CHAPTER I

ICONOGRAPHY OF EARLY BAGAN PERIOD

Prior to the Bagan civilized stage, there were existed forerunners of ancient Myanmar

protohistoric sequences. It can easily indicate that the concrete evidences of Pyu and

Mon civilization flourished in both of upper and lower Myanmar. Pyu can be

tentatively identified that they were settled in front of Bago ranges and Mon can also

be behind the ranges at the southern valley of Sittaung River.1 In the first half of the

first millennium AD, Pyu could be mostly seen, in upper Myanmar regions and along

the valleys of Ayeyawaddy River and its tributes, together with their civilized stage

such as the urbanization system and various artifactual evidences. The ancient Pyu

can also be called as P'iao in the contemporary of Chinese records.2 In the same way,

Mon were also be flourished in lower Myanmar regions paralleled to another

Mainland Southeast Asian regions such as, Loburi, Funan and so on. In the contextual

evidences, it might probably be the contemporary records as follow,

“Chinese pilgrim during the 7th century also described a state called

Duoluobodi, located west of a place called Isanapura and east of

Sriksetra. The former was a large centre in Cambodia, while the latter

refers to Myanmar.”3

In that time, the exotic traders crossed through the water ways while the Mainland

Southeast Asia has so many rivers and streams like fish bones. In other way, it can be

assumed that the rising of exploration in Mainland Southeast Asian regions. In

1
(a) Luce, “Mons of The Pagan (Bagan) Dynasty”, JBRS, Vol. XXXVI, Part 1, P. 4
(b) Ba Shin, taemf&xmt&ifujrefrmEkdifiH (Myanmar Before the Anawrattha), Yangon, Ava Press, 3rd
Ed. 1998, P. 111
2
Luce, “Names of the Pyu”, JBRS, XXII, p. 90
3
Highan & R Thosarat, Prehistoric Thailand From Early Settlement To Sukhothai, Thailand, River
Books, 1998, P. 175
 2

Myanmar, Ayeyawady River was mighty one to be the origins of ancient civilization

and its efficient fertile land. And other tributaries were also the same such as

Chindwin River and others tributary.

In the same time, the grate advance of shipping was developed in the coastal

regions and archipelago. The sea route supported to be more advance in Southeast

Asian regions. Concerning the advance of shipping in Southeast Asian regions, it can

be seen that_

“……………. a great advance in shipping took place all over the seas

of the south. The pioneers were Indonesian no less than Indian. The

Burmese word oabFm saṅbaw_ a word shared with several other

languages of Further Indian and Madagascar_ is derived from Old

Malay.”1

And Luce also commented on that Myanmar word saṅbaw and its context_ Old

Malay sāmvau, Old Javanese sambo, Old Burmese saṅphaw, Khmer saṁbau,

Siamese (Thailand) sāṁbhau, Malagassi (Malagasy) sambu.2

Hence, the above comment indicates that the ancient Southeast Asian regions

could be advance in shipping to communicate among each others. Coincidently the

Pyu settled their urbanization pattern along the river course of Ayayawady River. But

the most flourishing stage of Pyu civilization can be assumed that the S'riksetra Pyu3

in comparison with the Buddhist cultural dissemination. The archaeological remains

of S'risketra Pyu were obviously connected to those of Bagan from 10th century to 13th

century. Luce also commented the relationship between S'riksetra Pyu and Bagan that

the architectural fabric of S'riksetra such as small vaulted chapels viz. Bebe,

1
Luce, “The Ancient Pyu”, JBRS, XXVII, III, 1937, p.239
2
Ibid, p. 239
3
Ibid, p.242
 3

Lemyetna, Zegu etc. prototypes of the Myanmar temples of Bagan with the references

of brick structures, the true pointed arch, the bricks of the voussoir.1 Since that time of

Pyu influenced on upper Myanmar, it can be traced by Luce that the periphery of

S'riksetra was described as_

“On the east it adjoined Camboja, on the south the sea, on the

southwest (probably a slip for south-sea) Dvāravatī or Old Siam, on the

west Eastern India, on the north Nanchao. The Pyu claimed to have 18

subject kingdoms, mostly to the south of Burma: but as the list includes

Palembang, Java, Srāvasti, Chamba etc., it is largely an empty vaunt.”2

The Etymology of Ayeyawady River on which Bagan is relied

The term “Ayeyarwady” or its former name “Irrawaddy” might be adapted

and descended from the name of river “Ravi” which flowing in the northern region of

Indus River valley. Ravi River was known as Parushani or Iravati to Indians and this

river originates in the Himalaya and flowing into the southern Indus River together

with other four tributaries. The names “Ayeyarwady” or “Irrawaddy” might be

believed to have derived either from the Sanskrit name Iravati, a sacred river and

minor goddess in Indian mythology, or from her son Airavata, the elephant mount of

Indra.3 The Ayeyarwady River is the central celebrated river of Myanmar from upper

regions to lower. Moreover, Ayeyarwady River could be exploited in so many

purposes of ancient Pyu as well as proper Myanmar; the sequence of ancient

Myanmar civilization from the primitive to protohistoric series; to historical series as

1
Luce, “The Ancient Pyu”, JBRS, XXVII, III, 1937, p. 245
2
Ibid, p.250
3
(a) Chhibber, The Geology of Burma, London, Macmillan Press, 1934, P.10
(b) Harvey, History of Burma, London, Frank Cass & Co. Ltd, 1967, P.6
 4

well as up to date. For instance, it can be shown as Anyathian Culture (the Lower and

Upper Pāla eolithic sequence) was discovered along the Ayeyarwady River bank;

almost all of the Pyu city states; Beikthano, Halin, Sriksetra, Maing Mao and Waddi

are relying on the Ayeyawady River valley regions; the first Myanmar Empire,

Bagan, was also relied on the Ayeyawady River absolutely.

The Context of the Early Bagan Buddhist Culture

Consequently the art of Bagan is gradually progressed around the beginning of 11th

century AD and related to the Indian influences since its initial points; the phases of

pre-Bagan period_ Ancient Pyu and Mon period. The Buddhist art and symbols of

Bagan established adapting from the style of Pāla art.1 Likewise, in the second half of

11th century, it might be contemporarily with the traces of Tibetan art; for instance,

the fragment of scroll painting2 discovered at the Taungbon Lokanatha (No.315)3

looks affinity of the Tibetan Buddhist art. The traditions of painting, which were

influenced by Indian origins, can be defined that those of central Asian; the Myanmar

traditions of Bagan and those of Tibitan.4

The early style of Bagan art works can be approached by the technological

aspect and the aesthetic aspect. The style of early Bagan icons was based on the static

1
U Pho Kyar, ajrmufydkif;Ak'¨bmomr[m,me*dkPf; (Northern Buddhism; MahāyanaGang), Sitagu
Buddhist University Press, 2006, p. 181
2
It was discovered by Pierre Pichard of the E.F.E.O in 1984. This is the earliest one in Myanmar as the
Textile paintings of Bagan Period.
3
(a) Pratapaditya Pal, “Fragmentary Cloth Paintings from Early Pagan And Their Relations with Indo-
Tibetan Traditions”, The Art of Burma New Studies, Donald M. Stadner, ed., Marg Publications,
Mumbai, 1999, p79-80
(b) Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture of Old Burma, UK, Kiscadale, 1996, p.22 (Hereafter this
will be cited as Stranchan, Pagan Art and Architecture)
4
Philip Rawson, Indian Painting, France, Pierre Tisn Press, 1961, p.5
 5

in massive composition. First of all, in architectural style, the early architecture was

not built as the vertical structure but horizontal in abundance.1 And the early buildings

were composed with the garden or the appropriate space which harmonized with the

main building e.g. Lokananda stupa, Buphaya stupa, Nagayon temple, East and West

Phetlake, Wet Kyi Inn Gubyauk Gyi temple, Kyaukku Cave temple, Nanphaya

temple, Nathlaungkyaung temple, Ngakywenataung Stupa and so on

In architecture, lighting system was not matured and the major concept may be

prepared for solitude so that the pilgrimages can be pleased or meditate in the silent

space and can pay homage to the image of Gotama Buddha. The main ambulatory

hall of the early building was shouldered by the central pole which has four sides to

be enshrined the Buddha images. Most of the early buildings are looked like the one

storey cottage and have the receding roof prominently and most resembled with the

natural sandstone cave.

The prominent style of early temples can be seen as the perforated stone or

stucco architraves with the decorations of lotus or flamboyant pediments and the

receding roof. For the early buildings, the distinctive evidence is that the sandstone

buildings were built with tiny decorations. In these stone buildings, the art of stone

carving including many decorative symbols are composed likely Mon and Indian

style.2 Kyaukku Cave Temple had many stone carvings likely Indian Pāla style and

Nan Phaya stone temple have Mon style.3 In Kyaukku Umin, some clay tablets4 with

1
Luce, “The Greater Temples of Pagan (Bagan),” JBRS, X, ii in the 5th Anniversary Publications No.
2, Rangoon (Yangon), Burma Research Society press, P. 171
2
Fig.(8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15)
3
Forchhammer, Report on the Kyaukku Temple at Pagan, Superintendent Central Press, Rangoon,
reprint 1964, p.16 (Hereafter this will be cited as Forchhammer, Kyaukku Temple)
4
Fig.(11)
 6

the inscription of ancient Mon, Myanmar and Nagari characters were found.1 But,

there were mostly influenced by the Indic culture.2 The ancient Mons had been

exposed to Indian influence a thousand years longer before Bagan.3 In Southeast Asia,

the ancient Mon was related to the Siam4 which was once not only Thailand but also

Mon land neighbouring to the ancient culture of Khmers.5 In 7th century AD, the Mon

Kingdom of Dvaravati6 was at its height.7 In Early Bagan Period, epigraphic

evidences indicate the trace of adaptation from the ancient Mon. And then, the

decorative style of ancient Mon influenced on the Early Bagan religious buildings e.g.

the traces of Buddhist Jataka plaques of Phet leik double stupas, Shwe San Daw stupa,

Shwe Zigon stupa as well as those of Ananda Temple. While the beginning of Early

Bagan Period was prosperous not only in political power but also in religious

dedications, they tried to build the Buddhist religious monuments for their triump.

Perhaps traces of building Buddhist monuments can be existed before the succeeding

of Mon and Pyu civilized stages; pre-Aniruddha time. For instances, it seems those of

Bu Phaya, Ngakywenadaung, Htupa Laysudan, etc8. The distinct type of architecture,

in Early Bagan Period, is that perhaps Puy in plan and structure and Mon in

decoration and stone sculptures.9

1
Forchhammer, Kyaukku Temple, p.16
2
(a) Ibid, p.15
(b) Quaritch Wales: Prehistory and Religion in South-East Asia, London, Bernard Quaritch Ltd.,
1957, p.2
3
G. H. Luce, “Mons of the Pagan Dynasty”, p.12
4
Luce meant the former name of Thailand
5
Ibid, p.1
6
The name of the ancient civilization of Mon in Chao Phara valley of Thailand
7
Ibid, p.2
8
Fig.(80)
9
Ibid, p.12
 7

Although the root of Bagan architecture is evidently associated with the

architectural traces of S'riksetra Pyu, the traces of Sri Lanka typed stupas can be

found with the association of Early Bagan phases e.g. the traces on the murals of the

interior of Myinpya Gu stupa1. The later phase of S'riksetra Pyu civilization is

idiosyncratic remains as the repertoire of the prototype of Bagan Buddhist religious

buildings; the stupas Baw Baw Gyi, Phaya Mar, Phaya Gyi and the temples Rahandar

Gu, Phaya Htaung, Laymyat Hnar, Be Be, etc. Moreover, the iconographic evidences

of Bodhisattva votive tablets were mostly assembled to those of Early Bagan Period.

In contrary, some controversies on the prototype of Bagan visual culture are formed

together with the relationship of trade pass of the northern Rakhine in the boundary of

Bangladesh. But, specifically the iconographic traces of northern Rakhine such as

Vesali and Dhanyawady are more resembled to those of Java style that can be found

in those of Borobudur stupa.

Location of Bagan and the Common Ground of Early Bagan Monuments

In Bagan Landscape, the entirely basic geographic factors are along the bank

of Ayerawady River and shadow of the range of eastern Turin mount. They lived and

settled extensively in the flat plane between the valley of the mighty river and the

mountain range. Bagan ancient cultural heritage zone is situated in the central basin of

recent Myanmar along the left side of Ayerawady River with the nine miles

approximately. From southern part of Bagan, Thiripyisara region, to the northern part

of Nyaung Oo cliff, about 9 miles can be measured and it is entirely based on the
1
This type of stupa was similar to the architectural concept of Phet Leik double stupas. There were
built on the cave concept of Early Bagan architectural style together with the stupa typed
superstructure based on the square plinth belonging to the interior cave the artificial cave so called
Umin, associated with the natural cave temple Kyaukku Umin.
 8

Ayerawady River valley and the eastern Turuin mount. Both of the western and

northern part is protected by the water defense of Ayerawady River and eastern is by

mountain ranges.

And the flowing of Ayerawady River from north to south is turning east to

west near the northern part of Nyaung Oo. So both northern and western part of

Bagan was surrounded with the Ayerawady River. The southernmost part of Bagan is

ended at Saytanha Gyi Stupa and the northernmost is ended at Kyaukku Cave Temple.

Bagan cultural zone can be divided geographically such as hinterlands, river side and

sandy plain or semi desert. Hinterlands are determined the area in the foot of Turin

mountain range and around this. As the prominent places in hinterland, there are Mya

dam, Phwar Saw villages, Minnan Thu village, and the places along the River are

Nyaung Oo, Wet Kyi Inn villages, Taungbi village, Myinkaba village and

Thiripyisaya village.

The topographic condition of Bagan is almost flat plain involving some

hillocks slopping toward the west form the foot of Turuin mount. Regionally the

cluster of Buddhist temples and stupas can be grouped in the particular areas as;

In the North, centered on the Nyaung Oo Township, Wetkyi Inn regions

In the South, centered on the Thiripyisara region,

In the East, centered on the Minnanthu and Phwa Saw regions

In the West, along the river side; Taungbi and Myinkaba regions1

The early monuments can usually be found in such places as Thiripyisara;

Myingapa and its environs; the area closed to the northern city wall of Old Bagan and

1
Pyiet Phyo Kyaw, “ausmuf*lOrifrSausmufqpfvuf&mrsm;(The Stone Carvings of Kyaukku Umin Cave
Temple)”, Journal of Myamar Academy of Arts & Science., Vol. V. No. 6B, Yangon, 2007, pp.
291-292 (Hereafter cited as Pyiet Phyo, Kyaukku Umin)
 9

the region of Nyaung Oo Cliff. The Early Bagan monuments are rarely found while

the Middle Bagan monuments are less than one quarter of the whole number of

monuments. The large numbers of monuments are found as Late Bagan monuments.1

According to the architect Pierre Pichard’s Inventory started in 19822, the lists of

Bagan monuments can be counted in the research article of Bob Hudson as follows:

“45 structures to the Early Bagan Period (11th century)

211 to the Middle Bagan Period (12th century)

3
2077 to the Late Bagan Period (13th century)”

To list roughly the specific monuments of early Bagan period, according to

Luce, there are as the Pre-Aniruddha Period_ (1) Caw Rahan’s Sima the ordination

hall (2) Nathlaungkyaung Temple (3) Pebinkyaung Temple (4) Ngakywenadaung

Temple (5) Bu Phaya Stupa; as the Reign of Aniruddha Period_ (1) Pitakat-taik the

library (2) Shinbin-thalyaung the reclining Buddha (3) Manuha Temple (4) Nanphaya

Temple (5) Kyaukku Umin Cave Temple (6) Myinpyagu Stupa (7) Paunggu Temple

(8) Gu Bizat Temple (9) Pasada Zedi (10) Mon temple west of Taungbi Tank (11)

Shwesandaw Stupa4 (12) Lokananda Stupa (13) Shwezigon Stupa (14) Stupa of

Turin Mountain (15) Stupa of Tantkyit Mountain

The Characteristics of Early Bagan Monuments and its Decorations

As for Early Bagan monuments, the choice of architectural landscape was

1
Pyiet Phyo, Kyaukku Umin, p.152
2
Pierre Pichard, “Burma, progress of Work for the Preservation and Restoration of Monuments and
Artifacts at Selected Sites in Burma”, Report submitted to UNESCO, Paris, UNESCO press, 1983,
p.5
3
Bob Hudson: “Restoration and Reconstruction of Monuments at Bagan (Pagan), Myanmar (Burma),
1995 - 2008”, World Archaeology, vol. 40 (4), Routledge, 2008, p.556
4
G.H. Luce, Old Burma-Early Pagan, Vol. I Text, New York, J.J. Augustin Publisher, 1969, p.282
(Hereafter this will be cited as Luce, OBEP, I)
 10

almost the same and not so far away along the River. Then the monuments were built

with the particular space for the pleasant scenes as such the Lawknanda stupa’s, Bu’s

environs and the couple of Phet-Late stupas. In addition, as the most pleasant

landscape, there can be assumed that the environs of Nagayone and Abeyatana’s

temple; Nagayone temple was composed with the solitude compound and woody

garden; Abeyatana temple was on the hillock of which can be gazed far away from

the river side. The next instance is Shwezigon which composed with the gardening

status and associated with the pleasant river view. It can be pointed that the

landscapes of Early Bagan monuments were more suitable to bear the education of

Buddhist religious center to the Bagan populace. And then, these monuments contain

the rich murals of Buddhist religious elements.

