DEFINITION: A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an equation

that expresses ‘an’ in terms of one or more of the previous terms of the
sequence, namely, a0,a1,...,an−1, for all integers n with n ≥ n0, where n0 is a
non-negative integer.
Or more generally, a recurrence relation is a relation between the terms
of a sequence.
A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation if its terms satisfy
the recurrence relation.
Example:
Recurrence Relations and
Applications of Recurrence Relations (Modelling with Recurrence
Relations)

EXAMPLE: Rabbits and the Fibonacci Numbers

Consider this problem, which was originally posed by Leonardo Pisano,
also known as Fibonacci, in the thirteenth century in his book Liber abaci.
 A young pair of rabbits (one of each gender) is placed on an island. A pair
of rabbits does not breed until they are 2 months old. After they are 2
months old, each pair of rabbits produces another pair each month. Find
a recurrence relation for the number of pairs of rabbits on the island after
‘n’ months, assuming that no rabbits ever die.

Month Breeding Pairs Young Pair Total Pair

Example: Suppose that a person deposit $10,000 in a savings account at a
bank yielding 11% per year with interest compounded annually. How
much amount will be there in the account after 30 years?
https://www.mathsisfun.com/games/towerofhanoi.html
Degree = The highest subscript - The lowest subscript

We say a recurrence relation is linear if all the sequence terms aj’s exist in
degree exactly one and are not multiplied together except possibly with
some other function of ‘n’ or with some non-zero constant.

We say a recurrence relation is homogeneous if except the sequence

terms aj’s (or multiples of the aj’s) no other function of ‘n’ or a non-zero
constant exists separately in the recurrence relation.
We say a recurrence relation is with constant coefficients if all the
coefficients of the terms of the sequence are all constants, rather than
functions that depend on ‘n’.
Rule-1: If the roots of the characteristic Equation are real numbers but
distinct say r , r , r ,…………… r then the solution of the given Linear
1 2 3 k

Homogeneous Recurrence Relation is written as:

n n n n
a n=α 1 r 1 + α 2 r 2 +α 3 r 3 +… … … … … … … …..+ α k r k

Rule-2: If the roots of the characteristic Equation are real numbers but
repeated (same) say r , r , r , r , r …………… then the solution of the given
1 1 2 2 2

Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relation is written as:

n 2 n
a n=( α ¿ ¿ 1+nα 2) r 1 +(α ¿¿ 3+nα 4 +n α 5)r 2 +… … … … … … … …. . ¿ ¿
Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a =a n n−1 +2 a n−2 along with the
initial conditions a =2 , a =7.0 1

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a =6 a n n−1 −9 an−2 along with the
initial conditions a =1 , a =5.0 1

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: 9 a −15 a n n−1 −32 a n−2−12 an−3=0.

https://www.symbolab.com/solver/roots-calculator/roots%20x%5E
%7B3%7D%2B8

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

a n=6 a n−1−11 an−2+ 6 an−3 along with the initial conditions a =2 , a =5 , a =15. 0 1 2

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

a n=−3 a n−1 −3 an−2−an−3 along with the initial conditions a =1 , a =−2 , a =−1. 0 1 2

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

27 a n−54 a n−1+3 6 an−2−8 a n−3=0.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

a n+ 2a n−1+3 an−2+ 2 an−3+ an−4 =0.

Rule-3: If the roots of the characteristic Equation are complex numbers

but distinct say a± ib , c ±id ,…………………………
then the solution of the given Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relation is
written as
a n=r n1 ( α ¿ ¿ 1 cosn θ1 +α 2 sinnθ1 )+ r n2 (α ¿ ¿ 3 cosn θ2 +α 4 sinn θ2)+… … … … … … … …. . ¿ ¿

where r = √ a + b and tan θ = a ∨θ =tan

1
2 2
1
b
1
−1
( ba )
¿ r 2= √ c2 +d 2
d
and tan θ = c ¿ θ =tan
2 2
−1
()
d
c

and so on

(Remark: If in a ± ib, “a” is negative thenθ =π −tan 1 |ba|)

−1

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: y k +2−2 y k+1 +2 y k =0 along with the
initial conditions y =0 , y =−1. 0 1

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: y k +2+2 y k +1+ 2 y k =0 along with the
initial conditions y =0 , y =−1. 0 1

Rule-4: If the roots of the characteristic Equation are complex

numbers but repeated (same) say a ± ib, a ± ib, c ±id , … … … … … … .then the
solution of the given Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relation is
written as
n
a n=r 1 ¿ ¿

b d
where r = √ a + b and tan θ = a ∧¿ r = √ c +d and tan θ = c and so on
1
2 2
1 2
2 2
2

(Remark: If in a ± ib, “a” is negative thenθ =π −tan 1 |ba|)

−1

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a + 8 a n n−2 +16 an− 4=0.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a +18 a n n−2 + 81 an−4 =0.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a =−8 a n n−3 .

