Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 22 (2021) 100492

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/rsase

Detection of soil organic matter using hyperspectral imaging sensor

combined with multivariate regression modeling procedures
Amanda Silveira Reis *, Marlon Rodrigues, Glaucio Leboso Alemparte Abrantes dos Santos,
Karym Mayara de Oliveira, Renato Herrig Furlanetto, Luís Guilherme Teixeira Crusiol,
Everson Cezar, Marcos Rafael Nanni
State University of Maringá, Department of Agronomy, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Soil organic matter (SOM) plays an important role in the soil-plant system, increasing the search for faster and
Hyperspectral non-destructive methods for detecting this attribute. For this purpose, the use of hyperspectral imaging sensors is
PLSR promising. This study aimed to evaluate the possibility of predicting organic matter through hyperspectral im­
Soil organic matter
ages in the laboratory associated with multivariate regression modeling procedures. There were 384 soil samples
Linear discriminant
collected at eight depths in an Oxisol, in the State of Paraná, Brazil. Principal component and linear discriminant
analysis were applied to the spectrum to group the sets according to depth. The hyperspectral imaging technique
combined with the model’s regression coefficient was used to classify the images relative to the content of
organic matter. The partial least squares regression (PLSR) model was developed to correlate spectral data from
the sensor with SOM contents acquired by the conventional method. The results obtained in the prediction were
R2 = 0.75, r = 0.87 and RPD = 2.1. These results suggest that the model generated by the image sensor was able
to discriminate the organic matter contents of the soil at different depths by capturing spectral variations.

1. Introduction use chemical compounds (EMBRAPA, 2011) requiring proper treatment

Soil organic matter (SOM) is a factor in assessing soil quality and an
essential component of its fertility, contributing strongly to crop growth
and productivity. With this in mind, to preserve this attribute, sustain­
able agricultural practices are essential to maintain its content at
different depths, thus helping with different soil properties throughout
the profile.
Evaluating the impact of soil tillage and crop rotation on the light
fraction and organic matter of Oxisols, Zotarelli et al. (2007) showed a
greater accumulation of C in the soil under no-tillage (NT) than under
conventional tillage, improving even more with the increase of crop
rotation. The increase in soil organic matter in crop rotation under
no-tillage was also observed by Raphael et al. (2016) on tropical soil
over a long duration. As the content of SOM interferes with the soil-plant
system, this attribute is increasingly being mapped and studied
(DEMATTÊ et al., 2016). The identification of SOM in the laboratory by
reflectance spectroscopy is the subject of much research, and the
development of high-resolution hyperspectral sensors has improved this
process. In addition, although conventional methods are sensitive, they
for disposal due to the risk of environmental impacts (Sousa Junior et al.,
2011), in addition to being time-consuming, expensive, and laborious.
In contrast, hyperspectral technology is extremely efficient and can
measure various soil attributes from a single spectrum (Shi et al., 2014).
Previous studies have used hyperspectral images collected by different
platforms to investigate SOM (Cezar et al., 2019; HHobley et al., 2018;
Hbirkou et al., 2012). In general, hyperspectral images have a high
potential for estimating soil organic matter and carbon (Lu et al., 2020).
Several reports have demonstrated the potential of Visible,
Near-infrared and Short-wave infrared (VisNIR/SWIR) spectroscopy to
predict organic matter and other soil properties (Viscarra Rossel and
Webster, 2011; Song et al., 2012), because sample preparation is quick
and simple. In addition, the technique can be used both in the laboratory
and in the field. The use of hyperspectral images is an alternative for
obtaining local spectral information. This laboratory technique allows a
further increase in the resolution of the information accessible from the
soil. In this case, each pixel has an associated spectrum, allowing an
evaluation of the image through the spectral variation of the sample,
capturing characteristics of the target, which otherwise could be