Thus, for archaeological landscape of early monuments, there was not so

much lofty and dynamic or energetic type. But its composition is very static and

horizontally massive style.1 The concept of architectural composition is oriented to

bear the solitude and pleasant environs. In other way, no technical advance was

growth in this time and they only want to extend horizontally their subsistence

because of the much wider area and they might not have faced with the dreadful

enemies. So they wanted to compose their building with the solitude sense for

meditation or refreshment.

The early monuments were built with the symbolic elements to indicate the

power and sophistication concerning the Buddhist and other spiritual beliefs. The

religious dedications were complicated in many forms or iconic art of religious

1
G. H. Luce, “The Greater Temples of Pagan”, JBRS, vol. VIII, Part iii, P. 189-98, Fifth Anniversary
Publications No.2 , Selection of Articles from the JBRS(History and Literature), Burma Research
Society, 1959, p.170
 11

elements. The symbol of ogre was very distinguished in the entire regions of Bagan.

The earliest style of ogre sculpture can assume that those of Kyaukku Ohmin’s door

jambs.1 The style of stone carving in Kyaukku Umin was datable with Nanphaya’s to

be built in AD 1060-70.2 So this symbolic material can indicate that the early phase of

Bagan religious dedication might be originated from Indic and northern school of art

concerning the northern Mahāyanist and Tantric sect. The symbolic concept of early

Bagan monuments can also be assumed that the closely related to decline of

Buddhism in Northern India and the rising of Buddhism in Sri Lanka to be a leading

role in the Buddhist world.3

Three-Dimensional Concept Composed in the Early Bagan Monuments

The architectural composition of Early Bagan monuments were richly built

with the sculptural materials; stone, stucco, and wooden works of art. The simple

structure of architecture was designed and accomplished with artistic form and

substance; iconic and aniconic sculptures as representative objects, especially for the

religious beliefs. But in the field of sculpture, Buddhist religious elements has a rich

record, particular in development of the rupa, or Buddha statue, from early

beginnings in northwestern India to its modified forms in Southeast Asian countries.4

The accompaniment of architectural concept in Early Bagan Period, three-

dimensional concept was more emphasized for symbolizing their intentional desire to

build the monuments. There is the prominent view of three-dimensional concept

1
Fig.(13)
2
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, P.49
3
Chutiwongs, Iconography of Avalokitesvara, p.73
4
T.O. Ling, A Dictionary of Buddhism A Guide to Thought and Tradition, New York, Charles
Scribner’s Son Press, 1972, p.26 (Hereafter cited as Ling, Dictionary of Buddhism)
 12

which can be obviously seen together with the form of architecture. The visualization

of temple architecture in Early Bagan was dominated by the embossed exterior

mouldings with stucco motifs. To be balanced symmetrically in visual senses of

temple, the geometric elements were abundantly utilized to bear the lineal three

dimensional forms and projection of exterior stucco walls. The temple structure was

mostly based on the square or rectangular shape also known as mandapa. The

dominated elements of temple design can be seen as the influence of lotus and foliage

paralleled with the patterns of geometric abstract.1 For instance, the three dimensional

elements to support the architectural concept were the pilasters decorated with the

geometric mouldings; foliage and iconic designs, entrance ways decorated with the

façade so called flamboyant pediments; the top structure of temple so called Sikhara

decorated with geometric elements and so on. While the temple architecture of Bagan

was initiated with the geometric arrangements and symbols of religious themes, the

three dimensional concept was simultaneously attached to support the main concept

of architectural purports to be sacred or grandeur and wonderful.

Decorative ways in Monumental Architecture of Bagan

The decorations supported to the architecture can be categorized that two-dimensional

and three-dimensional compositions of Bagan ancient monuments. A two-

dimensional decoration is those of painting with the measurement of length and

breadth. This type of decoration is only composed for the interior or inner spaces on

the wall surfaces. Especially for the causes to get records or be sharing the particular

information, paintings were displayed and created on the inner spaces of the

1
Fig.(20, 43)
 13

monuments. In addition, it can be supposed to be graceful and glorious in its

architectural composition. So many items which could be painted on the wall or

ceiling were varied in the complexity of themes and purposes. The relationship

between murals and Buddhism was described as,

“The painting of murals on walls of monasteries and temples has also

had a long developed and has produced many different styles; the

principal subjects have been, and still are, scenes from life of Buddha,

and from Jātaka stories.”1

Concerning the pointed arches of architectural elements, it can be observed as

following;

“The third group of buildings is that in which the pointed arch is

employed instead of the semicircular arch to span the openings. It

Bagan with the rise of Mohammedan architecture in the East, and

embraces all the buildings of Western Europe, from the time of the

First Crusade to the revival of art in the fifteenth century. This great

series of buildings constitutes what is known as Pointed, or, more

commonly, as Gothic architecture.”2

In ancient architecture of world history, it can be found that all buildings can

be classed under four great divisions in distinguished mode of building in history.3

Firstly the most ancient architectural series is called architecture of the beam, or

trabeated architecture e.g. beams of wood or lintels of stone for the openings, the

doors and column.4 Secondly the distinctive feature is semicircular arch instead of the

1
Ling, Dictionary of Buddhism, p.26
2
Thomas Roger Smith & John Slater, Architecture Classic and Early Christian, EBook, Release Date:
August 22, 2009, London, William Clowes And Sons, 1882, pp.43-44
3
Ibid, p.38
4
Thomas Roger Smith & John Slater, Architecture Classic and Early Christian, p.39
 14

beam to span the openings.1 The third group of architectural elements is that pointed

arches were employed instead of the semicircular arch to span the openings.2 The

fourth group is, since the Renaissance period, more developed in architecture by a

return to the styles of past ages as the complexity and luxury.3 The above four groups

can roughly be demarcated that the first and second groups are concerned with the

Greek and Roman Period; the third was of Early Christian Era or Gothic period and

the fourth was of Renaissance period in transformed to Modern time. The architecture

of Bagan can be paralleled with the third group of world ancient architectural series

especially in the distinguished pointed arches.

Hence, it can be assumed that the pointed arches which can be abundantly

found in Bagan period were uniquely among the Southeast Asian countries. In detail

of Bagan architecture, though the eye witnesses of pointed arches can be abundantly

found in Bagan, the beam of lintel entrance ways and semicircular ways can also be

observed in Early Bagan monuments. For instance, in Kyaukku Umin, the evidences

of wooden beam and semicircular entrance way can be seen; and in Abeyadana

temple, the semicircular arch way can also be seen; in Nagayone temple, the wooden

beams were proved. Especially in Nagayone wooden beams, there can also be seen

the bas-relief carving of human figure together with foliage patterns.4

Three-dimensional type of decorations is those of sculptures and other spatial

or geometric compositions which contained tactile effect or functional intention. The

pilgrims can stay actually in these three-dimensional decorative patterns. For instance,

the pilgrims can sit or stand under the pointed arch patterns; this arch was composed
1
Thomas Roger Smith & John Slater, Architecture Classic and Early Christian, p.40
2
Ibid, p.42
3
Ibid, p.43
4
Fig.(32)
 15

with the geometric themes or spatial value. Sitting under the arch, therefore, can be

assumed that the sitting in the decoration of three-dimensional composition. Three-

dimension is measurement with length, breadth and height or depth and it can also be

measured in two natures; Hollow and Solid.

The hollow type of three-dimensional concept means the architectural space or

spatial value. The solid type is directly related to the sculptural decorations.1 These

two portions of three-dimensional concept are emphasized for the distinguished

factors of Early Bagan monuments.

Three-dimensional decorations are directly related to the architectural

composition and cosmological factors and Buddhist cultural elements. Since the early

Bagan period, the traces of northern phase of Buddhism, Mahāyanist context, can be

found as such bronze icon of Avalokitesvara dated in 3rd quarter of 11th century AD.2

Likewise, in Scovell’s Pawdawmu Stupa, a bronze Avalokitesvara icon was emerged

and dated as the end of 11th century and the early 12th century AD.3 The symbolic

concept of Ogre or monster of time was meant that the monster representing time and

fertility.4

The three-dimensional concept of early Bagan monuments is related not only

to the functional value but also to the spatial and aesthetic value of Early Bagan

architecture. The majority of temple architecture can be divided into two portions for

the enshrinement of Buddha images and the place in where the pilgrims could pray.

1
The visual artistic point of view in correlation between sculpture and architectural concepts can easily
be realized based on the Bagan monumental remains.
2
Chutiwongs, Iconography of Avalokitesvara, p. 85
3
Ibid, p.46
4
Ibid, p.12
 16

Stone Sculptures of Masonry Buildings in Bagan

Sandstone buildings found in Bagan archaeological zone are only four such as

Kyaukku Umin Cave Temple, Shwezigon Stupa, Nanphaya Temple and Kyanzitta

Pitakattaik which is now destroyed by vandalism. One of them, Nanphaya and the

Kyaukku Umin are correlated in the stone carving style, perhaps they can be

concurrence and contemporary. Almost all of these stone masonry monuments are

related to the early phase of Bagan style. In ancient India, monuments after Buddha

Prinivarna, the stone was transformed to that of wood in the religious and royal

foundation during the Maurya dynasty, BC 300.1 Concerning the relationship between

the art of sculpture and the earliest Buddhist art form, Mr. Foucher, the French scholar

of oriental study, said in his “The Beginnings of Buddhist Art” as follow:

“If among the productions of this art (Buddhist Art) the sculptures are

almost the sole supervisors, we have at least preserved to us, notably in

the labeled bas-reliefs of Barhut, documents of the very highest rank.”2

The stone sculpture of Buddhist art was the most popular trend since AD 1st century

in Gandhara, now Taxila and Lahore of Northern Pakistan. At first, the natural stone

caves were the appropriate medium to create the Buddhist architecture with so many

motifs decorated directly on the stone. In addition, where the natural stone caves were

not found was needed to build with reinforcement materials such as stone or baked

bricks and stone pillars. The monuments of west Bengal at Bangarh (Dinajpur

District) can show evidently a number of the sites of urban centre. Burnt bricks,

terracotta drainpipes and ring wells were used for building and during succeeding

1
Foucher, “The Beginnings of Buddhist Art”, The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and Other Essays
Indian And Central-Asian Archaeology, trans by L.A Thomas & F. W Thomas, New Delhi, Asian
Educational Services, 1994, p.3
2
Ibid, p.1-2
 17

periods like Bangarh, the use of burnt bricks were increased more complex.1

The agent material of stone for the architectural fabric was familiar with the

ancient people the ancestor of civilized society since primitive ages. The stone is

durable, hard and the most powerful material for human beings. Through so many

ages of human cultural evolutions, the cultural materials of stone implements were the

most important and useful artifacts. Stone was gradually developed from the handy

tools to bear the stone masonry of architectural fabric such as Parthenon and Great

Pyramid. In short, the concept of stone was more distinctly to be symbolized the

sacred and grandeur themes the religious matters. In Bagan and pre- Bagan period,

most of the Buddhist religious icons were made of sandstone materials to be durable

and longevity. Shwezigon stupa of Early Bagan was built with the sandstone bricks in

very proportionate composition. It was determined as the prototype of Myanmar

proper traditional style in stupa architecture. In Bagan, the stone carvings were mostly

found in association of Early Bagan monuments. The colossal Buddha images of

Bagan can also be seen only in association of Early Bagan monuments such as the

wooden Buddha standing statues of Ananda temple; the sandstone Buddha sitting

statues of Kyaukku Umin; the stucco Buddha sitting statues of Manuha temple; and

the stucco Buddha reclining statues of Shinbin Tharhlaung.2

Additionally, the stone materials are difficult to use properly in constructing

monuments because there are risky to manipulate the stone to bear the regular shape

or satisfied condition. Together with the stone carvings to create the sculptural

objects, the iron or metal works and its forging techniques must be paralleled in

1
National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh, www.banglapedia.org/httpdocs/HT/A_0291.HTM,
downloaded in the date of 20th Sept 2010
2
Fig.(15, 21, 28, 63b)
 18

civilized stages. So the beautiful and tiny stone carvings of Bagan can also be pointed

that the Bagan forging development was associated with the smelting furnace and

controlling the temperature that they needed. In Bagan, only in Early Period, the stone

sculptures were more prominent in portraying the religious elements from the Buddha

enlightenment to other spiritual elements.

Kyaykku Cave Temple, the Sandstones Monuments

Kyaykku cave temple is uniquely prominent place in the northern portion of

Bagan region. This building is mostly relied on the natural sandstone cave and is

covering the façade of natural cave with the artificial sand-stone-bricks structure.

This cave temple is faced to the north and silent in the ravine by the Kyaukku stream.

During the Bagan period, it can be accessible by water way because it is rather

difficult to approach by land routes to reach the ravine where the cave exists.1

In this cave temple, the door jambs of entrance, the important ones, are

decorated with bas-reliefs of many symbolic and didactic elements. There are three

projections of door jamb on both side of the entrance. These jambs are built up with

sand-stone-bricks and had still part of its wooden gate in Forchammer’s time (c.

1890).2 The composition and arrangement of Kyaukku door jambs is assembled with

those of Dinajpur which is now in West Bengal, now at Dacca Museum.3 This

Dinajpur door-jamb was assigned to 10th -11th century AD.4

Kyaukky stone sculptures are most beautiful and uniquely techniques and fine

works of stone carvings of Early Bagan style. Especially three exterior walls; North,
1
Fig.(5)
2
Forchhammer, Kyaukku Temple, p.8
3
Luce, OBEP, II, p.90
4
Ibid, p.90
 19

East and West are contained the rich ornamental composition or symbolic sensibility

which can be seen as the Kirtimukha and the lotus buds in repetitive and alternative

principle of design pattern. In the entrance, the beautiful door jambs with which the

tiny workmanship of stone carvings were set up, and on it, the various kinds of low

reliefs were portrayed. In the arrangement from the lower to upper portions of door

jambs, the ogre reliefs were the most prominent ones which can be identified the

different style of Early Bagan Style. Cloths and ornaments of these ogre reliefs are

mostly distinct among the Bagan plastic arts. Their hair style, wearing of torso and

ornaments are not assembled to the native inhabitants. Forchhammer said in his report

as follows;

“The wild profusion of hair and the way of wearing it I have not met

elsewhere in sculptures in Burma; it is so unlike the known fashions of

the present inhabitants of this country.”1

These ogre reliefs which are fixed in door-jamb’s projecting angles were also

named as Raksasas figures by Professor Luce who said that:

“At the base, fixed in the projecting angles (forehead, nose and chin

resting on their clubs), are pairs of tushy Raksasas, crouched on guard

to frighten villainy; and between them and the door, a comely girl in

swaying stance as she upholds her jar, inviting piety to enter.”2

There are two couples of ogres at each door jamb. In right hand side, one of

two ogres raised the left hand and another hand put on the mace-like weapon or club.

