Grammar Wiz

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Grammar worksheet 1
Definite & indefinite articles

Main points 2 Both definite articles (‘the’) & indefinite articles
( ‘a’, ‘an’, &  [the zero article] ) can be used to
express general statements.
 The use of articles in a statement
depends on whether it is a general or NOTE: The following examples are listed from most
common to least common.
a particular statement.
 In general statements, article use is  Method 1
determined by whether the noun it Use  (the zero article - i.e. no article) with
relates to is singular or plural, & uncountable nouns & plural countable nouns.
countable or uncountable.
Lions are mighty creatures.
 In particular statements, both definite Rice is eaten throughout Asia.
& indefinite articles can be used.
This is the most common way to make general
Article use is determined by whether
statements.
the noun in the particular statement is
specific or non-specific.  Method 2
Use the indefinite articles ‘a’ or ‘an’ with singular
1 There are two types of statement:
countable nouns.
A lion is a mighty creature.
General statements
This is a less common way of expressing general
‘General’ statements describe concepts & ideas. They
statements, but it is acceptable.
refer to general categories of things.
 Method 3
Bicycles are an excellent means of transportation.
(‘bicycles’ is a category of transportation) Use the definite article ‘the’ with singular
An angry customer is a frightening sight. countable nouns.
(‘An angry customer’ is a category of person)
The lion is found throughout Africa. The lion is a mighty creature.
(‘The lion’ is a category of animal)
NOTE: This way of expressing general
Some people never fall in love.
statements is possible, but sounds too formal to
(‘Some people’ is a category of people)
most native speakers. It should be avoided.
Information is increasingly communicated by
electronic rather than printed media.
(‘Information’ is a category of things that are
communicated electronically)
3 Specific nouns refer to an identified object. In
other words, both the speaker/writer and the
Particular statements listener/reader know specifically which object is being
talked about.
‘Particular’ statements describe real situations. They
refer to individual members of a category. In particular statements, ‘specific’ nouns require the
definite article (‘the’).
They went shopping for bicycles yesterday.
(‘bicycles’ refers to the particular things they Please give me the red pen.
wanted to buy - they didn’t buy all the (Implied meaning = There is only one red pen.)
bicycles in the world) Please pass the tea.
We saw an angry customer complaining about the high (Implied meaning = There is a teapot right there.)
price of tickets.
(‘an angry customer’ refers to a particular
person - not all customers are angry)
4 A noun is non-specific when either the
speaker/writer, or the listener/reader, or both, do not
I saw the lion at the circus. know specifically which object is being referred to.
(‘the lion’ refers to a particular animal - not all
lions are in the circus) Please give me a red pen.
Some people are joining us for dinner. (Implied meaning = There are several red pens.
(‘Some people’ refers to particular people, not Any red pen is O.K.)
a class of people) Let’s go to a restaurant and have some tea.
Please give me some information on medical (Implied meaning = We don’t know which
treatments for heart disease. restaurant it will be, or what kind of tea we will
(‘some information’ refers to a particular have.)
written or spoken facts)
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Grammar worksheet 1
Definite & indefinite articles (continued)

5 In particular statements, ‘non-specific’ nouns use  Situation 3
an indefinite article ( ‘a’, ‘an’, some, or  [the zero
article] ). There are three situations. Use indefinite articles when neither the
speaker/writer nor the listener/reader has a
 Situation 1 specific mental image or idea.
Use indefinite articles when the speaker/writer I hope you have a wonderful time on your vacation.
has a specific mental image of the noun, but the (Implied meaning = We don’t know what
listener/reader doesn’t. events will make it a wonderful vacation.)
Let’s get some spaghetti when we go out tonight.
I bought a new car. (Implied meaning = We don’t know what kind
(Implied meaning = You haven’t seen the car of or how much spaghetti we’re going to get.)
yet.) We’re supposed to bring dessert to the picnic.
I had some cookies with lunch today. (Implied meaning = We haven’t been told a
(Implied meaning = I know which cookies I specific kind of dessert to bring.)
had, but you don’t.)
There are students in my class who always do their
homework.
(Implied meaning = I know which students
they are, but you don’t.)
 Situation 2
Use indefinite articles when the speaker/writer
does not have a specific mental image or idea,
but the listener/reader does.
I hear you bought a new car. What kind is it?
(Implied meaning = You know what type of
car, but I don’t.)
You said you were holding some mail that came for me.
(Implied meaning = You know what kind &
how much mail there is, but I don’t.)
Mary tells you secrets that she never tells me.
(Implied meaning = You know which secrets,
but I don’t.)
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Grammar worksheet 1
Practice
A Write the correct article (‘a,’ ‘an,’ ‘the’ or ‘’) in each blank space. Look at the previous sentence to help you
determine the correct article. NB The general rule is that you use ‘the’ to refer to a particular thing or things, & ‘a’ or
‘an’ to refer to one of a number of things. Be aware that sometimes an article won’t be required.
Tea is (1) …..…… popular and refreshing beverage. It is consumed in almost every country in (2) …..…… world. The United
Kingdom is possibly (3) …..…… largest consumer of tea. Its pleasant flavour adds to (4) …..…… satisfaction of drinking it.
Consequently, having a cup of tea for morning & afternoon tea has become (5) …..…… integral part of life. Millions of
employees relax over (6) …..…… cup of tea everyday. Three main types of tea can be identified: green, black and oolong. Black
tea is (7) …..…… most common, being manufactured in such tea producing countries as Indonesia, Argentina, Turkey and
Kenya. (8) …..…… other two types, oolong and green, come from Japan and China. (9) …..…… tea plants are grown on tea
estates or in tea gardens. It takes three to five years for (10) …..…… plant to mature.
B Write the correct article (‘a,’ ‘an,’ ‘the’ or ‘’) in each blank space. Look at the previous sentence to help you
determine the correct article.
Soccer - or (1) …..…… football, as it is called by (2) …..…… rest of (3) …..…… world outside (4) …..…… United States -
is surely (5) …..…… most popular sport in the world. Every four years, the world championship of soccer, (6) …..…… World Cup,
is watched by literally billions all over the world, beating out the United States professional football's Super Bowl by far. It is
estimated that 1.5 billion people watched the World Cup final between Italy and Brazil in 1994. It is also (7) …..…… genuine
world championship, involving teams from as many as 172 countries and played in venues all over (8) …..…… globe, unlike (9)
…..…… much more parochial and misnamed World Series in (10) …..…… American baseball (that doesn't even involve Japan or
Cuba, two baseball hotbeds). Although (11) …..…… soccer has become (12) …..…… important sport in (13) …..…… American
sports scene, it will never make inroads into (14) …..…… hearts and markets of (15) …..…… American sports the way that
football, basketball, hockey, baseball, and even (16) …..…… tennis and golf have done. There are many reasons for this.
Recently, (17) …..…… New England Revolution beat (18) …..…… Tampa Bay Mutiny in (19) …..…… game played during
(20) …..…… horrid rainstorm. Nearly 5,000 fans showed up, which shows that soccer is, indeed, popular in the United States.
However, the story of (21) …..…… game was buried near (22) …..…… back of (23) …..…… newspaper's sports section, and there
was certainly no television coverage. In fact, (24) …..…… biggest reason for soccer's failure as (25) …..…… mass appeal sport in
the United States is that it doesn't conform easily to (26) …..…… demands of television.
Basketball succeeds enormously in (27) …..…… America because it regularly schedules what it calls ‘television time-
outs’ as well as the time-outs that (28) …..…… teams themselves call to regroup, not to mention half-times and, on the
professional level, quarter breaks. Those time-outs in the action are ideally made for television commercials. (29) …..……
television coverage is (30) …..…… lifeblood of (31) …..…… American sports. College basketball lives for (32) …..…… game
scheduled on (33) …..…… CBS or ESPN (highly recruited high school players are more likely to go to (34) …..…… team that
regularly gets (35) …..…… national television exposure). We could even say that (36) …..…… television coverage has dictated
(37) …..…… pace and feel of American football. Anyone who has attended (38) …..…… live football game knows how
commercial time-outs slow the game and sometimes, at its most exciting moments, disrupt (39) …..…… flow of events. No one
raises (40) …..…… objection, however, because without (41) …..…… television, football knows that it simply wouldn't remain in
(42) …..…… homes and hearts of Americans. Also, without those advertising dollars, the teams couldn't afford (43) …..…… sky-
high salaries of their high-priced superstars.
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Grammar worksheet 2
Subject-verb agreement
Main points Subject Example
 expressions of time, Three years is the length of
money, weight or the programme.
 With any writing, whether it is IELTS measurement - singular Two thousand dollars is the
Writing Task 1 or Task 2, it is fee required for the course.
important that a verb agrees with its Two metres seems to be OK.
subject in number & person. This is  indefinite pronouns (-one, One is always nervous before
called ‘agreement.’ -body, -thing words) - singular. a test.
 When this agreement is made, care (anyone, someone, everyone; Everyone attends the
afternoon tutorials.
anybody, somebody, everybody,
must be taken to accurately identify nobody; anything, something, Somebody is responsible for
the subject. Subjects may not always everything, nothing) the project.
be obvious. Nothing agrees in this
sentence.
1 There are two main parts of a sentence: a subject

 nouns preceded by
quantifiers (all, any, a lot of,
Some of the courses were
cancelled.
(who or what) & a verb (action or condition). none, most, some, half) - can be Some of the advice was
singular when referring to a helpful.
In order for a sentence to be grammatically correct, singular or uncountable noun, Most of the students’
the verb must agree with the subject in number or plural when referring to a questions were answered.
(singular or plural) & person (1st - I, 2nd - you, 3rd - plural noun or pronoun
Most of the transport was
s/he, it, they). A singular subject (one person/thing) provided by the golf club.
must take a singular verb, & a plural subject (two or  they - always plural They attend lessons together.
more people/things), a plural verb.
 nouns that are plural The students were late for
- nouns with the regular ‘s’ class.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT ending; irregular plurals The deputy lieutenants were
(child/children, foot/feet) briefed before the meeting.
Subjects Verb - singular Verb - plural - compound nouns where an
‘s’ is added to the most The criteria seem to be
1st person I study at 9am. We study at 9am. significant word (sons-in-law, reasonable for the
passers-by) assignment.
2nd person You study at 9am. You study at 9am.
rd - nouns of Latin origin
3 person S/He/It studies at 9am. They study at 9am.
(analysis ~ analyses, datum ~
data - data takes the singular
Generally, the verb form is the same for all persons & plural, medium ~ media)
with the exception of the 3rd person singular, which - nouns of Greek origin
takes an ‘s’/‘es’. The verbs ‘to be’ & ‘to have,’ (criterion ~ criteria, hypothesis ~
however, are irregular, & change in other persons. hypotheses, phenomenon ~
phenomena)
 a subject formed with
2
Neither the teacher nor the
It may not always be obvious whether the subject ‘either...or’ & ‘neither...nor’ student plans to go.
is singular or plural. The table below lists a number of takes a verb that agrees with Neither the teacher nor the
rules for subject-verb agreement using different the subject nearest to it students plan to go.
subjects.  collective nouns which American English: The
name a group of people government was elected five
(government, company, staff, years ago. (the emphasis is
IRULES FOR SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT team, family, department, group) on the government as a
may be singular or plural in single unit)
Subject Example British & Australian English, British & Australian
but usually singular in English: as above plus The
 He, she, it - always It is sunny but cold today.
American English government were elected five
singular
years ago. (the emphasis is
 uncountable nouns - The information is not on individuals in the
always singular; cannot be available on the web. government)
preceded by ‘a’ or ‘an’
 there is, there are There is one assignment.
 a gerund, a phrase Studying English is easy.
phrases agree with the noun There are many assignments.
beginning with a gerund (‘-ing’ To learn another language is that follows
form) or a ‘to’-infinitive - singular important.
subject agrees with the verb The list of assignments was in
 subjects joined by ‘and’ - The student and teacher were & not the intervening words, the course book.
take plural invited to the birthday party. phrases or clauses
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Grammar worksheet 2
Practice
A Choose the correct verb to agree with its subject & complete the sentence.
1. There ............... several students absent from class today. a) is b) are c) was
2. Neither ............... eligible to apply for the job. a) were b) are c) is
3. The study found that the hypotheses ................... incorrect. a) are b) was c) were
4. Neither the football nor the tennis matches ....................... a) were b) was c) is
very interesting.
5. The kookaburra is an Australian bird which ....................... a) are preying b) preys c) prey
.................................... on snakes.
6. The Olympic swimming team ............................ selected a a) had b) was c) were
fortnight ago.
7. None of the questions ..................................... to the exam. a) relate b) relates c) are relating
8. Knowing a subject well ..................................... a lot of a) require b) are requiring c) requires

study.
9. The percentage of male nurses entering the profession a) are b) has c) have
.......................... increased.
10. Newspapers and magazines ................................................ a) provide b) provides c) is providing
students with a good source of reading material.
B Choose the subject a), b) or c) that agrees with the verb to complete the following sentences. There may be
some sentences where two choices are correct. NOTE Some statements are grammatically incorrect & so
cannot be used. Write a), b) &/or c) in the blank.
1. .............. have voted for approval. a) Australia, as well b) The Australian c) The Australian
as China, companies
2. ............. were reduced during the a) None of the b) None of the c) None of the
takeover. company’s profits company’s wealth company’s income
3. ............. are grown in Indonesia. a) Many varieties of b) Many varieties of c) Many variety of
tea spring flowers vegetable
4. ............. is accurate in assessing a) Either the scientists b) Either the scientist c) Either the scientists
the problem. or the astronomer or the astronomers or a astronomer
5. ............. speak Mandarin fluently. a) Everybody b) Both c) Someone
6. ............. is required for enrolment. a) A passport or b) A passport c) The passports

offer letter
7. There are ……....... a) several students b) a foreign student c) some student who
who failed the test. who failed the test. failed the test.
8. …..…..... were quite serious. a) The problems that b) The problem that c) A problem that a
the student faced the students faced student faced
9. ............. is too much for that book. a) Twenty-five b) One dollar c) Five dollar
dollars
10. ............. works for the Time a) The journalist who b) The journalists who c) The journalist which
magazine wants to interview want to interview want to interview the
the directors the directors director
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Grammar worksheet 3
Types of clauses
Main points 3 Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as
sentences because they do not make complete sense
by themselves. They are called dependent (or
 Independent & dependent clauses are subordinate) clauses. Consider the same clause with
groups of words containing a subject the subordinating conjunction ‘when’ at the start.
& a complete verb. Dependent clause: when the Prime Minister is in China
 An independent clause has a
The clause could not be a sentence by itself since the
complete thought & so can stand
conjunction ‘when’ suggests that the clause is
alone as a sentence. A dependent providing an explanation for something else.
clause can never make sense by
As the dependent clause answers the question ‘when,’
itself, so it can never be a sentence.
just like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverbial
 There are three types of dependent clause (or an adverbial clause). Note how the clause
clauses: adverbial clauses, noun can replace the adverb ‘tomorrow’ in these examples.
clauses & relative clauses. Adverb: The committee will meet tomorrow.
Adverbial clause: The committee will meet when the
1
Prime Minister is in China.
Consider these examples:’
Clause: cows eat grass 4 Dependent clauses can stand not only for
adverbs, but also for nouns & adjectives. There are
This is a clause because it contains a subject (‘cows’)
therefore three types of dependent clauses:
& a predicate (‘eat grass’).
 Adverbial clauses - which stand for adverbs;
The predicate has a complete verb (‘eat’) & other
 Noun clauses - which stand for nouns; &
information (‘grass’). As the subject & the predicate make
up a complete thought, this is an independent clause.  Relative clauses - which stand for adjectives.
Phrase: cows eating grass

A phrase is a group of words that does NOT contain a
5 An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that
takes the place of an adverb in another clause or
subject & a complete verb. phrase. It answers questions such as ‘when?,’
The sample is a noun phrase. This noun phrase could ‘where?,’ ‘why?,’ ‘with what goal/result?’ & ‘under what
form the subject of a clause, but there is NO predicate conditions?.’
(with a complete verb) attached to it. Although the Usually, a subordinating conjunction like ‘because,’
adjective phrase ‘eating grass’ shows which cows the ‘when(ever),’ ‘where(ever),’ ‘since,’ ‘after’ & ‘so that’
writer is referring to, there is nothing here to show why will introduce an adverbial clause.
the writer is mentioning cows in the first place.
The adverbial clause can be before or after the main
Clause: cows eating grass are visible from the highway part of the sentence, but it can never stand alone as a
This is a complete clause again. complete sentence.
The subject ‘cows eating grass’ & the predicate ‘are Here are some more examples:
visible from the highway’ make up a complete thought. Place (the clause answers the question ‘where?’)
It is therefore an independent clause. The premier gave a speech where the workers were
striking.
2 There are two main types of clauses: independent & Reason (answers ‘why?’)
dependent. Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had
murdered Hamlet's father.
If a clause can stand alone as a sentence because it
makes sense, it is an independent clause. Effect (answers ‘with what goal/result?’)
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder
Independent clause: the Prime Minister is in China would be avenged.
Note that when an independent clause does stand by Condition (answers ‘under what conditions?’)
itself, separated from other clauses, it is normally If the UK co-operates, the Europeans may gain monetary
referred to simply as a sentence, not a clause. union.
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Grammar worksheet 3
Types of clauses (continued)

6 A noun clause is a dependent clause that takes 7 A relative (or adjectival) clause is a dependent
the place of a noun in another clause or phrase. clause that takes the place of an adjective in another
clause or phrase.
Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the object or
subject of a verb, or the object of a preposition. It Like an adjective, a relative clause modifies a noun or
answers the questions ‘who?’ or ‘what?.’ pronoun, answering questions like ‘which?,’ ‘which
one?’ or ‘what kind of?.’
Noun: I know Latin.
Noun clause: I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a Adjective: the red coat
native language. Relative clause: the coat which I bought yesterday
In the first example (‘I know Latin.’), the noun ‘Latin’ Like the word ‘red’ in the first example, the dependent
acts as the direct object of the verb ‘know.’ clause ‘which I bought yesterday’ in the second
example modifies the noun ‘coat.’
In the second example (‘I know that Latin is no
longer spoken as a native language.’), the entire Note that a relative clause usually comes after what it
clause ‘that Latin...’ is the direct object of the verb. The modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.
clause answers the question ‘know what?’
A relative clause begins with either:
NOTE As the noun clause is acting as the object of  relative pronouns
the verb in the independent clause, it forms part of the
independent clause. In other words, the noun clause is (‘who,’ ‘that,’ ‘which,’ ‘whichever,’ ‘whoever,’
contained within the independent clause. The sample ‘whom’ & ‘whose.’)
sentence is a complex sentence.  relative adverbs
A noun clause begins with words such as ‘that,’ ‘what,’ (‘where,’ ‘when’ & ‘why’).
‘whatever,’ ‘why,’ ‘whether,’ ‘how,’ etc. Here are some more examples:
Noun clauses are often the object of verbs like ‘think,’ the meat which they ate was tainted
‘feel,’ ‘know,’ ‘discover,’ ‘understand,’ ‘see,’ ‘hear’ (the clause modifies the noun ‘meat’; it answers the
‘realise,’ etc. question ‘which meat?’)
Here are some more examples: about the movie which made him cry
(modifies noun ‘movie’; answers ‘which movie?’)
Subject of verb (answers ‘who will have to pay?’)
Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it. they are searching for the one who borrowed the book
(modifies pronoun ‘one’; answers ‘which one?’)
NOTE As the noun clause is the subject of the
independent clause, it forms part of the independent Did I tell you about the author whom I met?
clause. In other words, the noun clause is contained (modifies noun ‘author’; answers ‘which author?’)
within the independent clause. The sample sentence
is a complex sentence. In informal writing or speech, the relative pronoun may
be left out if it is not the subject of the relative clause.
Object of preposition (answers ‘about what?’) However, it is usually included in formal, academic
Tell me about what you bought at the mall. writing.
NOTE As the noun clause is acting as ‘other Informal: The books people read were often
information’ in the predicate of the independent religious.
clause, it forms part of the independent clause. In Formal: The books that people read were often
other words, the noun clause is contained within the religious.
independent clause. The sample sentence is a
complex sentence.
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Grammar worksheet 3
Practice
A Determine the function of the underlined dependent clauses in the following sentences. Tick [  ] your choice.
Remember that:
 adverbial clauses answer  noun clauses answer  relative clauses answer
questions like: questions like: questions like:
 when?  what?  which?
 where?  who?  which one?
 why?  what kind of?
 with what goal/result?
 under what conditions?
1. Some people buy expensive cars simply because they can.  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
2. Many people hope that Japan can solve its economic problems.  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
3. The bankers need to know what they should do.  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
4. Which one is the person who stole your car?  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
5. Wherever there is a large American city, there will be poverty.  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
6. The books which the professor assigned were very expensive.  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
7. Canada might give up its marketing boards if the European  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
Community gives up its grain subsidies.
8. That is the place where Wolfe's and Montcalm's armies fought.  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
9. Unless the crown can make a better case, the accused murderer  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
will not be convicted.
10. It is important to ask whether the wedding is formal or semi-  Adverbial  Noun  Relative
formal.
And now for the ring. . .
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Grammar worksheet 4
Practice
A After each sentence, tick [  ] the option that best describes the use of clauses in that sentence.
1. The doctor told Charlie to lose weight and exercise vigorously for 45 minutes a day.
 This sentence has two  This sentence has no  This sentence has one
independent clauses. independent clauses. independent clause.
2. The doctor was worried that Charlie was putting on too much weight.
 The underlined section is an  The independent clause is ‘The  This sentence has no
independent clause. doctor was worried.’ independent clause.
3. Charlie has a hard time sticking to a diet; he really loves rich, sweet desserts.
 This sentence has two  This sentence has one  This sentence has no
independent clauses. independent clause. independent clause.
4. In fact, the last time he tried to lose weight, he ended up actually gaining weight.
 ‘he ended up…weight’ is the only  The underlined section is the  This sentence has two
independent clause. independent clause. independent clauses.
5. Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer because he is worried about his heart.
 The underlined section is an  This sentence has two  ‘Charlie has decided…trainer’ is
independent clause. independent clauses. the independent clause.
6. His new personal trainer, whose name is Adriana Bongiorno, thinks that Charlie may be a lost cause.
 The underlined section is not an  The underlined section is an  This sentence has two
independent clause. independent clause. independent clauses.
7. That she can make him do the exercises but not stick to the diet.
 The underlined section is the  This sentence has two  This sentence has no
independent clause. independent clauses. independent clause.
8. He is very good as long as Miss Bongiorno is around, but he goes to the freezer for ice cream when she leaves.
 This sentence has three  This sentence has two  This sentence has one
independent clauses. independent clauses. independent clause.
9. Miss Bongiorno is beginning to make a difference, however, and Charlie is starting to make some progress.
 This sentence has one  The clause following ‘however’ is  This sentence has two
independent clause. a dependent clause. independent clauses.
The doctor said Charlie needed more activity, so