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a +16 a n n−4 =0.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a + 81 a n n−4 =0.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a + k n

4
a n−4=0where k is real
number.
Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a −81 a n n−4 =0.
Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a −16 a n n −4 =0.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation: a −k n

4
an−4 =0where k is real
number.
Q. If h=1 and n> m then Δ n
x (m)=?

(a) 0 (b) m! (c) (m−1)! (d) None of these.

Q. If h=1 and n=m then Δ n (m)
x =?

(a) 0 (b) m! (c) (m−1)! (d) None of these.

To express a polynomial in terms of Factorial Notation.

4 k 3−3 k 2+ 4 k +7=4 k (3) +9 k (2) +5 k ( 1) +7

To express a polynomial in terms of Factorial Notation.

2 ( 2) ( 1)
3 k +2 k + 4=a k +b k +c

Solving Linear Non-Homogeneous Recurrence Relation with Constant

Coefficients
The most general Linear Non-Homogeneous Recurrence Relation with Constant Coefficients is given by
a n=c 1 an−1+ c 2 a n−2+ c 3 a n−3+ … … … … … .+c k an−k + f (n) where

{
βn i . e . f ( n ) is an exponetial function of n
cosβn∨sinβn i. e . f ( n ) is trigonometric function of n
f (n)= α 1 n + α 2 n +α 3 n k−2+ … … … … … .+ α k+1
k k−1
i. e . f ( n ) is an algebraic function of n
β n F (n) F ( n )=
{ k k−1
cosαn∨sinαn
k −2
α 1 n +α 2 n + α 3 n +… … … … … .+ α k +1
In this case the general solution is given by a =a +a where a is the n
(h)
n
( p)
n
(h)
n

solution of the corresponding Linear Homogeneous Recurrence

Relation with Constant Coefficients and a is the particular solution. ( p)
n

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

k
y k +1+3 y k −1−4 y k =5

1 n 1
Case: 1 If f ( n )=β then a β provided ϕ ( β ) ≠ 0.
( p) n
n
n = β=
ϕ ( E) ϕ( β)

If ϕ ( β )=0then if the recurrence relation is:

1
(a) ( E−β ) a n=β nthen a n =
( p) n n−1
β =n β
( E−β )
1 n(n−1) n−2
(b) ( E−β )2 a n=β nthen
( p)
an =
( E−β )2
β=
n
2!
β

1 n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) n−3

(c) ( E−β )3 a n=β nthen a n = β n=
( p)
β
( E−β ) 3
3!

And so on.

1 n 1
Case: 1 If f ( n )=β then a ϕ ( β ) provided
( p) n
n
n = β= β ϕ ( β ) ≠ 0.
ϕ ( E)

Q. Which of the following is the particular solution of the recurrence

relation?
y k +1+3 y k −1−4 y k =5k

5k 5k+1 5k−1
(a) 8
(b) 8
(c) 8
(d) None of these.
Example: Solve the recurrence relation:
n
un +2+ 4 u n−3 un+1=5
Q. Which of the following is the particular solution of the recurrence
relation?
n
a n=−3 a n−1 −3 an−2−an−3+ 3 (−1 ) .

n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 )(−1 )n n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 )(−1 )n

(a) 2
(b) 6
n
n ( n−1 ) (−1 )
(c) 2
(d) None of these.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

n −n
27 a n−54 a n−1+3 6 an−2−8 a n−3=5(2 3 ).

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

9 a n−15 an−1−32 a n−2−12 an−3=π (−1 )n 2n 3−n .

Q. Which of the following is the solution of the corresponding

homogeneous recurrence relation?
2
4 an −an−1=3 n −4 n+5

(a) c 1 4
n
(b) c 1
−n
4 (c) c (−4)
1
n
(d) None of these.
Case-II: If f ( n ) is a polynomial function of ‘n ’ then we expressϕ ( E ) as F ( Δ )
1
using E ≡1+ Δand expand F ( Δ ) in ascending powers of Δ using Binomial
Theorem.
Example: Solve the recurrence relation:
2
4 an −an−1=3 n −4 n+5

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

2
4 y k+2−20 y k+1 +25 y k =k .

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

2
y k +1−8 y k +4 1 y k−1=3 k −4 k +5.

