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EDUC 200 The Educational Theory of Marcus Fabius Quintilianus
EDUC 200 The Educational Theory of Marcus Fabius Quintilianus
Biography
Quintilian is thought to have been born somewhere around 35-40 A. D.
(Kennedy, 1969, p. 15) in Calagurris, now known as Calahorra, Spain. He studied in
Rome, later becoming a teacher of oratory and rhetoric (Mayer, 1967, p. 101). His
father had been an orator before him (Russell, 2001, p. 143, Book IX) but never was
as prominent as his son would become.
Quintilian's major work titled Institutio Oratoria (The Orator's Education) was a
series of twelve books containing lessons involved with the form of rhetoric. In Book
I Quintilian recommended that the orator's education in rhetoric begin as a young
boy, in the tradition of the Greeks. Book II then dealt with the foundations of
rhetoric, leading to the next nine books, in which the first five detailed 'Invention'
and ended with "Elocution, with which was associated Memory and Delivery" (Ibid.,
p. 63, Book I).
His final book depicted the orator in every facet of life from "his character, the
principles of undertaking, preparing, and pleading cases, his style, the end of his
active career and the studies he may undertake thereafter" (Ibid., p. 63, Book I).
Overall, it was Quintilian's hope to "educate the perfect orator" (Ibid., p. 63, Book I),
by providing a template of teaching rhetoric as well as formatting methods of
teaching altogether through his books.
Rhetorical Theory
I. THEORY OF VALUE. What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning?
What are the goals of education?
Quintilian believed that all forms of knowledge were equally important and
that speaking, writing and reading were the most dominant of skills. He illustrated
that talent, good health and valuable attributes are "of no profit without a skilled
teacher, persistence in study, and much continued practice in reading, writing and
speaking" (Ibid., p. 65, Book I). Learning to speak well was so important that
Quintilian advised that upon the child's birth, the parent must "make sure that the
nurses speak properly" for the parent must "devote the keenest possible care, from
the moment he becomes a parent, to fostering the promise of an orator to be"
(Ibid., p. 67, Book I). If such resources were unavailable, Quintilian later insisted
there be "one person always at hand who knows the right ways of speaking, who
can correct on the spot any faulty expression used by others" (Ibid., p. 71, Book I).
Under Quintilian's advice, Greek was to be taught first because it was where
true instruction began, followed by Latin. After learning to speak, read and write,
Quintilian stressed that other subjects and skills be mastered, however, he
maintained that speaking correctly was paramount. When learning 'grammatici' or
the "study of correct speech and the interpretation of the poets" (Ibid., p. 103) all
other skills were tied in for:
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Overall, Quintilian believed that the goal of education, aided by his belief
and aim to create the 'perfect orator', was to create an upstanding citizen in every
facet of everyday life and to cultivate an individual above the basic standards of
nature. In his final book he urged all to fully explore "the majesty of oratory, the
best gift of gods to man, without which all things are dumb and robbed of present
splendor and future remembrance" further adding "let us all strive for the best,
because in so doing we shall either reach the summit or at least look down on many
below us" (Ibid., p. 341, Book XII).
Quintilian believed that knowledge was not inherent and could only be
acquired through proper education; that is, knowledge exists, but must be attained
through proper training and learning. Quintilian believed that the proper training
one must undertake to possess knowledge is the art of oratory. In the final passage
of book two of Institutio Oratoria, Quintilian discussed the 'instrument' of oratory,
stating that instrument was "that without which the material cannot be shaped into
the work which we wish to produce" (Ibid., p. 415, Book II). He later went on to state
"knowledge needs no 'instrument' because it can be perfect even if it does nothing"
further adding that the artist, in this case the orator, needs the 'instrument' like "an
engraver needs his chisel, and a painter his brush" (Ibid., p. 415-16, Book II).
Although Quintilian believed that knowledge is not inherent, he did believe that
humans were born with the natural quest for reason:
"There is no foundation for the complaint that only a small minority of human
beings have been given the power to understand what is taught to them, the
majority being so slow-witted that they waste time and labor. On the contrary, you
will find that the greater number quick to reason and prompt to learn. This is natural
to man: as birds are born for flying, horses for speed, beasts of prey for ferocity, so
are we for mental activity and resourcefulness. This is why the soul is believed to
have its origin in heaven." (Ibid., p.65, Book I).
Quintilian discussed lies and lying at great length due to the fact that he was
teaching the art of oratory. Overall, he believed "a good man only pleads good
causes, and truth itself is defense enough for them without the help of learning"
(Ibid., pp 214-15, Book XII). He further explained that at times, the orator must
defend a guilty person, stating "it is not useless to consider how one may on
occasion speak for a falsehood or even for an injustice, if only because it enables us
to detect and refute such things more easily" further illustrating that "equity is
better understood by looking at the opposite" (Ibid., pp 214-15, Book XII). This last
statement expressed Quintilian's feelings about the existence of lies and how he felt
they were not virtuous, but prevalent nonetheless.
In book IV, Quintilian discussed lies in his passage titled "false narratives";
two types of which he described are "one which depends on external evidence" and
"one which can be supported by the speaker's ingenuity" (Ibid., p. 263, Book IV).