I hide his TV. remote control three times a week.
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Grammar worksheet 5
Connecting ideas - Part 1

1 An important aspect of formal writing is the  and
appropriate use of sentence structures to convey your
ideas clearly & effectively. Used to add another or similar idea.
It is necessary to have a variety of sentence Ginger is a popular ingredient in Asian cuisine, and it
structures, drawing on the use of coordinate & is used in medicinal preparations.
subordinate conjunctions to form both compound &  but
complex sentences.
Used to add an opposite idea or show contrast.
2 Sentences can express both simple & complex Ginger is widely used in Asian cuisine, but it is
ideas. Connecting ideas in sentences correctly is becoming more popular in continental cuisine.
important because this makes the relationship
between ideas clear & meaningful.  or
A sentence must have a subject & a verb, & is also Used to express a choice or an alternative.
referred to as an independent clause. An Ginger can be used for treating a cold, or it can aid in
independent clause is, in fact, a simple sentence. the digestive process.
A dependent clause also contains a subject & verb,  so
but is not regarded as a sentence because its
meaning is incomplete. Used to give an effect or a result.
The herbalist was successful in treating his patient
3 Ideas can be connected in two main ways: with ginger, so he decided to try this remedy out with
other patients.
Coordination
 for
Coordination is used to connect two ideas that are of
equal importance. Coordination is therefore used to Used to introduce a reason or a cause.
join two independent clauses when those clauses
express ideas of equal content or importance. Ginger is healthy, for it carries medicinal properties.
Coordination uses two methods to join clauses:  yet

 With a coordinating conjunction. Used to express surprise or something
The seven coordinating conjunctions will be unexpected.
examined in this Worksheet. Ginger is an imported product, yet it is easy to grow in
 With a semicolon (with or without the help of a subtropical regions.
transition).
 nor
This will be examined later in the course.
Used to join two negative sentences.
Subordination
Ginger cannot cure a cold, nor can it remedy the flu.
Subordination is used to connect a main idea with a
supporting idea.
Sentences of this type join independent clauses with
5 A comma is inserted before these conjunctions.
However, if the two independent clauses are very
dependent clauses or phrases.
short, the comma can be omitted.
Subordination uses a wide range of subordinating
NOTE In this course, we will always use a comma in
conjunctions to join the clauses. These conjunctions
order to check your understanding of sentence
will be examined later in the course.
structures & punctuation practice.
4 Coordinating conjunctions join independent

clauses (simple sentences) to form compound
sentences.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: ‘and,’ ‘but,’
‘or,’ ‘so,’ ‘for,’ ‘yet’ & ‘nor.’ Each expresses a different
relationship between the clauses.
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Grammar worksheet 5
Practice
A Complete the following sentences with the appropriate coordinating conjunction (nor, for, and, so, yet, or, but).
1. The Chileans grew a lot of coffee beans, ……..……. they did not export them.
2. The delegates arrived at the airport, ……..……. they were greeted by the executive.
3. The herbal products cannot be sold in Europe, ……..……. can they be advertised.
4. The gifts were delivered late afternoon, ……..……. the presentation could not be made.
5. The director requested the publisher deliver the books on time, ……..……. he would have to cancel the order.
6. The IELTS students achieved success, ……..……. they worked consistently hard and practised every day.
7. The weekend was clear, still and sunny, ……..……. it was cool.
8. The students were born in Vietnam, ……..……. they are fluent Vietnamese speakers.
9. James was good at accounting, ……..……. he disliked financial planning.
10. The players will be selected for the final match today, ……..……. they will need to start training immediately.
B Complete these sentences by circling the correct coordinating conjunction from the choices provided.
1. Jeab met her first boyfriend at Narcissus Disco, [ a: and b: so c: or ] she met her second boyfriend at Spark.
2. When I left home, I didn’t have much money, [ a: yet b: and c: so ] I managed to travel around Europe for three months
before I had to find a job and make some money.
3. My house does not have a separate dining room, [ a: and b: but c: nor ] does it have a spare bedroom. However, while I
am a student, it suits me.
4. The student searched on the Internet for days, [ a: for b: so c: but ] he wanted to make sure he had all the information
on university options overseas.
5. Many students who get good high school grades go on to study at university, [ a: so b: but c: or ] some pursue other
study options.
6. An MBA from a good university in America is a good qualification to have, [ a: and b: yet c: but ] you have to pay for
it. Education in the States is extremely expensive.
7. Dagwood’s teacher told him he had to come to class, [ a: and b: but c: or ] he would fail the course.
8. Dagwood hadn't studied for his test, [ a: yet b: but c: so ] of course he didn't do well in the subject and barely passed.
IT’S NOT A NAP...

IT’S A
SELF-IMPROVEMENT
PROGRAMME!
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Grammar worksheet 6
Connecting ideas - Part 2

1 Subordinating conjunctions connect a 4 The punctuation of a complex sentence with an
dependent clause to an independent clause. adverbial clause depends on the order of the clause in
the sentence. A comma separates the clauses only
They form a complete sentence, which is called a when the dependent clause comes first.
complex sentence.
The parents requested student visas so that their children
2 There are three types of dependent clause:

could pursue studies in Australia.
adverbial clauses, relative clauses & noun So that their children could pursue studies in Australia ,
clauses. This Grammar Worksheet will look at the first the parents requested student visas
two types.
The subordinating conjunctions used in the various 5 Relative clauses provide information about a noun
clauses express a variety of different relationships with or pronoun. They are referred to as relative clauses
the dependent clauses. because they begin with a relative pronoun (who,
whom, which, that, etc) or a relative adverb (when,
3 Adverbial clauses provide the following kind of

where, why).
information: when, where, why, for what purpose, & so Because they modify nouns in the same way that
on. Here are some examples of the use of adjectives do, they are also known as adjectival
subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clauses: clauses.
 when, whenever Here are some examples of the use of relative

pronouns & relative adverbs in relative clauses:
Used to express time (when?).
 who, whom
When students complete the two prerequisites, they
will be eligible for the business course. Relative pronouns used with humans.
 where, wherever Students who complete the three-year program

successfully will be accepted onto the course.
Used to express place (where?).
The student whom the counsellor advised was offered a
The students need to go where the training sessions place on the Diploma program.
will be held.
 which, that
 because, since, as
Relative pronouns used with nonhumans & things.
Used to express reason (why?).
First-year university students enjoyed the classes,
The student deferred her studies because she arrived which were quite challenging.
after the semester began.
The course material that the student received was
 although, though, even though helpful.
Used to express contrast.  where
Although the semester already commenced, the Relative adverb used to refer to a place.
university was accepting late enrolments.
It was the place where the classes were held.
 while, whereas
 when
Used to express opposition.
Relative adverb used to refer to a time.
Second year diploma students focus on marketing and
accounting, while first year study business. February is the month when the academic year begins.
 so that, in order that

Used to express purpose (for what purpose?).
The parents requested student visas so that their
children could pursue studies in Australia.
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Grammar worksheet 6
Practice
A Combine a clause 1-10 from column A with what you think is the most appropriate clause (a)-(j) from column B.
For the first five (1 to 5), place the independent clause first. For 6 to 10, place the dependent clause first. Use
correct punctuation.
A: Independent clauses B: Dependent clauses

1. the writing module was administered (a) even though they had not completed the course
2. international students try to attend (b) although they disagreed on the results
3. the student was nervous (c) in order that he could finish the test on time
4. the tutorial was helpful (d) whenever a new program becomes available
5. the students were required to participate in the (e) whereas tertiary students are unrestricted in their
survey dress code
6. the first experiment was successful (f) while the second one was contradictory
7. he transferred his answers quickly (g) when the students returned to the classroom
8. the database is updated (h) whenever there are excursions to the countryside
9. the scientists worked on the experiments together (i) because he was sitting his oral exam
10. secondary school students are required to wear (j) because it was designed for upper-intermediate
uniforms students of English
Independent clause first
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………................................…………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................……………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................................………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................................………………………
5. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................................………………………
Dependent clause first
6. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..............................………………
7. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................…………………
8. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................…………………
9. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................……………
10. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................................…………
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Grammar worksheet 7
Correlative conjunctions
Main points To stay healthy, you should both eat nutritious food and
exercise daily. (verbs)
 Correlative conjunctions are pairs of In my opinion, neither wealth nor beauty guarantees
happiness. (nouns)
words that join two related words,
phrases or clauses in the one Whether you stay or you leave is entirely your decision.
sentence. (subject)
 These special conjunctions follow the NOTE You do not have to repeat the pronoun ‘you’ to
rule of parallelism (i.e. they can only maintain parallel form in the last example.
join items of equivalent grammatical Whether you stay or leave is entirely your decision.
structure). (subject)
1 Certain paired conjunctions can be used in the 3 Two subjects connected by ‘both…and’ always
same sentence to show the relationship between two take a plural verb.
groups of words, phrases or clauses. These
Both my mother and my sister are here.
correlative conjunctions are ‘not only…but (also),’
‘both…and,’ ‘neither…nor,’ ‘either…or’ & ‘whether…or’ However, when two subjects are connected by ‘not
only…but also,’ ‘either…or’ or ‘neither…nor,’ the
2 Correlative conjunctions are placed directly before
subject that is closer to the verb determines whether
the verb is singular or plural.
the items they join in the sentence.
Not only my mother but also my sister is here.
As well, each item following the conjunctions must Not only my sister but also my parents are here.
have the same grammatical form (i.e. they form a Neither my mother nor my sister is here.
parallel structure). Neither my sister nor my parents are here.
For example, if you put a prepositional phrase after
the words ‘not only,’ you must put a prepositional
phrase after the words ‘but (also).’
4 If you use a correlative conjunction to join two
independent clauses, separate the clauses with a
Gold, a precious metal, is prized not only for its beauty but comma before the second element of the conjunction.
also for its utility. (prepositional phrases)
Either Jan will conclude the experiment by February, or
It is now widely known that President Clinton not only lied she will ask for additional research funds.
to the Senate but deceived his wife. (verbs)
Most people buying a personal computer for the first time will consider
either a desktop or a laptop computer. (nouns)
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Grammar worksheet 7
Practice
A Add ‘is’ or ‘are’ to each sentence.
1. are here.
Both the teacher and the student …..…… 2. Neither the teacher nor the student …..…… here.
3. Not only the teacher but also the student …..…… here. 4. Not only the teacher but also the students …..…… here.
5. Either the students or the teacher ……..… planning to come. 6. Either the teacher or the students …..…… planning to come.
7. Both the students and the teachers ……..… planning to come. 8. Both the students and the teacher …..…… planning to come.
B Correct the following sentences.

1. Either John will call Mary or Bob. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
2. Both my mother talked to the teacher and my father. ………………………………………………………………………..……………………
3. Either David or Sam are going to teach our class today. …………………………………………………………....……….…………………
4. I enjoy not only reading novels but also magazines. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Oxygen is plentiful. Both air contains oxygen and water. …………………………………………………………………………….…………
C Correct the following sentences.

1. With credit cards, you can either pay your bill with one cheque or you can stretch out your payments. ……………………………
…………………………………………………….........................................................................................................………….……………
2. You can charge both at restaurants and when you stay at hotels. …………..................................................................……………
3. Many people carry not only credit cards but they also carry cash. ……………….....................................................….……………
4. Many people want neither to pay off their balance monthly nor do they like paying interest. ................................................…
…………………………...........................................................................................................................................….……….…………
5. Not making any payment or to send in only minimum payments every month is poor money management. ………………………
…………………………………………….......................................................................................................................................………
D Combine the following into sentences that contain a parallel structure. Use ‘not only…but also,’ ‘both…and,’
‘neither…nor,’ & ‘either…or.’
1. A new law provides the means for regulating pesticides. As well, it provides the means for ordering the removal of
pesticides if they are dangerous. ………………………………………………………………....................................................……………
………………………………………............................................................................................………………………..……………………
2. Air pollutants may come from the ocean as natural contaminants given off by sea life. Alternatively, air pollution may
come from the internal combustion engines of cars. ……...................................................................................……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...........................................………..……………………
3. If industry does not work towards reducing pollution problems, future generations will suffer. The same will happen if the
public does not do anything. …………………………………........................................................................................…………………
………………………………......…………………………………………………..….................................................................…………………
4. Unfortunately, many people are not concerned about pollutants. Furthermore, they are also not worried about the future
impact of pollutants. …………………………………………………..........................................................................………………………
………………………………………………………………………..…....................................................................................…………………
5. At the present time, air pollution is controlled through laws passed to reduce the pollutants at their sources. These laws
are also intended to establish acceptable standards of air quality. …………………………...........................…………………………
………………………………………………………………..…..............................................................................................…………………
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Grammar worksheet 8
Adverbial clauses - Time

Main points The past simple is often used without a time marker if
the clause order clearly follows the order of events.
 You use time clauses to say when She worked at Esso for 20 years, and she retired in 2003.
something happens. Time clauses can However, if the two clauses report two events that are
refer to the past, present or future. out of order and there are no time markers, always
 Time clauses are introduced by words use the past perfect to make the order of events clear.
such as ‘after,’ ‘when’ or ‘while.’ When Marion became a photographer, she had finished her
 The time clause can come before or degree in fine arts.
after the independent clause.
4 When you want to mention a situation which
1
started in the past & continued until a later time in the
You use time clauses to say when something past, you use a time clause with ‘since’ or ‘ever since.’
happens. The verb in the time clause can be in a You use a past simple or a past perfect in the time
present or a past tense. clause, & a past perfect in the independent clause.
I look after the children while she goes to London. He hadn’t cried since he was a boy of ten.
I haven’t given him a thing to eat since he arrived. Janine had been busy ever since she had heard the news.
WARNING You never use a future tense in a time If the situation started in the past & still continues now,
clause. You use one of the present tenses instead. you use a past simple in the time clause, & a present
perfect in the independent clause.
Let me stay here till Jeannie comes to bed.
I’ll do it when I’ve finished writing this letter. I’ve been in politics since I was at university.
Ever since you arrived, you’ve been causing trouble.
2 If you want to say that two events happen at the NOTE After impersonal ‘it’ & a time expression, if the
same time, use a time clause with ‘as,’ ‘when’ or ‘while.’ independent clause is in the present tense, you use
‘since’ with a past simple.
We arrived as they were leaving.
It is two weeks now since I wrote to you.
Sometimes, the two events happen together for a
period of time. If the independent clause is in the past tense, you use
‘since’ with a past perfect.
She wept bitterly as she told her story.
It was nearly seven years since I’d seen Toby.
Sometimes one event interrupts another event.
He was having his dinner when the telephone rang.
John will arrive while we are watching the film.
5 When you want to talk about when a situation
ends, you use a time clause with ‘till’ or ‘until’ & a
NOTE You often use a continuous tense for the present or past tense.
action which is interrupted by another action. We’ll support them till / until they find work.
3 When you want to say that one event happens

6 When you want to say that something happens
before or after another event, you often use a time before, or at, a particular time, you use a time clause
clause with time markers like ‘after,’ ‘before’ or ‘while.’ with ‘by the time’ or ‘by which time.’ ‘By the time’ refers
As soon as we get tickets, we’ll send them to you. to an event in the same clause; ‘by which time’ refers
Can I see you before you go, Helen? to an event in another clause.
You can use the past perfect to indicate an event that By the time I went to bed, I was exhausted.
happened before another event in the past. He came back later by which time they had gone.
When he had finished reading, he looked up.

7 In written English, if the subject of the independent
Most people prefer to use the past simple with a time & the time clause are the same, you sometimes omit
marker instead of the past perfect. As the time marker the subject in the time clause, & replace the clause with
says what happened first, the past perfect is optional. a present or a past participle phrase.
She visited her aunt before she moved in with her. I read the book before going to see the film.
OR She had visited her aunt before she moved in with her.
.
The car was stolen while parked in a London street.
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Grammar worksheet 8
Practice
A Complete the following sentences using the past simple or past continuous of the verbs given.
1. We played chess from 6:30 to 8:30. Margaret arrived at 7:15.
were playing
(a) We …………………………….. arrived.
chess when Margaret …………………………….. . (play) (arrive)
(b) Margaret …………………………….. while we …………………………….. chess. (arrive) (play)
2. Bill arrived at 7:45, so we all sat down to dinner.
(a) We all …………………………….. down to dinner when Bill ……………………………... . (sit) (arrive)
(b) As soon as Bill …………………………….. , we all …………………………….. down to dinner. (arrive) (sit)
3. I worked in the kitchen until 7:15. My mother phoned at 7:05.
(a) I …………………………….. in the kitchen when my mother …………………………….. . (work) (phone)
(b) My mother …………………………….. while I …………………………….. in the kitchen. (phone) (work)
4. I wrote letters in my study all afternoon. I heard the explosion at about 3 p.m.
(a) When I …………………………….. the explosion, I …………………………….. a letter in my study. (hear) (write)
(b) I …………………………….. a letter in my study when I …………………………….. the explosion. (write) (hear)
5. I heard the explosion and immediately telephoned the police.
(a) I …………………………….. the police immediately after I …………………………….. the explosion. (telephone) (hear)
(b) As soon as I …………………………….. the explosion, I …………………………….. the police. (hear) (telephone)
B Complete these sentences using the present simple in the time clause, & either ‘will’ or ‘will be’ & an ‘-ing’ form
in the independent clause.
1. I work from 8 a.m. until 6 p.m. every Wednesday. Mary will arrive at about 4 p.m.
will be working
I ………………………….…….... arrives
when Mary ………………………………….. . (work) (arrive)
2. Bill is going to phone me on Wednesday, so I will let you know then.
I ………………………………….. you know as soon as Bill ………………………………….. me. (let) (phone)
3. According to the weather forecast, it’s going to rain all day tomorrow. We are going to set out at nine o’clock.
According to the weather forecast, it ………………………………….. when we ……………………….. tomorrow. (rain) (set out)
4. I’ll be seeing Helen next week. I’ll tell her then.
I ………………………………….. Helen when I ………………………………….. her. (tell) (see)
5. I’m going to the supermarket soon. I always buy bread at the supermarket.
I ………………………………….. some bread when I ………………………………….. to the supermarket. (buy) (go)
C Complete these sentences using the ‘since’ clauses given below.

1. George and I have been close friends… (a) …since they moved here in 1987.
2. We haven’t been to the cinema… (b) …ever since he left his job at the factory.
3. He hasn’t been able to play the piano… (c) …since we saw ‘Dracula’ at the Odeon last year.
4. They have lived next door to us… (d) …since we were at school together.
5. Fred has been working at home… (e) …since he had his accident a month ago.
6. Mary has been looking after the children… (f) …ever since their mother went into hospital.
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Grammar worksheet 9
Adverbial clauses - Condition

(using ‘if’)
Main points 4 When you are talking about something which may
possibly happen in the future, you use a present or
present perfect tense in the conditional clause, & the
 You use a conditional clause to talk simple future in the independent clause.
about a possible situation & its
If I marry Celia, we will need the money.
results. If you are going to America, you will need a visa.
 Conditional clauses can begin with ‘if.’ If he has done the windows, he will want his money.
 The conditional clause can come WARNING You do not normally use ‘will’ in
before or after the independent conditional clauses.
clause.
If I see you tomorrow, I will give you the book.
( NOT If I will see you tomorrow, I will give you the book.)
1 You use conditional clauses to talk about a
situation that might possibly happen & to say what its
results might be. 5 When you are talking about something that you
think is unlikely to happen, you use the past simple or
You use ‘if’ to mention events & situations that happen past continuous in the conditional clause & ‘would’ in
often; that may happen in the future; that could have the independent clause.
happened in the past but did not happen; or that are
unlikely to happen at all. If I had enough money, I would buy the car.
If he was coming, he would ring.
If the light comes on, the battery is OK.
I’ll call you if I need you. WARNING You do not normally use ‘would’ in
If I had known, I’d have told you. conditional clauses.
If she asked me, I’d help her. If I did it, I would do it like this.
( NOT If I would do it, I would do it like this.)
2 When you are talking about something that is
generally true or happens often, you use a present or
present perfect tense in the independent clause & the
6 ‘Were’ is sometimes used instead of ‘was’ in the
conditional clause, especially after ‘I.’
conditional clause.
If I weren’t so busy, I would do it for you.
If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it
If I were to call in on my way home from work, would that
afterwards.
be all right?
If an advertisement does not tell the truth, the advertiser is
committing an offence. You often say ‘If I were you’ when you are giving
If the baby is crying, it is probably hungry. someone advice.
If they have lost any money, they report it to me.
If I were you, I’d fill the tank now so that we don’t run out
WARNING You do not use the present continuous in of petrol.
both clauses. I should keep out of Bernadette’s way if I were you.
If they are losing money, they get angry.
( NOT If they are losing money, they are getting angry.) 7 When you are talking about something which
could have happened in the past but which did not
3 When you use a conditional clause with a present
actually happen, you use the past perfect in the
conditional clause. In the independent clause, you use
or present perfect tense, you often use an imperative ‘would have’ & a past participle.
If he had realised that, he would have run away.
Wake me up if you’re worried. I wouldn’t have been so depressed if I had known how
If he has finished, ask him to leave quietly. common this feeling is.
If you are very early, don’t expect them to be ready.
WARNING You do not use ‘would have’ in the
conditional clause.
If I had seen him, I would have told him.
( NOT If I would have seen him, I would have told him.)
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Grammar worksheet 9
Practice
A Match these parts to make conditional sentences.
1. Dan might help you…. (a) …if they are enjoying themselves.
2. You are sure to be late… (b) …if I can remember her phone number.
3. You’ll enjoy the Jacques Tati film… (c) …if you miss the bus.
4. They always stay out late… (d) …if you don’t want to.
5. They’ll understand it alright… (e) …if you phone while I’m out.
6. I’ll give her a call… (f) …if you explain it to them.
7. Bill will take a message… (g) …if I have the time.
8. I’ll do the shopping… (h) …if you don’t have a ticket.
9. You can’t get in… (i) …if you can understand French.
10. You needn’t come to the party… (j) …if you ask him.
B Complete these sentences by putting the verb in brackets in the right tense.
1. ask
If you …………………………….. Liz, she will tell you what to do. (ask)
2. He’s going to visit some friends in Athens if he …………………………….. time. (have)
3. You shouldn’t interrupt them if they …………………………….. . (work)
4. Maria will get you some money if she …………………………….. to the bank. (go)
5. I’ll have a word with Jack if he …………………………….. at home. (be)
C Match these parts to make conditional sentences.