Example: Solve the difference equation:

2
4 Δ a n−4 Δan + an=π .

Example: Solve the difference equation:

2 −3 n+4
4 Δ a n−4 Δan + an=(−2 ) .

Q. Which of the following is the solution of the corresponding

homogeneous recurrence relation?
( 2 Δ−1 )−2 ( π ) =?

(a) 2 π (b) π (c) π / 2 (d) None of these.

1 ( ( m) ) n
( m+1 )
1 ( (m ) ) n( m+2 )
Formula: Δ
n =
m+1
, Δ2
n =
(m+1)(m+ 2) and so on.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

−3 a n+2 +8 an +1−5 an =2n −3 n+4 .
2

Q. If h=1 then Δ 16 [x 14−2 x 13+ 3 x (15 )]=?

(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 15 ! (d) None of these.

Q. If h=1 then 16 14
Δ [x −2 x + 3 x
13 ( 16 )
]=?

(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 15 ! (d) None of these.

Case-III: If f ( n ) is cosβn or sinβn then we express
(e ¿ ¿ iβn+ e ) (e ¿ ¿iβn−e )
−iβn −iβn
cosβn= ¿ And sinβn= ¿ and proceed as per the Case-I.
2 2i
Remark: If f ( n ) is cosh ⁡( βn) or sinh ⁡(βn) then we express
−βn − βn
(e ¿ ¿ βn+ e ) (e ¿ ¿ βn−e )
cosh ⁡( βn)= ¿ And sinh ⁡( βn)= ¿ and proceed as per the Case-I.
2 2
Example: Solve the recurrence relation:
a n+2=−5 an+ cos 4 n.

Case-IV: If f ( n )=β n
F (n) where F ( n ) = { k
α 1 n +α 2 n
k−1
cosαn∨sinαn
k−2
+ α 3 n +… … … … … .+ α k+ 1 then
1 1
a (np) =
ϕ ( E)
n
β F ( n ) =β
n

ϕ ( βE )
F (n) And proceed as per the Case-II or Case-III.

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

(E¿¿ 2−E+56)an=2 (n −3)¿.
n 2
Definition: Let {a } ={a , a , a , a , … ….. } be a sequence of real numbers. Then
∞
k k=0 0 1 2 3

the generating function of the given sequence is defined as

G ( x ) =a0 x 0+ a1 x1 +a 2 x 2+ a3 x3 + … … … … … .

Or G ( x ) =∑ a k x
k

k=0

Q. What is the generating function of the sequence: {1,1, 2!1 , 31! , 41! , … … .}
 Or
{ }
∞
1
Q. What is the generating function of the sequence: n! n=0

Or
{ }
∞
1
Q. What is the generating function of the sequence: k! k=0

Q. What is the generating function of the sequence: {1 } k ∞

k=0

Sequence {a } Generating Function G(x)

∞
k k=0

∞
{ 1k } k=0 1 −1
=( 1−x )
(1−x )

{ }
∞
1 ex
k! k=0

∞ −1
{ α k }k=0 1
=( 1−αx )
( 1−αx )

∞ m
{ C (m , k) } k=0 { 1+ x }

{ k +1 }k=0
∞
1
2
= (1−x )−2
( 1−x )

Q. What is the generating function of the finite sequence: { 1,1,1,1 }

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

a n+1−2 a n=0 with a =1.
0

Remark: If we solve the given recurrence relation by operator method

then then the solution is a =2 . n
n

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

a n=4 an−1 +5n−1 with a =2. 1

Remark: If we solve the given recurrence relation by operator method

then then the solution is a =( 4 ) 4 +5 .
n
−3 n
n
Example: What is the generating function of the recurrence relation:
a n+2=3 a n+1−2 a n with a =0 , a =1.
0 1

G ( x )−a0−a1 x G ( x )−a0
Shortcut: a n+2 →
x
2
, a n+1 →
x
, an →G( x)

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

a k =3 a k−1 for k =1,2,3 , … … … . And initial condition a =2. 0

a k =2(3¿¿ k) . ¿

Example: Solve the recurrence relation:

a n=8 a n−1 +10
n −1
with a =9. 1

1 n
a n= (8 ¿ ¿ n+10 ). ¿
2
discrete.openmathbooks.org/dmoi2/section-27.html
Generating Functions (openmathbooks.org)

−1−k
y k =1+ 2

Q. What is the generating function of the sequence: { 1,11,111,1111 ,, … … . }

Q. What is the generating function of the sequence: { 2,4,10,28 , … … . } ?