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: reisamanda89@gmail.com (A.S. Reis).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2021.100492
Received 16 November 2020; Received in revised form 3 March 2021; Accepted 3 March 2021
Available online 9 March 2021
2352-9385/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A.S. Reis et al.
compromised (Mo et al., 2013; Sahoo et al., 2015).
Although these data can be measured using a spectroradiometer, for
example, such ground-based measurements are limited to a few numbers
of field locations and cannot capture spatial variability over large areas.
In contrast, hyperspectral imaging sensors are more convenient for
acquiring the spatial variability of spectral information in a region (Lu
et al., 2020). However, for that, more information is needed in the
laboratory so that they can be applied to the field on the properties of the
soil that are being studied. Publications related to hyperspectral images
on short-range platforms are recent and have grown in the last four
years, as shown by the review by Lu et al. (2020). This indicates the
interest in finding more objective and quick answers for conventional
methodologies.
Associated with the hyperspectral analysis of SOM, a modeling
method is increasingly used that has presented high precision values in
several studies (Shen et al., 2020). Several multivariate statistical
methods can be used to classify dependent and independent variables,
making it possible to discriminate species as well as predict pigment
concentration and nutritional status in addition to estimating produc­
tivity (Blackburn, 2007; Calviñ o-Cancela and Mart í n-Herrero, 2016;
Gitelson and Solovchenko, 2018; Nanni et al., 2018; Rodrigues et al.,
2020). In this study, principal component analysis (PCA), linear
discriminant analysis (LDA), and partial least squares regression (PLSR)
were used. The aim was to evaluate whether the model generated
through data obtained by the hyperspectral imaging sensor could
discriminate soil organic matter content. This study demonstrates the
ability of this technique to predict and discriminate the content of
organic matter through hyperspectral images, which may be an alter­
native in the future to replace conventional techniques.
Fig. 1. Location of the soil sample collection area.
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Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 22 (2021) 100492
2. Material and methods
2.1. Soil and sampling
The study area is located at the Experimental Station of the COAMO,
in Campo Mourão, Paraná State (24◦ 05′ 41.6′′ S, 52◦ 21’ 31.5” W) in
South Brazil (Fig. 1). The climate type is Cfa––humid subtropical mes­
othermic (Köppen), with an average annual temperature of 20.1 ◦ C and
an annual rainfall of 1601 mm.
To extract soil organic matter (SOM), soil samples were collected at
eight different depths (0–0.05, 0.05–0.10, 0.10–0.15, 0.15–0.20,
0.20–0.25, 0.25–0.30, 0.30–0.35, and 0.35–0.40 m). Since 2001, no-
tillage systems with different combinations of soy, maize, wheat, and
cover crops in winter and summer have been present. The soil order of
the area is an Oxisol according to Soil Taxonomy. Soil collection
occurred in March 2019.
2.2. Chemical and spectral analysis
The steps for obtaining and processing data at the laboratory level
are demonstrated in the flowchart in Fig. 2. A total of 384 soil samples
were collected, dried, and ground to pass through a 2-mm sieve. Each
sample was divided into two parts: one was for spectral measurement
and the other was for chemical analysis. To obtain the SOM content (%),
the carbon organic of soil was first determined using the colorimetric
method (Raij et al., 2001) by reading on a spectrophotometer with a
maximum transmission filter of 650 nm. Afterward, the conversion
factor 1.724 was applied to the results, obtaining the values for SOM.
For spectral measurement, each sample was placed in a Petri dish 9
cm in diameter and 1.5 cm high. The AisaFENIX sensor was attached to a
platform (Single Core Scanner) at a height of 0.50 m and the images of
soil samples were acquired by scanning. To scan all samples, eight im­
ages were needed (Fig. 3).
For each pixel, 624 bands were obtained. In the 380–970 nm region,
A.S. Reis et al. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 22 (2021) 100492

Fig. 2. Flowchart for obtaining and processing data at the laboratory level. PCA: Principal component analysis, LDA: Linear discriminant analysis, PLSR: Partial least
squares regression.

Fig. 3. Structure assembled with the AisaFENIX sensor and the scanning belt (A) and Sequence of samples (B).