This ogre upraising the left hand wore the earring of horse and elephant jewels. These

zoomorphic earrings had been developed sine the pre-Bagan period. Here, the

symbolic concept of horse and elephant earrings can be approached that the horse was

1
Forchhammer, Kyaukku Temple, p.8
2
Luce, OBEP, I, p.290
 20

usually signified the military might and supremacy and associated with the symbol of

a Cackravartin.1 The horse can be described as Assva, Haya in Indian origins and

rLund-rta, rTa in Tibet origins. The elements of Assva and Haya symbolize the

energy, knowledge, military might and sometimes use as the vahana the vehicle of

Indra and Surya.2 In Tibet traditions, the symbol of rLung-rta and rTa symbolizes the

airy house or wind horse as the symbol of luck and associated with the Vajrāyāna

Buddhism. And rTa also symbolizes the twelve Buddhist astrological year signs.3 In

short, the symbol of horse can be identified that the association of powerful Hindu

gods were portrayed with the horse as the vehicle or auspicious or mighty concept. In

Buddhist Jatakas, the story of Nemi king (Pataki no.541) involved the rTa or chariot

pulled by many horses which symbolize the sun, speed, and powerful energy. The

elephant was resembled to the use of Gaja in India. It symbolizes calm or peaceful

concept and associated with the Indra in Hindu belief.4 The clubs in the ogres hand

were also decorated with the lotus and floral pattern. The next ogre wore the circular

earrings. Both of them were decorated with the complete ornamentations such as the

headgear, bracelets, anklets and waist belt with the dagger. These icons of ogre

decorated on the each door jamb of Kyaukku Umin façade can be suggested that the

traces of Vajrāyāna the later phases of Mahāyanist sect. Because the iconographic

culture of Buddhism might be initiated mostly in the Northern School of Mahāyana

Buddhism, the material culture of Buddhism cannot be based on the nature of

Theravada Buddhism. In Bagan, the adaptation of Buddhist cultural elements may

1
Bunce, Fredrick W., A Dictionary of Buddhist and Hindu Iconography, New Delhi, D.K. Paintworld
(P) Ltd., 1997, p. 21-22 (Hereafter cited as Bunce, Buddhist and Hindu Iconography)
2
Ibid, p.118
3
Ibid, pp. 251, 253
4
Ibid, p.99
 21

also be complicated with the diversity of Northern Buddhist sect after Hindu kings

had been tried to bear merging from Hindu practice to Buddhism in c. 10th century

AD.

Beside the ogre reliefs, the female figure of bas reliefs is with standing attitude

of upholding the Kalasa or spouted pot in left hand. This figure, with kalasa pot and

fine clothing and ornaments, might be symbolized to those of Vajrāyāna or Tantric

Buddhist Pantheon. The origin of the varied and diversified pantheon of the Northern

Buddhist is in some parts of Tantric Buddhism or Vajrāyāna.1 Pantheon means that

the all of gods and goddesses in the community following the same religion.2

Furthermore the mudra of this female figure is a ritual hand pose which can also be

known as Vandana-mudra mostly associated with Amoghapasa Lokeshvara.3

There was no pantheon in the ancient Buddhism also known as Theravada

Buddhism. But in Mahayana, a large number of deities was included with so many

descriptions or advanced forms. In these deities, Bodhisattva and S'akti, consort, are

also included in the large numbers of various forms and representations. Of these, the

goddesses could be symbolized for the wisdom or intelligence such us Prañaparamita

and Tārā. In deification of Tree Jewels of Buddhism since circa AD 300,4 Buddha,

Dharma and Sanga were conceived in the form of deities and worship was freely

offered to them by the Mahayanist in both symbols and human forms known as the

images of the Holy Triad, and out of the three, Dharma was symbolized with

1
Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Calcutta, K. L. Mukhopadhyay, 1958,
p.31(Hereafter this will be cited as Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography)
2
Ibid, p.31
3
Fig.(13)
4
Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, p.32
 22

goddess.1 And so, in Mahayanism, so many kinds of deification were popularly

evolved. Battacharyya commented on the deification of Mahayanism;

“Virtually, there was an epidemic of deification in which every

philosophical dogma, ritualistic literature, abstract ideas, human

qualities, even desires such as sleeping, yawing, and sneezing were

deified or given a deity form.”2

Later, the Mahayanist deifications were diversified into the large number of gods and

goddesses approximately from one hundred and eight kinds of Bodhisattvas.

Simplicity of the girl found at Kyaukku door-jamb can be seen likely the

donor lady with the holy water pot, Kalasa. In contrary, it may be assumed that the

association with the later phases of Mahayanism also known as Tantric Buddhism.

Because of the female figure in comparison with Ogre reliefs, here may probably be

different from the name of Kirtimukha guarding after the donor lady, the female

figure can be identified that the symbol of Dhamma or Wisdom3 and the symbolic

meaning of Kirtimukha or Ogre indicated that the time and fertility.4

Stucco Artworks found in the Early Bagan Monuments

Stucco artworks can be seen as those of stucco carving and moulding. It can

be seen obviously that the artworks of stucco carving were portrayed mostly for the

reliefs or iconic sculptures or decorations such as the image of Buddha or the head of

Buddha, the god and goddess or Nat, Brahmin figure, some other creatures of animal

figures. On other words, stucco moulding artworks can be seen visibly in the purpose

1
Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, p.32
2
Ibid, p.31
3
Ibid, pp.32, 40
4
Philip Rawson, Tantra The Indian cult of Ecstasy, London, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1993, fig-2-3,
p.12-13
 23

of ornamental or decorative patterns such as foliage designs, geometric designs, tiny

ornaments of clothes and dresses, other abstract patterns.

The origins of the Early Bagan iconographic value was those of stone masonry

artworks so that it can be identified as the prototype of Early Bagan visual art and

culture. Especially found in the fabric of Kyaukku Umin cave and its stone sculptures

and reliefs. Likewise, Nanphaya Temple has those of the beautiful sandstone masonry

artworks. In iconographic value, Kyaukku Umin can be seen with the icon of Buddha,

the high relief made of sandstone and plastering with stucco works.1 The style of this

Buddha icon is almost the same to those of Manuha Temple.2 The stone artworks of

Early Bagan style were uniquely fine around the vicinity of Bagan area. For instance,

there is a rare evidence of the perforated stone windows of Pitikat Taik, the Royal

Library.3 The lion depiction which was carved to perforated window can be identified

as one of the masterpiece of Early Bagan Period, during the reign of King Anawrattha

(1044-1077). These perforated stone windows were remained originally from the

restoration during the Konbaung King Badon and the building became new style of

Konbaung Period.4 The stucco artworks which can be found in Bagan were originated

from and as the influences of India and Sri Lanka.5 Dr Than Tun said concerning the

stucco artworks of Bagan;

“Such buildings would have the best of exterior decorations in plinth

moulding and stucco carvings of foliage and figurines of imagination in

exquisite designs on arch pediments and friezes and around the whole

1
Luce, OBEP, II, p.90
2
Forchhammer, Kyaukku Temple, P. 8
3
Fig.(20)
4
Than Tun, “Bagan Restoration”, JBRS, Vol. 95, Part I & 2, 1976,p.58 (Hereafter this will be cited as
Than Tun, “Bagan Restoration”)
5
Ibid, p.51
 24

building.”1

The stucco is the most flourished material in the Bagan material culture and it

can be abundantly found everywhere the Bagan monuments were built. Stucco work

was also the essential material and process to be able to create the decorative purports

of murals as well as reliefs.

In Early Bagan monuments, there are not so many evidences of stucco

artworks for that very ruin and almost changing while making restoration and

upgrading through many ages. Most of the Early Bagan monuments can be found in

and along the river banks. Some are partially sustained and some are almost rebuilt so

that no so much trace of Early Bagan style decorations can be maintained.

Iconic Aspects of Buddha and Bodhisattva in Early Bagan Period

After the 8th July 1975 earthquake, the iconographic remains of Early Bagan

Period were come out of the top parts of the pagodas. Among them, some are those of

Early Bagan Style and listed accordance with Dr Than Tun noted2 that as follows:

-Bronze Bodhisattva (from the Shwesandaw)

-Bronze Bodhisattva (from the Shwezigon)

-Bronze smiling and standing Buddha in the Abhaya mudra (from the

Gawdaw Palin)

-Bronze sitting Buddha on a simple throne and a back rest in the Bhumisparsa

mudra (from the Shwesandaw)

-Bronze sitting Buddha with a “flame” usnisa in the Bhumisparsa mudra (from

the Shwesandaw)

1
Than Tun, “Bagan Restoration”, p.51
2
Dr Than Tun noted those list with photographs, the help of Than Htay in Nyaung-U
 25

-Bronze sitting Buddha under the hoods of a naga in the

Bhumisparsa mudra (from the Shwesandaw)

-Four copper plaques each with a sitting Buddha flanked by two disciples in

low relief-two in the Bhumisparsa mudra, one in the Dhammacadra mudra and

another in the Vitarka mudra (from the Myinbya Gu).1

At the Loka Nandā Stupa, two bronze Buddha icons were come out of a big

stone case from the harmika.2 Of them, the sitting Buddha icon in the Bhumisparsa

mudra looks Indian with affinity to the Gupta art.3 Another one is in the Varada

mudra and holding a reliquary is possibly a Bodhisattva.4

The Bodhisattva sculptures can be categorized the two portions; Theravada

Bodhisattva and Mahāyāna Bodhisattva. In the first one, the symbol or iconic

remains of Theravada Bodhisattva are not so much abundantly and very rare. The

concept of Bodhisattva, Buddha-to-be or Future Buddha, in often described in

Theravada Jatakas, can be identified and is very simple without any exaggeration or

manifestation in many sorts of belief and pantheon transformed from the Buddhism.

In Theravada Buddhism, believed that there are four Buddhas as the previous

Buddhas and the last one will become to the world and the fourth one is named

Gotama Buddha represented as the symbols and icons in the most of Theravada

Buddhist sculpture. The belief of Bodhisattva, in Theravada Buddhism, is that the

existence of only one Bodhisattva named Mettaya, the Buddha-to-be as the last

Buddha of the World.5

1
Than Tun, “Bagan Resotoration”, pp.60-61
2
Ibid, p.62
3
Ibid, p.62
4
Ibid, p.62
5
Chutiwongs, Iconography of Avalokitesvara, p.13
 26

Mahāyāna Bodhisattva is directly associated the concept of the previous

existence of Buddha before the Enlightenment.1 The popular name of Mahāyāna

Bodhisattva is Avalokitesvara which is often called “Lokesvara” or “Lokanatha”,

means that the Lord of the World.2 In other word, Avalokitesvara means that the

Ever-Watchful Lord3 and the universal compassionthe most important figure of

MahāyanaBuddhism. The conception of Avalokitesvara is as old as the 3rd century

AD.4 Icon of Avalokitesvara was distinguished by symbols indicated that the

headdress was crowned involving the miniature Buddha.5 Avalokitesvara was also

distinguished by attributes held in right or left hand with the lotus blossoms. In

ancient Indian style of Avalokitesvara, the crown, Kiritamakuta, was not only

headgear for those of Kusana art at Mathura and its prototype may have been related

into Iran.6 The representation of Indra in the art of Sanchi and Gandhara indicates that

that the use of turban instead of the crown, makuta.7 Therefore ancient Indian ethnic

and royal style of headgear is mostly used of turban and the ancient iconic sculptures

were depicted in accomplishment with turban. The crowns represented in Buddha or

Bodhisattva sculpture were not originated in the ancient Indian tradition but in Iran

(Persia). Only in the later phases of Indian Buddhist iconographic remains, such as

Gupta and Pāla dynasty, the Bodhisattva images were portrayed with the headgear of

1
Chutiwongs, Iconography of Avalokitesvara, p.13
2
Ibid, p.14
3
Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, p.88

Mahakaruna
4
Ibid, p.143
5
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, The Origin of the Buddha Images, New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal
Publisher Pvt. Ltd., 2001, p.4 (Hereafter cited as Coomaraswamy, The Origin of the Buddha
Images)
6
Chutiwongs, Iconography of Avalokitesvara, p.20
7
Ibid, p.20
 27

Makuta the crown. As the iconographic remains of the Early Bagan Period style, the

headgear was seen as the crown with ornamentation.

As the Early Bagan style of Avalokitesvara, the bronze Avalokitesvara was

discovered in1920 from Scovell’s Pawdawmu Stupa1 and can be datable that the end

of 11th to the early 12th century AD.2 It can also be compared with those of Paung-gu

temple. In addition, the votive tablet of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara was discovered as

the Early Bagan style3 and with the inscribed letters in ancient Mon-Myanmar

scripts.4 U Mya described this letters as follows:

Eso lokanathaw Mahara

Ja Sirianirudadevenakato

Vimuttattham sahatthenevati5

The meaning is that the Bodhisattva named Lokanatha was moulded by King

Aniruddhadeve who wants to be free (Vimutti) from the suffering of Samsara (Circle

of rebirth).6 One of the popular depictions of Bodhisattva flanking the Buddha can be

seen as Triad of Buddha, Mettaya and Avalokitesvara on the votive tablet. In this type

of votive tablets, which was found in Kya Sin Temple,7 the middle one is Buddha

with Dharmacakara mudra; right-hand side is Mettaya; left-hand side is

Avalokitesvara. In this depiction, both Theravada Bodhisattva and Mahāyana

Bodhisattva are flanking the Buddha and datable that during the King

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.33
2
Chutiwongs, Iconography of Avalokitesvara, list of illustrations p.xxii
3
Paul Strachan (1996, p.33) said “ The earliest figures of Lokantha found at Pagan ….. ….”.
4
U Mya, jrefrmha&S;a[mif;tkwfcGufqif;wkawmfrsm; (Votive Tablets of Burma),Vol. I, Yangon, Yangon
University Press, 1961, p.9 (Hereafter this will be cited as U Mya, Votive Tablets)
5
Ibid, p. 9
6
Ibid, p.9
7
Ibid, p.69
 28

Aniruddhadeva.1 As for the distinctive factors, the Pyu letters are involved in this type

of tablet and indicating that the association between the Early Bagan social complex

and Pyu relation so that the Pyu peoples could be in the advent of Bagan civilization

with their indigenous belief and tradition. This triad style of Buddha and two

Bodhisattvas were made of iron material and also abundantly found in both of Bagan

and S'riksetra.2 Concerning this Buddhist Triad, U Mya said in his “Votive Tablets of

Burma”;

“……Buddhist Triad containing Metteya and Avalokitesvara, which

was made of iron, was found in one mound near the southern part of

Tawya Monastery in Myinkapa village during 1927-28s.”3

He also assumed that this tablet might be the one which the Pyu must have

worshipped in Bagan before and after Aniruddha time and it must be associated to the

context of Mahayanism and relationship between Bagan and Pyu cultural mixture.

Although the remains of Early Bagan style iconic context are rare, it can be

contextualized with those of the later monuments; for example, the stone reliefs found

in Myinkaba Gubyauk Nge seem to be related to an Early Bagan Period tradition.4

The Buddha Images which can be identified as the Early Bagan style are rarely and

can be described as such the colossal Buddha image of Kyaukku Umin, the Buddha

image found near the Shwesandaw Stupa, the reclining Buddha image near the

Shewsandaw stupa, the colossal or the largest Buddha Images of Manuha Temple, the

Buddha stone reliefs of Myinpyagu Stupa, four bronze standing Buddha images of

Shwezigon stupa, the Buddha stone reliefs of Nagayon Temple, the Buddha stone

1
U Mya, Votive Tablets, p.69
2
Ibid, p.70
3
Ibid, p.70
4
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.29
 29

reliefs of Abeyadana Temple, the over life liked standing Buddha images made up of

wood found in the south and north shrines of Ananda Temple, the stone high reliefs of

Buddhavamsa of Ananda Temple, the Buddha stone reliefs of Myingaba Gubyaukkyi

and so on.

While the colossal Buddha images can be found as the Early Bagan phase, the

traces of Bodhisattva iconic image are very rare unlikely in those of murals. The

special evidences of Bodhisattva iconic remains can only be found in Tonbon

Lokanatha Temple no. 3151, and the traceable remains of Bodhasattva theme was

found in large size or over life like dimension. But this was situated in the flanking

position to the major Buddha image. In this temple, the Bodhisattva thematic traces

can be observed obviously because the differentiation from the interior decorations of

other monuments in early Bagan phase. Especially the distinct features of

TonbonLokanatha Temple are the fabric of stucco kirtimukha, the symbolic elements

of heaven or cloudy sky, the representative elements of natural landscape and the

small niches without pointed arch at the top.