1. If I had their address,… (a) …it would cost over $1,300.
2. If you saw her now,… (b) …you might earn a bit more money.
3. If I took more exercise,… (c) …I could probably stay with Kai.
4. If you got a new job,… (d) …she must have been out shopping.
5. If you asked Heather,… (e) …he would give you a certificate.
6. If I travelled first class,… (f) …she would probably give you a lift.
7. If it were a little warmer,… (g) …we could go for a swim.
8. If she didn’t answer the phone,… (h) …I might lose a bit of weight.
9. If you went to the doctor,… (i) …I could write and ask them.
10. If I stopped off in Bangkok,… (j) …you would hardly recognise her.
Just think. I’d have

been an old man by now
if I’d ever grown up.
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Grammar worksheet 10
Adverbial clauses - Condition

(using modals & ‘unless’)
Main points 5 You can often use ‘if…not’ instead of ‘unless.’
You will fail your exams if you do not work harder.
 You can use a modal in a conditional When you use ‘unless,’ you use the same tenses that
clause. you use with ‘if.’
 You use ‘unless’ to mention an
She spends Sundays in the garden unless the weather is awful.
exception to what you are saying. We usually walk unless we’re going shopping.
He will not let you go unless he is forced to do so.
1 You sometimes use modals in conditional clauses.
You wouldn’t believe it unless you saw it.
In the independent (or main) clause, you can still use a
present tense for events that happen often; ‘will’ for
events that are quite likely in the future; ‘would’ for an
6 ‘If’ & ‘unless’ are not the only ways of beginning
conditional clauses. You can also use ‘as long as,’
event that is unlikely to happen; & ‘would have’ for ‘only if,’ ‘provided,’ ‘provided that,’ ‘providing,’
events that were possible but did not happen. ‘providing that’ or ‘so long as.’ These expressions are
all used to indicate that one thing only happens or is
If he can’t come, he usually phones me.
true if another thing happens or is true.
If he must have his shoes repaired today, tell him he will
have to come back at five o’clock. I will come to the meeting with the Prime Minister only if
If I could only find the time, I’d gladly mark your essays. nothing is said to the press about it.
If you could have seen him, you would have laughed, too. She was prepared to stay at our house over the weekend
provided that she could bring her young daughter.
‘Should’ is sometimes used in conditional clauses to
Providing the cars following us on the expressway keep at a
express greater uncertainty.
safe distance, we should be alright.
If any visitors should come, I’ll say you aren’t here. Washing detergent cannot harm a fabric so long as it has
been properly dissolved.
2 You can use other modals besides ‘will,’ ‘would’ &

‘would have’ in the independent clause with their usual
meanings.
She might phone me if she has time.
You could come if you wanted to.
If he sees you leaving, he may cry.
NOTE You can have modals in both the independent
& the conditional clauses.
If he can’t come, he will phone.
3 In formal English, if the first verb in a conditional

clause is ‘had,’ ‘should’ or ‘were,’ you can put the verb
at the beginning of the clause & omit ‘if.’
Should he come, I will tell him you are sick.
(= If he should come, I will tell him you are sick.)
Were it all true, it would still not excuse their actions.
Had I known, I would not have done it.
4 When you want to mention an exception to what

you are saying, you use a conditional clause
beginning with ‘unless.’
We were alright as long as we kept our heads down.
You will fail your exams.
You will fail your exams unless you work harder.
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Practice
A Rewrite these sentences as conditionals.
1. I could write to her if I had her address.
I can’t write to her because I don’t have her address. ……......……………….…………………………………………………………………..…
2. I’d like to go abroad, but I can’t afford it.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. I’m not going to buy that car because it’s so expensive.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. We can’t go out because it’s raining.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. She won’t come to the party because she’s away on holiday.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
B Rewrite these sentences as conditionals.

1. Unfortunately, I didn’t see him, so I couldn’t give him your message.
If I had seen him, / Had I seen him, I could have given him your message.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Unfortunately, he didn’t pass his exams, or he might have gone to university.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. He didn’t realise what was happening, or he would have run away.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Fortunately, I didn’t hear what she said, or I would have been very angry.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. They got in because you didn’t lock the door properly.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. It only happened because you didn’t follow the instructions.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Luckily, she didn’t find out, or she would have been furious.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. It’s lucky we booked a room, or we would have had nowhere to stay.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. It’s a good job we weren’t going any faster, or someone could have been killed.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. He was so tired that he went home at lunchtime.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
C Match the two parts of these conditional sentences.

1. You can borrow the money… (a) …I would have invited you to lunch.
2. He’ll probably get lost… (b) …would you ask him to call back later?
3. Had I known you were coming,… (c) …provided he has recovered from his cold.
4. George says he will come… (d) …unless you are a member of staff.
5. You are not allowed to park in the school… (e) …as long as it was black.
6. Should he telephone while I’m out,… (f) … so long as you promise to pay it back.
7. Henry Ford said you could have any colour you wanted… (g) … provided he can stay overnight.
8. Fred will be at school next week… (h) …unless someone shows him the way.
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Adverbial clauses & phrases - Purpose &

reason
Main points 3 When you are talking about a possible situation
which explains the reason why someone does
something, you use ‘in case’ or ‘just in case’ in an
 Purpose clauses & phrases are adverbial clause of reason.
introduced by conjunctions such as
I’ve got the key in case we want to go inside.
‘so,’ ‘so as to,’ ‘so that,’ ‘in order to’ or I am here just in case anything unusual happens.
‘in order that.’
WARNING Do not use a future tense after ‘in case.’
 Reason clauses are introduced by
conjunctions such as ‘as,’ ‘because’ I’ll stay behind in case she arrives later.
or ‘in case.’ ( NOT I’ll stay behind in case she’ll arrive later.)
 A purpose clause usually comes after
the independent clause. A reason 4 Rather than using an adverbial clause, the most
clause can come before or after the common way of saying what someone’s intention is
independent clause. when they do something is by using a ‘to’-infinitive
purpose phrase.
1 You can show the purpose for doing something by

The children sleep together to keep warm.
They locked the door to stop us from getting in.
using an adverbial clause beginning with ‘in order that,’
‘so,’ or ‘so that.’ These clauses answer the question Instead of using an ordinary ‘to’-infinitive, you often
‘Why was/is something done?’, & they usually contain use ‘in order to’ or ‘so as to’ with an infinitive.
a modal.
He was giving up his job in order to stay at home.
When the independent clause refers to the present, you I keep the window open so as to let fresh air in.
usually use ‘can,’ ‘may,’ ‘will’ or ‘shall’ in the purpose
To show a negative purpose, use ‘in order not to’ or
clause.
‘so as not to’ with an infinitive.
Any holes should be fenced so that people can’t fall down them.
I have to find something to do in order not to be bored.
I have drawn a diagram so that my explanation will be clearer.‘
They went on foot so as not to be heard.
When the independent clause refers to the past, you
Another way of showing a negative purpose is by
usually use ‘could,’ ‘might,’ ‘should’ or ‘would’ in the
using ‘to avoid’ with a present participle or a noun
purpose clause.
group.
She said she wanted tea at six so she could be out by eight.
I had to turn away to avoid letting him see my smile.
Someone lifted Philip onto his shoulder so that he might see
They drove through town to avoid the freeway.
the procession.
You can also use ‘in order that,’ ‘so’ & ‘so that’ when
the subject of the purpose clause is different from the 5 ‘For’ & ‘just for’ are commonly used with nouns to
subject of the independent clause. express an individual’s purpose.
I’ve underlined it so that it will be easier. I popped into the supermarket for some apples on the way
home.
( NOT I’ve underlined it to be easier.) ( NOT …for buying some apples….)
2 You use an adverbial clause of reason when you

If you want to express an individual’s purpose with a
verb pattern, you must use a ‘to’-infinitive phrase.
want to explain why someone does something or why
it happens. When you are simply giving the reason for I stopped by at the supermarket to buy some apples on the
something, you use ‘because,’ ‘since’ or ‘as.’ way home.
I couldn’t see Helen’s face because her head was turned. However, if you are talking about the purpose of
Since it was Saturday, he stayed in bed. something (like an object), you normally use the ‘for’ +
As he had been up since 4 am, he was very tired. verb-ing pattern. This pattern commonly answers the
question ‘What are they used for?’
You can also use ‘why’ & a reported question to talk
about the reason for an action. Schools are for educating children, not for entertaining
them.
I asked him why he had come.
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Practice
A Rewrite these sentences to include a ‘to’-infinitive purpose phrase introduced by the words given in brackets.
1. Everyone was pushing because they wanted to get to the front of the queue. (in order to)
Everyone was pushing in order to get to the front of the queue.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Try to write clearly. That way, you will avoid being misunderstood. (so as to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. A lot of people learn English because they want to study in English. (in order to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What do I need to know if I want to be a good doctor? (in order to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. She turned up early because she wanted to get the room ready. (in order to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. If you want to have a hundred students, you will need at least three teachers. (in order to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. I came to live in the country because I wanted to have trees around me instead of buildings. (so as to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. They had to eat grass and drink melted snow if they wanted to stay alive. (in order to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. He wanted to keep his car out of sight so he left it in the garage. (in order to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. I wanted to get to Madrid so I had to travel overnight from Barcelona. (to)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
B These sentences have adverbial clauses of reason. Rewrite them, using a negative purpose phrase ‘to avoid.’
1. We spoke quietly because we didn’t want to disturb anyone.
We spoke quietly to avoid disturbing anyone.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. She moved carefully because she didn’t want to wake the children.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. He sat in the furthest corner because he didn’t want to be seen.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. I gave up sugar and butter because I didn’t want to put on weight.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. He used both hands because he didn’t want to drop anything.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. We went over everything carefully because we didn’t want to make any mistakes.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. She left quietly because she didn’t want to make any trouble.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. We covered the furniture because we didn’t want to get paint all over it.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
C Complete these sentences. Express the purpose of the action.

1. My mother went to the market to …….................................................................................................................................………
2. I went with her to the market for ……..................................................................................................................................………
3. I drove into the gas station to ……….....................................................................................................................................……
4. Some other people stopped at the gas station for ………......................................................................................................……
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Adverbial clauses & phrases - Result

Main points 4 When you want to say that a situation does not
happen because someone or something has an
excessive amount of a quality, you use ‘too’ with an
 You use result clauses & phrases to adjective & a ‘to’-infinitive.
talk about the result of an action or
They were too tired to walk.
situation. (= they did not walk because they were too tired)
 Result clauses are introduced by He was too proud to apologise.
conjunctions such as ‘so,’ ‘so…(that)’ She was too weak to lift me.
or ‘such…(that).’ You also use ‘too’ with an adverb & a ‘to’-infinitive.
 The result clause always comes after
They had been walking too silently to be heard.
the independent clause. She spoke too quickly for me to understand.
1 You use ‘so’ & ‘so that’ to say what the result of an 5 When you want to say that a situation happens or
action or situation is. is possible because someone or something has a
sufficient amount of a quality, you use ‘enough’ after
He speaks very little English, so I talked to him through an
adjectives & adverbs, followed by a ‘to’-infinitive.
interpreter.
My suitcase had become damaged on the journey home so He was old enough to understand.
that the lid would not stay closed. I could see well enough to know we were losing.
You normally put ‘enough’ in front of a noun, not after it.
2 You also use ‘so…that’ or ‘such…that’ to talk
I don’t think I’ve got enough information to speak
about the result of an action or situation.
confidently.
He dressed so quickly that he put his boots on the wrong feet.
She got such a shock that she dropped the bag.
‘That’ is often omitted.
6 You also use ‘and, as a result,’ ‘and so,’ or ‘and
therefore’ to talk about the result of an action or
situation.
They were so surprised they didn’t try to stop him.
They got such a fright they ran away again. He had been ill for six months and, as a result, had lost his
job.
3 You only use ‘such’ before a noun, with or without
She was having great difficulty getting her car out, and so I
had to move my car to let her out.
an adjective. We have a growing population, and therefore we need more
They obeyed him with such willingness that the strike went on food.
for over a year. You can also put ‘therefore’ after the subject of the
Sometimes they say such stupid things that I don’t even bother clause.
to listen.
We have a growing population, and we therefore need more
If the noun is a singular count noun, you put ‘a’ or ‘an’ in food.
front of it.
‘As a result’ & ‘therefore’ can also be used at the
I was in such a panic that I didn’t know it was him. beginning of a separate sentence.
NOTE You only use ‘so’ before an adjective or an In a group, they are not so frightened. As a result, patients
adverb. reveal their problems more easily.
It all sounded so crazy that I laughed out loud. He lacks money to invest in improving his tools. Therefore,
They worked so quickly that there was no time for talking. he is poor.
You can also put ‘therefore’ after the subject of the
separate sentence.
He left us. He therefore loses his share.
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Practice
A Look at these pairs of sentences. Complete one sentence with ‘so’ & the other with ‘such a.’
1. He was so / such a fool that no one took any notice of him.
He was so / such a silly that no one took any notice of him.
2. The room was in so / such a mess it took two hours to tidy.
The room was so / such a untidy it took three hours to sort out.
3. We were so / such a tired we went straight to bed when we got home.
We had had so / such a tiring day that we went straight to bed.
4. It took us so / such a long to get home that we missed our supper.
It took us so / such a long time to get home that we missed our supper.
5. Her throat was so / such a sore that she could hardly speak.
She had so / such a sore throat that she could hardly speak.
6. He spoke in so / such a soft voice that we could hardly hear him.
His voice was so / such a soft we could hardly hear him.
7. I got so / such a shock when I heard the news I didn’t know what to say.
I was so / such a shocked when I got the news I didn’t know what to say.
8. He lived so / such a long way off that we hardly ever saw him.
He lived so / such a far away that we hardly ever saw him.
9. He was so / such a badly injured that they took him straight to the hospital.
He had suffered so / such a serious injury that they took him straight to the hospital.
B Rewrite these sentences with ‘so…that.’

1. The hill was very steep. I had to get off my bike and walk.
The hill was so steep that I had to get off my bike and walk.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Her writing was very small. I could hardly read it.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. The winter was bitterly cold. All the streams were frozen.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. His favourite shoes were very badly worn. He had to throw them away.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. David looked very young. Everyone took him for a student.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. The puppy got very excited. It kept jumping up and down.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
C Rewrite these sentences with ‘such…that.’

1. The hill was very steep. I had to get off my bike and walk.
It was such a steep hill that I had to get off my bike and walk.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. He was a dreadful liar. Nobody believed anything he said.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. It proved to be a very difficult problem. Nobody could solve it.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. We had a very good time. We didn’t want to go home.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. His clothes were very old. They were falling apart.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. The food was very good. We all ate far too much.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Adverbial clauses & phrases - Contrast

(surprising or unexpected)
Main points 3 You can also use a present participle after
‘despite’ or ‘in spite of.’
 You use contrast clauses & phrases Despite working hard, I failed my exams.
when you want to make two Conservative MPs are against tax rises in spite of wanting
lower inflation.
statements, & one of the statements
makes the other seem surprising.
 The contrast clause is introduced by 4 You can also use ‘despite the fact that’ or ‘in spite
of the fact that,’ with an independent clause.
conjunctions such as ‘although,’ ‘in
spite of’ or ‘though.’ Despite the fact that it sounds like science fiction, most of it
 The contrast clause can come before is technically possible at this moment.
They ignored this order in spite of the fact that they would
or after the independent clause. probably get into trouble.
It is possible to omit ‘that,’ especially in spoken
1 When you simply want to contrast two surprising English.
statements, you use ‘although,’ ‘though’ or ‘even
though.’ He insisted on playing in spite of the fact he had a bad
cold.
Although he was late, he stopped to buy a sandwich.
Though he has lived for years in London, he writes in
German.
I used to love listening to her even though I could only
understand about half of what she said.
However, to add emphasis to the contrast, you can
use words like ‘still,’ ‘nevertheless’ or ‘just the same’ in
the independent clause.
Although I was shocked, I still couldn’t blame him.
Although his company is profitable, it nevertheless needs to
face up to some serious problems.
Although she hated them, she agreed to help them just the
same.
When the subject of the contrast clause & the
independent clause are the same, you can often omit
the subject & the verb ‘be’ in the contrast clause.
Although poor, we still have our pride.
(= Although we are poor, we still have our pride.)
Though dying of cancer, he painted every day.
(= Though he was dying of cancer, he painted every
day.)
2 Another way of making a surprising contrast is to

use ‘despite’ or ‘in spite of,’ followed by a noun group.
Despite the difference in their ages, they were close friends.
In spite of poor health, my father was always cheerful.
WARNING You say ‘in spite of,’ but you do not say
‘despite of.’ In other words, you say ‘despite’ without ‘of.’
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Practice
A The sentences below all have ‘though,’ ‘although’ or ‘even though.’ Use one of these phrases to complete them.
we only arrived just in time we had no time for lunch she kept her coat on
he was difficult to understand you’re not as tall as he was he still wasn’t tired
I used to when I was younger the weather was awful I really like John
1. we had no time for lunch

Although we were desperately hungry, …………………………………………………………………..............................................….…
2. We enjoyed our holiday even though …………………………………………………………………...................................….…
3. …………………………………………………………………….… even though it was very warm.
4. I don’t play the piano now although …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
5. You look very like your grandfather although …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
6. Though he hadn’t stopped working all day, …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
7. ………………………………………………………………...................................…….… even though his English was very good.
8. …………………………………………………………………….… although he can be very annoying at times.
9. Although we set off early, …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
B The sentences below all have ‘in spite of’ or ‘despite.’ Use one of the noun groups given to complete them.
the rain his injury his recent illness her fear the high cost of living
the differences in their ages all his precautions the heavy traffic the unpopularity of his decision
1. the heavy traffic.

The air was fresh and clean in spite of …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
2. He looked very well in spite of …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
3. Despite …………………………………………………………………...................................….… , she did her best to smile bravely.
4. He refused to change his mind despite …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
5. Despite …………………………………………………………………….…................................... , they were very close friends.
6. I saved a lot of money in Japan in spite of …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
7. In spite of ………………………………………………………………...................................…….… , his money was still stolen.
8. He continued the race despite …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
9. We still had our picnic in spite of …………………………………………………………………….…...................................
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Adverbial clauses & phrases - Manner

Main points 4 When the subject of the manner clause & the
independent clause are the same, you can often use a
present or past participle in the manner clause & omit
 You use manner clauses & phrases to the subject & the verb ‘be.’
talk about how something is done.
He ran off to the house as if escaping.
 Manner clauses & phrases are He shook his head as though dazzled by his own vision.
introduced by conjunctions such as
You can also use ‘as if’ or ‘as though’ with a ‘to’-
‘as,’ ‘as if,’ ‘as though’ or ‘like.’ infinitive phrase.
 The manner clause always comes
after the independent clause. As if to remind him, the church clock struck eleven.
1 When you want to say how someone does

5 In informal speech, people often use ‘like’ instead
of ‘as if’ or ‘as’ to say how a person feels, looks or
something, or how something is done, you use ‘as.’ sounds. Some speakers of English think that this use
He behaves as he does because his father was really cruel of ‘like’ is incorrect.
to him. He felt like he’d won the pools.
The bricks are still made as they were in Roman times. You look like you’ve seen a ghost.
You often use ‘just,’ ‘exactly’ or ‘precisely’ in front of You talk just like my father.
‘as’ for emphasis. You can also use ‘like’ in prepositional phrases to say
It swims on the sea floor just as its ancestors did. how someone does something.
I like the freedom to plan my day exactly as I want. He was sleeping like a baby.
She behaved like an idiot, and she’s sorry.
2 When you want to indicate that the information in
the manner clause might not be true, or is definitely
NOT true, you use ‘as if’ or ‘as though.’
6 You also use ‘the way (that),’ ‘in a way (that)’ or ‘in
the way (that)’ to talk about how someone does
She reacted as if she didn’t know about the race. something, or how something is done.
She acts as though she owns the place. I was never allowed to sing the way I wanted to.
After ‘as if’ or ‘as though,’ you often use a past tense even They did it in a way that I had never seen before.
when you are talking about the present, to emphasise We make it move in the way that we want it to.
that the information in the manner clause is not true. In
formal English, you use ‘were’ instead of ‘was.’
7 You can use ‘how’ in questions & reported
Presidents can’t dispose of companies as if people didn’t exist. questions to talk about the method used to do
She treats him as though he was her own son. something, & sometimes to indicate your surprise that
He looked at me as though I were mad. it was possible to do it.
‘How did he get in?’ - ‘He broke a window.’
3 You can also use ‘as if’ or ‘as though’ to say how I wondered how he could afford a new car.
someone or something feels, looks or sounds. Sometimes, you can use ‘how’ to talk about the
She felt as if she had a fever. manner in which someone does something.
He looked as if he hadn’t slept very much. I watched how he did it, then tried to copy him.
Mary sounded as though she had just run all the way. Tell me how he reacted when he saw you.
You can also use ‘it looks’ & ‘it sounds’ with ‘as if’ & ‘as
though.’
It looks to me as if he wrote down some notes.
It sounds to me as though he’s just being awkward.
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Practice
A Rewrite these sentences with ‘just as.’
1. They arrived late just as you said they would.
You said they would arrive late, and they did. …………………………………………………………………………………………………....
2. I knew he would complain about everything, and he did.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Everyone believed he would run away, and he did.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Most people thought the play would be a success, and it was.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. We hoped he would do well at school, and he did.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. We all thought Mary would win, and she did.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
B Rewrite these sentences with ‘the way.’