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A.S. Reis et al.
the spectral resolution was 3.5 nm, and in the 970–2506 nm region, the
spectral resolution was 12 nm. Calibration with the standard whiteboard
was performed before each image capture. For radiometric corrections,
the CaliGeoPRO 2.3.1software (Specim Inc, 2017) was used. To generate
radiometrically corrected images, the software was fed with the raw
data (.raw) generated by the AisaFENIX sensor, the sensor calibration
files (.cal and the .LUT), and the dark reference file (.hdr). For image
processing, a specific algorithm provided by the manufacturer AisaFE­
NIX was used and applied by the software ENVI Classic 5.3. To convert
the image from radiance units to reflectance units in the option “Scan
Normalization” the radiance file (radiance.dat) was added together with
the dark reference file (.hdr) and the type of radiometric correction was
selected. Because of this processing, reflectance images were generated.
After processing, the data was read in the ENVI Classic software to create
a region of interest (ROI) on each Petri dish, using the ROY_Type ellipse
function. Each ROI presented, on average, 1500 pixels, and the spectral
curve was obtained through the average of these pixels, minimizing
possible variations in the spectra. There were 48 ROI’s sampled over all
eight images. In the “statistics” option of the ENVI software, the average
of each pixel was calculated and the spectral reflectance curve was
generated.
2.3. Statistical analysis
2.3.1. Principal component analysis
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to reduce the redun­
dant information of hyperspectral imaging. The PCA (p-value≤0.05)
was performed to verify the separability of the samples in depth and the
possible overlap between them by means of two-dimensional graphics
with PCA components (first component vs. second component). This
method is an indicator of whether the variance of the reflectance spectra
between samples within each set of spectral data can be explained and
how effectively the depths can be grouped. PCA was performed with
spectral curves using the XLSTAT supplement for Excel software
(Addinsoft, 2016). The degree of explanation is attributed using the first
two components (PC1 and PC2) before obtaining discriminant linear
models. Defined as the correlation of each variable (wavelength) with
the principal component, the loadings describe the importance of each
wavelength to the PC’s (Holden and Ledrew, 1998).
2.3.2. Linear discriminant analysis
The discriminant functions were obtained using the proc STEPDISC
algorithm, applying the STEPWISE method available in the Statistical
Analysis System® software (SAS Institute, Inc. North Carolina, USA).
Wavelengths were selected according to the Wilk’s Lambda value and
following likelihood criteria and partial F-value input (Draper and
Smith, 2014; Falcioni et al., 2017). Variables with p-value <0.05
(defined a priori) were added and not removed in/from the function.
The wavelengths that best explained the differences were subjected to a
discriminant analysis using the proc DISCRIM routine available in the
SAS® software, to create predictive models through linear combinations
of predictor variables (wavelengths). The obtained models were then
simulated through the proc FREQ using 60% of the spectral curves and
tested with the 40% remaining curves. This procedure was indepen­
dently tested 50 times in a randomized mode to predict the chance of
success based on the selected spectral bands. Thus, only wavelengths
able to discriminate all depths were selected (da Silva Junior et al.,
2017).
2.3.3. Partial least squares regression and regression coefficient
For the model construction, the border bands at 379–449 nm were
eliminated because presented great noise in the spectra, leaving
451–2506 nm. For the final prediction results and to obtain improved
spectra, Savitzky-Golay (Savitzky and Golay, 1964) smoothing com­
bined with the first derivative transformation was chosen. This pre­
processing is essential to improve model accuracy (Qiao et al., 2017).