When discussing the latter narrative, Quintilian asserted when lying, one must
invent a lie that is "feasible", and "have credible structure...confirming person, place
or time...if possible linking it to something which is true, or be confirmed by an
argument which has a role in the cause" (Ibid., p. 265, Book IV). This, in contrast to
the first statement, illustrates Quintilian as an advocate of lying. He later added:
"Fictions drawn entirely from circumstances outside the case reveal that we have
taken a license out to lie" (Ibid., p. 265, Book IV). He did, however, warn against the
use of false narrative, cautioning others to "avoid self-contradiction and
inconsistency" further advising "the orator will need to remember his fictions
throughout the pleading because falsehoods commonly slip the mind; the common
saying that 'a liar should have a good memory' is very true" (Ibid., p. 265, Book IV).
III. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ
from other species? What are the limits of human potential?
The human being, according to Quintilian, was a model of the gods whose
soul was a product of heaven and whose mind was meant for reason and learning
(Ibid., p. 65, Book I, also p. 235, Book XII). He stated that reason was "natural to
man: as birds are born for flying, horses for speed, beasts of prey for ferocity, so are
we for mental activity and resourcefulness" (Ibid., p. 65, Book I). Multiple factors
defined a man in the time of Quintilian. In the seventh chapter of his third book, he
declared that "before the man's life will come country, parents and ancestors" and
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that the "praise of this man must be based on mind, body and external
circumstances" (Ibid., p.107, Book III).
"these critics do not appreciate the power of the human mind; it is so nimble and
quick, so ready to look in all directions, that it cannot even concentrate exclusively
on one thing at a time but applies its powers to many objects, not only on the same
day but at the same moment." (Ibid., p. 245, Book I)
Quintilian also pointed out that the "path to excellence...is extremely easy"
further adding "we have only to watch nature and follow her" (Ibid., p. 381, Book
VIII). Later he explained that "nature created us to have the right attitudes...to learn
the better course" and that "it ought to be easier to live according to nature than
against her will" (Ibid., p. 331, Book XII). He did have great faith in humans and their
ability to acquire knowledge despite their shortcomings, for he felt that even when
one does not succeed, they leave behind a solid foothold for others to continue.
"But even if we fail, those who make an effort to get to the top will climb
higher than those who from the start despair of emerging where they want to be,
and stop right at the foot of the hill." (Ibid., p. 61, Book I)
In the end, Quintilian believed that the power of the human mind was great
and that we are all "capable of reaching its end" (Ibid., p.329, Book XII).
IV. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge
acquired?
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Quintilian believed that learning was the acquisition of knowledge and its
associated abilities and competently committing them to memory. He stated that
children must begin learning at an early age for "the elements of reading and
writing are entirely a matter of memory" which is at "it's most retentive" during
childhood (Ibid., p. 73, Book I). Memory is an important trait and is the key feature
of learning according to Quintilian, and he felt that there was nothing more
important than "practice for nourishing and strengthening it" (Ibid., p. 81, Book I).
Adding to the importance of rehearsal, he later stated that "continual practice...is in
fact the most effective way of learning" (Ibid., p. 385, Book II).
Quintilian asserted that memory was a "gift of nature" which is "improved by
cultivation" (Ibid., p. 59, Book XI). As an orator, it is importent to keep a good
memory full of the acquired knowledge rooted in "examples, laws, rulings, sayings
and facts which the orator must possess in abundance and have always at his
fingertips"; Quintilian called this reserve the "treasury of eloquence"(Ibid., p. 59,
Book XI). In order to perform any type of learning, Quintilian thought it important to
chain all knowledge together, that way retrieval was possible. Learning is an
important function, and Quintilian deemed it so stating:
"It has to be admitted that learning does take something away-as a file takes
something from a rough surface, or a whetstone from a blunt edge, or age from
wine-but it takes away faults, and the work that has been polished by literary skills
is diminished only in so far as it is improved" (Ibid., p. 337, Book II)
Memory is a learning tool that, like all other instruments, must be practiced
and reviewed. Quintilian warned that one "must beware of trusting the first memory
too readily" advising that repeating and reviewing avoids any hasty mistakes and
ensures "speed and continuity (Ibid., p. 79, Book I).
Quintilian believed that the teacher was one of the most important elements
in a child's life, and that everyone plays a role. From birth, all those that have any
type of contact with the child impact the child's education. In their formative years,
which Quintilian believed to be before the age of seven (Ibid., p. 73, Book I), the
child is learning from his family, nurses, 'paedagogi' (slaves responsible for the
"early training and behavior" [Ibid., p. 69, Book I]), and peers. The teacher was to
play a more important role in the lives of children and their education more so than
any other influence, for Quintilian believed that the teacher's obligation was to both
"foster the good qualities he finds in each of the students, and, so far as possible, to
make good of their deficiencies, and correct or change some of their
characteristics...he is the guide and molder of the minds of others" (Ibid., p. 331,
Book X).
