. Society and Space in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict.
1993 ISBN 0-7923-1886-2
24. M.J.C. de Lepper, H.J. Scholten and R.M. Stern (eds.): The Added Value of Geo-
graphical Information Systems in Public and Environmental Health. 1995
ISBN 0-7923-1887-0
25. J.P. Dorian, P.A. Minakir and V.T. Borisovich (eds.): CIS Energy and Minerals
Development. Prospects, Problems and Opportunities for International Cooperation.
1993 ISBN 0-7923-2323-8
26. P.P. Wong (ed.): Tourism vs Environment: The Case forCoastaiAreas.1993
ISBN 0-7923-2404-8
27. G.B. Benko and U. Strohmayer (eds.): Geography, History and Social Sciences. 1995
ISBN 0-7923-2543-5
28. A. Faludi and A. der Valk: Rule and Order. Dutch Planning Doctrine in the Twentieth
Century. 1994 ISBN 0-7923-2619-9
29. B. C. Hewitson and R. G. Crane (eds. ): Neural Nets: Applications in Geography. 1994
ISBN 0-7923-2746-2
30. A.K. Dutt, F.J. Costa, S. Aggarwal and A. G. Noble (eds.): The Asian City: Processes
of Development, Characteristics and Planning. 1994 ISBN 0-7923-3135-4
31. R. Laulajainen and H.A. Stafford: Corporate Geography. Business Location Principles
and Cases. 1995 ISBN 0-7923-3326-8
32. J. Portugali (ed.): The Construction of Cognitive Maps. 1996 ISBN 0-7923-3949-5
33. E. Biagini: Northern Ireland and Beyond. Social and Geographical Issues. 1996
ISBN 0-7923-4046-9
34. A.K. Dutt (ed.): Southeast Asia: A Ten Nation Region. 1996 ISBN 0-7923-4171-6
35. J. Settele, C. Margules, P. Poschlod and K. Henle (eds.): Species Survival in Frag-
mented Landscapes. 1996 ISBN 0-7923-4239-9
36. M. Yoshino, M. Domros, A. Douguedroit, J. Paszynski and L.D. Nkemdirim (eds.):
Climates and Societies - A Climatological Perspective. A Contribution on Global
Change and Related Problems Prepared by the Commission on Climatology of the
International Geographical Union. 1997 ISBN 0-7923-4324-7
37. D. Borri, A. Khakee and C. Lacirignola (eds.): Evaluating Theory-Practice and Urban-
Rural Interplay in Planning. 1997 ISBN 0-7923-4326-3
38. J.A.A. Jones, C. Liu, M-K. Woo and H-T. Kung (eds.): Regional Hydrological Response
to Climate Change.1996 ISBN 0-7923-4329-8
39. R. Lloyd: Spatial Cognition. Geographic Environments. 1997 ISBN 0-7923-4375-1
40. I. Lyons Murphy: The Danube: A River Basin in Transition. 1997 ISBN 0-7923-4558-4
41. H.J. Bruins and H. Lithwick (eds.): The Arid Frontier. Interactive Management of
Environment and Development. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-4227-5
42. G. Lipshitz: Country on the Move: Migration to and within Israel, 1948-1995. 1998
ISBN 0-7923-4850-8
43. S. Musterd, W. Ostendorf and M. Breebaart: Multi-Ethnic Metropolis: Patterns and
Policies. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-4854-0
44. B.K. Maloney (ed.): Human Activities and the Tropical Rainforest. Past, Present and
Possible Future. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-4858-3
45. H. van derWusten (ed.): The Urban University and its Identity. Roots, Location, Roles.
1998 ISBN 0-7923-4870-2
46. J. Kalvoda and C.L. Rosenfeld (eds.): Geomorphological Hazards in High Mountain
Areas. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-4961-X
47. N. Lichfield, A. Barbanente, D. Borri, A. Khakee and A. Prat (eds.): Evaluation in
Planning. Facing the Challenge of Complexity. 1998 ISBN 0-7923-4870-2
48. A. Buttimer and L. Wallin (eds.): Nature and Identity in Cross-Cultural Perspective.
1999 ISBN 0-7923-5651-9
49. A. Vallega: Fundamentals of Integrated Coastal Management. 1999
ISBN 0-7923-5875-9
50. D. Rumley: The Geopolitics of Australia's Regional Relations. 1999
ISBN 0-7923-5916-X
51. H. Stevens: The Institutional Position of Seaports. An International Comparison. 1999
ISBN 0-7923-5979-8
52. H. Lithwick and Y. Gradus (eds.): Developing Frontier Cities. Global Perspectives -
Regional Contexts. 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6061-3
53. H. Knippenberg and J. Markusse (eds.): Nationalising and Denationalising European
Border Regions, 180D-2000. Views from Geography and History. 2000
ISBN 0-7923-6066-4
54. R. Gerber and G.K. Chuan (eds.): Fieldwork in Geography: Reflections, Perspectives
and Actions. 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6329-9
55. M. Dobry (ed.): Democratic and Capitalist Transitions in Eastern Europe. Lessons for
the Social Sciences. 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6331-0
56. Y. Murayama: Japanese Urban System. 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6600-X
57. D. Zheng, Q. Zhang and S. Wu (eds.): Mountain Geoecology and Sustainable
Development of the Tibetan Plateau. 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6688-3
58. A.J. Conacher (ed.): Land Degradation. Papers selected from Contributions to the
Sixth Meeting of the International Geographical Union's Commission on Land Degrad-
ation and Desertification, Perth, Western Australia, 2Q-28 September 1999. 2001
ISBN 0-7923-6770-7
59. S. Conti and P. Giaccaria: Local Development and Competitiveness. 2001
ISBN 0-7923-6829-0
60. P. Miao (ed.): Public Places in Asia Pacific Cities. Current Issues and Strategies. 2001
ISBN 0-7923-7083-X
61. N. Maiellaro (ed.): Towards Sustainable Buiding. 2001 ISBN 1-4020-0012-X
62. G.S. Dunbar (ed.): Geography: Discipline, Profession and Subject since 1870. An
International Survey. 2001 ISBN 1-4020-0019-7
63. J. Stillwell and H.J. Scholten (eds.): Land Use Simulation for Europe. 2001
ISBN 1-4020-0213-0
64. P. Doyle and M.A. Bennett (eds.): Fields of Battle. Terrain in Military History. 2002
ISBN 1-4020-0433-8
65. C.M. Hall and A.M. Williams (eds.): Tourism and Migration. New Relationships between
Production and Consumption. 2002 ISBN 1-4020-0454-0
66. I.A. Bowler, C.R. Bryant and C. Cocklin (eds.): The Sustainability of Rural Systems.
Geographical Interpretations. 2002 ISBN 1-4020-0513-X
67. 0. Yiftachel, J. Little, D. Hedgcock and I. Alexander (eds.): The Power of Planning.
Spaces of Control and Transformation. 2001 ISBN Hb; 1-4020-0533-4
ISBN Pb; 1-4020-0534-2
68. K. Hewitt, M.-L. Byrne, M. English and G. Young (eds.): Landscapes of Transition.
Landform Assemblages and Transformations in Cold Regions. 2002
ISBN 1-4020-0663-2
69. M. Romanos and C. Auffrey (eds.): Managing Intermediate Size Cities. Sustainable
Development in a Growth Region of Thailand. 2002 ISBN 1-4020-0818-X
70. B. Boots, A. Okabe and R. Thomas (eds.): Modelling Geographical Systems. Statistical
and Computational Applications. 2002 ISBN 1-4020-0821-X
71. R. Gerber and M. Williams (eds.): Geography, Culture and Education. 2002
ISBN 1-4020-0878-3
72. D. Felsenstein, E.W. Schamp and A. Shachar (eds.): Emerging Nodes in the Global
Economy: Frankfurt and Tel Aviv Compared. 2002 ISBN 1-4020-0924-0
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International Handbook on Geographical Education