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Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 22 (2021) 100492
To develop the statistical model, 384 samples were divided randomly
into two sets: calibration (70%) and validation (30%). One set composed
of 269 samples was used to calibrate the models and cross-validation
testing. 115 samples were used to validate the built models (Nanni
et al., 2018). The PLSR method (p ≤ 0.05) was implemented, and all
processing was conducted in Unscrambler software version 10.4
(CAMO, Inc., Oslo, Norway).
Because it is a nonparametric regression method based on factor
analysis, PLSR is commonly used for spectrum analysis that has suffi­
cient independent variable validation (Li et al., 2016). The performance
of the model was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R2),
the root mean square error (RMSE), the standard error (SE), the sys­
tematic error (bias), and the residual predictive deviation (RPD). For
greater precision of the model, the values of R2 and RPD must be high,
but the values of RMSE must be low. The RPD parameter provides a basis
for standardizing SEP, and the standard deviation (SD) of conventional
methods of original data is used (Williams and Sobering, 2001; Fearn,
2002). The RPD parameter between 2 and 3 is considered “good”, 1.5 to
2, average and < than 1.5, poor (D’Acqui et al., 2010).
Subsequently, the values of the regression coefficients of the PLSR
models were applied to the hypercube image, and the converted images
were reconstructed as two-dimensional PLS images. The content pixel of
the PLSR model of organic matter was isolated using a classification
algorithm. The PLSR developed model has a regression coefficient,
which is expressed as shown in Equation (1):
C = B0 + (B1X1 + B2X2 + … + BnXn) (Equation 1)
Where C is the predicted organic matter concentration, B0 is a constant
coefficient, B1 - Bn are coefficients for each wavelength reading, and Xn
is the reflectance by the different spectra (Selige et al., 2006).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Descriptive analysis of soil sample and spectral characteristics
The descriptive statistics of SOM derived from conventional methods
are shown in Table 1. Content varied from 13.21 g kg− 1 to 52.32 g kg− 1.
The coefficient of variation was 0.27, indicating low to medium vari­
ability (Qi-Yong et al., 2014). Soil reflectance was influenced by the
organic matter content and the composition of organic constituents
across the spectrum. Accordingly, when soil organic matter increases,
soil reflectance decreases (Feng et al., 1989).
Fig. 4 shows a difference in the albedo of the curves in the visible
region. Soil reflectance in this region is primarily associated with ab­
sorption in minerals containing Fe (Mortimore et al., 2004; DRĂGUŢ
and Dornik, 2016). However, as found by Baumgardner et al. (1970),
organic matter contents greater than 2% tend to mask the effect of iron
oxides. As the minimum organic matter content in this study was 1.3%,
the difference in the visible region can be seen in Fig. 4. In the SWIR
band, inflections were observed in 1400, 1900, and 2200 nm due to the
vibration of water molecules present in clay minerals. The absorption
wavelengths near 1400 nm (1395 and 1415 nm) are due to overtones of
the O–H stretch, while those near 2200 nm (2165 and 2207 nm) are due
to Al–OH bend plus O–H stretch combinations (Stenberg et al., 2010).
Shonk et al. (1991) found results indicating that soils containing
more than 6% organic matter would be increasingly difficult to
Table 1
Minimum, maximum, average, standard deviation (SD), and coefficient of
variation (CV) values to soil organic matter content in sample soil (g kg− 1), for
the conventional method.
ORGANIC Minimum (g. Maximum (g. Average (g. SD CV
MATTER kg− 1) kg− 1) kg− 1)
13.21 52.32 26.32 7.13 0.27
SD: standard deviation; CV: coefficient of variation.
A.S. Reis et al.
Fig. 4. Reflectance spectra of soil samples with minimum and maximum
SOM contents.
differentiate using reflectance data. Therefore, we believe that it would
be possible to differentiate the samples by depth due to the heteroge­
neity of the samples. Thus, an analysis of main components with the
