Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table

Protons, Neutrons & Electrons

 Elements are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms

 Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons
 Their size is so tiny that we can't really compare their masses in conventional units such
as kilograms or grams, so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used
 One relative atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
 All other elements are measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom, so relative
atomic mass has no units (although sometimes you may come across a unit Da or u which
stands for a Dalton and it means the same thing)
 Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of
hydrogen would have exactly the same mass as 1 atom of carbon
 The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are shown below:

Defining Proton Number

 The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an

atom
 The symbol for atomic number is Z
 It is also the number of electrons present in a neutral atom and determines the position of
the element on the Periodic Table

Defining Nucleon Number

 Nucleon number (or mass number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the

nucleus of an atom
 The symbol for nucleon number is A
 The nucleon number minus the proton number gives you the number of neutrons of an
atom
 Note that protons and neutrons can collectively be called nucleons.
 The atomic number and mass number for every element is on the Periodic Table

Electrons 

 The symbol for an electron is e-, but other symbols are used such as x and ⦁ in bonding
diagrams to make it easier to see where electrons come from 
 These subatomic particles move very fast around the nucleus
 They move in orbital paths called shells
 The mass of the electron is negligible, hence the mass of an atom is concentrated in the
nucleus where the neutrons and protons are found
The Basis of the Periodic Table

 Elements are arranged on the Periodic Table in order of increasing atomic

number where each element has one proton more than the element preceding it
 Hydrogen has 1 proton, helium has 2 protons, lithium has 3, etc.
 The table is arranged in vertical columns called Groups numbered I - VIII and in rows
called Periods
 Elements in the same group have the same amount of electrons in their outer shell, which
gives them similar chemical properties
Isotopes: 
Atoms of the same element having different nucleon numbers, or atoms of the same element
having the different mass numbers. Isotopes have the same proton number because similar
elements have an equal number of electrons. 

Example#1
CO
CO2
These two are not isotopes but are compounds.
Example#2

They both are isotopes of phosphorous because they have the same number of proton and
different nucleon number that is 31 and 32 respectively.

Isotopes Of Hydrogen
Hydrogen (Protium)

 p=1, n=0, e=1

Deuterium

     p=1, n=1, e=1

Tritium
It is artificially made isotope and is radioactive.

  p=1, n=2, e=1

H2O can be written as D2O and T2O

Chemical properties of substances depend upon the number of electrons in the outermost shell;
hence isotopes are chemically identical; however, they have different physical properties because
they have different relative masses.

Elements that emit invisible radiations are called radioactive and phenomenon is called
radioactivity—Examples Alpha, Beta, Gamma, X-ray, etc.

 Uses Of Radio Active Isotopes

o Power generation
o nuclear weapons 
o phosphorous P-32 used in cancer treatment 
 o Carbon 14 used in carbon dating to find ancient ages.
Isotopes are radioactive and emit high energy radiation. They are known as radioisotopes. 

How to calculate the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in atoms and ions from
proton and nucleon numbers:
An ion is charged particle. When an atom loses electrons, it is called a cation, and when it gains
electrons, it is called an anion. 

Example#1

X+3 is having 10 electrons and ten neutrons. Find the number of protons and mass numbers.

This is a cation that has lost 3 electrons; hence the atom of X consists of 10+3=13 electrons
because the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. Hence the number of protons
is equal to 13.

Solution:

Nucleon number = p+n 

p=13, n=10

p+n=13+10=23.

Covalent Bonding
When nonmetals react with each other, they attain noble gas configuration by sharing their
valence electrons between themselves and completing their valency. This type of chemical
bonding is called covalent bonding. Two or more than two atoms join together to form a
molecule, and they have a covalent bond between them. 