The Buddha images concerning the Early Bagan Period shows on the

terracotta votive tablets attaching with the inscriptive evidences such as the

Aniruddha signature; Bajrana or Saw Lu’s signature. These types of Buddha

iconographic feature must be reliable to prove the Early Bagan Period style. The

Buddha Images were abundantly found rather than those of Bodhisattva because

perhaps the Bodhisattva thematic sculptures were gradually extinct after the

development of Sinhalese Buddhist text or Theravada Buddhist tradition. The

iconographic remains of Buddha images, concerned with the Early Bagan phase, are

1
It will be described in Chapter II
 30

mostly found in the terracotta votive tablets, metal statuettes in small size, the life like

size and over life like size Buddha images. But the iconographic remains of

Bodhisattva images cannot be abundantly found in the entire area of Bagan

monuments though the mural remains of the traceable Bodhisattva themes as those of

Abeyadana Temple and the rare terracotta votive tablets included Bodhisattva relief.

Uncommonly the figurine of Lokanatha which had been found as the context

of Early Bagan phase was not influenced in Bagan Buddhist Culture. This might be

intrigued that the pre-Aniruddha phase and the traceable evidences of Early Bagan

iconographic achievements. The famous king of Bagan, Aniruddha, was firstly settled

down far from the sea and the land far from the Bagan might be the area of northern

Rakhine.1 The Early phase indicated that the Tantric context of Bagan can be

influenced by East Bengal throughout the Northern Rakhine Luce suggested that the
2
Am pass was probably used to contact between Bagan and northern Rakhine. The

fragmentary of green glazed tablet which contained the Lokanatha figurine was found

on the image throne of Shwegugyi Temple.3 This fragment of Lokanatha tablets was

mostly resembled to the tablet which was found in the Kanthit village near the

Yezagyo, 21 miles north of Pakokku.4 On the under-rim of this lokanatha tablet, the

inscription was engraved with 3 lines of Pāli in Mon script as follows;

“eso lokanātho mahārā

Ja sīrī aniruddhadevena kato

Vimmuttattham sahatthenevā ti”5

1
Luce, OBEP I, p.16
2
Ibid, p.16
3
Luce, OBEP II, p.4
4
Ibid, p.4
5
Luce, OBEP II, p.4
 31

This inscription shows the dedication of King Aniruddha in his own hands, for the

sake of Nirvana. The contextual evidences of King Aniruddha’s dedication can

indicate that the Mahayanist traces might be influenced firstly in both of pre-

Aniruddha and Aniruddha Period. The Kanthit Lokanatha tablet contains the

Lokanatha in the central major place on the throne rounded by Ceitaya and under the

topped roof with pyramidal Sikhara. In this rimmed tablet, instead of Buddha image,

the Bodhisattva Lokanatha seated like a king in lalitAsāna, and in headdress, the

Dhyāni Buddha, Amitāba is seen as very Indian influenced form.

The other type of Bodhisattva tablet was found in Bagan as the early phase

and these are four tablets according to Luce mentioned. Two rimless tablets were

found in relic-chamber of mound in the field of southwest of Htilominlo temple.1 The

central Buddha image was flanked by two Bodhisattvas sitting in lalitAsāna. At the

base, two lines of Sanskrit with Nāgarī script as follows;

“om deyadharmo’yam saccadānapatih ma

Hārāja Sri aniruddhadevasya”2

U Bo Kay transliterated and Luce mentioned that

“This is the pious gift of the donor of truth,

the great king Sri Aniruddha the divine”3

In these tablets, the central Buddha image is Bhumiparsa mudra, earth-touching

gesture, and flanked by two Bodhisattvas sitting in lalitAsāna under the two small

Buddha images seated in Bhumiparsa mudra. The figurines of Bodhisattva can be

seen as the attendants to the Buddha images. In addition, the similar tablet was also

found in relic-chamber under throne of seated Buddha in shrine of kyasin temple

1
Luce, OBEP II, p.4
2
Ibid, p.5
3
Ibid, p.5
 32

located in Myingaba.1 The last one is strange that the dedication of Trilokavatamsakā,

Queen of Kyanzittha, resembled to those of Aniruddha. This might be probably the

trace of relationship between Bagan and East Bengal throughout the Northern

Rakhine. In East Bengal monuments, as those of Pahapur, the terracotta culture and

other affinities of architectural fabric indicate that Tantric iconography influenced on

the pre-Aniruddha and Aniruddha period onward. It can be one aspect of Bagan

iconographic roots in contrary with the context of S'riksetra Pyu. Especially, the

terracotta votive tablets and architectural fabric of S'riksetra Pyu are mostly related to

those of Bagan and it might be interrelationship between each others. Here, it can be

suggested that Bagan was become the capital and cradle of sovereignty while the

S'riksetra was downfall to become the tribute of Bagan as such mundane status.2 The

Architectural fabric of S'riksetra was mostly resembled to those of East Bengal and

the iconographic remains were, in contrary, mostly related to the Mon iconographic

context. Especially for the gesture of leg position which was found in seated Buddha

images of S'riksetra Pyu, prinkasāna, the overlapping of legs, is the style of Pyu

iconographic evidence in the resemblance to those of Sri Lanka Buddha images of

Polonayuva and Mon Buddha images, e.g. Dvaravati style of Buddha images, the

style of Mon or the lower Myanmar which was found in Maung Di laterite Stupa.

Moreover, this gesture of leg attitude called as prinkasāna can also be seen as those of

Javanese Buddha images which were found in Borobudur Temple. But this distinct

style of iconographic remains cannot be found at Bagan, the early phase to the latter.

The popular gesture of leg attitude of Bagan is dhyanasāna the crossing the legs

1
Luce, OBEP II, p.5
2
Theory of whether the S'riksetra dominated on Bagan or Bagan dominated on S'riksetra because of
the iconographic remains shows the interrelationship between each other.
 33

rather than overlapping style.

The Initiative of Terracotta Relief Plaques since the Early Bagan Period

Since Pre-Bagan Period, it can be seen the terracotta culture such as the Buddhist

votive tablets in vary. The oldest one of terracotta votive tablets was found in the relic

chamber of Botathaung Pagoda in the World War II.1 These terracotta tablets are

valuable to be proved the historical context of ancient cultural correlation. Likewise,

there are two types of terracotta votive tablets such as those of Upper Myanmar and

those of Lower Myanmar. The tablets found in the Upper Myanmar can be assumed

the context of Pyu and those of Lower Myanmar included the context of Mon

civilization like Khama of Thailand and Cambodia.2

The jataka terracotta plaques were early found in the Lower Myanmar,

Shwesaryan pagoda. The distinctive one is the large-sized terracotta tablets portrayed

the Buddha image flanking the Bodhi tree, Bodhi leaves, satellite-stupas and

sometimes it can be seen together with the Bodhisattva and Buddha’s Disciples; these

are found in Maung Di stupa built up by laterite stone. This stupa is the most valuable

heritage concerned with the historical context of pre-Bagan and Bagan study. Mr.

Duroiselle remarked this stupa might be donated by King Anawratthā and the origin

of Maung Di stupa might also be by Mon Kings’ dedication.3 The votive tablets of

Maung Di stupa are the largest type in both of Upper and Lower Myanmar.

The iconographic evidences can show that Bagan terracotta relief culture

1
U Mya, Votive Tablets, 1961, P. 91
2
Naing Pan Hla, okawoepmayrsm;(Research Articles), 2nd Ed, Yangon, Ar Man Thit Press, 2006, P. 19
3
jrefrmEkdifiHa&S;a[mif;okawoeESpfcsKyftpD&ifcHpm(Annual Report of Archaeology Survey of Burma, 1957-
78), P. 14
 34

might be descended from the Mon origins.1 In contrary, the theory of Bagan terracotta

relief culture can be approached with the dual aspects of Mon origins and Indian

origins. Mon origins can be seen as the indirect-way from the southern Indian culture.

The Indian origin is the direct-way through the land routes.2 In Pyu Period, as the Pre-

Bagan Period, although most of the terracotta votive tablets can be found in S'riksetra,

Vishnu, Halin and other Pyu cultural regions such as Pinle and Waddy, the Jataka

terracotta reliefs were not found and discovered anymore. The context of Jataka

terracotta reliefs can be found in Bagan ancient monuments. Especially in Phet Leik

stupas, the finest terracotta reliefs were abundantly excavated together with the script

of Old Myanmar letters. Their size is larger than other reliefs’ size. The terracotta

jataka reliefs are uniquely found in Bagan monuments because it might be the oldest

type of Bagan relief arts.

The descendant of the terracotta reliefs was mostly found as the glaze tiles and

reliefs plaques. This glazed tiles support to be sparkling of the architectural portions.

Glazed tiles gleam on the superstructure of Bagan ancient monuments. The oldest

glazed tiles of Bagan can be assumed that those of Ngakywenadaung stupa which can

be known as Pyu typed stupa. In Bagan, though the monuments which were glazed in

the entire stupa can be seen in Bagan with the context of early phase of Bagan period,

the glazed terracotta reliefs were evolved only in the 12th century AD. For instance, it

can be shown that the Sulāmani Temple’s beautiful glazed decoration art works and

the variety of Soe Min Gyi stupa’ glazed decorative reliefs. From the simple glazed

tiles, so many decorated glaze art works were transformed and advanced in

1
Kyaw nyein, yk*HjrdKYa[mif;jrif;uyg*lajymufMuD;bk&m;( Myingapa Gubyauk Gyi Temple of Old Bagan
City),Yangon, MOC Press, 1st Ed, 1992, P. 25
2
Maung Htin Aung, A History of Burma, PP. 2-3
 35

architectural fabric. There are colourful glazed tiles, glazed lotus flowers, glazed ogre

head, glazed animal figures, glazed pediments, glazed jataka plaques and glazed

geometric patterns.

As for the glazed jataka plaques, it can be abundantly found in the larger

monuments of Bagan such as Ananda Temple, Shwezigon Stupa, Dhammarazika

Stupa and Mingalazedi Stupa. The glazed jatakas of Ananda Temple are difficult to be

found because they are built up on the upper terrace not accessible. At the lower base

of Ananda Temple, there are also glazed plaques portrayed about the Mara soldiers

who spoiled to the enlightenment of Buddha and repeatedly set up the sequences of

glazed jatakas. Ananda galzed jataka plaques are well known as the most beautiful

glazed reliefs and good composition depicted about the Buddhist Jataka.

Depiction of Glazed Plaques of Jatakas in Bagan

The glazed art works can be richly found in Bagan monuments. These are to be shiny

the architectural fabric for good looking from so far away. Under the rising sun, the

glaze tiles can show the glittering sense and be very harmonious scenery. There are

the outstanding decorative objects of Bagan ancient monuments.

Glazed tiles were mostly made up of green coloured glaze. Additionally the

yellowish glaze can be seen a little but the green glaze was more used in Bagan

Period. For the glazed colour, it can be suggested that the Bagan artists knew about

the manipulation of temperature and particular chemical materials such as dyes and

pigments. But these chemical materials might be naturally taken in Bagan Period

because the glazed colour of Bagan monuments is the original colours of natural

glazed techniques. The raw materials which are used to make the product of glazed

objects are the small pieces of lava or slag, natural sandy clay, yellow ochre, black
 36

soot and other earthen pigments. The yellowish and greenish colour of glazed objects

can be made up of natural dyes or pigments without necessary of artificial pigments.

For typology of glazed fabric, it can be seen as two types of glazed art work

such as_

1. The geometric designs

2. Zoomorphic designs

3. Floral designs

4. Didactic designs1

In this chapter, the didactic designs will be emphasized more than others

because these designs included the depictions of Buddhist jatakas.

There are the outstanding glazed jataka depictions in Ananda Temples. These

glazed jatakas were transformed from the early terracotta jatakas of Phet Leik in

composition and iconography. These jatakas can be seen on the upper terrace which is

not easily seen and destroyed by looters. The next is those of Shwezigon stupa which

can be easily seen in the pockets of lower terrace. As for the different thing, the Jataka

(no. 312) of West Phet Leik was set up in the pockets of Shwezigon and it is strange

and mingled with one terracotta jataka filled in the blank pocket of glazed jataka.

Shwezigon jatakas are probably early than those of Ananda and descendent of Phet

Leik’s jatakas. The jatakas plaques of these two monuments were made up of glazed

techniques and with the greenish glazed colour. They were in the phase of Early

Bagan Period and show the traces of Early Bagan social images.

The glazed jataka of Bagan Period included the old script in Pāli and Mon as

the captions of jataka names. This plaques can show the valuable traces of Bagan

1
Depiction of Buddhist canonical jataka or themes
 37

contemporary and indicated how to be advanced the cultural achievements. It can be

exerted to have some factors concerning the Buddhist cultural context and Bagan

social or rural environment. For instance, the clothing styles of Early Bagan can be

seen and observed in West Phet Leik terracotta jatakas and like this, so many factors

can be draw out from the West Phet Leik jatakas. There are so many traces as such

figurative objects as carts, domestic pet animals, trees, furniture, ornamented jewels,

social rank, weapons and so on.

Gradually the depicted objects in use of sculpting jatakas were transformed in

later period, those of Ananda temple and Shwezigon. These jatakes can also be

observed in comparison with its contemporary social images.

Jataka Plaques in West Phet Leik Stupa

The smaller number of jatakas in West Phet Leik starts at Devadhamma jataka no. 6.

Jataka no. 1 to 5 is lacked in the pockets. According to the Pichard’s surveying, the

total numbers of West Phet Peik jatakas are 248 jataka.1 According to the Taw Sein

Ko, 1512 plaques of West Phet Leik were firmly fixed in their original position and

1183 plaques had fallen down to the ground. The total plaques of 269 jatakas remain

with their original pockets.

The order of jataka was arranged and restored to their original places. The

inner side of corridor has three tiers which had already been restored. In the situation

of excavated time, the order of Jataka plaques on the West Phet Leik is chaotic. In

1
Pierre Pichard, Inventory of Monuments at Bagan, Vol. IV, France, UNESCO, 1994, P.265
2
Luce, OBEP I, p.264
3
Ibid, p.264
 38

restoration project of 1915-16,1 the Department of Archaeology, Bagan, had already

made efforts at West Phet Leik to arrange the plaques in the clockwise direction, the

opposite of East Phet Leik. According to the rechecking of surveying group headed by

Luce, the inner sides of the corridors are the original arrangement thought the minor

error was found.2 These inner side of corridor and three tiers are described by Luce as

follows;

“Top tiers: Jataka 13 to 113 (E. 1 to 30; N. 31 to 54; W. 55 to 84; S. 85

to 113)

Middle tiers: Jataka 114 to 227 (E. 114 to 143; N. 144 to 167; W. 168

to 197; S. 198 to 227)

Bottom tier: Jataka 228 to 340 (E. 228 to 257; N. 258 to 281; W. 282 to

311; S. 312 to 340)”4

210 plaques of Jataka no. 341 to 550 were refilled in 213 pockets in the

two tiers on the outer side of the corridor; Jataka no. 341 t0 454 were

housed on the upper tier and 455 to 550 on the lower tier.5

Significance of Ananda Glazed Jataka Plaques

In early phase of depiction jatakas, the elephant figures can be seen without saddle on

the backbone or top of head. No decorative ware can be found in elephant figures. But

the elephant figures found in Ananda glazed jataka are composed with the complete

saddle and ornamentals very beautiful. One of the elephant figures in the Ananda

jataka depiction was wore the crown on head and wore the bangles on all four arms.

The rich ornamented figures can be observed in Ananda glazed jatakas more than

1
Luce, OBEP I, p.264
2
Ibid, p.264
3
Jataka 1 to 5 was lost at present in its original pockets and only jatake 6 is the starting point
4
Ibid, p.264
5
Ibid, p.265
 39

early one. For the different one, there are many two stories houses in Ananda Jatakas.

In contrary, the fabric of houses was figured in West Phet Leik jatakas as very simple

style with vertical and horizontal lines. The lineal shape of house style transformed to

be with decorative style in Ananda jatakas. Unlike the jataka of West Phet leik, the

Ananda jatakas was portrayed with the framing of small balls called as Vindu. In

West Phet Leik, no trace of monk figures like those of murals was found. In Ananda

jataka, Telapatta jataka no. 94 was composed with two figures of monk and one

donor. In the scene of monks portraying, the appearance of monk relief is mostly alike

the monks fond in murals1 of Bagan.