entire spectrum was carried out in order to group similar samples.
3.2. Multivariate statistics
3.2.1. Principal component analysis - PCA
Principal component analysis indicates the formation of different
groups through reflectance data (Fig. 5). The first two components
explained over 92.43% of the total variance obtained for reflectance.
The explanation percentage of PC1 was 86.75% and that of PC2 was
5.68%. It was possible to distinguish shallow depths (0.05–0.20 m). The
subsurface samples ended up overlapping and becoming confused, as
the organic matter content becomes more uniform with the depth,
making it difficult for the sensor to determine small variations.
Multivariate techniques have been previously applied to characterize
and separate different organic matter contents (Fox and Metla, 2005;
Guo et al., 2013). Using PCA analysis for the discrimination of dissolved
organic matter, Guo et al. (2013), attributed 97% of explanation to the
first two components. At the same time, the contents of organic carbon
under different managements were differentiated with explanations of
83% using the first two factors (Assunção et al., 2019). Thus, spectrum
identification becomes a powerful tool in predicting the content of
Fig. 5. Principal component analysis (PCA) of spectral curves from different depths. The letters correspond to the depths at which the readings were taken, in meters.
(a) 0.05, (b) 0.10, (c) 0.15, (d) 0.20, (e) 0.25, (f) 0.30, (g) 0.35, (h) 0.40.
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Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 22 (2021) 100492
organic matter.
3.2.2. Linear discriminant analysis – LDA
From PCA result, the spectral curves were subjected to modeling to
obtain discriminant functions to separate depths. The STEPDISC method
was performed for all eight depths. Thus, of the 624 spectral bands the
AisaFENIX sensor established between wavelengths 451–2506 nm, only
9 wavelengths were selected, being in the green region (538, 560, 588
nm), NIR (732 and 816 nm), and SWIR (1236, 1782, 1887, 1921 nm).
After choosing the nine variables that would elaborate the models, a
discrete analysis was carried out using the proc DISCRIM procedure of
the SAS software. It was possible to classify the group containing a depth
of 5 cm with an accuracy of 83% and a depth of 10 cm with 58%
(Table 2), thus confirming the result found by the PCA, where a good
separation of the profundity group in 0.05 m was observed. Borges et al.
(2018), combining PCA and LDA techniques with reflectance data to
evaluate the effect of soil management with the concentration of organic
C, found a pattern relative to the carbon content in the soil and its depth.
According to the authors, 93% of the total data variance could be
explained using only two main components.
As the interval between depths is short, there was confusion with the
data, mainly along the profile, because as the depth increases in the
profile, the organic matter content tends to be close. Even so, it was
possible to separate into groups through multivariate statistical
analyses.
3.3. Estimation of SOM contents by the PLSR method
The developed PLSR model, using reflectance spectral curves
(451–2506 nm) for soil organic matter prediction, was statistically sig­
nificant (p-value ≤ 0.05). The results indicated good correlation,
assessed by the lower RMSE values, the coefficients of determination
(R2) and the ratio of performance to deviation (RPD). Table 3 presents
the VisNIR/SWIR calibration, cross-validation, and prediction statistics
for soil organic matter. The regression model was used to build the
forecast models of SOM by calibration set (n = 269).
In summary, the model presented a good ability to predict the con­
tent of organic matter, although there was spectral interference between
the groups, as demonstrated in the previous analyzes (PCA and LDA). In
addition, the internal validation by the leave-in-out method (assessed by
RMSEC) and compared with the root of the mean square error of the
cross-validation (RMSECV) showed low values associated with R2
A.S. Reis et al. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 22 (2021) 100492