" Let him be strict, but not grim, and friendly but not too relaxed as to incur
neither hatred nor contempt; he should talk a great deal about what is good and
honorable; the more often he has admonished his pupils, the more rarely will he
need to punish them; he must not be given to anger, but he must not turn a blind
eye to things that need correction; he must be straightforward in his teaching,
willing to work, persistent but not obsessive; must answer questions readily and put
questions to himself to those who do not ask any; in praising his pupils'
performances he must neither grudging nor fulsome (the one produces dislike of
the work, the other complacency); in correcting faults, he must not be biting, and
certainly not abusive for many have been driven away from learning because some
teachers rebuke pupils as though they hate them" (Ibid., p. 271, Book II).
The most qualified teachers were sought in Quintilian's vision, and were to be
men who were well learned in a variety of subjects and capable of higher reasoning.
If they are not, then the pupil may never learn proper material for "the unlearned
teacher may well approve faulty work and force his pupils to like it because of his
own judgment" (Ibid., p. 281, Book II). Because all students possess different
learning styles and traits, Quintilian stressed that the teacher must take note of
this. He claimed that it is "a virtue in a teacher that he should carefully observe the
differences in the abilities of the pupils whose education he has undertaken, and
understand the direction to which their various talents incline" (Ibid., p. 317, Book
II). Realizing what natural bent the pupil may have a propensity for, a teacher must
nurture. Two things for which Quintilian stressed teachers avoid were "trying to do
the impossible and diverting the pupil from what he can do best to something for
which he is less well suited" (Ibid., p. 323, Book II). The major duty of the teacher,
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Quintilian urged, is to have "pointed out the right course at the start than to rescue
a pupil from errors into which he has already fallen" (Ibid., p. 313, Book II). In order
to do this, Quintilian illustrated methods for the teacher to follow.
"When their young are tender and feeble, they collect food in their own
mouths and divide it among them; but when the young seem fully grown, they
teach them to go a little way from the nest and circle around it, leading the way
themselves, until they have proved their strength and are allowed the freedom of
the sky and left to rely on their own self-confidence" (Ibid., p. 315, Book II).
Quintilian deals little with defining what society is, or what the ideal society
should be, but does provide a glimpse as to how the orator must be as a member of
society and how important the spread of certain cultural aspects are. Clabaugh and
Rozycki (2007) explained that socialization is a "process of cultural transmission"
which consists of a "system of shared meanings, language, customs, values, ideas
and material goods" (p. 13). During the time of Quintilian, Roman culture was
paramount, and was the basis for a large percentage of the western world.
Quintilian believed that the important aspects of society revolved around language,
morals and education as well as interaction during the education. Quintilian
considered the orator to be a man of "not only exceptional powers of speech, but all
the virtues of character as well" (Russell, 2001, p. 57, Book I). He further added that
the philosophers were not the men to be left in charge of placing any moral code on
society, but the orator was "fit for management of public and private business, and
can guide cities by his counsel, give them firm basis by his laws, and put them right
by his judgments"; he further added that orators "are often obliged to speak of
justice, courage, temperance and the like" (Ibid., p. 57, Book I).
Quintilian believed that public schools were a vital institution involved in the
educational process and more important than home education. When disputing the
claims that home education is far superior to public schooling, Quintilian addressed
two of the major issues: questionable morality possessed by both the school system
and the student's peers, and the value of one on one instruction opposed to
classroom setting. When arguing the position of morals of the public schools,
Quintilian contended that the morals at home are just as compromised if not more
so stating that "the whole difference lies in the in the nature of the individual and
the attention he receives" (Ibid., p. 85, Book I). He insisted that the child may have
a "natural bent towards evil" that cannot be corrected without proper guidance or
that he may have "a teacher of bad character" (Ibid., p. 85, Book I).
Quintilian made it quite clear that only males were to be the educated ones
of Roman society. He does not once mention the role, methods for teaching or
barely the existence of females in his work. One of the few mentions of females in
his books deals with nouns and gender variations involving verbs and nouns in book
IX.
Quintilian further advised the orator to "ensure the judge's goodwill" and to
"take advantage of the judge's character qualities" (Ibid., pp. 187-89, Book IV). He
ended book IV by stating "we need the judge's opinion...and it cannot be changed
unless we make him receptive and attentive to what we are going to say" (Ibid., p.
199, Book IV). In the end, Quintilian did cement the importance of the orator when
attempting to achieve consensus through the person whose opinion was most
important:
"When the judge assigned to us is the people, or some persons drawn from
the people, and those who are to pronounce the verdict are unlearned and
uneducated countrymen, we must bring into play every device that we think will
help to secure our aims" (Ibid., p. 311, Book XII).
References
Clabaugh, G., Rozycki, E. (2007). School and Society: A Systemic View. Oreland, PA:
New Foundations Press
Gwynn, A. (1964). Roman Education: from Cicero to Quintilian. New York: Russell
and Russell.
Mayer, F. (1967). The Great Teachers. New York: The Citadel Press.
Pascal, N. (Apr. - May, 1984) "The Legacy of Roman Education". The Classical
Journal, Vol. 79, No. 4, pp. 351-355