Dot and cross diagram is used to represent the covalent bonding amongst the atoms in a
molecule. These atoms can be identical or non- identical as well. 
H2   
 
Hydrogen has one electron in its shell and needs one more to attain duplet configuration. It
shares its valence electron with another hydrogen atom to achieve its duplet configuration H-H
single covalent bond is formed in the hydrogen molecule. 
Cl2    

Chlorine is in Group 7 of the Periodic table, which means it has seven valence electrons in its
valence shell and needs one more to attain octet (8) configuration. It shares its valence electron
with another chlorine atom to achieve its octet configuration Cl-Cl single covalent bond is
formed in chlorine molecule. 
O2  O=O
 
Oxygen is in Group 6 of the Periodic table, which means it has six valence electrons in its
valence shell and needs two more to attain octet (8) configuration. It shares its valence electron
with another oxygen atom to achieve its octet configuration O=O double covalent bonds are
formed in oxygen molecule. 
HCl H-Cl

Hydrogen has one electron in its shell and needs one more to attain duplet configuration. It
shares its valence electron with a chlorine atom to achieve it's noble gas configuration H-Cl
single covalent bond is formed in hydrogen chloride molecule. 
N2
 
Nitrogen has five valencies and needs three more to attain duplet configuration. It shares its three
electrons in its valence with another nitrogen atom to achieve its octet configuration. A triple
covalent bond is formed in a nitrogen molecule. 
H2O
 

Oxygen has six valency needs two more electrons to attain octet configuration. It shares its two
valence electrons (two pairs of valence electrons form two lone pairs) with two hydrogen atoms
to achieve its octet configuration, single covalent bonds are formed between hydrogen and
oxygen atom, and a water molecule is formed.
CH4
 
Carbon has four electrons in its valence shell and needs four more to attain octet configuration. It
shares its valence electron with four hydrogen atom to achieve its octet configuration C-H single
covalent bond is formed in the methane molecule. 
C2H4
 

Carbon has four electrons in its valence shell and needs four more to attain octet configuration. 
When two carbon atoms form a covalent bond, they share two pairs of electrons that are C=C.
The remaining two electrons of carbon in its valence shell are shared by two hydrogen atoms to
form a single carbon-hydrogen bond. 

Note:  When two electrons are shared, a single bond is formed, represented using a single line in
the structural formula of the compound/ molecule.

When four electrons or two pairs of electrons are shared, a double bond is formed, represented
using a double line in the structural formula of the compound/ molecule.

When six electrons or three pairs of electrons are shared, the triple bond is formed, represented
using three lines in the structural formula of the compound/ molecule.

Allotropes are the same elements with different structures called allotropes. For instance, O2
and O3 are allotropes. CO and CO2:- both are not allotropes.

Covalent compounds can be simple or giant covalent structures. Both have varying properties
because of their structure and bonding.
 
 
Simple Molecular Substances: Iodine molecules are formed by two iodine atoms sharing a
covalent bond; however, intermolecular forces exist between iodine molecules. That is why the
little amount of heat can break the weak intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces). This
implies that simple molecular structures are highly volatile and are usually liquids or gases at
room temperature and pressure. Those with larger molecules are solids at R.T.P. They have low
melting and boiling points. They are unsolvable in water and solvable in organic solvents. These
substances cannot conduct electricity due to unavailable free moving electrons to carry charges;
exceptions include graphite.

Giant molecules Graphite, diamond, and silicon dioxide are all giant molecules because they
have lots of atoms held together in strong covalent bonds to form giant molecular structures.
Their properties are also different. 

Silicon dioxide: It is a 3D tetrahedral structure. Si has four valencies and shares its single
covalent bonds with four oxygen atoms to form a giant SiO2 compound. It can only melt at high
temperatures. 
       

Graphite Diamon

Each  carbon is directly attached to three more carbon atoms. Each ca

It conducts electricity because of free moving electrons. It does

It consists of layers, and layers can slide; that is why graphite is soft and used as a lubricant. It is har

Graphite is two dimensional. Diamon

The formula of both is the same (C ) The for

Properties of giant molecular structures:

All giant molecular structures have high melting points because a large amount of energy is
required to break the network of strong covalent bonds.

All simple molecular structures H2, CO2, etc. have low melting and boiling points because a
small amount of energy is required to break the weak intermolecular forces.

Diamond has a higher melting point than graphite because more number of bonds have to be
broken in diamonds.

Diamond is hard because of strong covalent bonds amongst carbon atoms in its giant structure. 
When an equal amount of graphite and diamond are wholly burned, they produce the same
amount of carbon dioxide as the only product.

Diamond cannot conduct electricity because of unavailable free-moving electrons.

Whereas graphite can conduct electricity.

In graphite, each ring consists of six carbon atoms.

Uses of graphite 
1. It is used as a lubricant because of its sliding layers.
2. It is soft and smooth. It is used to bake along with clay to form pencil lead. (In between the
layers van der Waals forces are present.) 
3.      It is used in inert electrodes because of free moving electrons.