Table 2
Output from the DISCRIM analysis using selected reflectance data wavelengths, indicating the error percentage and acceptance based on the model estimated using
60% of data selected randomly among depths.
Depths (m) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 TOTAL

0.05 83.25 8.01 5.9 2.85 0 0 0 0 100

0.10 2.33 57.94 31.75 5.66 2.33 0 0 0 100
0.15 0.54 31.4 39.76 26.15 2.04 0 0.11 0 100
0.20 0 2.12 29.34 49.15 15.57 0.32 3.18 0.32 100
0.25 0 0.11 6.5 18.53 36.53 14.48 13.74 10.12 100
0.30 0 0 0 0.1 23.69 26.61 23.19 26.41 100
0.35 0 0 0 0.43 11.22 26.32 32.9 29.13 100
0.40 0 0 0 1.79 11.03 26.14 33.1 27.93 100

Green shading indicates the highest accepted value from discriminating between depths by model.

the organic matter content of the soil. The regression coefficients values
Table 3
of the PLSR models are shown in Fig. 6. Highly positive or highly
Statistical parameters of the PLSR model.
negative coefficients indicate wavebands that strongly influence the
PLSR R R2 RMSE SE Bias PLSR model, and some of the wavebands corresponding to these highly
Calibration 0.93 0.86 2.56 2.57 0 positive or negative coefficients match the signature absorption bands of
Cross-validation 0.92 0.85 2.68 2.69 0.003 organic matter. As can be seen, wavelengths in the green and NIR ranges
Prediction 0.87 0.75 3.44 3.40 0.583
were important in estimating the variable as indicated by the STEPDISC
r: correlation coefficient; R2: coefficient of determination; RMSE: Root Mean method.
Square Error, SE: Standard Error; n = 384; p-value ≤ 0.05. The values of the regression coefficients of the PLSR models were
applied to the hypercube images using equation (1) and the converted
(RMSEc = 2.56 and RMSEcv = 2.68). In the model validation estimated images were reconstructed as two-dimensional PLS images. Fig. 7 il­
by the root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP), the data confirm lustrates the PLS image for the data set resulting from the applied model.
the quality by adjusting the RMSEC (Table 3), i.e., these data presented In this image, it is possible to observe the color change with increasing
satisfactory predictive abilities as obtained by hyperspectral sensors depth, showing that the model was able to identify different levels of
using curves of reflectance. The values of bias in calibration and cross- organic matter in the soil. All the plates that contained soil at a depth of
validation indicated no tendency in the model (Cezar et al., 2019; 5 cm were darker (above 4% of the organic matter), which is equivalent
Mark and Workman, 2017). Another parameter used for evaluating the to the organic matter content found in the laboratory. In addition, after
model is RPD. The value found in the study was 2.10, indicating that a 0.20 m, there is no clear difference between colors, following the results
good prediction model, from 2 to 3, according to D’Acqui et al., (2010). found by PCA and LDA, where the superficial depths were possible to
When using PLSR associated with the spectral response to predict soil separate into groups.
attributes in transition lithologies, Nanni et al. (2018) found for soil A methodology similar to that used in our research was found in Lim
organic matter values of low coefficients of determination and RPD in et al. (2016). However, the authors used hyperspectral images of the
the calibration step. On the other hand, Cezar et al. (2019), studying infrared region to detect melanin in powdered milk and observed that as
hyperspectral remote sensing as an alternative to correlate data from soil the melamine concentration increased, the number of suspicious mel­
constituents, found a coefficient of 0.65 for organic matter. Jacq et al. amine pixels in binary images also increased, suggesting that this tech­
(2019), found a model with a r prediction of 0.95 (p < 0.05) when using nique would be effective in the detection of melamine in powdered milk.
a hyperspectral image to predict the concentration of organic matter. In another study, Mo et al. (2013) developed a viability assessment
method for cucumber (Cucumis sativus) seed using hyperspectral
reflectance images. But these authors used the 400–1000 nm range
3.4. Applicability of the PLS model in the estimation of soil organic matter obtained using blue, green and red LED lighting. Using images based on
content the PLS model, the discrimination accuracy for viable and non-viable
seeds was 100% and 99%, respectively.
Since the general model found was relevant by the analyzed pa­ Nevertheless, application of this technique was not found in the
rameters (Table 2), we applied it to the hyperspectral image to estimate

Fig. 6. Regression coefficients of the PLSR model developed using AisaFENIX sensor reflectance spectra (B0 = 31.47027).

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A.S. Reis et al.
Fig. 7. PLS model applied to the hyperspectral image showing the difference in
color between the depths. Dark-colored plates are at higher depths. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)
detection of organic matter content using hyperspectral images of the
VisNIR/SWIR region in the laboratory.
4. Conclusion
In this study, the performance of the hyperspectral imaging sensor to
estimate soil organic matter in different contents as the depth was
analyzed and compared. The results of this study showed that with the
data obtained by the hyperspectral imaging sensor, it was possible to
discriminate the content of organic matter with the depth, mainly at 5
and 10 cm in depth, where the content of organic matter was greater
than 4%. The multivariate statistical analysis allowed not only for the
prediction and estimations of different contents of soil organic matter
but also for the discrimination of different depths. Thus, the use of the
hyperspectral imaging sensor allowed quick, accurate, and non-
destructive measures of the interactions between more significant
spectral bands concerning soil organic matter.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Amanda Silveira Reis: Conceptualization, Software, Methodology,
Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation Visualization, Data curation,
Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Marlon Rodrigues: Conceptualization, Formal analysis,
Investigation.
Glaucio Leboso Alemparte Abrantes dos Santos: Conceptualization,
Formal analysis, Investigation.
Karym Mayara de Oliveira: Conceptualization, Investigation.
Renato Herrig Furlanetto: Formal analysis, Methodology, Software.
Luís Guilherme Teixeira Crusiol: Formal analysis, Writing - review.
Everson Cezar: Validation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investi­
gation, Methodology, Writing – review
Marcos Rafael Nanni: Conceptualization, Software, Methodology,
Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Project administration, Funding
acquisition.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
7
Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 22 (2021) 100492
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoa­
mento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) for the financial support,
the State University of Maringá for the use of their infrastructure and
logistics, and COAMO (Cooperativa Agropecuária Mourãoense) for
providing the study area.
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