Ethics and Morality

It is worth noting that the words – ethics and morality – tend to arise when ethical issues are discussed.
Morality, like ethics, is about the principles we use to judge the right and wrong of our actions.

The technical difference is that while morality consists of the various principles that guide our decisions,
ethics is the careful, methodical, and scholarly study of which principles should guide our actions.

For most purposes, the words can be used interchangeably so we can speak of having either ‘ethical
obligations’ or ‘moral obligations’.

Ethics and Religion

For some people, religion plays an important role in their moral beliefs and moral reasoning. If you
belong to a faith-based community, you may have learned ethical behaviour from the religious leader in
your church, temple, mosque, synagogue, or other place of worship.

That experience provides you with another point of view to approach decision-making at work. Even if
you do not belong to a faith-based community, you should be aware that some people do, and may
bring their religious beliefs to a business discussion of ethics.

It is important to remember that secular ethical perspectives such as those discussed in this unit need
not always conflict with religious beliefs.

Most, if not all, religions contain some direction about treating other people fairly, and that is also the
premise of most ethical models. It is also seen as good business practice.

Ethics and Maturity

There is a theory of moral development, which says that people move through six stages. This theory
was popularised by Lawrence Kohlberg based on his research studies conducted at Harvard’s Center for
Moral Education.
His theory of moral development was dependent on the thinking of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
and the American philosopher John Dewey. These men said that human beings develop philosophically
and psychologically in a progressive fashion as they grow up.+
Suitability, acceptability and feasibility (SAF)
model
Suitability
Suitability deals with the overall rationale of the strategy. The key point to consider is whether the
strategy would address the key strategic issues underlined by the organisation's strategic position.

Acceptability
Acceptability is concerned with the expectations of the identified stakeholders (mainly shareholders,
employees and customers) with the expected performance outcomes, which can be return, risk and
stakeholder reactions.

Feasibility
Feasibility is concerned with the resources required to implement the strategy are available, can be
developed or obtained. Resources include funding, people, time and information. Factors that should
be considered can be summarised under the M-word model.
 Management is about doing things right; leadership is about doing the right things.’ - Drucker
 ‘Management can be exercised over resources, activities, projects and other essential non-
personal things. Leadership can only be exercised over people.’ - Kotter
 ‘Management is about coping with complexity: its functions are to do with logic, structure,
analysis and control, and are aimed at producing order, consistency and predictability.
Leadership is about coping with change: its activities include creating a sense of direction,
communicating strategy, and energising, inspiring and motivating others to translate the
vision into action.’ - Kotter
The nature of leadership
Leadership has been defined in many ways, including:

 The activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives.

 Interpersonal influence exercised in a situation and directed, through the communication
process, towards the attainment of a specialised goal or goals.
 A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way and shows the way.
 Ultimately, leadership is not about glorious crowning acts. It's about keeping your team
focused on a goal and motivated to do their best to achieve it, especially when the stakes
are high and the consequences really matter. It is about laying the groundwork for others'
success, and then standing back and letting them shine.
Using Interpersonal Skills to the FullOpening
communications
The first moments of any personal encounter are important as first impressions have a significant
impact on the success of what follows.

People may have different views and expectations as to how meetings should proceed and people
tend to behave according to these expectations. If mismatched, communication will not be effective
or run smoothly.

At a first meeting, formalities and appropriate greetings are usually expected: such formalities could
include a handshake, an introduction to yourself, eye contact and brief discussion around a neutral
subject such as the weather or your journey may be useful.

A friendly attitude and a warm reception are much more likely to encourage open and free
communication.

Assertiveness
Assertiveness refers to the positive expression of thoughts, feelings and beliefs in a direct and
honest manner.

Assertiveness is both a personal quality and a skill that can be developed. Some people are
naturally assertive as it forms an integral part of their personality. However, it is possible to work on
assertiveness skills by adopting a positive attitude, speaking the truth in a direct but diplomatic and
polite way and supporting the words chosen with the appropriate body language.