Uses of Diamonds
1. It is used in jewelry because it is shiny.
2. It is used in glass cutting and drilling because diamond is hard.
Physical properties of covalent compounds 
They are solids, liquids, and gases at room temperature and pressure. For instance, silicon
dioxide, water, and carbon dioxide gas, respectively. They have lower melting and boiling points
except for giant molecular structures such as silicon, SiO2, graphite, and diamond. They do not
conduct electricity except graphite and an aqueous solution of acids. An aqueous solution of
acids conducts electricity because bonding changes from covalent to ionic when molecules
dissociate in water to form ions.
onic Bonding

How Are Ionic Bonds Formed To Attain Noble Gas Configuration?

Force of attraction, which holds two or more atoms, ions, or molecules, is called a chemical
bond. 

Types of bonding:

 Ionic bonding
 Covalent bonding 
 Metallic bonding

Positive and negative ions join by transferring electrons between the atoms to form the ionic
compound. When an atom loses its electrons, it is called a cation, and when they gain electrons,
it is known as an anion. 
The chemical bond in which electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another is
known as chemical bonding.

Noble gases do not react with other atoms because they are stable. They have 8 electrons in
their valance shell; hence the shell is said to be complete or stable. Other atoms react with each
other to attain a stable electronic configuration. They either lose, gain, or share electrons to
form bonds. Metals lose electrons to form cation and nonmetals gain electrons to form anions. 

How Are Ionic Bonds Formed Between Metals And Nonmetals?

Positively charged metallic ions react with negatively charged nonmetallic ions. An electrostatic
force of attraction arises between them. 

Na+ +   Cl- → NaCl 

Dot and cross diagrams can be shown to represent ionic bonding in an ionic compound. Note
that only the valence shells are shown down below in the diagram.

Source: Ionic Bonding and Dot-Cross Diagrams 

Source: gcsescience.com

When Na loses its valence electron it gets +1 charge hence Na+, whereas chlorine atom gains
an electron from Na to get a -1 charge hence Chloride anion Cl-. 

The chemical formula of an ionic compound is written as symbols of the atoms present in an
ionic compound. It is kept in mind that the positive charges are equal to the negative charges in
an ionic compound, for example, Mg2+ and O2-. Two positive charges cancel out two negative
charges; hence the formula will be MgO, magnesium oxide.

To name an ionic compound metal are written first, their subscripts are written as a number on
the right-hand side beside the atom. Whereas subscript 1 is not usually written for instance
NaCl. For greater than one polyatomic ions, they are written within the brackets such as Cu
(OH) 2.

Ionic Lattice:
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound that has a giant ionic lattice. It consists of sodium ions
and chloride ions, which are arranged in an organized manner and held together by ionic
bonds. The ratio is 1:1. NaCl is the formula unit. The oppositely charged ions such as Na+ and Cl-
are attracted to each other strongly to form a giant ionic lattice. Six oppositely charged ions
surround each ion in an ionic/crystal lattice.

Source: https://www.qsstudy.com/physics/ionic-bond-or-electrovalent-bond

Physical Properties Of Ionic Compounds According To Their Lattice Structure:

 They are all solids at room temperature and pressure because they consist of oppositely
charged ions. 

 They are non-volatile and usually soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents
(ethanol, petrol). However, silver chloride and barium sulfate do not dissolve in water. 
 They have higher boiling points and melting points because of the strong electrostatic
force of attraction. 

 They do not conduct electricity in a solid-state but can conduct electricity in molten
state/ aqueous solution. Free moving ions present in ionic compounds or aqueous
solutions of ionic compounds can conduct electricity. Free moving electrons present in
metals and graphite can conduct electricity. In solid-state ions are tightly packet not
moving freely. However, in molten or liquid and aqueous solutions ions are free to
move.

 Sodium chloride has a melting point of 80 degree Celsius. In contrast, magnesium oxide
has a greater melting point of 2800 degree Celsius. This is because it has a stronger
electrostatic force of attraction between oxygen and magnesium ions due to higher
charger, i.e., +2 and -2.

 Substances with an increased melting point are called refractory materials. Uses of
magnesium oxide are lining of the furnace and in electrical insulators.