The great ten jatakas of Ananda are portrayed with so many glazed plaques

unlike the depictions of West Phet Leik. For example, the Vesansara jataka was

depicted in 124 glazed plaques. It is very different from West Phet Leik. In West Phet

Leik, one plaque is for the one jataka and with caption. The jataka number is more

reliable with the references of Jataka Pāli text. In Ananda Temple, the great ten

jatakas are depicted in more plaques widely and serial numbers of glazed plaque are

not concerned with the Jataka Pāli text because it can be checked that the serial

numbers of plaques show over 750 numbers. So it obviously show that the serial

numbers of plaques are certainly not concerned with the jataka numbers such 1 to

547. It only shows the quantity of glazed plaque. Tentatively it can show that the

number of great ten jatakas in Ananda Temple as follows2;

Vessansara Jataka, 124 numbers of glazed plaques

Temi Jataka, 34 numbers of glazed plaques

1
Murals of Myinkaba Gubyauk Gyi, Wetkyi Inn Gubyauk Gyi
2
These photographic records of Ananda Jatakas are courtesy by Photographers named Ko Naing,
Department of Archaeology, National Museum and Library, Bagan Branch
 40

Janaka Jataka, 15 numbers of glazed plaques

Mahawsaddha Jataka, 56 numbers of glazed plaques

Candakumara Jataka, 12 numbers of glazed plaques

Buridat Jataka, 17numbers of glazed plaques

Vidhura Jataka, 26 numbers of glazed plaques

Above describing scenes of great 10 jatakas is roughly surveyed and not complete

because of the difficulty to climb up to the upper terrace of Ananda Temple without

admission of Archaeological Department.1 Each great jataka has the sequence of

scenes about the canonical jataka from the pregnant scenes to the final scene. In West

Phet Leik, the Vessansara jataka was lost and only seen the piece of number 550. In

Ananda jataka, this jataka is more outstanding and many scenes of plots concerning

the canonical jataka in almost 124 scenes; from pregnant scene to the final scenes of

returning the Pāla ce. In this depicted sequences of Vessansara jataka, the

characteristics of Bagan people can be figured out in comparison with the depicted

features of canonical jataka.

In this jataka, there are the features of king Vessansara which can be compared

with the royal clothing of Bagan Period. The main characters of this jataka are king,

queen, son and daughter named Zali and Ganazi with the villain of Zuzaka Punna.

The large numbers of depicted jataka scenes can be analyzed the detail features of

many diversified matters such as royal circle, rural or vernacular statue, common

clothing style, religious offertories and monkhood. In different from the early phase of

Bagan Period, the portrayals of monkhood were evolved with the long robe and the

symbols of omniscience on the top of head. The image of monk is mostly like the

1
Now called the Department of Archaeology, National Museum and Library
 41

iconic feature of Buddha image in contemporary of Ananda Temple. It was not yet

found in the early phase of West Phet Leik jataka scenes. The characters of ascetic

were only found in the early phase of Bagan relief culture. Terracotta jataka plaques

are approximately square in shape and height is commonly measured 15 to 14 inches;

breadth is 15 to 13 inches; thickness is 3¼ to 2 inches.1

Terracotta plaques of Shwesandaw stupa are measured in height 3¼ inches;

breadth 11¼ inches; thickness 1¼ inches. Their size is smaller than those of West

Phet Leik. They might be those of oldest Bagan Period2 and the traces of the origins

of Bagan urbanization. In this stupa compound, the rare and oldest evidences are

remained and some are emerged while 1975 earthquake trembled. Perhaps the right

relation can be omitted between West Phet Leik and Shwesandaw stupa.

The relief sculpture is the ancestor of the ancient three dimensional artistic

achievements. From the typical evidences of Parietal Art in the Primitive Age, the old

relief sculptures were born together with ancient ritual system, belief system and the

myths. In West Phet Leik jataka, it can be found so many traces of ancient Bagan

social, royal and rural or vernacular lives in various formative items. For instance, the

portrayals usually found in Jataka are commonly composed with these figures; male

and female_ from King and Queen to the ordinary rural people, some sorts of birds,

Mammals_ from Lion to dog, some sorts of fishes and reptiles. As for the

complements to Jataka depictions, there are some sorts of threes, architectural

portrayals, furniture or royal regalia, detail ornaments, weapons, vehicles_ cart to

sailing boat, spiritual figures_ Nat or Brahma, mythical creatures_ Ogre or bilu to

1
Luce, OBEP I, p.266
and similar dimension in the recent surveyed by author during field trip, 2011, May
2
Ibid, p.261
 42

Kinnaya bird, household utensils, and musical instruments.

In West Phet Leik, the unusual depictions in the Jataka plaques can be figured

out and the contextual iconic features paralleled with the Indian origins. With the

iconic evidences concerning the reliefs sculpture, some portrayals cannot be

descended from the Mon origins because of the rare depictions of Rhinoceros, Cart

with Pig (?) and other affinity of human posture in sculptural composition.

The figures of camel1 are found in Bagan as the context of Indian origins

especially concerned with the East Bengal and Northern Indian culture. The figure of

rhinoceros can be mostly found in India continent. Indian natural heritage is so proud

of the species of elephants and rhinoceros in comparison with African species. In

Asia, India continent have richly the treasure of forestry product paralleled with so

many species of mammals. These species of rhinoceros are distinctive animals

popularly in Indian animals but almost rarely found in Myanmar.

The Iconographic Remains of Ananda Temple

In Ananda Temple, there are so many remains of stone sculpture which included the

Buddhist thematic images. Some are referenced with the Buddhist canonical text and

some are also related to the Buddhist Pantheons. In these iconographic remains, it can

be drawn out the imagery of Bagan contemporary social pattern especially of the

auspicious ceremony and of the funerary ceremony. The correlation of

Mahāyanapantheon and Hindu pantheon can be found in the depiction of Buddhist

thematic concept.

According to the report of Duroiselle, Ananda temple was built by King

1
It can be found at the base of Ananda Temple and at the Terraces of Somin Gyi Stupa
 43

Kyanzittha in 1090 AD. But in 1969, Luce rewrote the date of Ananda Temple as c.

1105 AD with the references of C. O. Blagdon’s interpretation of Old Mon scripts.1

Here, perhaps the factual information of King Kyanzittha can help to support the

iconographic remains of Ananda Temple with the correlation between East Bangle

and Bagan capital contemporarily. Duroiselle found the prototype of the Ananda in

the vast symmetrical Paharpur monuments in the Rajshahi district of North Bengal.2

Concerning this assumption of the prototype of Ananda Temple, Luce described as

follows;

“A nearer and closer model, both for the Ananda and the “Old Mon”

style of Pagan architecture, could be found, I think, in the recent,

“Mainamati” excavation in the Lal Mai ridge W. of Comilla in East

Pakistan (now Bangladesh).”3

Luce described the location of Pāla that the adaptation of Bagan art and temple

architectural style can be associated with the special references of monumental

fabrics. Mainamati and Comilla are the names referred to the ancient “Patikera”. This

word is popular name of Bagan oral history and traditional documentary such as Glass

Pālace Chronicle. So the Early Bagan iconographic had been reached at the peak of

advance level during the reign of King Kyansittha and his dedicated art of Ananda

temple. This might be initiated to bear the Bagan artistic reformation of the later

periods to probably be the transitional sequences of Bagan art and architectural

legacy.

1
Luce, OBEP I, p.59
2
Duroiselle, “The Ananda Temple at Pagan (Bagan)”, MARG A Magazine of Arts, IX, ii, New Delhi,
p.8
3
Luce, “The Career of Htilaing Min (Kyanzittha): The Uniter of Burma, fl. A.D. 1084-1113”, JRAS
(Journal of Royal Asiatic Society), 1966, p.67
 44

CHAPTER II

ICONOGRAPHY OF MIDDLE BAGAN PERIOD

While the Middle Bagan Period can be approached to the events between the end of

11th century AD and the first half of 12th century AD, the significance of Bagan art

and architectural transformation could be evolved as the transitional period of Bagan

civilization, Professor Luce presented as_

“The first part is the Mon Period, (Cañsu I) with the Mons leading their

victors at every point. The last part, from Cañsu II (Narapatisithu)

onwards, is the Burmese Period, with the Mons no longer conspicuous.

In between _ from 1113 to 1174_ is the Transition.”1

The anarchism was probably emerged after the Death of the King Narathu,

Imtoshin.2 It had been long as nine years (1165-1174?). The Middle Bagan Period can

be assumed that the building age of the gigantic Buddhist monuments was initiated

with the enormous point during the reign of King Aloṅsithu, Cañsu I. His great

dedication of Buddhist theme was the highest among the entire monuments in Bagan

region as such Thetbyinñu Temple. This temple can be identified as the first and

largest gigantic Buddhist temple in the entire region of Bagan and its vicinity. From

the capability of King Aloṅsithu, Bagan was gradually prosperous to be the nation

state as well as the cultural development to be able to have a peak of architectural and

1
Luce, “Mons of the Pagan Dynasty”,p.16
2
Professor Dr Than Tun corrected in 1998 that the factor of Bagan Anarchism between 1165-1174 AD
was not correct because the latter decipherment of Bagan stone inscription of Minister Siṅghasūra
with the inscribed date 19th Oct 1190 shows that the King Cañsu II had already taken the name of
King in 1165 AD; then this king was evidently found as the Kingship in 1168 AD; and then become
the well-known as the powerful king of Bagan Empire in 1174 AD. (Than Tun, yk*HacwfEkdifiHa&;ordkif;
(Political History of Bagan Period), Yangon, Plastic Rainbow Book Publication, 2005, p.89)
 45

visual arts.1 Within the time range of one decade, after death of King Aloṅsithu,

Bagan was already developed in its boundary very extensively and advanced in

Buddhist art. As for the instance, the Dhammayazika stone inscription (560 BE/ 1198

CE) can show detail of the Bagan boundary in that time and the architectural

achievement of building stupa as in the pentagonal-shaped plan and its three-

dimensional decorations. Before the advanced style of this pentagonal-shaped stupa,

since the king Aloṅsithu, the gigantic monuments were built in proper places

concerning the Buddhist themes. The gigantic monuments which were built in the

Middle Bagan Period2 can be sampled as follows;

-Shwegugyi Temple (no. 1589)

-Thetbyinñu Temple (no. 1597)

-Taungbon Lokanatha Temple (no. 315)

-Myaebonthaphahla Temple (no. 1512)

-Gubyaukgyi Temple (Wetkyiinn) (no. 298)

-Sulāmani Temple (no. 748)

-Gawdawpālin Temple (no. 1622)

-Dhammarazika Stupa (no. 771)

The distinctive features of Middle Bagan Period can be identified concerning

with these significances; the transition style of stucco works; brick bondage method

which can be found in architectural composition; the arrangement of enclosure and

the gate ways; the pointed-arch pediment in the shape of banyan leaf different from

1
Concerning the Middle Period, Paul Strachan commented as “the Middle Pagan (Bagan) Period is
possibly Pagan’s most creative movement; certainly it is when Pagan art and architecture is at its
most visually impressive.” (Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p. 79)
2
Time range from the beginning of King Aloṅsithu to the dawn of King Narapatisithu
 46

flamboyant pediment.

The transitional style of Middle Bagan architecture can show that the vertical

or dynamic composition with multi-storey-temples. They advanced in airy and

lighting system which can be composed to have a nice ventilation and good looking.

The reinforcement materials can be seen that the bricks and sandstoneblocks of

construction method. To be loftiness of the building, the massive walls and pillars

were constructed with wide-flat bricks and mortar while the sandstoneblocks, in

proper sizes and shapes, were reinforced to support the strength of brick pillars. To be

able to shoulder the upper storey of the building, the massive walls and pointed arches

were constructed calculatedly to be able to stand with the upper weight.

With the evolution of architectural transformation, some changes of decorative

way can be seen as the two portions; one must be concerned with material use and

another must be composition and signification. In exterior decoration, as for the

material, the sparkling pieces of glazed tiles in various shapes and size were evolved

in King Narapatisithu. Prior to these, it could be richly found the glazed substances of

architectural and didactic or narrative decorations in the early monuments e.g. the

Nagayone temple, Ananda temple, Soemin Gyi Stupa1 and Shwezigon stupa. But the

early glaze decorative substances of early monuments were very simple with the

exception of Soemin Gyi stupa.

As for the early phase of Middle Bagan Period during the reign of King

Aloṅsithu, Thetbyinñu, the gigantic temples, were suddenly advanced but their

proportion of lower and upper storey was not matured that the lower portion was not

harmonized in the composition of the upper portions; the lower part was more robust

1
This stupa may be associated to the context of transitional period in the second half of 11th century.
 47

than that of the upper part the slim one. Prior to that temple, Ananda temple which

was built by King Kyanzittha1 might be constructed under the reign of Mon leading

roles2 because of the artistic achievement; stone and wooden sculptures, stucco

reliefs, terracotta glazed reliefs of jatakas and the spatial composition of architecture.

Ananda temple can be identified for the ideal of Bagan monumental

architecture because the ratio of superstructure and infrastructure was dramatically

proportionate and the icons, which were adorned in the niches of the interior walls,

which were carved and painted3, were directly associated with Theravada Buddhist

theme. Mostly the Jatakas can be found in the material of terracotta glazed reliefs and

portrayed with the rich iconographic remains. At the pockets of plinth, the theme of

Mara and his army was shown the Buddha triumph on the destructive army of Mara

the evil god. The depictions of Mara’ destruction which found in the base of Ananda

can be identified that the Bagan artists inspired to portray the Buddha triumph

signified to the lower portion of lofty monument. In Ananda temple, because there are

some iconic traces of Avalokitesvara as the subsidiary the spiritual practices may be

flourished in its contemporary as the auspicious symbols or the lord of the entire

world.4 For the distinctive one, the remains of Avalokitesvara icons with Añjali mudra

can be seen as the high reliefs on the foot of Sikhara. This type of iconic composition

were uniquely rare and only in the Sikhara of Anandā. And the affinity of these

Avalokitesvara can also be found in such architectural decorative substances_ the

exterior of the architraves of Loka Ushaungand the interior of the flamboyant

pediments of the main ambulatory. The hand gesture is clasping like the lotus bud on
1
Only the oral tradition, not epigraphic evidence
2
King Kyanzittha and his successor King Aloṅsithu
3
Now this painted surfaces are covered with modern gilding
4
Chutiwongs, Iconography of Avalokitesvra, p. 15
 48

the chest so called Añjali mudra. And the legs are overlapped crossing each other. The

detail ornamentation and jewelry decorated on these iconic structures are most likely

to be spiritual concepts especially of the protection for sustainability of the dedication

of Buddhist religious esteem and likely to be more respectful to the reputation of

Buddhist enshrinements with the visual connotation of artistic substances decorated

on the vital places of the whole building.