Assertiveness should never be confused with aggression. Aggression is a more negative emotion
which will nearly always elicit a similar response from the receiver. The main difference in outcome
is that in a negotiation situation, assertiveness will be acceptable on the part of both protagonists,
while with aggression it will be clear that a win-lose conclusion is preferable meaning that
compromise or a win-win situation is unlikely.

Reinforcement
Using positive, non-verbal expressions and maintaining eye contact, are more likely to reinforce
openness and flexibility in others.

The use of encouragement and positive reinforcement can:

 Signify interest in what other people have to say.

 Encourage others to participate in discussion.
 Allay fears and reassure.
 Pave the way for development and/or maintenance of a relationship.
Listening
The following points are essential for effective and active listening:

 Arrange a comfortable environment conducive to the purpose of the communication, for

example a warm and light room with minimal background noise.
 Be prepared to listen and show genuine interest in what other have to say.
 Keep an open mind and concentrate on the main direction of the speaker's message.
 Avoid distractions if at all possible.
 Do not judge until you have heard everything.
 Concentrate fully while the other person is giving information.
 Do not think further about one or two points at the expense of listening carefully to other
points of less immediate interest to you.
 Try not to let prejudices associated with, for example, gender, ethnicity, social class,
appearance or dress interfere with what is being said.
Questioning
Questioning can be used for several purposes:

 Showing interest in a person.

 Starting a conversation.
 Obtaining information.
 Testing or confirming understanding.
 Seeking support, agreement or obtaining alternative views.

Closed Questions
Closed questions seek only a one or two word answer (often 'yes' or 'no') and limit the scope of the
response. Two examples of closed questions are "Did you travel by car today?" and "Did you see
the football game yesterday?"

These types of question mean that the questioner maintains control of the communication, yet this is
often not the desired outcome when trying to encourage verbal communication. Nevertheless,
closed questions can be useful for focusing discussion and obtaining clear, concise answers when
needed.

Open Questions
Open questions broaden responses, as they demand further elaboration. For example, "What was
the traffic like this morning?" or "What do you feel you would like to gain from this discussion?" Open
questions will take longer to answer, but they do give the other person far more scope for self-
expression and encourage involvement in the conversation.

In addition to closed questions and open questions, there are also:

 Reflective questions, which call upon you to answer something based on an experience or
situation you have witnessed.
 Leading questions, which are phrased in a manner that implies you will agree with a
particular view.

Reflecting and clarifying

Reflecting is feeding back your understanding of what has been said.

Reflecting often involves paraphrasing the message communicated to you by the speaker in your
own words, capturing the essence of the facts and feelings expressed, and communicating your
understanding back to the speaker. It is a useful skill because:

 You can check that you have understood the message clearly.
 The speaker gets feedback as to how the message is received.
 It shows interest in, and respect for, what the other person has to say.
 You are demonstrating that you are considering the other person’s viewpoint, or looking to
empathise with that person.
Summarising
A summary is an overview of main points or issues raised. It can also serve the same purpose as
'reflecting'. However, summarising allows both parties to review and agree the communication
exchanged between them. When used effectively, summaries may also serve as a guide to the next
steps forward.

Closing communication
The way a communication is closed or ended will, at least in part, determine the way a conversation
is remembered.

A range of signals may be used to end an interaction. For example, some people may avoid eye
contact, stand up, turn their body away, or use behaviours such as looking at a watch or closing
notepads or books. All of these non-verbal actions indicate to the other person that the initiator
wishes to end the communication.

Closing an interaction too abruptly may not allow the other person to 'round off' what he or she is
saying so you should ensure there is time for winding-up. The closure of an interaction is a good
time to make any future arrangements. The interaction should be concluded by an appropriate
closing remark or gesture.

Negotiation
Negotiation is a process through which differences are settled. The term immediately brings to mind
discussions between the governments of countries who are in dispute, or collective bargaining
between trade unions and employers.

However, negotiation skills are used in many work situations, including:

 A manager trying to secure a bigger budget for the next accounting period.
 A sales person trying to reach agreement with a buyer on price, credit terms and delivery.
 An employee seeking greater responsibilities at a performance appraisal interview.
The pre-requisite for any negotiation to take place is that there must be some degree of common
ground between the two parties. If the position of each is uncompromising and there is no prospect
of agreement, then negotiation is futile and will ultimately fail. It is important to be aware of such
situations, as further negotiation will waste time and energy.