1. I don’t like people who behave the way he does.
I don’t like people who behave as he does. …………………………………..…………………………………………………………………….
2. They still farm as their grandfathers did. ………………………………………….……………………………………………………………….
3. He accepted his punishment as everyone else did. …………………………………………………………………………………………..….
4. She refused to dress as her colleagues did. …………………………………………………………………………………..…………..……….
5. They work a five-day week as we do. ………………………..……………………………………………………………………..……………….
6. He said he would work as the others did if he were paid as they were.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………….
Now rewrite the six sentences using ‘like.’ 1. I…………………..……………..…………………………………
don’t like people who behave like him / he does.
………
2. ………………………………..………………………………………… 3. ………………………………..……………………………….…………
4. ………………………………..………………………………………… 5. ………………………………..……….……………………….…………
6. ………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………..…………
C Rewrite these sentences with ‘as if’ or ‘as though.’

1. The place sounds as though it’s deserted.
The place sounds very quiet. I think it’s deserted. ……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. They look very happy. I think they’ve got some good news. ………………………………………..…………………………………………
3. This milk smells awful. I think it’s gone sour. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Your engine sounds very bad. I think it’s worn out. ………………………………………….………………………………………………….
5. He looks very angry. I think he’s going to make trouble. ……………………………………………………………………………………….
6. I feel awful. I think I’m going to be sick. ……………………………………………………………..…………………………………………….
D Match the questions & the answers.

1. I wonder how he got into the house. (a) Maybe his father gave him a lift.
2. How do you think he got there so quickly? (b) They were at university together.
3. Do you know how she became so wealthy? (c) He must have climbed through a window.
4. I wonder how Maria heard the news. (d) Perhaps she won the state lottery.
5. Do you know how they met? (e) I think her husband told her about it.
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Participles - Part 1
Main points Changing active verbs to participles
The custom fascinates me.
 A participle is a word that is formed  The fascinating custom interests me.
The hostages will return soon.
from a verb & used as an adjective to
 The returning hostages were treated like heroes.
modify nouns.
 A participle phrase is a group of Changing passive verbs to participles
words that contains a participle & The movie is rated ‘X.’
other modifiers. It is used to modify  The X-rated movie was banned.
nouns & pronouns. The steak was burned.
 The burned steak tasted terrible.
1 English verbs have four main parts. For example: USE IN PARTICIPLE PHRASES
Simple form: hope stop study The present & the past participle may be combined to
Present participle: hoping stopping studying make three other forms. All five forms are used in
Past participle: hoped stopped studied participle phrases. These phrases do not have a
Simple past: hoped stopped studied subject, & they are usually made by reducing
adverbial & relative clauses.
To form the present participle, add ‘-ing’ to the verb.
Participle phrases will be studied in later Grammar
The past participle & the simple past of regular verbs Worksheets. As a foundation for the later Worksheets,
end in ‘-ed,’ as above. However, some verbs have all five participle forms are overviewed below.
irregular endings for these two forms. For example:
Two general forms (active & passive)
Simple form: fall break find
Present participle: falling breaking finding These do not indicate time. Instead, time is
Past participle: fallen broken found determined by the verb in the independent clause.
Simple past: fell broke found
 Active (i.e. the present participle)
verb + ‘-ing’
2 Present participles can be used as adjectives to opening taking buying selling
modify nouns that are performing an action. The
practice activities on the opposite page look at the use  Passive (i.e. the past participle)
of present participles as adjectives. verb + ‘-ed,’ ‘-en,’ ‘-t,’ ‘d,’ etc.
It is a confusing problem. opened taken bought sold
The noun ‘problem’ does something: it confuses One continuous form (passive)
(someone, e.g. students). Thus, it is described as a This form indicates time. It emphasises that action is
‘confusing problem.’ going on right now. It may also express future time.

3 Past participles can be used as adjectives to
Passive
‘being’ + past participle
modify nouns that are receiving or feeling the effects
being opened being taken being bought
of an action. The practice activities on the opposite
page look at the use of past participles as adjectives. Two perfect forms (active & passive)
They are confused students. These forms indicate time. They emphasise that the
action happened before the time of the verb in the
The students are confused by something (the
independent clause.
‘problem’). Thus, they are described as ‘confused
students.’  Active
‘having’ + past participle
4 Note that the terms ‘present’ & ‘past participle’ are having opened having taken
misleading because they have nothing to do with
 Passive
present or past tense. Instead, they are based on
‘having been’ + past participle
active or passive voice. The present participle comes
from an active voice verb, & the past participle comes having been opened having been taken
from a passive voice verb.
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Practice
A Choose the correct present or past participle form.
1. The exhibit fascinated the tourists. fascinating
(a) The exhibit was ............................................ fascinated
(b) The tourists were .......................................
2. The story amused the children. (a) The children were ........................................ (b) The story was ............................................
3. The gift surprised the boss. (a) The boss was ................................................ (b) The gift was ...............................................
4. The comment insulted the teacher. (a) The teacher was ........................................... (b) The comment was .....................................
5. His findings amazed the professor. (a) His findings were ......................................... (b) The professor was .....................................
B Choose the present (active) or past (passive) participle form of the verb in brackets to use in the blank.
1. elated
(elate) The student was ........................................... when he received the news of his acceptance to Monash University.
2. (please) The teacher said, ‘I am ........................................... to announce that the test results were good.’
3. (know) The mystery writer is one of the best ........................................... authors in the UK today.
4. (satisfy) The prime minister reported that he had a very .......................................... meeting with the other regional leaders.
5. (flatter) Sometimes, ........................................... remarks do more harm than good.
6. (depress) Being ........................................... by the death of her close friend, Sue took a few days off from work.
7. (reassure) She was happy to hear the ........................................... words of her manager, especially since she had made
such a bad mistake.
8. (amuse) John is such an ........................................... person that everyone likes to invite him to parties.
9. (interest) We are ........................................... in buying a house, but the interest rates are just too high.
10. (overwhelm) There is ........................................... evidence that there is a direct link between smoking and cancer.
11. (mislead) The directions that we were given were so ........................................... that we never made it to the party.
C Read the situation & choose the correct word.

1. The documentary screened on Discovery Channel yesterday showed the latest discoveries about obesity. It was interesting /
interested and kept the audience interesting / interested.
2. The lectures on Egyptian archaeology are enjoyable. The professor is inspiring / inspired. It is obvious that he is inspiring /
inspired by the topic.
3. The student did not understand the confusing / confused enrolment form, but when advised by the counsellor, he was
further confusing / confused.
4. It was a long and exhausting / exhausted exam. The students left the auditorium exhausting / exhausted but pleased.
5. The campaigners for the environment were disappointing / disappointed when the report was handed down in parliament.
The disappointing / disappointed conclusions only confirmed the disinterest in the issues.
6. The swimming competitions always attract a lot of interest at the Olympics. The rivalry between the nations is exciting /
excited to watch. The exciting / excited spectators are always fully entertained.
7. It was not so much the shocking / shocked levels of air pollution to which the scientists were responding, but rather the
shocking / shocked effects on children.
8. The exhausting / exhaustive / exhausted sportsmen were able to complete the marathon in record time.
9. Watching the evening news is sometimes frightened / frightening / frightens.
10. The scientist became quite frustrated / frustrate / frustrating when his experiments disproved his theory.
11. It will be an excited / excites / exciting soccer match because the teams are equally matched.
12. They were annoying / annoyed / annoys when the cinema cancelled the feature film.
13. The frightened / frightening / frightens students quickly ran for cover when lightening struck the tree.
14. A very terrifyingly / terrifying / terrified sport is rock climbing.
15. I think waiting for a late bus is rather boring / bored / boredom.
16. I find swimming in the ocean quite relaxed / relaxes / relaxing.
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1 Consider this sentence: 4 If one short action follows another short action,
you could use the present participle instead of the
Jim hurt his arm playing tennis. perfect participle in the phrase for the first action.
‘Jim hurt his arm’ is an independent clause, & ‘playing Taking a key out of his pocket, he opened the door.
tennis’ is a participle phrase using a present participle.
These structures are used more in written English
Feeling tired, I went to bed early. than in spoken English.
‘Feeling tired’ is a participle phrase using a present
participle, & ‘I went to bed early’ is an independent
clause.
5 If you want to explain something or to say why
somebody does something, you can use a participle
If the participle phrase comes first (as in the second phrase with a present participle or a perfect participle,
example), use a comma [ , ] after it. as appropriate. The participle phrase usually comes
first.
2 When two things happen at the same time, you can Feeling tired, I went to bed early.
(= because I felt tired)
use a participle phrase with a present participle for one
of the verbs. The independent clause is usually first. Being unemployed, he hasn’t got much money.
(= because he is unemployed)
I’ve just seen Carol. She’s in the bar having a drink. Not having a car, she finds it difficult to get around.
(= she is in the bar and she is having a drink) (= because she doesn’t have a car)
A man ran out of the house shouting. Having already seen the film twice, I didn’t want to go to
(= he ran out of the house and he was shouting) the cinema.
Do something! Don’t just stand there doing nothing! (= because I had already seen it twice)
You also use a participle phrase with a present These structures are used more in written English
participle when one action happens during another than in spoken English.
action. You use the phrase for the longer action. The
longer action is in the second part of the sentence.
Jim hurt his arm playing tennis.
(= while he was playing)
Did you cut yourself shaving?
(= while you were shaving)
You can also use a participle phrase with a present
participle after ‘while’ or ‘when.’
Jim hurt his arm while playing tennis.
Be careful when crossing the road.
(= when you are crossing)
3 When one action happens before another action,

the participle phrase uses the perfect participle.
Having found a hotel, we looked for somewhere to have dinner.
Having finished her work, she went home.
Some writers may use the time marker ‘after’ with the
perfect participle. However, as both the time marker &
the perfect participle say what happened first, ‘after’ is
usually left out as it is considered unnecessary.
After having finished her work, she went home.
 Having finished her work, she went home.
A common alternative to the perfect participle is to use
‘after’ + present participle.
After finishing her work, she went home.
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Practice
A Join a sentence from Box A with one from Box B to make one sentence. Use a participle phrase.
Carol was in the bar. She was feeling very tired.
Emma was sitting in an armchair. She looked at the sights and took photographs.
Sue got home late. She said she would be back in an hour.
Sarah went out. She was reading a book.
Linda was in London for two years. She was having a drink.
Mary walked round the town. She worked as a tourist guide.
1. was in the bar having a drink.

Carol …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Emma was sitting …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Sue ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Sarah …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Linda …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Mary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
B Make one sentence from two using a participle phrase.

1. Jim was playing tennis. He hurt his arm. Jim hurt his arm playing tennis.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. I was watching television. I fell asleep. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. The man slipped. He was getting off a bus. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. I was walking home in the rain. I got wet. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Margaret was driving to work yesterday. She had an accident. ……………………………………………………….……………………
6. Two firemen were overcome by smoke. They were trying to put out the fire.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
C Make sentences using a perfect participle.

1. She finished her work. Then she went home. Having finished her work, she went home.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. We bought our tickets. Then we went into the theatre. ………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. They continued their journey after they’d had dinner. ………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. After Lucy had done all her shopping, she went for a cup of coffee.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………..
D Make sentences using an appropriate participle phrase.

1. Feeling tired, I went to bed early.
I felt tired. I went to bed early. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……...………
2. Ben is a foreigner. He needs a visa to stay in this country. ……………..…………………………………..………………..….…..………
3. I didn’t know his address. I wasn’t able to contact him. ……………………………………………….…..………………………....………
4. Sarah has travelled a lot. She knows much about other countries. ……………………………………….……………….............…..…
…….........................................................................................................................................................................................……
5. I thought they might be hungry. I offered them something to eat.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………..
6. The man wasn’t able to understand English. He didn’t know what I wanted.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………..
7. We had spent nearly all our money. We couldn’t afford to stay in a hotel.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………..
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1 When someone does two actions at the same 3 You can use a participle phrase with a present
time, you can use a main verb & a participle phrase participle to give a reason.
with a present participle. You often use the participle
phrase after ‘stand,’ ‘sit’ & ‘lie.’ The fans queued for hours hoping to get tickets.
(= They queued for hours because they hoped to
We had to stand in the queue waiting for the bank to open. get tickets)
(= We stood in the queue and we waited) Being the youngest child, Neil was his mother’s favourite.
You can’t sit watching television all day. Not knowing the way, I had to ask for directions.
All afternoon, Stella lay on the sofa thinking about life.
You can also use a participle phrase with a perfect
You can also use this pattern when one action comes participle phrase to give a reason.
in the middle of another. You use the participle phrase
for the longer action. Having spent all the money, I couldn’t buy anything else.
We decided not to travel, having heard the weather
Andy injured his knee doing gymnastics. forecast.
(= He injured his knee while he was doing
gymnastics)
I fell asleep listening to the radio.
2 You can use a participle phrase with a present

participle when there are two short actions, one
immediately after the other.
Opening the bottle, Sam poured the drinks.
(= He opened the bottle and then poured the
drinks)
Turning right into Madison Avenue, the car drove north for
two blocks.
You can also use the perfect participle (e.g. ‘having
done’).
Having opened the bottle, Sam poured the drinks.
When the first action is a long action, you MUST use
the perfect participle.
Having photocopied all the papers, the secretary put them
back in the file.
( NOT Photocopying all the papers, the secretary put
them all back in the file.)
Having repaired the car, Simon took it out for a road test.
The perfect participle always means the first action, so
you can change the order.
The secretary put all the papers back in the file, having
photocopied them.
(But NOT Sam poured the drinks, opening the bottle.)
All the patterns in section 2 of this worksheet are more
common in written English. In spoken English, you
normally use sentences like these:
The car turned right into Madison Avenue and drove north
for two blocks.
The secretary photocopied all the papers and then put them
back in the file.
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Practice
A Write sentences from the notes using an appropriate participle phrase.
1. Antonia - burn - her fingers - light - a fire.
Antonia burnt her fingers lighting a fire.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Tom - break - his arm - play rugby
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Ella - cut - her hand - open - a tin
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Helen - injure - her leg - climb - a mountain
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Peter - hurt - his back - dig - this hole
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
B Rewrite the sentences. Use an appropriate participle phrase.

1. Judy picked up the phone and dialled a number.
Picking up the phone, Judy dialled a number.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Martin did his essay, and then he handed it in.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. The man pulled out a gun and fired a shot.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Sharon used the whole film, and then she developed it.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Teresa cut the grass, and then she put the mower away.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Roger took out his wallet and offered a $20 note.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Mike solved the puzzle, and then he sent the answer to the magazine.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
C Match the two parts & join them using an appropriate participle phrase.
Because she didn’t see the danger, Lorna turned on the heating.
As he had worked hard all day, Tony took it back to the library.
Because he had studied the map, Tina found it hard to communicate.
She felt cold, so Nicola ran towards the cliff edge.
Because she didn’t know the language, Paul knew which way to go.
He had finished the book, so Derek was exhausted.
1. Not seeing the danger, Nicola ran towards the cliff edge.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Reduction of adverbial clauses - Part 1

Main points  Keep OR delete:
 ‘while’ & ‘when,’ as you prefer, if the phrase
comes before the independent clause.
 Adverbial clauses can be reduced to  (While) creating new jobs in some sectors of the
participle phrases if the independent & economy, technology takes away jobs in others.
adverbial clause subjects are the same.
 The time frame of the phrase is 3 With passives, the continuous passive form may
determined either by the independent be used, especially if you want to emphasise that two
clause verb or the general context. actions are happening at the same time. The auxiliary
verb (‘be’ or ‘have’) becomes ‘being,’ & it is followed by
the past participle.
1 Participle phrases reduce wordiness in writing by Since he was examined, the man has recovered from the
replacing longer adverbial clauses. They also help writing disease.
‘flow’ by eliminating choppy or repetitive sentences.  Since being examined, the man has recovered from the
disease.
2 Adverbial clauses may be reduced to phrases if the
independent & adverbial clause subjects are the same. 4 Adverbial clauses using the verb ‘be’ as either the
main verb or as the auxiliary verb can often be further
Step 1
reduced by omitting the verb ‘be.’
Check that the subjects of the adverbial & independent Since being examined, the man has recovered from the
clauses are the same. disease.
While technology creates new jobs in some sectors of the  Since examined, the man has recovered from the
economy, it takes away jobs in others. disease.
When they were finished with the research, they left the site.
Step 2
 (When) finished with the research, they left the site.
Omit the adverbial clause subject. Make it the subject
‘Although’ & ‘if’ are never omitted.
of the independent clause, if necessary.
Although she was hungry and tired, she kept travelling.
 While technology creates new jobs in some sectors of  Although hungry and tired, she kept travelling.
the economy, it technology takes away jobs in others.
‘Because’ is always omitted.
Step 3
Because Grace was hungry and tired, she stopped to rest.
Change the adverbial clause verb to a participle.  Hungry and tired, Grace stopped to rest.
 While creates creating new jobs in some sectors of the
economy, technology takes away jobs in others. 5 Use the perfect participle when the event of the
adverbial clause happens before the event of the
Step 4
independent clause. As the perfect participle shows
Delete or keep the subordinating conjunction. the time relationship, leave out ‘after’ from the phrase.
 Delete: After the doctors had left, they published their findings.
 the reason conjunctions ‘since,’ ‘because’ & ‘as.’  Having left, the doctors published their findings.
 the time conjunction ‘as.’ As an alternative, you may use the present participle
 the time conjunction ‘after’ when the perfect with ‘after.’
participle (active or passive) is used. After the doctors had left, they published their findings.
 ‘the fact that’ when the adverbial clause uses ‘in  After leaving, the doctors published their findings.
spite of the fact that’ or ‘despite the fact that.’
Despite the fact that they were tired, they kept working.
 Despite being tired, they kept working.
6 Punctuation depends on the phrase’s position.
 If the participle phrase is before, or in the middle
 Keep: of, the independent clause, USE commas.
 the time conjunctions ‘since’ & ‘before.’
Technology, while creating new jobs in some sectors of
 the time conjunction ‘after’ unless the perfect the economy, takes away jobs in others.
participle (active or passive) is used.
 ‘although’ & ‘if.’  If after the independent clause, do NOT use commas.
 ‘while’ & ‘when’ if the phrase follows the Technology takes away jobs in some sectors of the
independent clause. economy while creating new jobs in others.
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Practice
A The following sentences talk about a scientific study of very old people who live in Abkhazia, a republic that was
once in the Soviet Union. Reduce the adverbial clauses in the sentences. Where appropriate, omit the connecting
word & make changes in nouns & pronouns.
1. While scientists were studying the centenarians [= people 100 or over], they tried to isolate the elements of the ‘good life.’
(While) studying the centenarians, scientists tried to isolate the elements of the ‘good life.’
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
2. The researchers assumed that diet was important even before they arrived in the villages.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
3. After doctors had examined hundreds of elderly people, they realised that the number-one killer in the West, heart disease,
was virtually absent there.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
4. Because the villagers eat little meat and few dairy products, they have no problem with cholesterol.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
5. The villagers remain thin but amazingly healthy because they consume about 60% of the calories and 40 to 50% of the
protein common in the Western diet.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
6. Despite the fact that they eat little protein, they have enormous amounts of energy.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
7. If they were bored by their simple diet, they certainly disguised it well.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
8. When they were offered Western food by visitors, the elderly were interested at first but preferred their own diet.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
9. Illness is rare, but if they are sick, the villagers eat less, rest and take herbal remedies.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
B Expand the reduced phrases in the following sentences back into full adverbial clauses.
1. Having small farms, most of the elderly people lead demanding lives.
Because they have small farms, most of the elderly people lead demanding lives.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
2. Not having modern tools, they must devote much of their time to strenuous physical labour.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
3. If tired of working to support themselves, few of the older people complain about this.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
4. When questioned about their lifestyle, the older people saw nothing unusual about the way they lived.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
5. After having moved from their mountain villages to large cities, the children of the elderly rarely live past 80.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
6. Studying the people who had moved away from Abkhazia, scientists found a high incidence of heart disease.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
7. Living the ‘good life,’ the people of Abkhazia almost never suffer from heart disease.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
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Reduction of adverbial clauses - Part 2