The GeoJournal Library

Managing Editor: Max Barlow, Concordia University,

Founding Series Editor:

Editorial Board: Paul Claval, France

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

ISBN 978-90-481-6172-0 ISBN 978-94-017-1942-1 (eBook)

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

1. The global scene for geographical education 3

Section 2: International Trends

2. Globalisation and geographical education 21

3. Relevant knowledge, skills and values in geographical education 35

4. Maximising the use of communication technologies in

5. Old cultures, new cultures in geographical education 65

6. Geography and the community 75

Section 3: Refocussing Learning and Teaching

7. Experience and Learning in Geography 89

9. Continuity and change in geography education: learning and teaching 115

Section 4: Improving Curriculum Planning and Development

10. Geography curriculum planning in evolution: some

11. Effective approaches to curriculum development in geography 159

12. The role of teachers in developing school geography curriculum 171

13. International collaboration in the field of environmental

Section 5: Innovation and Change in Geographical Education

15. Career-long professional development for geography teachers 215

16. Alliances, networks and partnerships in geographic education 235

17. A question of standards in geographical education 245

Section 6: A Focus on Research in Geographical Education

18. Research in geographical education: the search for impact 259

19. Geography teachers as action researchers 273

20. Exploring relationships between teaching and research in

Section 7: International Geographical Education Futures

21. Lifelong geographical education 301

22. Self-directed learning and self-directed learners in

23. Improved intercultural geographical education 325

24. Geography and information and communications technologies:

It would be a moribund subject that remained unaffected in one way or another by

Thus, it is salutary that Section 3 Re-focussing Learning and Teaching, Section 4

Such a review of geographical education would be incomplete without an attempt at

Fairgrieve, J. (1926) Geography in School, London: University of London Press.

Sarah Witham Bednarz

Manuela Malheiro Ferriera

Joop van der Schee

SCENARIO 1: THE FLOOD OF REFUGEES

SCENARIO 2: MINING MISADVENTURE

R. Gerber (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Education. 3-18.

SCENARIO 3: THIRD-WORLD MANUFACTURING

SCENARIO 4: LOCAL COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS

A considerable number of key international statements or policies act as influential

The leadership of professional geographical organizations in different countries, eg., the

Further to these professional and academic reasons for promoting geographical

The Status of Geographical Education around the World

A thorough understanding of the global scene in geographical education is enhanced by

The study of geographical education in countries around the World consisted of

Geographical educators from 31 countries participated in the study in 2000. These

Albania Japan Argentina Korea

The Place of Geography in the curriculum at different levels of formal education

Geography is treated differently in the curricula of Primary and Secondary schools, as

usually a key component of an integrated humanities or social studies program. This

Level of Education Separate An Integrated Combination Mandatory Optional

The Approach to Geography in these Curricula

A summary of the approaches to Geography in these curricula is reported generally and