There are various stages in any negotiation process:

 Preparation.
 Discussion.
 Clarification of goals.
 Negotiation.
 Agreement.

Preparation
Anyone going into a negotiation should have an objective and should have a clear idea of the best
possible outcome and the walk away position. If the best possible outcome is wholly acceptable
to the other party, there will be no need for negotiation at all. If on the other hand the other party is
not prepared to accept the walk away position, there will be no point in negotiating, as common
ground will not be achievable.

For enduring business relationships to be fostered, any person negotiating should enter the process
in a spirit of fairness and a desire for both parties to benefit from the outcomes agreed.
Discussion
Both parties should present their case clearly so that the other person is fully aware of the position
being taken. Several interpersonal skills come into play at this stage, including:

 Speaking clearly and concisely.

 Assertiveness, but not aggression.
 Listening.
 Questioning: open questions to encourage discussion; closed questions to gain commitment.

Clarification of goals
The discussion puts both sides of the negotiation ‘on the table’, and this stage takes the process
further by identifying the extent to which agreement has been reached and any differences that exist.

A win-win outcome is usually the best result. Although this may not always be possible, through
negotiation, it should be the ultimate goal.

Suggestions of alternative strategies and compromises need to be considered at this point.

Compromises are often positive alternatives, which can often achieve greater benefit for all
concerned compared to holding to the original positions.

Agreement
This is the point at which both parties are totally clear on what they will accept. Before arriving at this
stage, it is necessary to deal with any ‘loose ends’ that may lead to disagreement or conflict
subsequent to the agreement.

Conflict
Conflict refers to a serious disagreement or argument, or an incompatibility between two or more
opinions, principles or interests.

Everyone encounters conflict in both personal and business life, and most people are involved in
some form of conflict from time to time.

Conflict can arise between individuals, but also between teams. But why is conflict so common?
  People have different objectives and priorities.
 All organisations have limited resources – budgets, people, and equipment – so it is natural
that there will be conflict between them.
 Everyone has a unique personality, and this may reflect in different interpretations of facts
and events, as well as different values, beliefs and norms.
 Differences may also arise from the style of management and decision taking to which
people are accustomed.
Not all conflict is bad. Under the right circumstances it can motivate people to achieve their goals,
stimulate creativity and drive new ideas. If managed positively, it can ‘clear the air’ and help to
release emotion and resolve tension.

However, conflict can also be destructive in that it may result in delayed decisions, uncertainty, bad
feelings, low morale, diversion of energy and polarisation into different ‘camps’. Ultimately, an
organisation can lose valued people if such individuals are not prepared to tolerate conflict.

There are five ways of dealing with conflict. Click on each title to reveal more information on
each:

Compete or fight

This is potentially a win/lose situation, where the strength and power of one person wins the
conflict.

It has its place, but it will probably create a loser and if that loser has no outlet for expressing
their concerns, then it will lead to bad feeling, sometimes as a lasting consequence.

Collaboration

This is the ideal outcome: a win/win situation.

However, it make take time for those involved to work through the difficulties, and find a way to solve
the problem so that action taken is agreeable to all.

ompromise or negotiation

This may create a better outcome than win/lose, but it is not quite win/win.
Both parties give up something, in favour of a consensus. It takes less time than collaboration, but is
likely to result in less commitment to the outcome. It is probable that none of the parties will achieve
their optimum position.

Denial or avoidance

This is where everyone pretends there is no problem.

It is helpful if those in conflict need time to ‘cool down’ before any discussion or if the conflict is
unimportant, but cannot be used if the conflict will not just die down. It will create a lose/lose situation,
since there will still be bad feeling, but no clearing the air through discussion.

Smoothing over the problem

On the surface, harmony is maintained, but underneath, there is still conflict.

This is similar to denial or avoidance, except that one person accepts this smoothing, while the other
remains in conflict, creating a win/lose situation again. It can work where preserving a relationship is
more important than dealing with the conflict right now, but is not useful if others feel the need to deal
with the situation.