Main points 3 There are two ways to correct a dangling
participle:
 Participle phrases that have been (1) Expand the participle phrase into a full adverbial
reduced from adverbial clauses must clause.
have the same subject as the WARNING Make sure the adverbial clause has a
independent clause. subject.
 Reduced phrases that do not have the Having lived for 100 years, the doctors were amazed
same subject as the independent at my grandfather.
clause are ungrammatical. They  Because he had lived for 100 years, the doctors
create ‘dangling participles.’ were amazed at my grandfather.
Having bitten several pedestrians, the owner forcibly
1 Readers normally associate a participle with the muzzled his dog.
noun or noun phrase adjacent to it.  After it had bitten several pedestrians, the owner
forcibly muzzled his dog.
Consequently, introductory participle phrases must
describe the subject of the independent clause that Not having eaten for days, the ham sandwich looked
follows the phrase. In other words, make sure the very appealing.
participle actually describes the subject after the comma.  As I had not eaten for days, the ham sandwich
Not having eaten for days, the ham sandwich looked very looked very appealing.
appealing. (2) Change the independent clause so that it has the
‘Not having eaten for days’ implies that the ham sandwich same subject as the participle phrase.
had gone without food, not the person telling the story. Having lived for 100 years, the doctors were amazed
This phrase is not grammatically correct. The participle at my grandfather.
‘not having eaten’ is referred to as a ‘dangling participle.’  Having lived for a 100 years, my grandfather
(Something that is ‘dangling’ is hanging loosely; it is not amazed the doctors.
firmly attached to anything.)
Having bitten several pedestrians, the owner forcibly
Sentences like the example only confuse & distract muzzled his dog.
the reader.  Having bitten several pedestrians, the dog was
muzzled by his owner.
2 The need to ensure that the participle in an Not having eaten for days, the ham sandwich looked
introductory participle phrase describes the subject very appealing.
after the comma is especially important when there is
more than one noun in the independent clause.  Not having eaten for days, I found the ham
sandwich looked very appealing.
A dangling participle will result if it is unclear what the
participle phrase is describing. After finishing the operation, the patient was given a
sedative.
Having lived for 100 years, the doctors were amazed at my
grandfather. ‘After finishing the operation’ implies that the
patient (not a doctor) finished the operation!
Was it the doctors who had lived for 100 years, or the
grandfather? ‘Having lived for 100 years’ incorrectly  After finishing the operation, the doctor gave the
implies that the doctors had lived for 100 years, not patient a sedative.
the grandfather. If sick, the family cares for him.
Having bitten several pedestrians, the owner forcibly ‘If sick’ implies that the family is sick.
muzzled his dog.
 If sick, he is cared for by his family.
It is hard to know which noun is being described by
the participle ‘having bitten.’ Did the man referred to in
the independent clause bite the pedestrians, or was
his dog the attacker?
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Practice
A A researcher rode a horse many kilometres through rough terrain to interview 124-year-old Jose Molina, who
lived in Vilcabamba, a village in Ecuador, South America. The following is the researcher’s account of the visit. Some
sentences have ‘dangling participles.’ Correct them either by expanding the participle phrases into full adverbial
clauses, or by changing the subject of the independent clause. If a sentence is correct, don’t change it.
1. While travelling in the country, the weather was hot.
While I was travelling in the country, the weather was hot. / While travelling in the country, I felt hot.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Having worked since early in the morning, Jose Molina welcomed the chance for a rest.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. After shaking my hand, we walked to a large tree and sat down.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. While talking about his life and family, my horse stood nearby nibbling on the grass.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Jose made his living as a farmer since coming to Vilcabamba some 90 years before.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Living a simple life and having few possessions, money was not important to Jose.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. If ill, his wife would make him a special type of herbal medicine.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Jose had to get back to work after talking to me for over an hour.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. Although tired and hungry, there was plenty of work left to do.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. Riding back to town, the view of the mountains was spectacular.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
B Read the following passage about the elderly in Vilcabamba (a village in Ecuador, South America) & Abkhazia (a
republic that was once in the Soviet Union). Underline all dependent clauses. When it is possible, change these
clauses into reduced phrases or verbless phrases. Make changes from pronoun to noun where appropriate & make
any other changes in sentence structure. Pay close attention to the punctuation.
Status within Western cultures is in many ways based on youth. Because most older people are less active and less
productive, society tends to regard them as useless. Thus, as the ageing process takes its toll, many senior citizens spend their
last years away from their families in retirement communities or nursing homes, where they await the inevitable.
This situation is reversed in Vilcabamba and Abkhazia. While the elderly are growing older in these cultures, they gain
social prestige and importance rather than lose it. Because they live in close-knit families, the older citizens are never separated
from their loved ones. Even when they are very old, they continue to help with the household responsibilities. If they are sick,
several generations of family are nearby to care for them.
The elderly never lose sight of their roles within the family and community. While they are surrounded by sons,
daughters, grandchildren and great-grandchildren, the old ones are constantly told, ‘You are the reason we are here; you are
first in the family; we need your superior wisdom; we need your wise judgements.’ Because many older people in the West
believe they are useless, they age quickly and die young. Because the old of Vilcabamba and Abkhazia know that they are not
useless, they continue to lead productive lives well into their hundreds.
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Defining relative clauses - Overview

Main points WARNING You cannot leave out ‘that,’ ‘who’ or
‘which’ when they are the subject of the verb in the
relative clause. For example, you say ‘The woman
 You use defining relative clauses to who lives next door is very friendly.’ You do not say
say exactly which person or thing you ‘The woman lives next door is very friendly.’
are talking about.
 Defining relative clauses are usually 4 A relative pronoun in a relative clause can be the
introduced by a relative pronoun such object of a preposition. In informal English, the
as ‘that,’ ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘whom’ or preposition usually goes at the end of the clause.
‘whose.’ I wanted to do the job which I’d been training for.
 A defining relative clause comes The house that we lived in was huge.
immediately after a noun, & it needs You can often omit a relative pronoun that is the object
an independent clause to make a of a preposition.
complete sentence. Angela was the only person I could talk to.
She’s the girl I sang the song for.
1 Defining relative clauses give information that NOTE The preposition always goes in front of ‘which’
identifies the person or thing you are talking about. & ‘whom’ in formal English. As well, you do not use a
preposition in front of ‘that.’
The man who you met yesterday was my brother.
The car which crashed into me belonged to Paul. He was asking questions to which there were no answers.
These are the people to whom Catherine was referring.
When you are talking about people, you use ‘that’ or
‘who’ in the relative clause. If the preposition is part of a prepositional noun
phrase, the preposition always comes before the
He was the man that bought my house. relative pronoun.
You are the only person here who knows me.
He signed an agreement. Under this agreement, he would
When you are talking about things, you use ‘that’ or be entitled to a commission on sales.
‘which’ in the relative clause.
 He signed an agreement under which he would be
There was ice cream that Mum had made herself. entitled to a commission on sales.
I will tell you the first thing which I can remember.
2 ‘That,’ ‘who’ or ‘which’ can be:

5 You use ‘whose’ in relative clauses to indicate
who something belongs to or relates to. You normally
 the subject of the verb in the relative clause use ‘whose’ for people, not for things.
The thing that really surprised me was his attitude. A child whose mother had left him was crying loudly.
The woman who lives next door is very friendly. We have only told the people whose work is relevant to this
The car which caused the accident drove off. project.
 the object of the verb in the relative clause

6 You can also use the relative adverbs ‘when,’
The thing that I really liked about it was its size. ‘where’ & ‘why’ in defining relative clauses after certain
The woman who you met yesterday lives next door. nouns. You use ‘when’ after ‘time’ or time words such
The car which I wanted to buy was not for sale. as ‘day’ or ‘year.’ You use ‘where’ after ‘place’ or place
words such as ‘room’ or ‘street.’ You use ‘why’ after
In formal English, ‘whom’ is used instead of ‘who’ as ‘reason.’
the object of the verb in the relative clause.
There had been a time when she hated all men.
She was a woman whom I greatly respected. This is the year when profits should increase.
He showed me the place where they work.
3 You can leave out ‘that,’ ‘who’ or ‘which’ when That was the room where I did my homework.
There are several reasons why we can’t do that.
they are the object of the verb in the relative clause.
The woman you met yesterday lives next door. NOTE ‘Where’ means ‘in which place’ or ‘at which
The car I wanted to buy was not for sale. place.’ ‘Where’ can never be used as the subject of its
The thing I really liked about it was its size. relative clause.
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Practice
A Complete the following sentences using a relative clause with ‘that’ as the subject.
1. that leaves at 2:15.
The train leaves at 2:15. / You’re too late to catch the train …………………………………………………………………..….…….…..…
2. Mary has two brothers. One lives in America. / Do you know the one …………………………………………………….………………..
3. Some things were stolen. / Have you got back the things ……………………………………………………………………………….………
4. A man plays James Bond. / What’s the name of the man ……………………………………………………………………….……………….
5. A woman answered the phone. / The woman ………………………………………………………………... asked me to call back later.
6. A book was left behind on the desk. / The book ……………………………………………………………..…………..… belongs to John.
Now do the same with these using ‘that’ as the object of the relative clause.
7. that I read last week.
I read a book last week. / I really enjoyed the book ………………………………………………………………………….……………..……
8. I met someone on the train. / Someone ………………………………………………………….………..…… gave me some good advice.
9. We took some photographs on holiday. / Have you seen the photographs …………………………………….……………………………
10. You read things in newspapers. / You shouldn’t believe all the things …………………………………………………..………………..…
11. I left some money on the table. / The money ……………………………………………………….………… seems to have disappeared.
12. You asked for some information. / We cannot provide the information …………………………………………………………..…………
B Look at the sentences above. In some, the relative pronoun ‘that’ stands for a person & can be replaced by
‘who.’ In others, ‘that’ stands for a thing & can be replaced by ‘which.’ Write ‘who’ or ‘which’ in brackets after each
sentence to show which word could replace ‘that.’
1. that leaves at 2:15. (which)
You’re too late to catch the train …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………
C Complete these sentences by adding ‘when,’ ‘where,’ ‘whose’ or ‘why.’

1. where
This is definitely the place ………………………… I left it.
2. Do you remember the time ………………………… we got lost?
3. There must be a good reason ………………………… he’s late.
4. They are building a hospital on the street ………………………… we live.
5. Peter? Is he the one ………………………… car you borrowed?
6. Can you give me any reason ………………………… I should help you?
7. Carl is the one ………………………… desk is next to mine.
D First, decide whether each pair of sentences is using formal or informal English. Then, join the sentences by
changing the second sentence of each pair into a defining relative clause.
1. Is this the book you asked me for?

Is this the book? You asked me for it. …………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….………
2. I can’t remember the name of the person. I gave the money to him. …………………………………………………………………………
3. Coronary thrombosis is a disease. High sugar consumption is believed to play a part in this disease. ……………………………
……………………............................................................................................................................................................…….………
4. They came to a plateau. Around the plateau stood high mountains. ………………………….......…………………………………………
5. I don’t find the person very friendly. I’m sharing a flat with him. …………………………………………………………….………………
6. The two sides agreed to more talks on a pay structure. Under this structure, the employees would be paid an hourly rate.
……………………………………………….........................................................................................................……….…….……………
7. Here’s the address. You should write to this address. ……………..…………………………………..……………………..…………………
8. The union formulated a basis. The talks could start on this basis. ……………….………………………………………..…………………
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Non-defining relative clauses - Overview

Main points 3 When you are talking about things, you use
‘which’ as the subject or object of a non-defining
relative clause.
 You use non-defining relative clauses
to give extra information about the I am teaching at the Selly Oak Centre, which is just over the
road.
person or thing you are talking about. He was a man of considerable inherited wealth, which he
 Non-defining relative clauses are ultimately spent on his experiments.
usually introduced by a relative WARNING You do not normally use ‘that’ in non-
pronoun such as ‘which,’ ‘who,’ defining relative clauses.
‘whom’ or ‘whose.’
 A non-defining relative clause comes
immediately after a noun, & it needs
4 You can also use a non-defining relative clause
beginning with ‘which’ to say something about the
an independent clause to make a whole situation described in the independent clause.
complete sentence.
I never met Brando again, which was a pity.
She was a little tense, which was understandable.
1 You use non-defining relative clauses to give Small computers need only small amounts of power, which
means that they will run on small batteries.
extra information about the person or thing you are
talking about. The information is not needed to identify
that person or thing.
5 When you are talking about a group of people or
Professor Marvin, who was always early, was there already. things & then want to say something about only some
of them, you can use one of the following expressions:
‘Who was always early’ gives extra information about
Professor Martin. This is a non-defining relative clause many of which many of whom some of which
because it is not needed to identify the person you are some of whom one of which one of whom
talking about. We already know that you are talking none of which none of whom
about Professor Martin.
They were all friends, many of whom had known each other
NOTE In written English, a non-defining relative
for years.
clause is usually separated from the independent (or
He talked about several very interesting people, some of
main) clause by a comma, or by two commas.
whom he was still in contact with.
I went to the cinema with Mary, who I think you met.
British Rail, which has launched an enquiry, said one
coach was badly damaged. 6 You can also use the relative adverbs ‘when’ &
‘where’ in non-defining relative clauses after
expressions of time or place.
2 You start a non-defining relative clause with a
This happened in 1957, when I was still a baby.
relative pronoun. When you are talking about people,
She has just come back from a holiday in Crete, where Alex
you use ‘who.’ ‘Who’ can be the subject or object of a
and I went last year.
non-defining relative clause.
NOTE ‘Where’ means ‘in which place’ or ‘at which
Heath Robinson, who died in 1944, was a graphic artist and
place.’ ‘Where’ can never be used as the subject of its
cartoonist.
relative clause.
I was in the same group as Janice, who I like a lot.
In formal English, ‘whom’ is sometimes used instead
of ‘who’ as the object of a non-defining relative clause.
She was engaged to a sailor, whom she had met at
Dartmouth.
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Practice
A Join the sentences below using ‘who,’ ‘whose’ or ‘which.’ Make sure that the relative clause goes next to the
word it gives extra information about. Assume that the information in the first sentence is more important than the
information in the second sentence.
1. I met Jane’s father. He works at the university.
I met Jane’s father, who works at the university.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
2. Peter is studying French and German. He has never been abroad.
Peter, who has never been abroad, is studying French and German.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
3. You’ve all met Michael Wood. He is visiting us for a couple of days.
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
4. Michael Wood is one of my oldest friends. He has just gone to live in Canada.
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
5. We are moving to Manchester. Manchester is in the north-west.
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
6. Manchester is in the north-west. It is one of England’s fastest growing towns.
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
7. I’ll be staying with Adrian. His brother is one of my closest friends.
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
8. This is Adrian. We stayed in Adrian’s house for our holidays.
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
B Match the independent clauses on the left with the non-defining relative clauses on the right.
1. I had to travel first class,… (a) …which meant we had to cancel the match the next day.
2. It snowed heavily all night,… (b) …which meant we had to eat out in the evenings.
3. The car uses very little petrol,… (c) …which really annoyed everyone.
4. He didn’t get up until after eight o’clock,… (d) …which certainly pleased her mother.
5. The food in the hotel was not very good,… (e) …which means it is quite cheap to run.
6. He kept complaining about everything,… (f) …which meant he was almost late for work.
7. Both the girls were late,… (g) …which meant we had to leave without them.
8. Michelle always did very well at school,… (h) …which was very expensive.
C Rewrite these sentences using phrases with ‘of which’ or ‘of whom.’
1. I got four books for my birthday. I had read three of them before.
I got four books for my birthday, three of which I had read before.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
2. Only two people came to look at the house, and neither of them wanted to buy it.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
3. He had a lot to say about his new computer. None of it interested me very much.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
4. There were some noisy people in the audience. One of them kept interrupting the speaker.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
5. She made all kinds of suggestions. I couldn’t understand most of them.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
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Defining relative clauses - with ‘who,’

‘that’ & ‘which’
1 Look at this example sentence: 3 You cannot use ‘what’ in sentences like these:
The woman who lives next door is a doctor. Everything that happened was my fault.
( NOT Everything what happened was my fault.)
A clause is a part of a sentence. In the example
sentence, ‘who lives next door’ is a defining relative ‘What’ = ‘the things that.’
clause. A defining relative clause tells us which person
or thing (or what kind of person or thing) the speaker What happened was my fault. (= the thing that happened)
means.
The woman who lives next door... 4 Remember that in defining relative clauses, you
(‘who lives next door’ tells us which woman) use ‘who,’ ‘that’ or ‘which’ instead of ‘he,’ ‘she,’ ‘they’ or
People who live in London... ‘it.’ So you say:
(‘who live in London’ tells us what kind of people)
Do you know the woman who lives next door?
You use ‘who’ in a defining relative clause when you ( NOT Do you know the woman she lives next door?)
are talking about people (not things). You use ‘who’
instead of ‘he,’ ‘she’ or ‘they.’
The woman - she lives next door - is a doctor.

 The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
We know a lot of people - they live in London.

 We know a lot of people who live in London.
An architect is someone who designs buildings.
What was the name of the man who lent you the money?
Anyone who wants to do the exam must enter before next
Friday.
You can also use ‘that’ instead of ‘who’ in defining
relative clauses.
The man that lives next door is very friendly.
2 When you are talking about things, you use ‘that’

or ‘which’ (but not ‘who’) in a defining relative clause.
Where is the cheese? It was in the fridge.

 Where is the cheese that/which was in the fridge?
I don’t like stories that have unhappy endings.
( OR ‘ ...stories which have...’)
Barbara works for a company that makes washing
machines.
( OR ‘ ...a company which makes... ’)
The machine that broke down has now been repaired.
( OR ‘The machine which broke down...’)
‘That’ is more usual than ‘which’ in a defining relative
clause.
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Practice
A Complete these definitions by choosing the right meaning from the box & then writing a sentence with ‘who.’
 
steals from a shop buys something from a shop
designs buildings pays rent to live in a house or flat
he/she doesn’t believe in God he/she breaks into a house to steal things
is not brave no longer works and gets money from the state
1. someone who designs buildings.

An architect is ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………...……..
2. A burglar is someone ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. A customer …….………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………..……..
4. A shoplifter ………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………………
5. A coward ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….
6. An atheist ……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………..………………………..
7. A pensioner ……………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………….
8. A tenant ……………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………..
B Make one sentence from two. Use ‘who,’ ‘that’ & ‘which.’
1. A girl was injured in the accident. She is now in hospital.
The girl who was injured in the accident is now in hospital.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
2. A man answered the phone. He told me you were away.
The man ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..
3. A waitress served us. She was very impolite and impatient.
The ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. A building was destroyed in the fire. It has now been rebuilt.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Some people were arrested. They have now been released.
The ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. A bus goes to the airport. It runs every half-hour.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
C Complete the sentences. Choose the most suitable ending from the box & make it into a relative clause.
he invented the telephone it makes washing machines she runs away from home
it gives you the meaning of words they are never on time it won the race
they stole my car it can support life they were on my wall it cannot be explained
1. that makes washing machines.

Barbara works for a company ……………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………….…
2. The book is about a girl …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..
3. What was the name of the horse …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…...
4. The police have caught the men ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………
5. Alexander Bell was the man …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……...
6. What’s happened to the pictures ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. A mystery is something ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………
8. A dictionary is a book …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. I don’t like people …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………
10. It seems that Earth is the only planet ………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………
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Defining relative clauses - with or

without ‘who,’ ‘that’ & ‘which’
1 Look again at these example sentences: 3 Notice the position of prepositions (‘in,’ ‘at,’ ‘with,’
etc) in defining relative clauses:
The woman who/that lives next door is a doctor.
 Do you know the woman? - Tom is talking to her.
The woman lives next door.
 Do you know the woman (who/that) Tom is talking to?
‘Who’/‘that’ (= the woman) is the subject of the defining
relative clause. The bed - I slept in it last night - wasn’t very comfortable.
Where is the cheese that/which was in the fridge?  The bed (that/which) I slept in last night wasn’t very
 comfortable.
The cheese was in the fridge. Are these the keys (that/which) you were looking for?
‘That’/‘which’ (= the cheese) is the subject of the The woman (who/that) he fell in love with left him after a
defining relative clause. few weeks.
The man (who/that) I was sitting next to on the plane talked
You must use ‘who,’ ‘that’ or ‘which’ when it is the all the time.
subject of the defining relative clause. You cannot say
‘The woman lives next door is a doctor’ or ‘Where is In all these examples, you can leave out ‘who,’ ‘that’ &
the cheese was in the fridge?’ ‘which.’
NOTE You say:
2 Sometimes who/that/which is the object of the ‘ …the books you were looking for?
verb. For example:
( NOT ‘ …the books you were looking for them?’)
The woman who I wanted to see was away on holiday.

I wanted to see the woman.
4 You cannot use ‘what’ in sentences like these:
Everything (that) they said was true.
‘Who’ (= the woman) is the object of the defining
relative clause. ‘I’ is the subject of the relative clause. ( NOT Everything what they said was true.)
I gave her all the money (that) I had.
Have you found the keys that you lost? ( NOT I gave her all the money what I had.)

You lost the keys. ‘What’ = ‘the things that.’
‘That’ (= the keys) is the object of the defining relative Did you hear what they said? (= the things that they said)
clause. ‘You’ is the subject of the relative clause.
When ‘who,’ ‘that’ or ‘which’ is the object of the
defining relative clause, you can leave it out.
The woman I wanted to see was away.
( OR The woman who I wanted to see was away.)
Is there anything I can do?
( OR Is there anything that I can do?)
The dress Ann bought doesn’t fit her very well.
( OR The dress that Ann bought doesn’t fit her very
well.)
Have you found the keys you lost?
( OR Have you found the keys that you lost?)
NOTE You say:
‘The dress Ann bought doesn’t… ’
( NOT ‘The dress Ann bought it doesn’t…’)
‘ …the keys you lost?’
( NOT ‘ …the keys you lost them?’)
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Practice
A In some of these sentences, you don’t need ‘who’ or ‘that.’ If you don’t need these words, put them in brackets
like this: (who) (that).
1. The woman who lives next door is a doctor. (‘who’ is necessary in this sentence)
2. Have you found the keys ( that ) you lost? (in this sentence, you don’t need ‘that’)
3. The people who we met at the party were very friendly.
4. The people who work in the office are very friendly.
5. The people who I talked to were very friendly.
6. What have you done with the money that I gave you?
7. What happened to the money that was on the table? Did you take it?
8. It was an awful film. It was the worst film that I’ve ever seen.
B Complete these sentences with a relative clause. Use the sentences in the box to make your relative clauses.
we hired a car you had to do some work I invited some people to the party we wanted to visit a museum
Ann is wearing a dress you’re going to see a film Tom recommended a hotel to us you lost some keys
1. you lost?
Have you found the keys ………………………………………..... 2. I like the dress ………………….…………….……………………...…
3. We stayed at a hotel ………………….…………………………..... 4. Have you finished the work ………………………………………….
5. What’s the name of the film …….………………………..………. 6. Some of the people ………………….…..….……… couldn’t come.
7. The car ………………………… broke down after a few miles. 8. The museum …….….…...................……...…… was shut when
we got there.
C Complete these sentences using a relative clause with a preposition.

we went to a party last night you can rely on George we were invited to a wedding I saw you with a man
I work with a number of people I applied for a job you told me about a hotel you were looking for some keys
1. you were
Are these the keys …………… looking for?
………………………………………………………………………………..…......................................………..
2. Unfortunately, we couldn’t go to the wedding ………………….………………………………………………………………………..…………
3. I enjoy my job. I like the people …….…………………………………………………………………………………………………...........………
4. What’s the name of that hotel ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...........….…
5. I didn’t get the job ………………………………………………..……………………………………………………..………………...........………..
6. George is a good person to know. He’s somebody ………………………………………………………………………….…...…...........……
7. Who was that man ……………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………..…..........……..
8. The party ……...............………………………..……………… wasn’t very enjoyable.
D Put in ‘that’ or ‘what.’ If the sentence is complete with or without ‘that,’ write (that) in brackets.
1. (that) I had.
I gave her all the money …….…..... 2. I won’t be able to do much, but I’ll do the best …….….... I can.
3. They give their children everything …….…..... they want. 4. I can only lend you ten pounds. It’s all …….…..... I’ve got.
5. Tell me …….…..... you want, and I’ll try to get it for you. 6. I don’t agree with …….…..... you’ve just said.
7. Why do you blame me for everything ….…..... goes wrong? 8. I don’t trust him. I don’t believe anything …….…..... he says.
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Defining relative clauses - with ‘whose,’

‘whom’ & ‘where’
1 You use ‘whose’ in defining relative clauses NOTE ‘Where’ means ‘in which place’ or ‘at which
instead of ‘his,’ ‘her’ & ‘their.’ place.’ ‘Where’ can never be used as the subject of its
relative clause.
We saw some people - their car had broken down.