Significance of Transitional Elements in Architectural Advance

In 12th century, the Early Style of monument was obviously changed the style in size

and composition or architecture. The Early style was phased out by the 12th century

when the Bagan builders reverted to the ground plan types of Pyu’s Lei-Myat-Hna.1

As for the standard pattern of transitional time, Shwe Gu Gyi Temple can be pointed

that the superstructure of temple tends to be raised above subsidiary constructions on

a plinth and this was to become the standard pattern for most middle-to-large size

temple dedications.2

Shwe Gu Gyi Temple was built in AD 1131 by King Aloṅsithu (Cañsū I)3 and

this temple was probably the prototype of Thet Byin Ñu Temple which has the larger

and tallest size. But Thet Byin Nu Temple was very famous in loftiness created for the

metaphor of Gotama Buddha’s Thetbyinñuta Ñana. Thet Byin Ñu temple was very

enormous for the Bagan civilization because of the architectural advance of

transitional period in Bagan. According to Professor Luce, The building technique of

this temple was described as,

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, P.19
2
Ibid, P.17
3
Ibid, P.37
 49

“The advance in building-technique- from one storey to four, achieved

with perfect confidence and skill_ seems to me too great. And the

temple, though complete as a structure, is so ascetic, so bare of

ornament. That I wonder whether the king died while the interior

decoration, and some of the exterior, was still to do.”1

The next temple which was very famous and wonderful in its size and

architectural composition is Dhammanyangyi Temple. This temple was built by the

son of King Aloṅsithu and his name was inscribed, in Kamkon Saki Nṅarauk Saṅ

Sami inscription situated on the top of Thet Soe Mount, as Eimtoshinṅ.2 After this

very enormous temple, the temple, built with two-storey composition, was evolved in

AD 1183 and named as Sulāmani Temple dedicated by King Narapatisithu. This

temple was similar to the Thatbyinnyu Temple in design and massive brick structure.3

On the observation of transitional architectural changes, Paul Strachan commented as,

“In the Sula-mani, and its imitator the Hti-lo-min-lo (1211), the

massive block arrangement of the That-byin-nyu type is combined with

the monumentally of the Dhammayan-gyi. A compromise between the

rival champions of verticality and horizontalism had been achieved.”4

Significance of Transitional Elements Concerning the Iconic Concept

According to the Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, the iconographic remains of Buddha

images were initiated in India as follows:

1. Five styles of Buddha images in seated position

- Dhammacakkara mudra (attitude of preaching the first sermon)

1
Luce, OBEP I, p.413
2
Than Tun; yk*HacwfEkdifiHa&;ordkif; (Political History of Bagan Period), Yangon, 2005, p.82
3
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.95
4
Ibid, p. 95
 50

- Dyāna mudra (attitude of meditation)

- Bhumiparsa mudra (attitude of Buddha enlightenment)

- Varada mudra (attitude of bestowing gift)

- Abera mudra (attitude of protection from the evil)

2. One style of Buddha images in standing position

- Abera mudra

3. One style of Reclining Buddha images1

The contemporary of Bagan Period was paralleled to the highest peak of Pāla Period

from 8th- 12th century AD approximately.2 That time was rather complicated in the

mixture of religious traditional each other such as Hindu spiritual tradition merged

into the Buddhist thematic substances and one of the most prosperous advance of

Buddhist iconographic culture. There were evolved Buddhist School of arts such as

Theravada, Mahāyana, Tantric and Vajrāyāna. It had been prominently evolved the

Buddhist Pantheons and mythological depictions in both way of decorative and

didactic purports. In that contemporary of 11th-12th century, a variety of Buddhist

iconographic remains could be advanced in the various themes, thoughts, techniques,

and other supernatural beliefs concerning the Vajrāyāna. The Buddhist visual culture

was almost at the highest level in that time onwards. On these above mentioned

factors, the remains of Bagan Buddhist visual culture can be suggested that it must

have been paralleled simultaneously to those of Pāla Period rather than the theory of

1
Coomaraswamy, The Origin of The Buddha Image, P. 3
2
(a) Sujata Soni, Evolution of Stupas In Burma (Myanmar), Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
PVT. LTD. 1991, P. 63
(b) Pyiet Phyo Kyaw, “yk*HacwfOD;ydkif;Ak'¨½kyfyGm;awmfrsm;xkvkyfwnfaqmufyHk[efyefrsm; (The Stylistic
Approach to the Early Bagan Buddha Images)”, Research Paper submitted to the University of
Yangon, 2009, P. 9
 51

adaptation from them because the visual culture of Bagan Buddhist remains can give

evidences of the uniqueness concerned with the Buddhist themes the majority without

Hindu and other spiritual identity though the mixture of Hindu and Mahāyāna themes

can be traced in Bagan religious monuments.

The dawn of Bagan Buddhist culture was initiated with the adaptation from

the developed cultural features around the neighbouring but the latter periods was able

to stand on the indigenous way of creativity because of their unique and compromised

style of transitional iconographic remains. There are most of the significant remains

of iconography concerning the transitional style some are now displayed at Bagan

Museum while the unmovable artifacts of architectural decorations with the concept

of Buddhist thematic substances including the diversification of Buddhist pantheons

or spiritual beliefs.

The sampling of 12th century style of iconographic remains could be

emphasized as in Myinkaba Gubyauk Nge temple, the sandstone relief sculptures had

been already collected as the nativity scene; the Buddha descending from the

Tamvatimsa; taming the Nalagiri elephant; the great decease of Buddha Prinivana;

Buddha staying at the Pāli laya forest; and in Myaebonthar Pharahla temple, there are

the stucco carvings of royal queen with the name of Pajapatigodami, the sandstone

reliefs of Brahmin figure. Of these, the nativity scene could be emphasized in detail as

following paragraphs.

It can be differentiated between the nativity scene of Myinkaba Gubyauk Nge

and that of Ananda temple. The nativity relief of Ananda is more rhythmic in linear

composition; the two female figure of queen Mahāmārā and sister Gotami are

portrayed paralleled in bending position on the individual pedestal; their heads was

together with the halo and the beautiful Sal tree in realistic view including the detail
 52

of leaves and blossoms on the branches. And it might be the same to the physiognomy

of Pāla style statue and detail ornamentations.

The latter one of 12th century AD found in Myinkaba Gubyauk Nge can be

obviously seen as the different proportions and anatomic structure than those of

Ananda. This carving is not so much from the early one because its spatial

composition which can be traditionally known as Dhanu Pauk the negative space

between the embossed forms is not clever and anatomic structure was changed to be

more robust and hard while the Ananda origin was finely smooth in anatomic line

composition. So this can prove that it might be referred and copied from the origin of

Ananda because the main thematic substance such as the symbolic objects which were

able to signify for the nativity scene of Buddha Gotama.

But there are additional items found in transitional style of nativity scene as

the Buddha Bhumiparsa images which can be seen on the top of the head of queen

Mahāmarā; above this the spiritual gods nat flying on the Sal tree; at the left hand side

of queen Mahāmārā, the more scenes of Bodhisattva Siddattha was purified by holy

water and walked seven steps flanking by attendants. Here the distinct visual

evidences of Bodhisattva concept which adapted from the Mahāyāna Pantheons to

portray the Theravada Buddhist theme. The Gotama Buddha was signified with the

Bhumiparsa Buddha small image at the top of queen Mahāmārā and the Bodhisattva

Siddattha was symbolized by the Sadaksari Lokesvara1 one of the variety of

Avalokitesvara forms. This form of Bodhisattva was also mentioned above

paragraphs. And this kind of Bodhisattva form had already been existed as the more

proportionate form in the early style of nativity relief and can obviously be compared

1
Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, P. 174 & fig. 96, 97
 53

with the Añjali Bodhisattva figures at the base corners of Ananda Sikhara. So it can

assumed that the transitional style of Bagan religious visual art works were mostly

directly adapted from the early style of sculptural tradition and in that time, perhaps

the Hindu and Mahāyāna Pantheons might be gradually transformed into the

subsidiary of the Buddhist main enshrinements the Bhumiparsa concept. Although the

early style could be correlated to the representative style of realistic composition in

matured visual result, the transitional style was adapted and almost transformed to

bear the initiative reformation of Bagan indigenous style but not completely matured.

The visual condition of human figures in the 12th century nativity can undoubtedly be

identified as the achievement of Bagan artistic transformation from foreign influences

because the anatomic composition was mostly correlated to the latter period of ancient

Myanmar civilization as 13th century Bagan, Pinya, Innwa and almost towards the

Konbaung and Yadanapon Period. So the transitional iconographic remains can be

connotatively identified as the first indigenous style separated from the adaptation of

foreign style. Consequently, it can be seen in 12th century nativity as the weakness of

spatial composition the central line of the relief sculpture was not symmetrically in

12th century reliefs not likely to the early one; the rhythmic lineal surfaces cannot be

seen harmoniously.

Glazed Art Works on the Terraces of Soe Min Gyi Stupa (no. 1145)

“(iii) the “most beautiful” glazed decorative tiles of the Somin-gyi.

They were designed and made with meticulous care to fit with each

other perfectly…….they are still in perfects condition.”1

The above mention that U Kyaw Nyein noticed was described by Professor Luce in

1
Luce, OBEP I, p.243
 54

his Old Burma Early Pagan, Vol.I. Soe Min Gyi stupa is located very closed to

Nagayone and Abeyadana temples. It was also very near to the Ayeyawady River and

Soe Min Gyi brick monastery which the most popular one in Bagan. The architectural

concept of Soe Min Gyi stupa was nearly resembled to the Sein Nyet Nyi Ma in

structure. The vertical composition of this type of stupa closely related to those of

Shwesandaw stupa of Early Bagan style. But no stairways were built on the terraces

unlikely those of Shwesandaw stupa. The location and environ of Soe Min Gyi stupa

is more suitable to gaze the river view and Bagan panorama view. The glazed relief

panels were decorated runnig all around the stupa. In the remark of Mr Pierre Pichard,

it was described as,

“such decoration with glazed bands running all around the stupa is

unique in Pagan. Several of these glazed elements are displayed in the

Pagan Archaeological Museum.”1

The glazed art works which decorated on the exterior of Soemin Gyi stupa are

the most beautiful and finest decorative art in the style of Bagan monumental

sculptures. On Soemin Gyi stupa and its glazed sculptural reliefs, Professor Luce

described in his OBEP, Vol. I, as follows;

“ Its position not far from the river, in the neighbourhood of early

temples and Pagodas, its distinctive character, fine workmanship and

magnificent glazed work, suggest to me a date near the beginning of the

12th century A.D. But what of the name?”2

The glazed reliefs of Soe Min Gyi resembled to those of the Early Bagan style

in floral design.3 Professor Luce described the date of stupa nare the beginning of the

1
Pierre Pichard, Inventory of Monuments at Pagan, Vol. 5, Paris, UNESCO Kiscadale, 1995, p. 10
2
Luce, OBEP I , p. 277
3
Fig.(81a)
 55

12th century AD. On the structure and architectural design, the stupa was probably

built during the transitional sequences from the end of Early Bagan to the beginning

of 12th century. According to the style of glazed floral designs and ogre head

kirtimukha, it was mostly resembled to those of Kyaukku Umin; Nagayone; Ananda;

and the Early Bagan style of relief sculpture, for example, the sandstone ogre head

and floral designs of Kyaukku Umin and Nanphara, the iconic concept in both of

murals and wood carved reliefs found in Nagayone temple, the camel glazed reliefs

found on the basement of Ananda temple.

In the glazed reliefs decorated on the terraces of stupa, there are dancer,

drummer, the birds e.g. parrot and owlet on the leafthe of lotus, fishes, lion, tiger,

elephant, camel, pig, monkey, tortoise, bull, mythical concept of thriple elephant, the

lotus blossom in profile and plan views1, the lotus bud and floral designs. Professore

Luce commented on the glazed decorations of Soe Min Gyi stupa as,

“The So-min-gyi has a strong character and beauty of its own. It does

not vary far from the norm; its variations are fully justified by the

purpose and by the result. It is a Ratanacetī.”2

The glazed colour is dominantly greenish and light green. These glazed reliefs

were composed to bear the sparkling stupa under the sunshine. The animal and iconic

concepts of relief sculpture probably symbolized the still and peaceful situation. It

also means the serenity of Buddhist religious buildings and symbolized the peaceful

atmosphere of Buddhist society.

1
Fig.(81b)
2
Luce, OBEP I, p. 278
 56

Transitional Traces Found in Taungbon Lokanatha Temple (no. 315)

Taungbon Lokanatha Temple might be named by the finding of symbolic objects

signified the mountain ranges (Taungbon) and the fragments of the Bodhisattva

(Lokanatha) icon which was enshrined at the south and north niches of central pole in

the main ambulatory hall. This temple is recently found under the present ground

level and the floor level can be reached through the hillock which covered with

bushes. The location of the temple can be seen as the isolated landscape which so

pleasant and serenity sense together with the palm trees. The temple was built facing

the west and the elevation is more obviously high than the environs which can be

observed as follows_ in the south and west of temple, there is Wet Kyi Inn stream

also known as Shwe Chaung stream; in the north west, there is Sulay Kon Pagoda

complex; in the north, there is so far distant paddy field on the hillocks; and in the

east, there is no evidence because of modern golf field so wide unfortunately. Being

on the sense of archaeological landscape around the temple, it must be assumed that

very pleasant and pleasurable place. But the significant factor for arranging the temple

architectural fabric, one of the valuable factors can be environmental factors which

could be chosen for building the temple. In this temple, the significant factors of

iconic evidences are abundantly found at the four faces of central pole which mainly

reinforced to the whole building. In the main ambulatory hall, the massive central

pole can be assumed that the resemblance of Early Bagan architectural fabric. In the

same way, the lighting system which was also managed inside the whole temple was

less and not so much developed. Together with the architectural arrangement, there

are so many stucco motifs in various forms and concepts of spiritual practice. For

instance, there can be seen as the main four iconic shrines such as two Buddha images

with Dhammacakkra mudra and two Bodhisattva images with the Lalitāsana local
 57

called as Lokanatha; the subsidiary motifs and reliefs in the various forms of symbolic

objects and spiritual iconic device; the unique finds of the compromising with the

different objects of religious practice.

Although the significant findings of Bodhisattva concept were found richly,

the main central images were Buddha images in the Bhumiparsa mudra which was

signified for the Buddha enlightenments.1 The strange things different from the

Theravada themes can be richly found that the context of Mahāyanathematic was

already established and emphasized in the interior decorations of this temple mostly

alike to the example of Abeyadana temple. Although the interior decorations had been

decorated in rich composition, the present interior condition can be seen as the

demolished traces of murals on the corroded walls and the valuable remains of stucco

motifs signified for the symbolic meanings of Buddhist cosmological arrangements

such as the world, the universe, the forest, mountain ranges, the inferior spiritual

world, the superior spiritual world and other miscellaneous symbolic objects.

Transitional style of Bagan can be suggested accordance with the vital traces

which can be found the symbolic composition of Taungbon Lokahatha temple to

describe what the important characteristics are. Especially this temple was also

resembled to those of Myaebonthar Pharahla temple.2The vital traces found in this

temple are distinctively proved to be associated with the 12th century time line

because of the corroded murals which shows the similarity to be those of Loka

Hetikpan temple; the ogre motifs so called kirtimukha almost resembled to those of

Phyatsa Shwegu temple and Myingabagubyauk Gyi temple; the fabric of interior
1
This mudra had been flourished in the dawn of Buddhist iconographic culture in India. The most
concerned with the Theravada Buddhist School of art and the most popular attitude of Buddhist
atmosphere.
2
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p. 76
 58

niches which were not pointed or radiated niches and only with top portion of double

arches of main pediments, in similar to those of the interior of Ananda temple,

sometimes so called Kyae Kway (the parrot beak) in traditional says; and the pediment

design of Lokanatha images which can be found in the south and the north of main

shrines is mostly resembled to the interior decorations of murals painted on the

radiated arch ways which found in the ambulatory hall of Loka Ushaung temple and

those of the exterior stucco pediments of Dhammarazika Stupa. So this temple can be

proved that the context of transitional style is identifiable with the evidences of above

mentions.