 We saw some people whose car had broken down. 4 You say ‘the day/the year/the time (etc) something
happens’ (or ‘ …that something happens’).
You use ‘whose’ mostly for people.
Do you still remember the day (that) we first met?
A widow is a woman whose husband is dead. The last time (that) I saw her, she looked very well.
(her husband is dead) I haven’t seen them since the year (that) they got married.
What’s the name of the man whose car you borrowed?
(you borrowed his car)
A few days ago, I met someone whose brother I went to 5 You say ‘the reason something happens’ (or ‘
school with. …that/why something happens’).
(I went to school with his/her brother)
The reason I’m phoning you is to invite you to a party.
Compare ‘who’ & ‘whose’: ( OR ‘ The reason that I’m phoning you is… ’)
I met a man who knows you. ( OR ‘ The reason why I’m phoning you is… ’)
(he knows you)
I met a man whose sister knows you.
(his sister knows you)
2 ‘Whom’ is possible instead of ‘who’ when it is the

object of the verb in the defining relative clause.
The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday.
(I wanted to see her)
You can also use ‘whom’ with a preposition (‘to whom,’
‘from whom,’ ‘with whom,’ etc).
The woman with whom he fell in love left him after a few
weeks.
(he fell in love with her)
However, you do not often use ‘whom.’ In spoken
English, ‘who’ or ‘that,’ or nothing at all, is preferred to
using ‘whom.’ So you usually say:
The man I saw…
( OR ‘The man who/that I saw… ’)
The woman he fell in love with…
( OR ‘The woman who/that he fell in love with… ’)
3 You can use ‘where’ in a relative clause to talk

about a place.
The hotel - we stayed there - wasn’t very clean.

 The hotel where we stayed wasn’t very clean.
I recently went back to the town where I was born.
( OR ‘ …went back to the town that I was born in.’)
( OR ‘ …went back to the town I was born in.’)
I would like to live in a country where there is plenty of
sunshine.
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Practice
A You met the people in the diagram at a party. Complete the sentences below it using ‘who’ or ‘whose.’
1. whose mother writes detective stories.

I met somebody …………………...…………………………………………………………………………………...……………………….………...
2. I met a man ………………….……………………………….……………………………………….……………...…………….……………………...
3. I met a woman ..…………………………………………….…….…………………………………………………...………….…….………………...
4. I met somebody …………………………………………….…….…………………………………………………...…………………………..……….
5. I met a couple ………………………………….…….…………………………………………………...………………………………………….…….
6. I met somebody ………………………………….…….………………………………………………….…………………………………….………….
B Complete the sentences. Use the sentences in the box to make relative clauses with ‘where.’
I can buy some postcards there I was born there Ann bought a dress there
John is staying there we can have a really good meal there we had the car repaired there
1. where I was born.

I recently went back to the town …………………...………………………………………………………………...……………………….………...
2. Do you know a restaurant ………………….……………………………….…………………….……………...…………….……………………...
3. Is there a shop near here ..…………………………………………….…….………………………………..……...………….…….………………...
4. I can’t remember the name of the garage ………………………………………………………………………...………………………………..
5. Do you know the name of the hotel ……….…….…………………………………………………...………………………………………….…….
6. Ann bought a dress which didn’t fit her, so she took it back to the shop …………………….…………………………………….………….
C Complete each sentence using ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ ‘whose’ or ‘where.’

1. whose car you borrowed? 2. The place …......… we spent our holidays was really beautiful.
What’s the name of the man ……......….…
3. A cemetery is a place ….....…...… people are buried. 4. An orphan is a child ……........… parents are dead.
5. I don’t know the woman to …............... I spoke on the phone. 6. A pacifist is a person …....… believes that all wars are wrong.
7. This school is only for children …...….......… first language is not English.
D Use your own ideas to complete these sentences.

1. I’ll always remember the day ….….….….…….….….……………………………………….……………………………………….…..….….….
2. I’ll never forget the time ….….….….….….….….….….….….…………………………………………………………………………….….….….
3. 1999 was the year ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….…….….….….….……...….….….….…….….….….….…….….….….….
4. The reason ….….….….….….….….….….….….……….….….….….….……….….….….…..….…. was that I didn’t know your address.
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Non-defining relative clauses - Part 1

1 There are two types of relative clause. 3 In both types of relative clause, you can also use
‘whose’ & ‘where.’
Defining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
Barbara works for a company that makes washing We met some people whose car had broken down.
machines. What’s the name of the place where you spent your holiday?
We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended to us.
Non-defining relative clauses
In these examples, the relative clause tells you which
person or thing (or what kind of person or thing) the Amy, whose car had broken down, was in a very bad mood.
speaker means: Mrs Bond is going to spend a few weeks in Sweden, where
her daughter lives.
‘The woman who lives next door… ’ tells us which
woman. NOTE ‘Where’ means ‘in which place’ or ‘at which
‘ …a company that makes washing machines’ tells us what place.’ ‘Where’ can never be used as the subject of its
kind of company. relative clause.
‘ …the hotel (that) Ann recommended… ’ tells us which
hotel. 4 There are certain differences.
They are defining relative clauses. Defining relative clauses
You do not use commas [ , ] with defining relative You can use ‘that’ in defining relative clauses.
clauses.
Do you know anyone who/that speaks French and Italian?
We know a lot of people who live in London. (what kind of Barbara works for a company which/that makes washing
people) machines.
Non-defining relative clauses You can leave out ‘that, ‘who’ or ‘which’ when it is the
object of the defining relative clause.
My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.
Colin told me about his new job, which he’s enjoying very We stayed at the hotel (that/which) Ann recommended.
much. This morning, I met somebody (that/who) I hadn’t seen for
We stayed at the Grand Hotel, which Ann recommended to ages.
us.
You do not often use ‘whom’ in defining relative
In these examples, the relative clauses do not tell you clauses.
which person or thing the speaker means. We already
know which thing or person is meant: ‘My brother Jim,’ Non-defining relative clauses
‘Colin’s new job’ & ‘the Grand Hotel.’
You cannot use ‘that’ in non-defining relative clauses.
The relative clauses in these sentences give us extra
information about the person or thing. They are non- John, who speaks French and Italian, works as a tourist
defining relative clauses. guide.
( NOT ‘John, that speaks French…’)
You use commas [ , ] with non-defining relative Colin told me about his new job, which he’s enjoying very
clauses. much.
My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor. (extra ( NOT ‘ …new job, that he’s enjoying…’)
information about Jim)
You cannot leave out ‘who’ or ‘which’ in non-defining
relative clauses.
2 In both types of relative clause, you use ‘who’ for We stayed at the Grand Hotel, which Ann recommended to
people & ‘which’ for things.
us.
You can use ‘whom’ when it is the object of the non-
defining relative clause.
This morning, I met Diane, whom I hadn’t seen for ages.
( OR ‘ …I met Diane, who I hadn’t seen for ages.’)
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Practice
A Make one sentence from two. Use the sentence in brackets to make a non-defining relative clause. Sometimes
it will go in the middle of the sentence, & other times at the end. Use ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ ‘whose,’ ‘which’ & ‘where.’
1. Ann, who lives next door, is very friendly.
Ann is very friendly. (She lives next door.) ………………………………………………….………………………………………….…………
2. We went to Ann’s party, which we enjoyed very much.
We went to Ann’s party. (We enjoyed it very much.) …………………………………………………..……....…………………………….…
3. We stayed at the Grand Hotel. (Ann recommended it to us.)
…………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………………
4. I went to see the doctor. (He told me to rest for a few days.)
…………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………………
5. John is one of my closest friends. (I have known him for a very long time.)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….
6. Sheila is away from home a lot. (Her job involves a lot of travelling.)
…………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………..………………………..
7. The new stadium will be opened next month. (It can hold 90,000 people.)
……………………..………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………….
8. We often go to visit our friends in Bristol. (It is only 30 miles away.)
…………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………..
9. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland. (My brother lives there.)
…………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………..
B Complete the sentences, using a relative clause which is either defining (telling us which thing or person) or
non-defining (only giving extra information). Use commas [ , ] where necessary.
1. who lives next door is a doctor.
There’s a woman living next door. She’s a doctor. The woman ………………………………………………………………………………
2. I’ve got a brother called Jim. He lives in London. He’s a doctor.
, who lives in London, is a doctor.
My brother Jim …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….…
3. There was a strike at the car factory. It lasted ten days. It is now over.
The strike at the car factory .…..……………………………………………………………………………………..………………………...……...
4. I was looking for a book this morning. I’ve found it now.
I’ve found …………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………….……
5. London was once the largest city in the world, but the population is now falling.
The population of London …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…….
6. A job was advertised. A lot of people applied for it. Few of them had the necessary qualifications.
Few of ………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………..………………………..
7. Margaret has a son. She showed me a photograph of him. He’s a policeman.
Margaret showed me ………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………..……….
8. Jennifer has two daughters. She showed me a photograph of one daughter. She’s a nurse in Australia.
Jennifer showed me ………………………………………………………...…………………………………………...………………………..……….
C In some of these sentences, you can use ‘which’ or ‘that’; in others, only ‘which’ is possible. Cross out ‘that’ if
only ‘which’ is possible. Also, put commas [ , ] where necessary.
 
1. Jane works for a company which / that makes shoes. (both possible; no comma)
2. Colin told me about his new job which / that he’s enjoying very much.
3. My office which / that is on the second floor of the building is very small.
4. The office which / that I’m using at the moment is very small.
5. She told me her address which / that I wrote down on a piece of paper.
6. There are some words which / that are very difficult to translate.
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Non-defining relative clauses - Part 2

1 In non-defining relative clauses, you can use a 3 Be careful to use ‘which’ instead of ‘what.’
preposition before ‘whom’ (for people) & ‘which’ (for
things). So you can say: ‘to whom,’ ‘with whom,’ ‘about Jim passed his driving test. This surprised everybody.
which,’ ‘for which,’ etc. (two sentences)
Jim passed his driving test, which surprised everybody.
Mr Carter, to whom I spoke on the phone last night, is very (one sentence)
interested in our plan.
Fortunately, we had a map, without which we would have In this example, ‘which’ = ‘the fact that he passed his
got lost. driving test.’ You must use ‘which’ (not ‘what’) in
sentences like these:
In spoken English, you often keep the preposition after
the verb in the non-defining relative clause. When you Sheila couldn’t come to the party, which was a pity.
do this, you normally use ‘who’ (not ‘whom’) for people. ( NOT ‘ …to the party, what was a pity.’)
The weather was very good, which we hadn’t expected.
This is Mr Carter, who I was telling you about. ( NOT ‘ …very good, what we hadn’t expected.’)
Yesterday, we visited the City Museum, which I’d never
been to before.
2 ‘All of,’ ‘most of,’ etc can be used with ‘whom’ &
‘which’ in non-defining relative clauses.
Mary has three brothers. All of them are married. (two
sentences)
Mary has three brothers, all of whom are married. (one
sentence)
They asked me a lot of questions. I couldn’t answer most of
them. (two sentences)
They asked me a lot of questions, most of which I couldn’t
answer. (one sentence)
In the same way, you can say:
none of neither of any of either of

some of many of much of (a) few of
both of half of each of one of two of (etc)
+ whom (people)
+ which (things)
Tom tried on three jackets, none of which fitted him.

Two men, neither of whom I had ever seen before, came
into my office.
They’ve got three cars, two of which they never use.
Sue has a lot of friends, many of whom she was at school
with.
NOTE When ‘none,’ ‘neither,’ ‘either’ & ‘any’ are
followed by ‘of + plural noun/pronoun,’ use a singular
verb in formal style & a plural verb in informal style.
Formal: He is trying a few cures, none of which
really works.
Informal: He is trying a few cures, none of which
really work.
Formal: I have two brothers, neither of whom has
been outside Thailand.
Informal: I have two brothers, neither of whom have
been outside Thailand.
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Practice
A Make two sentences from one using a relative clause. Use the sentence in brackets to make the relative clauses.
1. Mr Carter is very interested in our plan. (I spoke to him on the phone last night.)
Mr Carter, to whom I spoke on the phone last night, is very interested in our plan.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
2. This is a photograph of our friends. (We went on holiday with these friends.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
3. The wedding took place last Friday. (Only members of the family were invited to it.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
4. Sheila finally arrived. (We had been waiting for her.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
5. We climbed to the top of the tower. (We had a beautiful view from there.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
B Write sentences with ‘all of,’ ‘most of,’ etc, plus ‘whom’ & ‘which.’
1. Mary has three brothers. (All of her brothers are married.)
Mary has three brothers, all of whom are married.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
2. We were given a lot of information. (Most of the information was useless.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
3. There were a lot of people at the party. (I had met only a few of these people before.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
4. I have sent her two letters. (She has received neither of these letters.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
5. Ten people applied for the job. (None of these people was suitable.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
6. Julia has two sisters. (Both of her sisters are teachers.)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
C Join the sentences, using non-defining relative clauses with a preposition.

1. The 89 passengers all escaped without serious injury. Four of the passengers were Malay. …………………………………………
The 89 passengers, four of whom were Malay, all escaped without serious injury.
…………………………..............................................................................................................................................…………………
2. The UN proposed the establishment of an international peacekeeping force. The composition of this force would be
decided by the Security Council. …..................................................................................................................................………
………………………………….....................................................................................................................………………………………
3. The Government intends to introduce a new Bill on taxation. The study of its provisions will be the work of experts from all
parties. ………………………....................................................................................................................................…………………
……………….....................................................................................................................................................................…………
4. The new tunnel under the river will divert a great deal of traffic from the worst congested crossing-points. The line of this
tunnel has yet to be finally determined. ………………………………...........................................................................………………
………………..................................................................................................................................................................……………
………………..................................................................................................................................................................……………
5. The speaker proposed four highly important questions. The answers to these questions proved very illuminating. ….........…
…………………………………………..............................................................................................................……………………………
6. For electoral purposes, Australia is divided into electorates. Each of them returns one member to Parliament. ……...………
…………………………………..……………………..................................................................................................………………………
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Reduction of relative clauses - Part 1

Main points 2 In relative clauses with simple-tense verbs in the
passive voice, eliminate the connecting word + ‘be.’
You are left with a past participle phrase.
 Relative clauses can be reduced to
participle phrases if the relative If the relative clause has commas (i.e. it is a non-
defining relative clause), the participle phrase also has
pronoun is the subject of the relative commas; otherwise, it does not.
clause.
 The time frame of the participle This tree, which was discovered in 1965, is over 4,000
years old.
phrase is determined by the verb in
 This tree, discovered in 1965, is over 4,000 years old.
the independent clause or by the
general context. To form the negative, use ‘not’ at the beginning of the
participle phrase.
1 In relative clauses with verbs in the active voice,

Newer research that is not yet completed suggests that there
are even older living things.
eliminate the connecting word & use the present
participle of the main verb. You are left with a present  Newer research not yet completed suggests that there
participle phrase. are even older living things.
The present participle is used to replace verbs in a

variety of tenses.
If the relative clause has commas (i.e. it is a non-

defining relative clause), the participle phrase has
commas; otherwise, it does not.
There are several researchers who are studying ageing in
rats.
 There are several researchers studying ageing in rats.
The rats that eat the least live the longest.
 The rats eating the least live the longest.
To form the negative, use ‘not’ at the beginning of the
participle phrase.
Rats that did not follow this diet had normal life spans.
 Rats not following this diet had normal life spans.
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Practice
A Rewrite these sentences, reducing all relative clauses to participle phrases. Add all necessary punctuation.
1. Humans enjoy the longest life span of any mammal that inhabits the earth.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Still, after age 60, people begin to suffer from a number of complications that eventually lead to disability and death.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Most people who are still living at the age of 70 die within ten years.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. The number of Americans who live past 90 represents less than 0.5% of the population.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Only around 13,000 people who reside in the United States are currently over 100.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. There are only a few verified cases of Americans who survived past 110.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
B Rewrite these sentences, reducing all relative clauses to participle phrases. Add all necessary punctuation.
1. According to most scientists, the oldest organisms that are known are trees.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Sequoias and redwoods, which are found in the Pacific Northwest, have maximum life spans that are estimated at 3,000 years.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. There are bristlecone pines that are thought to be at least 4,500 years old.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Perhaps even older than these pines are sea anemones, which are believed to have the potential for immortality.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. This plant-like animal, which is intensively studied all over the world, stays ‘young’ by constantly replacing parts of its
simple anatomy.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. One group of sea anemones, which was transported to England in 1804 and placed in an aquarium, lived over 90 years
without showing any sign of ageing.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. They died of unknown causes, which apparently had nothing to do with ageing.
………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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1 In relative clauses with continuous-tense verbs in 3 With relative clauses in the passive, ‘having’ +
the passive voice, eliminate the connecting word + ‘is,’ ‘been’ + the past participle is normally used. The first
‘are,’ ‘was’ or ‘were.’ ‘Being’ + the past participle auxiliary verb in the relative clause (‘have’ or ‘had’)
remain (hence, forming a continuous passive participle changes to ‘having.’
phrase).
You are left with a perfect passive participle phrase.
Cancer, which is being studied around the world, may be
cured some day. The other rats, which had been fed more, led shorter
lives.
 Cancer, being studied around the world, may be cured
some day.  The other rats, having been fed more, led shorter
lives.
2 You can choose between two ways to reduce

relative clauses with verbs in the perfect tenses.
The choice depends on whether you want to
emphasise, or not emphasise, that the action in the
participle phrase happened before the time of the verb
(1) If you wish to emphasise the prior completion of
the activity in the participle phrase, change ‘have’
to ‘having.’ ‘Having’ + the past participle remain.
You will form a perfect active participle phrase.
The rats that have followed the special diet have little
heart disease.
 The rats having followed the special diet have
little heart disease.
(2) If you do NOT wish to emphasise the prior
completion of the activity in the participle phrase,
omit ‘have’ & change the main verb of the relative
clause to a present participle.
You will form a present participle phrase.
The rats that have followed the special diet have little
heart disease.
 The rats following the special diet have little
heart disease.
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Practice
A Underline the relative clauses in the following sentences & then reduce them to participle phrases. Add all
necessary punctuation when rewriting the sentences.
1. For some gerontologists (scientists who study ageing), old age is a disease that is being studied so that it can be cured.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
2. Life extension experiments that are being performed on animals have shown promising results.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….
3. A number of tests that are being carried out concern the lowering of body temperature.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
4. The cold-blooded animals that are being subjected to lower temperatures live up to ten times longer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
5. The mammals that are being given similar tests also show a significant increase in longevity.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
6. Some monkeys and rats that are being fed temperature-lowering drugs have added years to their lives.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
B Underline the relative clauses in the following sentences & then reduce them to participle phrases. Add all
necessary punctuation when rewriting the sentences.
1. In the 1920s, Clive McCay, who had already worked with temperature control, decided to vary the diet of rats.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
2. He found that rats that had been fed only two-thirds of the normal number of calories lived twice as long as those that had
followed a normal diet.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….
3. Other scientists who have studied McCay’s findings are conducting similar experiments.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….
4. Roy Walford at UCLA is running tests on rats that have fasted every other day for their entire lives.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….
5. Walford, who has extended the lives of these rats, is convinced that his findings apply to humans.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
6. Walford and others who have seen the results of fasting in rats hope to find similar results in humans.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
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Main points
 Non-defining participle phrases are
reduced from non-defining relative
clauses.
 When a non-defining participle phrase
modifies the subject of the
independent clause, it can be placed
at different points within a sentence.
1 Non-defining relative clauses can be reduced to

non-defining participle phrases.
If a non-defining participle phrase refers to the subject
of the independent clause, the phrase may be placed
either immediately before or after the subject of that
independent clause.
Walford, who has worked in this field for over 20 years, is
considered an expert.
 Walford, having worked in this field for over 20 years,
is considered an expert.
OR .
 Having worked in this field for over 20 years, Walford
is considered an expert.
2 The non-defining participle phrase is also

occasionally placed at the end of the sentence if there
is no confusion about which noun it modifies.
Walford, who has worked in this field for over 20 years, is
considered an expert.
 Walford is considered an expert, having worked in this
field for over 20 years,
However, consider these examples:
Walford, who has worked in this field for over 20 years,
believes it is safe to feed the same diet to his mother.
 Walford, having worked in this field for over 20 years,
OR .
 Having worked in this field for over 20 years, Walford
BUT NOT .
 Walford believes it is safe to feed the same diet to his
mother, having worked in this field for over 20 years.
In this case, it is not clear who has worked in the field
for over 20 years. Walford? Or his mother?
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Practice
A Reduce the following relative clauses to participle phrases, using present or past participles. Put the participle
phrase in three different positions.
1. Walford, who believes that humans could profit from under nutrition, began to fast and diet several years ago.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Walford, who has decided not to wait for long-term studies, is, in essence, acting as his own guinea pig.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Most people, who think that under eating would be too difficult, will probably never try under nutrition.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Walford, who finds this type of diet enjoyable, plans to continue indefinitely.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Eating, which is often done out of habit rather than need, may be our biggest health problem.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
B Read the following passage & underline all relative clauses. Then rewrite the entire passage, reducing the
relative clauses to participle phrases. Pay close attention to the punctuation. Use a separate sheet of paper.
Roy Walford is a pathologist who does research and teaches at UCLA. Walford, who is considered an expert on ageing,
believes that the key to the fountain of youth is a lower body temperature. There are two ways to achieve lower temperatures.
One is to slow one’s heartbeat through the yoga techniques that are currently being practised in India. Unfortunately, this
method takes years of training. The other way is through what Walford calls ‘under nutrition.’
Walford bases his conclusions on his research that is being done with rats that have been systematically underfed. These
rats, which are thought to be the oldest in history, weigh 25% less than ‘normal’ rats but live twice as long. Like other scientists,
Walford believes these findings apply to humans. Unlike his colleagues, Walford is doing research not only on the animals which
inhabit his lab but also on himself.
Walford, who plans to live to be 130 to 140, has adopted a diet in some ways similar to the diet of his rats. At five feet
eight inches and 140 pounds, he fasts two days a week and eats carefully designed meals the other five. Walford predicts that this
diet, which consists mostly of vegetables, fruit, grains and vitamin supplements, will help him lose an additional 30 pounds (he
has already lost ten) and lengthen his middle age considerably. Scientists have known of evidence that supports the value of
under nutrition for over 70 years. However, Walford is the first scientist who has applied the principles to himself.
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Relative clauses - Replaced by infinitives