In iconographic approach, this temple can also be associated with the early

Bagan painting style especially of the cloth-painting. These fragments of cloth

paintings were published by Minbu Aung Kyaing,1 Donal Stadtner2 and Pratapaditya

Pal3. The fragmentary cloth paintings were discovered in two portions; the first

smaller fragment was found from the arm of Buddha images and the larger fragment

was found in small room of the north-west corner of the entrance hall on 31st March,

1984. The type of cloth was weaved perpendicularly and measured 81.5 cm wide and

136 cm.4 Mr. Pierre Pichard remarked on this temple as follow;

“ - the stucco decoration around the niches of the core is unique in

Pagan

- a painting on cloth dated from the 12th century was found in 1984 in

1
Minbu Aung Kyaing, “Discovery of Mural Painting on Cloth at Pagan (Bagan)”, The Working
People’s Daily News Paper, Monday, 10th December, 1984, p.5
2
Donal Stadtner, “The Art of Burma”, in Art of Southeast Asia, trans by J. A. Underwood, New York,
P. 55 and fig.267
3
Pratapaditya Pal, “Fragmentary Cloth Paintings from Early Pagan and Their Relations with Indo-
Tibetan Traditions”, The Art of Burma New Studies, Ed by Donal Stadtner, India, MARGE
Publication, 1999, P. 79-88 (Hereafter cited as Pratapaditya Pal, Cloth Paintings, 1999)
4
Pratapaditya Pal, Cloth Paintings, P. 80
 59

the small room opening on the north-west corner of the entrance hal;

this painting was restored in Rome in 1986-87 and is presently stored at

the Dept. of Archaeology, Yangon, pending its installation in the Pagan

Museum.”1

This cloth painting was kept inside the arm of Buddha image as the scroll

paintings. The fragments of this cloth painting were collected in 30 fragments and

taken to Italy for restoration and this discovery was uniquely in Bagan as well as the

stucco decorations which can be found on the arch pediments of niches. It can be

assumed that the discovery of cloth painting indicated how the transitional style was

adapted from East Indian painting of Pāla. This type of painting was most uniquely

advanced in coincidence with the dawn of 12th century Bagan Period. Pratapaditya Pal

who had been written the article of this scroll painting mentioned the stylistic

approach to this as follow:

“The figural forms are much closer to those seen in Pāla -Period

manuscript illustrations than anything seen in contemporary Tibetan

paintings.”2

He considered that this is mostly similar to those of Pāla style and physiognomy. The

latter studies on this cloth painting identified that the fragment of cloth painting

discovered in the temple no.315 was known as one of the narrative art works in Bagan

and the portrayed figures could be interpreted with the reference of Buddhist Jataka

stories as Telapata Jataka (no. 96 of 549 Jatakas).3 Coincidently this jataka is directly

associated to the majority of monsters or the ogresses. The scroll painting on which

the Telapata Jataka was depicted was fortunately concerned with the stucco ogre

1
Pierre Pichard, Inventory of Monuments at Pagan, Vol. II, France, UNESCO, 1993, P. 89
2
Pratapaditya Pal, Cloth Paintings, 1999, P. 86
3
According to the caption of original mural at the Bagan Archaeological Museum
 60

motifs which can be abundantly seen in the core of the interior. In the interior, the

ogre reliefs were emphasized to decorate on the viral portions such as the top of arch

ways, around the niches, the corner of the main-core-pillars, the murals on the wall

and inside the pockets of throne on which the Buddha image was enshrined. So this

Jataka said about the triumph of Bodhisattva overwhelming the persuading of the

ogresses with the fake of the five senses_ sight, sound, odour, taste and tactile. This

temple can be assumed that it was built and decorated with the concept of triumph and

protection from the rival enemies e.g. it might be built after overwhelming the

particular contradiction or problem in that time. Although the concept of Bodhisattva

was composed obviously in this temple, it cannot be identified the majority of

Mahayana. Relying on the jataka depictions of murals on the interior walls and the

disciples of Mogallana and Sariputta painted on each side of Buddha images,

Strachan concluded,

“So it is possible to argue that these colossal bodhisattva figures

represent an extension of this contemporary iconographic movement

when such figures were borrowed from the Mahayana to serve the

Theravada.”1

Additionally some findings which can be identified to those of transitional

traces in this temple are prominently found as the stucco art works of symbolic

motifs. The special finding of these symbolic stucco motifs was uniquely found

among the Bagan monuments. These are significantly emphasized as such the

symbols of mountains ranges, the ogre and the forest. The symbols of mountains or

earth can be identifiable with the references of other distinct visual evidence such as

depictions on the terracotta Jataka reliefs of west Phet Leik stupa; on the glazed reliefs

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p. 76
 61

of Ananda Jataka plaques; on the glazed Jataka reliefs of Shwezigon; on the glazed

Jataka reliefs of Dhammarazika; on the murals of upper storey of Loka

Ushaungtemple; and on the murals of Thayanbu (no. 1554).

The floral designs made in both of stucco and mural were the most

complicated substances of decorative art in Bagan because the compositions of floral

patterns, sometimes, can be arranged together with the geometric shape and some are

created in the finest lineal drawing together with painted colour scheme. So the

valuable and complicated mysterious decoration of Bagan had probably been created

on the architectural fabric in Bagan monumental urbanization. The various designs of

floral pattern were created on the wall as the murals; at the corner-pillars as the

beautiful bah-reliefs together with the animal figures such as ogre, lion and other

mythical creatures e.g. Narasiha; and on the both of exterior and interior of Bagan

monuments as the both of murals and stucco reliefs in the diversification of form and

designs. Some floral designs stand on their abstract themes to support to the attracted

point of the whole building as the visualization and inspiration of religious admiration

on these visual objects. Some were mingled with the animal figure especially with the

ogre in composing to get the visual didactic objects such as the mural of ogre which

the eyes were drawn combing with the floral pattern. If the audience looks only for

one eye of ogre, he can only see the floral patterns not eye. But if he looks the entire

composition of these ogre murals, he can easily see the face of ogre with the

protruding eyes. This kind of artistic achievement can only be found only in

transitional period. The good instance of this depiction can be found in the Loka

Ushaungtemple.
 62

Transitional Situation of Stucco Reliefs found in Loka UshaungTemple

Loka Ushaungtemple (no. 1467) is located in the south-west of Shwesandaw stupa

and very near to the south of Theinmazi temple. In the enclosure of this temple, there

are also more two stupa (no. 1468 and 1469). Loka Ushaung which was flanked by

these stupas was facing to the east. Among them, the temple no. 1649 is so strange

and can be seen as the encased stupa belonged to the valuable remains concerning the

transitional traces such as glazed reliefs and stucco life-like sculpture. It will be

described in next sub title.

Loka Ushaung means the peak of the entire world or the empire or

cakkaravartin. This might probably be related to the name of Lokanatha by mean of

the spiritual god for the entire world. There was some trace to be resembled with

those of Myaebonthar Pharahla temple and Paul Strachan pointed as,

“In the shrine there is one image, naturally set against the east face of

the lei-myet-hna. The pedestal of this image is close in design to that

found at Mye-bon-tha-hpaya-hla, with panels containing, alternatively,

a leogryph and a figure of Brahma.”1

In this temple, the stucco works were composed richly with the spiritual

substances and distinct pattern of decorative stucco motifs. The significant

decorations were categorized as such the Avalokitesvara in the tympanum of main

entrance; the exterior stucco motifs in the perforated windows; the spiritual goddess

on the top of the flamboyant pediment of the entrance arch way into the main

ambulatory hall; the stucco Bodhisattva and lion reliefs alternately in the pockets of

throne the pedestal of the enlightenment of Buddha image; makara motif together

with the Bodhisattva on each edges of the flamboyant pediment of main ambulatory

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p. 111
 63

hall; and stucco makara reliefs on the façade of the upper storey.

In this temple, the concept of Bodhisattva might probably be seen that the

similar portraying of Bodhisattva was decorated as the murals, stucco reliefs in both

of interior and exterior portions of architectural fabrics. The mural of Bodhisattva can

undoubtedly be identified as the Mahāyana thematic figure because this painted

portrait of Bodhisattva is sitting overlapping each leg in JanAsāna and the hand

gesture is Añjali mudra. And it was roofed by the serpents contained three heads and

flanked by many spiritual gods in Añjali mudra.

Avalokitesvara also means the Lokanatha and is famous in the Mahāyāna

Pantheon as a Bodhisattva emanating from the Dhyāni Buddha, Amitābha and his

S'akti. It can be possible to individualize at least fifteen different forms of

Avalokitesvara.1 Out of the various forms of Avalokitesvara, the form of

Avalokitesvata with the Añjali mudra can possibly be associated with the Sadaksari

Lokesvara2 which can also be seen in many places of Loka Ushaung temple.

Another strange thing was also found as the Brahmin figure in murals in the

same place of Bodhisattva. The Brahmin figure was drawn as the same body posture

of Bodhisattva but the place of head. Brahmin figures were probably composed as the

subsidiary of Buddhist shrines because the attitude of these figures was mostly alike

to those of Myaebonthar Pharahla temple. These are also with Añjali mudra like that

of Bodhisattva. It can be assumed that the transitional period style gradually changed

and adapted from the Mahāyāna and Hindu School of art to bear the new

compromised forms of celestial abode directly concerned with the Theravada

Buddhist themes. Therefore, although the traces of Bodhisattva and Hindu celestial

1
Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, P. 124
2
Ibid, P. 174 & fig. 96, 97
 64

substances were richly decorated on the entire portions of architectural fabric in this

temple, the main enshrinement must have been associated with the Theravada

Buddhist theme such as the central Buddha images with the Bumipasa mudra

signified for the Buddha enlightenment. Additionally the next provable evident can be

identified that the Bodhisattva figures were composed in smaller size more than the

image of Buddha enlightenment and they were also composed in the pockets of

pedestal the throne on which the image of Buddha enlightenment was enshrined.

At the upper storey, it can be seen the small room as the mezzanine floor with

the stucco floral motifs. It can be identified as the similar to those of Myaebonthar

Pharahla temple and Taungbon Lokanatha temple. The style of murals can also be the

same to those of Loka Hteikpan temple and Taungbon Lokanatha temple. In the

exterior decorations, the significant decorated object was that of the lion biting the

florescence of lotus blossoms. The creative sense on these stucco motifs was not

ordinary and very uniquely found as the transitional style.

The Unique Find of Life-Like Sculpture in Temple no. 1469

Beside the north of Loka Ushaung temple, one encased stupa is located as the

reconstructed outlook. But this stupa is the most valuable one among the Bagan

Buddhist monuments because it was encased stupa of which the inner stupa was

decorated with the greenish glazed lotus blossoms and the stucco life-like sculpture

can be seen on the upper terrace of this stupa. Because this inner stupa had already

been covered by the outer stupa the stucco art works were not so much damaged and

already maintained itself. So while a large number of Bagan monuments were

collapsed by the 1975 earthquake, the stucco art works of the inner stupa was exposed

partially to bear the glazed lotus reliefs and stucco life-like sculpture. This life-like
 65

stucco stutes of paying homage position was not yet described in the inventory of Mr

Pichard though the temple no. 1496 was listed as one page in Pichard’s Inventory of

Monuments at Pagan, Vol. Six publicated in 1995.1

Although some glazed lotus blossoms were also found from the covering,

almost all of the inner stupa was still covered and restored with some traces of the

inner stupa. Especially the life-like statue is emphasized to interpret that this statue

might be the traces of early Bagan style because of its physiognomy and proportion of

human figures. The facial expression is mostly resembled to that of the colossal

Buddha image in standing portion at Ananda temple. In this statue, so many

ornamented jewelries were worn richly and the clothing and dressing style of the

statue is undoubtedly similar to those of murals and the stone sculpture of Hindu gods

at Nathlaungkyaung temple. Local people say that this statue could be King

Kyansittha who is paying homage to his dedication of Ananda temple because the

statue is facing towards the direction of Ananda temple. Indeed, this might be

associated to the concept of the Bodhisattva high reliefs at the base of sikhara of

Ananda temple because it can probably be seen in the same position of Añjali mudra.

The concept of paying homage or respectful gesture must have been correlated among

these symbolic decorations. Ananda temple is located in the north-east direction of the

encased stupa and coincidently this statue is also facing toward the north-east

straightening towards the direction of Ananda temple. And it can also be identified

with the early period style of clothing in the form of Siva sandstone statue collected

from the Nathlaungkyaung temple and being displayed now at the Bagan

Archaeological Museum. Like in that of Siva sculpture, the statue wore the loincloth

1
Pierre Pichard, Inventory of Monuments at Pagan, Vol. VI. France, UNESO, 1995, p.38
 66

just like the dhoti and other ornamented substances.

So this may be evidently assumed that the association between the second half

of Early Period and the first half of Middle Period because of the physiognomy which

protruding feature of face contained the distinct eyes, pointed nose, thin lips and

rounded chin and most resembled to the sandstone Buddha images of Nagayone

temples. In short, the style or building technique of this stupa was unusual and strange

from the other decorations or sculptural concepts of architectural purports. And it was

unique and can be signified the Early Period of Bagan sculptural culture.

Transitional Style of Stucco Arts in Myaebonthar Pharahla Temple

“The Mye-bon-tha is a transitional work, half belonging to the Early

Period and half belonging to the Middle Period.”1

Myaebonthar Pharahla temple is obviously strange because it is similar not only to the

early style but also to the middle lofty-architectural style. In details, Myaebonthar

stuccos and the stone carvings are more distinctive like those of early assemblages

and a few different changes in ornamentations. This temple also faces to east and is

combined with the northern complex of Mahāmuni temple and five stupas. Among

these stupas, it can be found, in the temple no. 1509, the satellite stupa on the upper

terrace in good condition. The top of this satellite stupa was completely remained as

the lotus blossom of finial. Although this stupa which located beside the north of

Myarbonthar Pharahla temple was estimated with the date of 13th century, it might be

associated with the stucco art works of 12th century.

The stucco and stone carvings of Myaebonthar were evolved closely from

those of the end of 11th century AD, the Early Period style, especially of Myingaba

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p. 80
 67

Gubyauk Gyi. Paul Strachan commented the stucco art works of Myaebonthar as,

“The stucco work here is similar to the Kubyauk-gyi and from this time

onwards is to evolve little. The standard vocabulary of Pagan stucco

becomes the standard patterns for exterior ornamentation from the early

part of the 12th century onwards.”1

In Myaebonthar Pharahla temple, there are identifiable evidences to bear the

transitional traces of Middle Bagan Period as such affinities of the concept and

decorative workmanships of Taungbon Lokanatha and Loka Ushaung. Significantly

the conceptual affinity of these above temples can undoubtedly be proved with the

evidences of Bodhisattva and Brahmin icons with Añjali mudra found repeatedly in

the rich decorations of lotus blossoms; these attitude and gestural composition can be

seen in the serenity and paying respectful to the Gotama Buddha. This can be

assumed that the concept of transition was gradually evolved to bear the Bagan

celestial or mythical concepts such as the adaptation from the Indic Hindu

mythological devices and the northern Mahāyana school of art in which so many

pantheons and celestial substances were complicated. The Avalokitesvara and

Brahmin figures were most abundantly found as the subsidiary of Buddha

enlightenments in these above temples. The Avalokitesvara of Bodhisattva concepts is

the most famous of northern Mahāyana Schools and there is a variety of so many

forms of Avalokitesvara together with the consort so called S'akti and associated

symbols. People believed that Avalokitesvara knows everything on the world and

protect from the any destruction or bad fortune with the supporting of his consorts the

S'akti Tara. So some people also called Avalokitesvara as the Lokesvara the Guardian

for the whole world. Sometimes it was also known as Lokanatha the spiritual god

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.81
 68

protecting the whole world.1

Myaebonthar Pharahla was controversial in dating but exactly of 12th century

AD. The most famous iconographic remains are also known as four Samvejanira the

commemorative symbols of Buddha life after Prinivana the great decease such as the

nativity of Buddha, the enlightenment of Buddha Bhumiparsa, preaching of the first

sermon Dhammacakkara and the great decease Mahā Prinivana. In Bagan another

scenes of Samvejanira can also be excavated and rebuilt as the temple no. 820 which

can be identified as the Middle Bagan style.2 So many fragments of iconographic

remains concerning the scenes of Samvejanira were found richly and now displaying

at the Bagan Museum.

But Myaebonthar Samvejanira was almost completely repaired on the

fragmentary of stucco high reliefs by modern sculptor. But it had been remained some

traces of stucco motifs e.g. the fragmentary of stone Brahmin figure in seated

position. This Brahmin figures are most well-known among the scholars and ordinary

pilgrims and now the good reliefs had already been collected and displayed at the

Bagan Museum. This Brahmin figures is that of high reliefs and it can be seen as the

three heads with the top of finial lotus bud; the hand gesture is Añjali mudra on the

chest; the legs are overlapping each other in Janāsana; the decorative arts of floral

design supported in each side and mostly resembled with the exterior floral design of

Loka Ushaungtemple. Another one of the strange thing is that no Makara motif can be

found in the decorations of Myaebonthar Pharahla temple. The most prominent

portion of decorations was uniquely composed on the main entrance porch with the

1
Chutiwongs, Iconography of Avalokitesvara, P. 81
2
Bob Hudson & at el, “The Origins of Bagan: New Dates and Old Inhabitants”, Asian Perspectives,
Vol. 40, No. I, USA, University of Hawaii press, 2002, p. 67
 69

six terraces like wooden spire Pyatthat, and the icons of Avalokitesvara can obviously

be found on the pedestal of lotus blossoms attached from each edge of terraces. This

composition was strange in Bagan it might probably be correlated to the Mahāyana

pantheons especially of Avalokitesvara concept because the symbolic substances were

composed as the lotus with those of beautiful wavy stems and the haloed backdrop. At

the topmost place of the façade decorative motifs on the six terraces, it must have

been the particular main significant icons but now lost. In this empty place, it could

have main Avalokitesvara icons because it is mostly alike to the composition of the

Avalokitesvara concepts which can be seen in Loka Ushaungtemple as the main

Avalokitesvara icon was painted at the middle or corner and flanked by many other

Bodhisattva icons with the same postures of Añjali mudra.

The Transitional Evidences of Sulamuni Temple

“The Sula-mani is, in effect, the grandiloquent gesture of an empire at

its meridian.”1

In the transitional period, Sulāmani temple has many decorative art works of

stucco and terracotta. Especially in this temple, the glazed reliefs of foliage were

prominent and unique among the contemporary monuments. This type of glazed

decorative art might probably be the prototype of later monumental style. Glazed

decorations were usually installed along each terraces and portions of pediment.