Main points 3 For both uses described in point 1 & 2, the
meaning of the infinitive is made clear by the rest of
the sentence.
 The relative pronoun & verb of some
relative clauses may be replaced by By itself, the phrase ‘the first man to see...’ could mean:
an infinitive or infinitive phrase. EITHER: ‘the first man who saw...’
 Sometimes, the relative pronoun (man/who is the subject of the verb ‘see’)
(‘who,’ ‘which’ or ‘that’) must be the OR: ‘the first man that we must see...’
subject of the verb in the relative (man/that is the object of the verb ‘see’)
clause; other times, it can only be the However, when the phrase is part of a sentence, you
object of the verb. can see at once which meaning is intended:
The first man to see me was Tom.
1 Infinitives can be used to replace a relative clause (= The first man who saw me was Tom.)
The first man to see is Tom.
that follows:
 ‘the first...,’ ‘the second...,’ etc; (= The first man that we must see is Tom.)
 ‘the last...’;
 ‘the only...’; &
 (sometimes) superlatives.
...the last man to leave the ship.
(= ...the last man who left/leaves the ship.)
...the only one to understand.
(= ...the only one who understood/understands.)
NOTE The infinitive here replaces a subject relative
pronoun + verb. An infinitive could not be used to
replace an object relative pronoun + verb.
...the first man that we saw. ≠ ...the first man to see.
...’the first man to see’ has a completely different meaning
to ...’the first man that we saw.’
If the relative pronoun is the subject of a passive verb
in the relative clause, you can replace the relative
clause by a passive infinitive.
...the first man to be seen.
(= ...the first man that was seen.)
...the last man to be left on the ship.
(= ...the last man who was left on the ship.)
2 Infinitives can be used to replace a relative clause

when there is an idea of purpose or permission.
He has a lot of books to read.
(= He has a lot of books [that] he can/must read.)
She had something to do.
(= She had something [that] she could do/had to do.)
They need a garden to play in.
(= They need a garden [that] they can play in.)
NOTE The infinitive here replaces an object relative
pronoun + verb.
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Practice
A Replace the clause in bold type by an infinitive or infinitive phrase.
1. I have books to read.
I have books that I must read. …..................................................................................................................................……………………….
2. I installed a peg to hang my coat on.
I installed a peg on which I can hang my coat. …......................................................................................................……………………….
3. Here is a form for you to fill in.
Here is a form that you must fill in. …….........................................................................................................................…………………….
4. He was the first man to reach the top.
He was the first man who reached the top. ………..........................................................................................................………………….
5. We had a river in which we could swim. ……...................................................................................................................................…...
6. He was the first man who left the burning building. ……..........................................................................................................…..…...
7. I don't much care for cooking for myself; if I had a family that I had to cook for, I'd be more interested. ……......................…...
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
8. You are the last person who saw her alive. ……..........................................................................................................…..................…...
9. My brother was the only one who realised the danger. ……..........................................................................................................…...
10. I've got a bottle of wine, but I haven't got anything that I could open it with. …....................................................................……...
11. I don't want to go alone, but I don’t have anyone that I can go with. …...............................................................................….……...
12. The pilot was the only man who survived the crash. …..........................................................................................................………...
13. I don't like him playing in the streets; I wish we had a garden that he could play in. ….......................................................……..
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
14. We had to eat standing up because we didn’t have anything that we could sit on, and the grass was too wet. …......................….
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
15. He simply loves parties. He is always the first who comes and the last who goes. ….............................................................……..
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
16. The last person who leaves the room must turn out the lights. ……...............................................................................................…...
17. My files are all over the place. I wish I had a box that I could keep them in. …....................................................................……...
18. I was the only person who saw the difficulty. ……..........................................................................................................…..............…...
19. She said that she wasn't going to buy any cards; she didn’t have anyone to whom she could send cards. ….........................……..
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
B Replace the infinitive or infinitive phrase in bold type by a full relative clause.
1. Here are some accounts for you to check. ……..............................................................................................................................…...
2. I have some letters to write. …….......................................................................................................................................................…...
3. Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon. ……….........................................................................................................
4. The floor is dusty, but I haven't got a brush to sweep it with. ………..................................................................................................
5. The child is lonely; he would be happier if he had someone to play with. ………..............................................................................
6. He was the second man to be killed in this way. …...................................................................................................................……...
7. Lady Astor was the first woman to take her seat in Parliament. ………...........................................................................................
8. The fifth man to be interviewed was entirely unsuitable. ………........................................................................................................
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Passive voice
Main points 3 For general descriptions of a process or a
procedure, the present passive is commonly used.
 The passive voice is very often used When reporting a particular procedure, such as the
for descriptive writing, especially procedure in conducting a survey, past passive verb
forms are commonly used.
descriptions of processes or
procedures.
 In IELTS Writing Task 1, the process 4 Active versus passive verb forms:
being described may be of how Infinitive
something is done or how something Active form: to perform
happens. Passive form: to be performed
Simple present
1 When explaining a process, it is not necessary to Active form: perform(s)
mention the person or thing doing the action. Instead, Passive form: is/are performed
the emphasis is placed on the action itself. Simple present continuous
Thus, passive constructions are important for this style Active form: is/are performing
of writing. Passive form: is/are being performed
Present perfect
2 In passive constructions, the subject receives the Active form: has/have performed
action & the focus is on what happens to the subject. Passive form: has/have been performed
The person or thing responsible for the action is either
unknown or unimportant. Simple past
Active form: performed
Compare the following examples showing the difference
between the active voice & the passive voice: Passive form: was/were performed
Simple past continuous

Active voice
Active form: was/were performing
In the active voice, the subject of the sentence does Passive form: was/were being performed
the action & is called the agent.
Note that there are a number of verbs that have
The team of scientists investigated air pollution. irregular past participle forms. These include ‘be,’
‘bend,’ ‘do’ ‘draw,’ ‘give, ‘grow,’ ‘have,’ ‘hold,’ ‘make,’
subject/agent object ‘prove,’ ‘read,’ ‘shake,’ ‘teach,’ ‘understand’ & ‘write.’
active form: 5 Passive constructions can only be made from

subject/agent + verb + [ + object ] transitive verbs because these verbs can have objects.
Examples of verbs that cannot occur with passive
Passive voice constructions include ‘happen,’ ‘occur,’ ‘seem,’ ‘go,’ ‘die’ &
‘live.’
In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence
receives the action, shifting the focus from the agent
to the object. 6 Remember to use sequence markers, for example,
‘first,’ ‘then,’ ‘after that,’ ‘finally.’ These make your writing
Air pollution was investigated by the team of scientists. cohesive & your sentences flow smoothly.
subject agent (Time sequence markers will be looked at in detail in the

next Grammar Worksheet.)
passive form:
subject + be + past participle + [ by + agent ]
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Practice
A Practice passive construction by making the following active sentences passive.
1. The accused was questioned by the defence lawyers.
The defence lawyers questioned the accused. …………………………………………………………………….……..…………………………
2. The senate debated the crucial issues until the early hours of the morning. ………………..............................………………………
……………………..........................................................................................................................................................………………
3. Banjo Patterson wrote the famous Australian poem ‘The Man from Snowy River.’ ……………………………….............….....……
…………….................................................................................................................................................................…………..……
4. The government should ban smoking in those places because of its harmful effects. ……………………........................………………
………………...................................................................................................................................................................….…..……
5. Farmers grow a third of the world’s coffee beans in Brazil. …………………............................................................………….......
..............................................................................................................................................…………………………………….…….…
6. The political philosopher has discussed two forms of punishment in his essay. ……………………………………..……………………
…....................................................................................................................................................................................……………
7. The doctor was applying pressure to the wound to stop the flow of blood. ………………….......................……………………………
..…………………………….................................................................................................................................................……………
8. The metal sheets absorb energy from the sun to heat the new age house. ………………………………................………………..……
………….......................................................................................................................................................……………………………
9. The coal miners convey the coal to the factory via the shaft. ……………………………………….......................………..………………
………......................................................................................................................................................................……….…………
10. The chairman had to postpone the shareholders’ meeting because of illness. ………………………………….................…………….
...............................................................................................................................................………………………………….…………
B The following is a description of the procedure used for a survey conducted in 2004. Write the verb in brackets
in the past passive form in the blank space.
In December 2004, a marketing survey (1: to conduct) ………………………..……………….. among 25 overseas postgraduate
business students. Firstly, the three-page questionnaires (2: to distribute) .……………..............……………………………….. to
the students in the computer lab. After the instructions (3: to give) ………………………..…………….…………….. , the students
(4: to request) ……………………………….…….…….……....….. to enter their answers directly onto a spreadsheet. Then, the
information from the spreadsheets (5: to transfer) …………..……….......….…………………………….. to a database. This data
(6: to collate) …………………..……………………………….. and (7: to analyse) …………......……….………..…..…………….........
over a two-day period. The main points (8: to select) ………………....…..……………...………………………….. and two reports
(9: to write) ……………………….…………………….. . Finally, the reports (10: to publish) ……………..………………….…….. on
the intranet for the benefit of students.
C The passive is used a number of times in this passage. In each case, decide why the writer chose to use it.
The chief writing material of ancient times was papyrus. It was used in Egypt, Greece and other Mediterranean lands.
Parchment, another writing material that was widely used in ancient times, was made from the skins of animals such as
sheep and goats. After the hair had been removed, the skins were stretched and rubbed smooth so that they could be
written on. Paper, the main writing material today, was invented by the Chinese.
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Transition signals (process description)

Main points 4 Reducing adverbial clauses of time to a participle
phrase is the third way of indicating a sequence of
actions. Using these phrases adds variety in sentence
 In Writing Task 1, transition signals structures & makes your writing more sophisticated.
are used in process descriptions for
Two of the most common types of participle phrases
sequencing & ordering of ideas. formed from adverbial clauses of time are the present
 Three main kinds are used: time participle & the perfect participle.
sequence markers, adverbial clauses
of time, & participle phrases of time. PRESENT PARTICIPLE PHRASES
participle phrase independent clause

1 Transition signals are used to connect ideas
after
logically & establish a relationship between them.
These provide cohesion & coherence in your writing. before verb + ing subject + verb
The sentences are logically arranged, the ideas are in while
a logical order & the writing flows smoothly.
Example using present participle phrase
2 There are several ways to arrange information in

Before transporting the trees to the sawmill, the branches and
leaves are removed.
a process description to achieve coherence in your
writing. One way of organising processes Meaning
chronologically is to use time sequence markers. The action in the participle phrase takes place before, after
or at the same time as the action in the independent clause.
TIME SEQUENCE MARKERS Here, the branches & leaves are removed, & then the
trees are transported to the sawmill.
Types Examples
 Ordering first(ly), first of all, PERFECT PARTICIPLE PHRASES
second(ly), third(ly), next,
then, finally, last, participle phrase independent clause
subsequently, now
having + verb + ed subject + verb
NB: be consistent in word
form - if you choose ‘first,’ Example using perfect participle phrase
then choose ‘second,’
‘third,’ ‘last’ etc; if you Having transported the trees to the sawmill, the branches and
choose ‘firstly,’ then choose leaves were removed.
‘secondly,’ ‘thirdly’ etc.
Meaning
 Prepositions of time after, before, during (the
(clause connectors) process), at (this stage), when, The action in the participle phrase takes place before the
until, while, as soon as, since, action in the independent clause.
eventually, earlier, soon,
Here, the trees are transported to the sawmill, & then the
afterward, later
branches & leaves are removed.
Example using time sequence markers
First, the glass is heated. Then, it is shaped into a vase. 5 When reducing an adverbial clause to a participle
phrase, make sure that the subject of the adverbial
3 Adverbial clauses of time provide another way of
clause & the independent clause are the same.
making your writing more coherent. After the glass is heated, it is shaped into a vase.
Two separate sentences can be combined into a (subject) (subject)
single sentence by converting the independent clause
in one sentence into a dependent adverbial clause.  After heating the glass, it is shaped into a vase.
First, the glass is heated. Then, it is shaped into a vase. (present participle phrase + independent clause)
(two independent sentences.) OR I
 Having heated the glass, it is shaped into a vase.
 After the glass is heated, it is shaped into a vase.
(perfect participle phrase + independent clause)
(adverbial clause plus independent clause)
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Practice
A Based on the context, identify whether the time relationship in the following sentences is signalled by a time
sequence marker (time), a participle phrase with a present participle (pres) or a participle phrase with a perfect
participle (perf).
1. After melting the copper in the smelter, the workers pour it into a mould for pipes. time pres perf
2. Before the farmers load the wheat onto the trucks, it is harvested from the field. time pres perf
3. Having struck oil in the desert, the engineers documented the location. time pres perf
4. While going to class, Jane witnessed the accident in the chemistry lab. time pres perf
5. Having passed the final exam, the students will be accepted into the Diploma program. time pres perf
6. Before travelling to the Amazon, Tom will get some malaria tablets. time pres perf
7. When the trees arrive at the paper mill, they are stripped of bark. time pres perf
8. After completing its life cycle, the tree fern begins again. time pres perf
9. When the hatched turtles returned to the sea, they were attacked by the seagulls. time pres perf
10. While the wood pulp is cleaned, it is chemically bleached. time pres perf
B Make suitable verbs passive. Insert sequence markers to replace ‘first’, ‘then’ & ‘after’. Write on the lines below.
First of all / First / Firstly / To begin/ To start with / Initially / The first step is to
Secondly / Thirdly
After that / Afterwards / After / Next / Then / Subsequently / Later
Following (noun phrase) / Following that / Following on from that / Followed by
At the next stage / At the subsequent stage / At the next phase
Meanwhile / While / As / During Once / As soon as / When
Before / Until Finally / Last
The figure illustrates the two processes that people follow when they make paper from wood pulp.
In the mechanical process, someone first grinds the wood into small chips. During the grinding, someone sprays it with
water to keep it from burning from the friction of the grinder. Then, someone soaks the chips in water.
By contrast, in the chemical process, someone first washes the wood, and then someone cuts it into small pieces in a
chipping machine. Then, someone cooks the chips in certain chemicals. After someone cooks the wood chips, someone washes
them to get rid of the chemicals.
The next steps in making paper are the same for both the mechanical and the chemical processes. Someone drains the pulp
to form a thick mass, bleaches it with chlorine and then thoroughly washes it again. Then, someone puts the pulp through a
large machine that squeezes the water out and forms the pulp into long sheets. After the pulp sheets go through a drier and a
press, someone winds them onto rolls. These rolls of paper are then ready for use.
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Nouns with participle or ‘to’-infinitive

phrases
Main points 5 You use a participle phrase with a past participle
after a noun to show that someone or something has
been affected or caused by an action.
 Nouns are followed by participle
phrases using present participles to He was the new minister appointed by the President.
The man injured in the accident was taken to hospital.
say what a person or thing is doing.
 Nouns are followed by participle Remember that not all verbs have regular ‘-ed’ forms.
phrases using past participles to A story written by a young girl won the competition.
show that a person or thing has been She was wearing a dress bought in Paris.
affected by, or caused by, an action.
 Nouns are followed by ‘to’-infinitive 6 You use a ‘to’-infinitive phrase after a noun to
phrases to indicate the aim, purpose indicate the aim of an action or the purpose of a
or necessity of something, or to give physical object.
extra information. We arranged a meeting to discuss the new rules.
He had nothing to write with.
1 You can often give more information about a You also use a ‘to’-infinitive phrase after a noun to say
noun, or an indefinite pronoun such as ‘someone’ or that something needs to be done.
‘something,’ by adding a participle phrase beginning
I gave him several things to mend.
with a present or past participle, or a ‘to’-infinitive.
‘What’s this?’ - ‘A list of things to remember.’
He gestured towards the box lying on the table.
I think the idea suggested by Tim is the best one.
She wanted someone to talk to. 7 You use a ‘to’-infinitive phrase after a noun group
that includes an ordinal number; a superlative; or a
word like ‘next,’ ‘last’ or ‘only.’
2 You use a participle phrase with a present
She was the first woman to be elected to the council.
participle after a noun to say what someone or
Mr Holmes was the oldest person to be chosen.
something is doing, or was doing, at a particular time.
The only person to speak was James.
The young girl sitting opposite him was his daughter.
Most of the people strolling in the park were teenagers.
8 You use a ‘to’-infinitive phrase after abstract
nouns to give more specific information about them.
3 You can also use a participle phrase with a
All it takes is a willingness to learn.
present participle after a noun to say what a person or
He’d lost the ability to communicate with people.
thing does generally, rather than at a particular time.
The following abstract nouns are often followed by a
Problems facing parents should be discussed.
‘to’-infinitive phrase:
The men working there were not very friendly.
ability attempt chance desire
4 You often use a participle phrase with a present failure inability
unwillingness
need opportunity
willingness
participle after a noun which is the object of a verb of
perception, such as ‘see,’ hear’ or ‘feel.’
Suddenly, we saw Amy walking down the path. NOTE Verbs or adjectives which are related to these
He heard a distant voice shouting. nouns can also be followed by a ‘to’-infinitive phrase.
I attempted to find them.
He was willing to learn.
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Practice
A Complete the following sentences using the correct part of the verb in brackets. One sentence in each pair
should have a present participle & the other a past participle.
1. covered
There was a table ………………………….. by a clean white cloth. (cover)
covering
There was a clean white cloth ………………………….. the table.
2. The man ………………………….. by the dog was seriously injured. (attack)
The dog ………………………….. my friend was pulled off by its owner.
3. Everyone went home early ………………………….. a dreadful mess behind. (leave)
We cleared up the things ………………………….. behind after the party.
4. I saw a man ………………………….. a heavy wooden box. (carry)
We lost most of the luggage ………………………….. in the plane.
5. The problems ………………………….. by the government are growing more serious every day. (face)
There are a lot of problems ………………………….. us at the moment.
6. I heard someone ………………………….. French. (speak)
Tagalog is one of the languages ………………………….. in the Philippines.
B Use these present participles to complete the sentences below.

burning climbing crying drowning lying screaming standing
1. climbing
If I saw someone ………………………….. in my neighbour’s window, I would call the police.
2. If I smelled something ………………………….. , I would check in the kitchen.
3. If I saw a disabled man ………………………….. in a train, I would offer him my seat.
4. If I saw a child ………………………….. , I would ask what was the matter.
5. If you saw someone ………………………….. , would you try to rescue them?
6. If you found a lot of money ………………………….. in the street, would you take it to the police station?
7. If you heard someone ………………………….. , what would you do?
C Use the following words to complete the sentences below.

box key matches meeting money party pen room
1. party
We held a ………………………….. to celebrate Vera’s birthday.
2. Do you have enough ………………………….. to pay for all the tickets?
3. I have a master ………………………….. to open all the doors.
4. There’s a big ………………………….. to pack the clothes in.
5. Have you got a ………………………….. to sign these papers with?
6. Is there a ………………………….. to hang our coats in?
7. There will be a ………………………….. tomorrow to elect a new chairman.
8. Do you have any ………………………….. to light the fire?
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Verbs with participle phrases

Main points NOTE Some common phrases can be followed by a
participle phrase with a present participle.
 Many verbs are followed by a participle can’t help can’t stand feel like
phrase.
 Some verbs are followed by an object I can’t help worrying.
& a participle phrase (with a present
participle) that describes what the 2 After the verbs & phrases mentioned in section 1
object is doing. of this worksheet, you can use ‘being’ followed by a
past participle (i.e. the continuous passive form of a
participle).
1 Many verbs are followed by a participle phrase with
They enjoy being praised.
a present participle. The subject of the verb is also the
subject of the participle phrase. The most common are: I dislike being interrupted.
After some verbs of saying & thinking, you can use
 verbs of saying & thinking
‘having’ followed by a past participle. (i.e. a participle
phrase with a perfect participle).
admit consider deny describe
imagine mention recall remember suggest admit deny mention recall remember
He denied taking drugs.
I suggested meeting her for a coffee. Michael denied having seen him.
NOTE All of these verbs except for ‘describe’

can also be followed by a noun clause. 3 ‘Come’ & ‘go’ are used with participle phrases with
a present participle to describe the way that a person or
He denied that he was involved. thing moves.
 verbs of liking & disliking They both came running out.
It went sliding across the road out of control.
adore detest dislike dread enjoy
‘Go’ & ‘come’ are also used with ‘-ing’ nouns (or
fancy like love mind resent
gerunds) to talk about sports & outdoor activities.
Will they enjoy using it? Did you say they might go camping?
I don’t mind telling you.
‘Like’ & ‘love’ can also be followed by a ‘to’-
infinitive phrase.
4 Some verbs can be followed by an object & a
participle phrase with a present participle. The object of
the verb is the subject of the participle phrase.
 other common verbs
catch find keep imagine leave
avoid commence delay finish
prevent send stop watch
involve keep miss postpone
practise resist risk stop
It is hard to imagine him existing without it.
I’ve just finished reading that book. He left them making their calculations.
Avoid giving any unnecessary information.
NOTE ‘Prevent’ & ‘stop’ are often used with ‘from’ in
 common phrasal verbs front of the participle phrase.
I wanted to prevent him from seeing that.
burst out carry on end up give up
go round keep on put off set about Most verbs of perception can be followed by an object
& a participle phrase with a present participle, or an
She carried on reading. object & a base form of a verb.
They kept on walking for a while.
I saw him riding a bicycle.
I saw a policeman walk over to one of them.
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Practice
A Rewrite these sentences using a participle phrase instead of the reported clause.
1. He denied doing / having done anything illegal.
He denied that he had done anything illegal. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Judy remembered she had noticed him behind the building.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. When his Dad asked, did you mention that you had seen him?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. I couldn’t recall that I had said anything about him at all.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. May I suggest that we give them a present of $500 each?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. Sorry, but I can’t imagine I would ever agree to that!
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. He then described how he escaped from prison.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. They ought to admit that they had stolen the fruit.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
B Rewrite the sentences using a participle phrase as the object of the verb, instead of the noun group.
1. The Watson’s were contemplating a week’s visit to Egypt.
The Watson’s were contemplating visiting Egypt for a week.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………
2. Could you consider a reduction in price, for example, to $6,000?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. They delayed the start of the game because of the rain.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. I want to avoid monthly payments, if possible.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. They didn’t finish preparations for the party till after 9 p.m.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. This new production process might involve an increase in staff.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
C Complete these dialogues using the phrases given.

dread going fancies taking up adore climbing give up playing
detest getting stuck feel like having can’t bear being told carry on driving
1. adore climbing
A: They go to the mountains every week. B: Yes, they ………………………………………….. .
2. A: Oh dear, only another three day’s holiday. B: Yes, I ………………………………………….. back to school.
3. A: Oh, just look at the traffic ahead! B: Oh no. I ………………………………………….. in traffic jams.
4. A: Let’s stop for something to eat. B: I don’t know. I think we should ………………………………………….. and get home quickly.
5. A: She’s a very good actress, and she’s only 15. B: Yes. She really ………………………………………….. acting as a career.
6. A: Jack hates being in the army. B: Yes, he ………………………………………….. what to do all the time.
7. A: My grandfather’s nearly 80 and he still enjoys a game of tennis. B: I don’t think he’ll ever ………………………………………….. .
8. A: Are you taking a holiday this summer? B: I hope so. I certainly ………………………………………….. a couple of weeks off.
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Verbs with ‘to’-infinitive phrases

Main points WARNING You do not use ‘want’ with a noun clause.
I want you to do something.
 Some verbs are followed by a ‘to’- ( NOT I want that you to do something.)
infinitive phrase. Others are followed
by an object & a ‘to’-infinitive phrase. 3 Some verbs are followed by ‘for’ & an object, then
 Some verbs are followed by a ‘wh’- a ‘to’-infinitive phrase. The object of ‘for’ is the subject
word & a ‘to’-infinitive phrase. Others of the ‘to’-infinitive phrase.
are followed by an object, a ‘wh’-word,
appeal arrange ask long pay wait wish
& a ‘to’-infinitive phrase.
Could you arrange for a taxi to collect us?
1 Some verbs are followed by ‘to’-infinitive phrase. I waited for him to speak.
The subject of the verb is also the subject of the ‘to’-
infinitive phrase. These verbs include: 4 Some link verbs, & ‘pretend,’ are followed by ‘to
 verbs of saying & thinking be’ & a present participle for continuing actions, & by
‘to have’ & a past participle for finished actions.
agree choose decide expect hope intend We pretended to be looking inside.
learn mean offer plan promise refuse I don’t appear to have written down his name.
She had agreed to let us use her flat.

I decided not to go out for the evening. 5 Some verbs are normally used in the passive
when they are followed by a ‘to’-infinitive phrase.
 other verbs
believe consider feel find know
fall manage pretend tend want report say think understand
England failed to win a place in the finals. He is said to have died a natural death.
Is it thought to be a good thing?
2 Some verbs are followed by an object & a ‘to’-
infinitive phrase. The object of the verb is the subject
of the ‘to’-infinitive phrase.
6 Some verbs are followed by a ‘wh’-word & a ‘to’-
infinitive phrase. These include:
 verbs of saying & thinking
ask decide explain forget imagine
advise ask encourage expect invite know learn remember understand wonder
order persuade remind teach tell
I didn’t know what to call him.
I asked her to explain. She had forgotten how to ride a bicycle.
They advised us not to wait around too long. Some verbs are followed by an object, then a ‘wh’-
 other verbs word & a ‘to’-infinitive phrase.
ask remind show teach tell

allow force get help want
I could get someone else to do it. I asked him what to do.

I didn’t want him to go. Who will show him how to use it?
‘Help’ can also be followed by an object & a base Some verbs only take ‘to’-infinitive phrase to express
form. purpose.
I helped him fix it. The captain stopped to reload the gun.
He went to get some fresh milk.
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Practice
A Rewrite these sentences using a ‘to’-infinitive phrase.
1. to help
He said that he would help if he possibly could. / He promised ……………………………… if he possibly could.
2. I’ll go up to London tomorrow if I can. / I intend ……………………………… up to London tomorrow.
3. It wasn’t easy, but we drove home in two hours. / We managed ……………………………… home in two hours.
4. They said that they would sell us the house. / They agreed ……………………………… us the house.
5. He looked as if he was sleeping. / He seemed ……………………………… sleeping.
6. I expect I will hear from Mary before very long. / I expect ……………………………… from Mary before very long.
7. He has a habit of being late for meetings. / He tends ……………………………… late for meetings.
8. We were not able to finish all the work in time. / We failed ……………………………… all the work in time.
B Complete these sentences using the past tense of these verbs.

advise allow ask encourage expect invite remi nd warn
1. advised
If I were you, I would ring the police. / He ……………………………… George to ring the police.
2. Mary, could you please type a letter for me? / I ……………………………… Mary to type a letter for me.
3. I am sure Bill will arrive before dark. / She ……………………………… Bill to arrive before dark.
4. I hope you will visit us in England, Maria. / We ……………………………… Maria to visit us in England.
5. Okay, children, you can go home early. / She ……………………………… the children to go home early.
6. You should take the exam. I’m sure you’d do well. / Our teacher ……………………………… us to take the IELTS exam.
7. ELECTRIC FENCE. DO NOT TOUCH. / The notice ……………………………… people not to touch the fence.
8. Don’t forget to take some warm clothes with you. / My mother ……………………………… me to take some warm clothes.
C Rewrite these sentences using a ‘to’-infinitive & an appropriate participle.

1. to have lost our way.
I think we have lost our way. / We appear ………………………………….……………………….…….…...................................................…
2. to be working.
He pretended that he was working. / He pretended ………………………………….……………………….….................................….………
3. I think you’ve broken your leg. / You seem ………………………………….……………………….……................................................………
4. It looks as if they’ve locked everything away. / They appear ………………………………….………………………...................…….………
5. It appears he is waiting for the doctor. / He appears ………………………………….………………………................................…….………
6. Jenny pretended she had spent the money. / She pretended ………………………………….…………………....................…….…….………
7. I think they are living at home now. / They seem ………………………………….……………………….……......................................………
D Rewrite these sentences using ‘not’ in front of a ‘to’-infinitive phrase.

1. not to pay
She told me I shouldn’t pay so much for a ticket. / She advised me ……………………………..……… so much for a ticket.
2. He waved but I pretended that I didn’t see him. / I pretended ……………………………..……… him when he waved.
3. They promised they wouldn’t miss the meeting. / They promised ……………………………..……… the meeting.
4. I told the kids they shouldn’t make so much noise. / I told the kids ……………………………..……… so much noise.
5. I was going to write, but John persuaded me I shouldn’t. / John persuaded me ……………………………..……… .
6. Jenny reminded Peter that he shouldn’t be late. / Jenny reminded Peter ……………………………..……… late.
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Verbs with participle or ‘to’-infinitive

phrases
Main points 3 After ‘remember,’ ‘forget’ & ‘regret,’ you use a
participle phrase with a present participle if you are
referring to an event after it has happened.
 Some verbs take a participle or a ‘to’-
infinitive phrase with little difference in I remember discussing it once before.
I’ll never forget going out with my old aunt.
meaning. Others take a participle or a She did not regret accepting his offer.
‘to’-infinitive phrase, but the meaning is
different. You use a ‘to’-infinitive phrase after ‘remember’ &
‘forget’ if you are referring to an event before it
happens.
1 The following verbs can be followed either by a I must remember to send a gift for her child.
participle phrase with a present participle, or by a ‘to’- Don’t forget to send in your entries.
infinitive phrase, with little difference in meaning.
After ‘regret,’ in formal English, you use a ‘to’-infinitive
Group 1: begin continue start phrase with these verbs to say that you are sorry about
Group 2: attempt bother try what you are saying or doing now:
Group 3: fear hate love prefer
announce inform learn say see tell
It started raining.
A very cold wind had started to blow. I regret to say that it was all burned up.
The captain didn’t bother answering.
I didn’t bother to answer.
NOTE If these verbs are used in a continuous tense,
4 If you ‘try to do’ something, you make an effort to
do it. If you ‘try doing’ something, you do it as an
they are followed by a ‘to’-infinitive phrase. experiment, for example, to see if you like it or if it is
The company is beginning to export to the West. effective.
We are continuing to make good progress. I tried to explain.
After ‘begin,’ ‘continue’ & ‘start,’ you use a ‘to’-infinitive Have you tried painting it?
phrase with the verbs ‘understand,’ ‘know’ & ‘realise.’
I began to understand her a bit better. 5 If you ‘go on doing’ something, you continue to do
it. If you ‘go on to do’ something, you do it after you
have finished doing something else.
2 You can often use ‘like’ either with a participle
I went on writing.
phrase with a present participle, or by a ‘to’-infinitive
phrase, with little difference in meaning. He later went on to form a computer company.
I like to fish.
I like fishing. 6 If you ‘are used to doing’ something, you are
accustomed to doing it. If you ‘used to do’ something,
However, there is sometimes a difference. You can you did it regularly in the past, but you no longer do it
use ‘like’ followed by a ‘to’-infinitive phrase to say that now.
you think something is a good idea or the right thing to
do. You cannot use a participle phrase with this We are used to working together.
meaning. I used to live in this street.
7
They like to interview you first.
I didn’t like to ask him. After ‘need,’ you use a ‘to’-infinitive phrase if the
subject of ‘need’ is also the subject of the ‘to’-infinitive
phrase. You use a participle phrase with a present
participle if the subject of ‘need’ is the object of the
participle phrase.
We need to ask certain questions.
It needs cutting.
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Practice
A Complete the sentences below by using either the ‘to’-infinitive or the present participle form of these verbs.
enjoy knock learn phone play rain shout stay
1. to learn / learning
I started …………………………………………………………….. French when I went to secondary school.
2. It’s awfully cold in winter, but the kids still love …………………………………………………………….. outside in the snow.
3. I tried …………………………………………………………….. Peter and Molly three times, but there was no answer.
4. The weather was fine when we set off, but it soon started …………………………………………………………….. .
5. I’ll be in my office. Don’t bother …………………………………………………………….. , just come straight in.
6. Joe just lost his temper and began …………………………………………………………….. at everyone.
7. It’s a pity we have to go home now. We were just beginning …………………………………………………………….. ourselves.
8. We don’t go out much in the evening. We prefer …………………………………………………………….. at home.
B Look at the following pairs of sentences. Complete one sentence in each pair with the ‘to’-infinitive.
1. to close the door when you go out. B. I remember ……………………
(close) A. Please remember …..…………… closing the door, but I’m not sure
that I locked it.
2. (pay) A. I paid the electricity bill, but I don’t remember …..…………… the rent. B. I think I forgot …………..…… the rent this month.
3. (work) A. I tried …..…………… in a department store, but it wasn’t a very good job. B. You really must try ………..……… harder.
4. (complain) A. She just went on …………………… about everything. B. She complained about everything else, and then she went
on …………………… about the price.
5. (leave) A. I remember …….…………… the money in the drawer, but it’s not there now. B. I must remember ……………………
some money to pay for the repairs.
6. (tell) A. I really regret ……………..… everyone what happened. I should have kept it a secret. B. I regret ……………….. you that
there has been a serious accident.
7. (go) A. I remember …………………… to the dentist as a child. B. I must remember ……………………… to the dentist on
Wednesday.
8. (visit) A. I’ll never forget …………..…… Paris for the first time. B. We mustn’t forget ……………..… Monique when we’re in Paris.
C Make appropriate sentences to match the pictures, using ‘need’ & the pairs of words given.
trousers / shorten shirt / iron tyre / mend shoes / polish door / paint pencil / sharpen
The trousers need shortening.

……………………………………………….........................…………………
……………………………………………………….........…………
……………………………………………………………........……
…………………………………………………………........………
…………………………….........……………………………………
………………………………........…………………………………
………………………………………………..........…………………
………………………………….........………………………………
………………………………………………..........…………………
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Verbs with other types of phrases

Main points 4 You use ‘have’ followed by an object & a participle
phrase with a present participle, or an object & a
participle phrase with a past participle, when you want
 ‘Make’ & ‘let’ can be followed by an to say that someone causes something to happen,
object & a base form. either intentionally or unintentionally.
 Some verbs of perception can be Alan had me looking for that book all day.
followed by an object & a participle He had me utterly confused.
phrase with a present participle, or an

object & a base form.
‘Have’ & ‘get’ can be followed by an
5 You use ‘want’ & ‘would like’ with an object & a
participle phrase with a past participle to indicate that
object & a participle phrase with a past you want something to be done.
participle. I want the work finished by January 1st.
 ‘Dare’ is followed by a ‘to’-infinitive How would you like your hair cut, sir?
phrase or a base form of a verb.
6 ‘Dare’ can be followed by a ‘to’-infinitive phrase or
1 You can use an object & a base form of a verb after a base form of a verb in negative or interrogative
sentences:
‘make’ to say that one person causes another person to
do something, or after ‘let’ to say they allow them to do  when there is an auxiliary or modal in front of
something. ‘dare’
My father made me go for the interview. He did not dare to walk to the village.
Jenny let him talk. What bank would dare offer such terms?

2 Some verbs of perception are used with an object
when you use the forms ‘dares’ or ‘dared’ (but
not ‘dares not’ or ‘dared not’)
& a participle phrase with a present participle if an
action is unfinished or continues over a period of time, No one dares disturb him.
& with an object & a base form of a verb if the action is No other manager dared to compete.
finished.
You must use a base form of a verb in:
feel hear see watch  negative or interrogative sentences without an
auxiliary or modal before ‘dare’
He heard a distant voice shouting.
Dr Hochstadt heard her gasp. I daren’t ring Jeremy again.
Nobody dare disturb him.
You normally use a participle phrase with a present Dare she go in?
participle after ‘notice,’ ‘observe,’ ‘smell’ &
‘understand.’  negative sentences with ‘dares not’ or ‘dared
not’
I could smell Chinese vegetables cooking.
We can understand them wanting to go. He dares not risk it.
Sonny dared not disobey.
3 You can use an object & a participle phrase with a NOTE The phrase ‘how dare you’ is always followed
by a base form of a verb.
past participle after ‘have’ or ‘get,’ when you want to
say that someone arranges for something to be done. How dare you speak to me like that?
‘Have’ is slightly more formal.
‘Dare’ is rarely used in affirmative sentences.
We’ve just had the house decorated.
We must get the car repaired.
You also use ‘have’ & ‘get’ with an object & a participle
phrase with a past participle to say that something
happens to someone, especially if it is unpleasant.
She had her purse stolen.
He got his car broken into at the weekend.
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Practice
A Complete the dialogues below by filling the gaps with ‘let,’ ‘make’ or ‘made.’
1. made
A. When I went to school, they ……………….. us wear school uniform.
let
B. Really? At my school, they ……………….. us wear whatever we liked.
2. A. Did you see that film at the Odeon? It was so funny. It really ……………….. me laugh.
B. No. My parents wouldn’t ……………….. me go. They ……………….. me stay at home and finish my homework.
3. A. Do you think they’ll ……………….. us go home early on Friday?
B. No. They always ……………….. us work till five, even just before a holiday.
4. A. I think they should ……………….. old people travel free on buses.
B. Yes. I certainly don’t think they should ……………….. them pay the full fare.
5. A. They wouldn’t ……………….. us go in until just before the show started.
B. No. They ……………….. us wait out in the cold until five to eight.
6. A. Please don’t make such a noise. You really ……………….. me jump.
B. Oh please, just ……………….. us finish this game, then we’ll be quiet.
B Complete the sentences below using the following words.

burning lying making playing talking
1. talking
There must be someone at home. I can hear people ……………………………………. .
2. Did you turn the stove off in the kitchen? I think I can smell something ……………………………………. .
3. The children are outside. I can see them ……………………………………. in the garden.
4. Are these your gloves? I found them ……………………………………. on the table in the hall.
5. This is awful. Can’t you stop those kids ……………………………………. such a dreadful noise?
C Complete these sentences using a form of ‘have’ with the verb in brackets. Remember to use the correct form of
the main verb.
1. have the car serviced
It’ll be a long journey. We’d better ……………………………………………………….. before we set out. (the car / service)
2. I’ll be late back after lunch. I’m going to ……………………………………....………...........………….. . (my hair / cut)
3. Doesn’t Mike look smart? He ………………………………………..............………….. specially for the wedding. (that suit / make)
4. We’re planning to ……………………………….………………….........………….. while we’re on holiday. (the house / redecorate)
5. This house is too small now the kids are growing up. We should ………………………………..............………………………………….. .
(another room / build on)
6. Poor old Bill ……………………………………..……….................……………….. while he was on holiday. (a lot of money / steal)
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Link verbs
Main points 4 Some link verbs can have ‘to’-infinitive phrases as
complements.
 Link verbs are used to join the appear get grow look prove seem
subject with a complement.
 Link verbs can have adjectives, noun He appears to have taken my keys.
groups or ‘to’-infinitive phrases as She seemed to like me.
complements. These verbs, & ‘remain,’ can also be followed by ‘to
 You can use ‘it’ & ‘there’ as impersonal be’ & a complement.
subjects with link verbs. Mary seemed to be asleep.
His new job proved to be a challenge.
1 A small but important group of verbs are followed
by a complement rather than an object. The 5 You can use ‘it’ & ‘there’ as impersonal subjects
complement tells you more about the subject. Verbs with link verbs.
that take complements are called ‘link’ verbs.
It seems silly not to tell him.
appear be become feel get There appears to have been a mistake.
go grow keep look prove
remain
taste
seem
turn
smell sound stay
6 You can use ‘be’ with some abstract nouns as the
subject, followed by a noun clause or a ‘to’-infinitive
phrase as the complement.
I am proud of these people.
She was getting too old to play tennis.
They looked all right to me. advice agreement answer decision
idea plan problem solution
2 Link verbs often have adjectives as complements The answer is that they are not interested in it.
describing the subject. The idea was to spend more money on training.
We felt very happy. Some can only have a noun clause.
He was the tallest in the room.
conclusion explanation fact feeling
3 You can use link verbs with noun groups as
reason report thought understanding
complements to give your opinion about the subject.
The fact is that I can’t go to the party.
He’s not the right man for it.
She seemed an ideal person to look after them.
You also use noun groups as complements after ‘be,’
‘become’ & ‘remain’ to specify the subject.
He became a geologist.
Promises by MPs remained just promises.
This one is yours.
NOTE You use object pronouns after ‘be.’
It’s me again.
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Practice
A Use the link verbs below to complete the sentences which follow.
feels sounds goes grows looks smells gets tastes
1. looks
What’s the matter with Chris? He …………………………. very upset.
2. Why is he shouting? He …………………………. very angry.
3. If you keep milk for too long, it …………………………. sour.
4. Jane says she …………………………. hungry.
5. It …………………………. very hot in summer.
6. Are you sure this fish is alright? It certainly …………………………. a bit funny.
7. This cake is a bit old, but it still …………………………. pretty good.
8. Anne is getting much taller as she …………………………. older.
B Make eight sentences from the following table.

The picture was old and dirty,… …extremely difficult.
The fruit smelled awful,… …very tasty.
The problem seemed simple,… …much too small.
It was a long programme,… …rather tiring.
It was only a short walk,… but
but itit proved
proved to
to be
be …very valuable.
The animal looked quiet enough,… …quite vicious.
The jacket seemed to be the right size,… …inedible.
The food smelled alright,… …very interesting.
1. The picture was old and dirty, but it proved to be very valuable.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
C Use the phrases below to complete the sentences which follow.

too expensive too dark too cold too hot too late too old too tired too young
1. too old
I’m afraid I’m getting ………………………….. to work such hours.
2. We’ll have to stop. It’s ………………………….. for us to see what we’re doing.
3. Mary looks much ………………………….. to be a grandmother.
4. We should have arrived in time, but we proved to be ………………………….. .
5. Turn the fire off. It’s getting ………………………….. in here.
6. I’m going to bed. I feel far ………………………….. to stay up any longer.
7. You’ll be ………………………….. if you don’t take more warm clothes.
8. We can’t afford to stay in a hotel like that. It looks much ………………………….. .
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Definite & indefinite articles

Definite & indefinite articles (continued)

1 There are two main parts of a sentence: a subject

2. Neither ............... eligible to apply for the job. a) were b) are c) is

8. Knowing a subject well ..................................... a lot of a) require b) are requiring c) requires

5. ............. speak Mandarin fluently. a) Everybody b) Both c) Someone

6. ............. is required for enrolment. a) A passport or b) A passport c) The passports

Phrase: cows eating grass

Types of clauses (continued)

And now for the ring. . .

The doctor said Charlie needed more activity, so

Connecting ideas - Part 1

Coordination uses two methods to join clauses:  yet

4 Coordinating conjunctions join independent

IT’S NOT A NAP...

Connecting ideas - Part 2

2 There are three types of dependent clause:

3 Adverbial clauses provide the following kind of

 when, whenever Here are some examples of the use of relative

 where, wherever Students who complete the three-year program

 so that, in order that

A: Independent clauses B: Dependent clauses

B Correct the following sentences.

C Correct the following sentences.

Adverbial clauses - Time

3 When you want to say that one event happens

When he had finished reading, he looked up.

C Complete these sentences using the ‘since’ clauses given below.

Adverbial clauses - Condition

C Match these parts to make conditional sentences.

Just think. I’d have

Adverbial clauses - Condition

2 You can use other modals besides ‘will,’ ‘would’ &

3 In formal English, if the first verb in a conditional

4 When you want to mention an exception to what

B Rewrite these sentences as conditionals.

C Match the two parts of these conditional sentences.

Adverbial clauses & phrases - Purpose &

1 You can show the purpose for doing something by

2 You use an adverbial clause of reason when you

C Complete these sentences. Express the purpose of the action.

Adverbial clauses & phrases - Result

B Rewrite these sentences with ‘so…that.’

C Rewrite these sentences with ‘such…that.’

Adverbial clauses & phrases - Contrast

2 Another way of making a surprising contrast is to

1. we had no time for lunch

1. the heavy traffic.

Adverbial clauses & phrases - Manner

1 When you want to say how someone does

B Rewrite these sentences with ‘the way.’

C Rewrite these sentences with ‘as if’ or ‘as though.’

D Match the questions & the answers.

It is a confusing problem. opened taken bought sold

C Read the situation & choose the correct word.

3 When one action happens before another action,

1. was in the bar having a drink.