The exterior decorations are obviously distance comparison with the early

style. The stucco mouldings are so beautiful and proportionate with the symbolic

decorative objects; animals and foliage. As for animal decorative objects, the

prominent one is those of Makara and Siha. Makara is almost likely related the

1
Stranchan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p. 95
 70

crocodile and Siha is lion. Makara is one of the oldest symbolic animals of Indian rite.

Makara was also belief that the vehicle of the goddess of Ganga River and it meant

that the auspicious symbol for the royal ceremony.1 In addition, Makara is also the

vehicle of the god of Vishnu that found in Sriksetra Old City; the vehicle of Mara

god, who holding the weapons, found in the glaze terracotta plaques of Ananda

Temple.2

The distinctive sculpture on the exterior is kind of ogre motifs. The ogre

decorations can mostly be found on the frieze, wall, corner pilaster and pediment.

Especially, at the corner projections of exterior, the ogre decorations were varied in

two kinds: single ogre head and double ogre head. Single ogre decoration can be

found in Bagan monuments abundantly but double. Single ogre head decoration was

carved usually at the corner places of the exterior.

In the workmanship of brick bondage system, the brick art of Sulāmani

Temple is so fine and very delicate. This workmanship can be found at the surface of

the wall of enclosure. The stucco art works of Sulāmani temple can be identified as

the most significant evidences of Middle Bagan Period. It was measured as follows,

“The Sula-mani’s stucco is very fine and in excellent condition. The makara,

grotesques and other ornamental creatures are lively and energetic, their carving

exquisitely delicate.”3

In addition, the first invented decorations of glaze were advanced in reign of

King Narapatisithu’s dedication in Sulāmani Temple. And this king recorded his merit

on stone inscription which can be studied on the accurate built-date of temple and

1
Min Sithu, jrefrmh,Ofaus;rI½kyfwkrsm; (Myanmar Traditional Statues), Yangon, Shwe Daung Taung
Press, 1996, P.67
2
Ibid, P.67
3
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.95
 71

some information of causes of building this temple. Epigraphic evidences were richly

evolved in the transitional period monuments. Along with the literal progressive of

Myanmar Language, the advance of architectural and artistic achievement was also

attached and prosperous contemporarily with the South Eastern Asia civilization.

Among these 12th century buildings, Sulāmani Temple had many decorations

and landscape. In this temple, the glaze-coated terracotta reliefs were used for

decorating the exterior and upper terraces. This type of decoration or material was

probably the first glaze decoration on monuments in 12th century time-line. Before

Sulāmani glazed decorations, the Early Period Stupa could be seen the traces of glaze

using techniques, for instance, Ngakywenadaung bulbous shaped stupa. But the

Sulāmani glazed decorations was the delicate and artistic creations among the time

scale of Bagan transitional period. On this assumption, Paul Strachan concluded as

“From this time onwards (12th century AD), most large scale two-

storey temples imitate the form of the Sula-mani, the most obvious

example of which being the Hti-lo-min-lo, for the Pagan king had

found a temple form that ideally demonstration of imperial prestige and

stately grandeur and a glorious confirmation of faith in the world

religion and of royal support for it.”1

The Significance of Stucco Art Works Found in Sein Nyet Nyi Ama complex

The pagoda complex viz. Sein Nyet Nyi Ama meant the sister of Sein Nyet princess.

It can be realized that the Nyi Ama the sister of elder and younger sisters. The elder

sister viz. Sein Nyet Ama is one of the temple typed monuments and situated on the

way of the road from Old Bagan to Chauk. The younger sister viz. Sein Nyet Nyima is

stupa typed monuments.

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.96
 72

In Ama temple (no. 1085), there are 12th century style architectural fabrics of

brick staircase at four facades. The infrastructure was almost the same to the platform

of Shwegu temple and this indicated that the evidences transited to bear the Late

Bagan Period.1 This Ama temple is facing towards the east face to face with Nyima

Stupa. This composition of architectural concept is unique in Bagan area because the

orientation of Ama temple was built to face the upper enshrinements of Nyima stupa.

The pediments on the perforated architraves are completely decorated with the stucco

floral designs without mythical devices such as makara or siha the lion. In this temple,

the significance of stucco design can be seen in the stucco art works of flamboyant

pediments which can be found in each side wall of ambulatory hall. The murals were

painted on the walls inside the eastern entrance hall as the narrative murals to portray

the Buddhist Jataka. This style of mural paintings were distinctively resembled to the

depiction of glazed Buddhist jataka plaques of Mingalaceti stupa. So the architectural

concept which was transformed from the early style to the new forms of infrastructure

and the decorative style of Ama temple was the transitional from Middle Period style

to the Late Bagan style.

Sein Nyet Nyima stupa (no. 1086) was located very close to the east of Ama

temple. The Nyima stupa was richly decorated with many mythical devices such as

Ogre, Lion and Himsa. The architectural fabric of Nyima stupa is strange in the form

of pedestal like the royal throne with the foliage designs. This platform was rather

high not to be climbed up to the upper terraces. There are four terraces with which the

satellite stupas were built on the long pedestals decorated. These satellite stupas were

built only in three terraces and not the same to each other. The stupa in first terrace is

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, P.91
 73

conical shape stupa; in the second terrace, the dome shaped stupa resembled to the

globe and the third terrace has Sri Lanka typed stupa. Concerning the Sri Lanka

influences of Bagan, Professor Luce described his assumption as,

“It is often assumed that the presence of the harmikā on a Burma

pagoda argues Singhalese influence. This may be true of Sapada

pagoda S. of Nyaung-u, built in Cañsū II’s reign, when Singhalese

influence became strong at Pagan……………………………………….

The Sapada harmikā is archaic and Singhalese in form, when compared

to the typical evolved harmikā at Pagan, as found on Seinnyet-nyima”1

The dome and conical shape stupas were encased stupa described in Pichard’s

Inventory volume four.2 On these satellite stupas, there are unusual stucco sculpture in

high reliefs such as lion, Bilu the monster and Hinsā. These sculptures can be

identified as the 12th century style and the workmanships were very tiny and

proportionate in large size statues. While the common sculpture of Bagan can be seen

in low and high reliefs those of Sein Nyet Nyima was different to be advances in three

dimensional sculptural measures. In the bell shape of Nyima stupa, the shrine was

built and in this, seated Dhammacakkra Buddha images was enshrined in four niches

and faced to the west Ama temple. This image can be seen from the receding roofs of

ambulatory hall of Ama temple and also be arranged in visual composition or spatial

value of architecture. The form of the entire stupa was most likely to those of Sri

Landa typed stupa. Paul Strachan described that _

“The harmika itself must predate the Ceylonese type, which was to

become so popular after 1174 at Pagan, here the form is merely

1
Luce, OBEP I, p. 280
2
Pierre Pichard, Inventory of Monuments at Pagan, Vol. IV. France, UNESO, 1994, PP. 214-337
 74

suggested, and is not the box-like feature of the Ceylonese type.”1

Like this, another stupa no. 12502 can be seen as the affinity of Sein Nyet Nyiama

complex. But the infrastructure was merely different and the shrine on the Anda

contained the standing Buddha in four niches while not seated like Sein Nyet. This

style of stupa was flourished in Bagan in the second half of 12th century and later

closely related to the Sri Lanka typed stupa such as Saytanar Kyi stupa.

Buddhist Jataka Plaques of Glazed Art

In the Early Period of Bagan, the glazed decorative objects could not be found richly

as those of the Soe Min Gyi stupa although the glazed jataka plaques of Ananda were

already existed before. Enen in S'riksetra, no glazed work has not been found.3 The

glazed tiles of early stupa Ngakywenadaung stupa were very simple as tiles though

the technical advances could not be underestimated. The Bagan glazed art works were

obviously remained as green, yello, blue and cream coloured glazes.

“The Pagan glazes used in the pagodas were all opaque glazes whose

colours ran from green to greenish blue with some yellow and cream-

coloured glazes………….They were shiny on the surface and have

become matt due to weathering…”4

At the end of 11th century, it might be advanced at the started point of Ananda

glazed decorative and narrative plaques while the glazed relief sculpture of

Shwezigon was not selected to be identified the best fine works. Concerning the

glazed jataka of Shwezigon, Luce commented as,

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, P. 92
2
Fig.(58)
3
Luce, OBEP, Vol. I, p.242
4
Ibid, p.243
 75

“but Kyanzittha was apparently dissatisfied with his Shwezigon

experiment, and reverted to terracotta in the glazed tiles of the Nanda.”1

Soe Min Gyi glazed reliefs were very closed to the style of Early Bagan Period in the

form of foliage designs, figurines of human being in various forms of professional

such as musician or warriors. In contrary, if the details workmanship of relief

sculpture in the depicting of glazed plaques were clearly observed the transitional

traces can be seen in the top of foliages’ lineal pattern and it might probably be

identified as association with the dawn of transitional period.

While the diversified jataka of murals can abundantly be found in Bagan

monuments as interior decorations of didactic art, the relief jataka depictions of Bagan

are not so much complicated rather than murals. Very simple and grandeur scenes of

relief jatakas were very sparkle with the glaze-coated surface and textures. The

textures of glazed surface can give the result of shining and to be grandeur. In Bagan,

mostly in Middle Period2, 12th century AD, the glazed decorations were evolved as

the various forms and purposes. The finest traceable glazed art works were those of

Soe Min Gyi and of Sulāmani Temple but the glazed jatakas cannot be found. It might

be lost through so many ages after the downfall of Bagan dynasty. To highlight the

glazed supplements of Bagan architectural fabric, while the oldest one is

Ngakywenadaung stupa and the Sint Ceti means the glazed stupa near the Alodawpyit

temple, the rich decorative glazed objects can be found distinctively in Soemingyi

Stupa, Sulāmani Temple, Htelominlo Temple, Dhammarazika Temple, Tayokepyae

Temple and so on. In 12th century Bagan monuments, Dhammararazika temple was

distinctive in this architectural reformation of pentagonal shape of plinth and greenish

1
Luce, OBEP I, p.272
2
The transitional period of Bagan and some says the most prosperous duration of Bagan periods.
 76

glazed Buddhist jataka plaques which can be seen in the pockets of terraces. The

glazed plaques might be considered that they were associated with those of the early

style of Shwezigon and the late style of Mingalaceti stupa.

Dhammarazika stupa was more reliable to prove the context of galzed jataka

plaques of transitional period after those of Ananda temple. Some believed that the

donation of religious buildings of the king was mostly decorated with the Buddhist

jataka relief plaques. It might be probable because the findings of Jataka plaques

could be seen as the association of the Bagan king such as Shwesandaw stupa of King

Anawrattha, Shwezigon stupa of King Anawrattha and Kyansittha, Ananda temple of

King Kyansittha, Dhammarazika stupa of King Narapatisithu and Mingalaceti stupa

of King Narasihapate.

Later Period of Bagan, 13th century, was successive the legacy of Middle

Period styles or traditional ways. As for the transitional period, though the most

prominent monuments were evolved rivalry, Sulāmani Temple was more distinct

because many decorative arts and epigraphic evidences can be found.

The Dhamarazika glazed jatakas can be seen in the pockets of terraces. The

fabric of Dhamarazika jatakas are not resembled with the early glazed jatakas of

Ananda and Shwezigon. These are mostly resembled with those of Mingalarzedi

stupa. Dhamarazika jatakas probably indicated the Middle Bagan Period and well-

known donor King Narapatisitu and its recorded information about building

ceremony. Mingalarzedi was built by King Narathihapate, one of the successors of

King Narapatisitu. This stupa is mostly like the early stupa of Shwezigon and

resemble with the superstructure of Dhamarazika stupa. But the strange thing is the

base plinth of Dhamarazika stupa with pentagonal shape. Mingalarzedi stupa has rich

glazed art works and so many glazed tiles and jataka plaques. In this stupa, there are
 77

so many glazed decorative tiles, satellite stupa built up with glazed tiles, glazed jataka

depiction. At the lower base terrace, in the pockets, there are the depictions of paying

homage to Buddha Gotama by Nat or spiritual gods and goddess, Mythical creatures_

Monsters or Ogre, Kinnari. The glazed decorative art works of Mingalarzedi stupa are

finest rather than the early phases of Bagan Period.

The workmanship of glazed relief cannot be portrayed in details because of the

glaze-coated layer. But the terracotta reliefs were sculpted and composed the detail

workmanship without a particular coated layer. Terracotta relief art works indicated

the original artist’s workmanship and it can be identified whether it is original or not.

The glazed reliefs are more durable than the terracotta because these can stand in the

any climatic condition. Glazed culture is more signified in Bagan prosperity and the

ornaments can be found as the glazed wares such as beads and tiles.

In the prosperous level of Middle Period, King Narapatisithu was most famous

and powerful king to bear the second wave of Bagan civilized stage such as the

Myanmar official language, boundary, irrigation, and records of building monumental

architecture for Buddist religious dedication. The glazed art works decorated on the

architectural fabric of Sulāmani temple, the dedication of King Narapatisithu, were

unique in Bagan as the advanced glazed techniques.1 These glazed decorative tiles

indicated how Bagan glazed technique, such as firing, moulding, and pigment, was

already advanced during the transitional period. To be fitted with the architectural

fabrics, the glazed tiles, in variety of sizes, shapes and forms, were certainly needed

the appropriate techniques of measurement scale and manipulating the shrinkage.

In summary, the concept of transitional period can also be taken in two parts_

1
Fig.(60, 61)
 78

the early period was transformed to middle and then repeatedly transformed to the late

period. These two turning points of transitional characteristics can be seen only in the

architectural fabric as well as the decorative art works. The first division of

transitional evidences can be assumed that the Myaebonthar Pharahla, Taungbon

Lokanatha and Shwe Gu Gyi and the second division can be seen as the Sein Nyet

Nyi Ama. The distinguished features of Middle Bagan style of architecture and

decorations can be seen not only as the distinct colossal buildings at the early

transitional phase from the Early Bagan style but also as the tiny and cluster

compound of small buildings with the rich interior murals.

 79

CHAPTER III

ICONOGRAPHY OF LATE BAGAN PERIOD

The Late Bagan Period was most complicated and fruitful for archaeological stydies

of cultural materials. Especially the epigraphic evidences of stone and ink glosses

were more popular presentation on the interior walls of religious buildings. Ink

glosses show many contextual factors of Late Bagan atmosphere. In the same way,

the iconographic remains of Late Bagan Period were also more diversified in

architectural composition.

“The painters, carvers and image-makers who decorated the finishes

building were equally as important as the masons, carpenters and

blacksmiths who built it.”1

The above quotation from ProfessorThan Tun is the paraphrase of his studies on the

stone inscription with the date of 1236 AD in the phase of Late Bagan Period. The

later phase of Bagan Period can probably be demarcated from end of the reign of

King Narapatisithu to King Kyawzwa. The successors of King Narapatisithu were the

patronages of Buddhist cultural heritage in so many Buddhist monuments in various

sizes; big, medium, small. In the Late Bagan Period, many monuments were evolved

almost together with the stone inscriptions and ink glosses concerning both of the

donation and Buddhist thematic factors.

The significant features of the Late Bagan monuments are as follows;

- Constructing the buildings in particular groups

- Evolving the monastery complex in rich architectural elements

- Complicating the stucco reliefs in the exterior decoration

- Increasing the complexity of mural design in geometric patterns

1
Dr Than Tun, “Religious Buildings of Burma, AD 1000-13000”, JBRS, Vo. 42, Part 2,1959, p.79
 80

- Founding the stone inscriptions including the factual data of donation

- Choosing the places, far from the river bank, to build the monuments

extensively

- Emphasizing to have a large number of monuments more than to have a

massive one

In Late Bagan Period, the small size monuments were built abundantly as

stupa complex or monastery complex. On the situation of location and particular area

group of small buildings were built and demarcated respectively, for instance, Winido

complex, Sanbula complex, Sin Phyu Shin complex, Su ton Pyit monastery complex,

Tamani complex.

Among the large numbers of small buildings, the large buildings, such as

Tayokepyae Temple, Pyatthadagyi Temple, Tha Htay Mote Gu Temple, Thitsawaddy

Temple. Additionally there are medium size buildings such as Thanbula Temple,

Phayathonsu Temple, Thetkyamuni Temple and so on. According to the large number

of 13th century buildings in Bagan, it might probably be suggested that the cause of

population growth in Late Bagan more than early two periods. And the 13th century

buildings have the rich decorations and informative stone inscriptions and ink glosses.

Exterior decorations were remained the artistic value and its religious context.

More than early periods, Late Bagan monuments have complicated in

ornamentation such as iconic and foliage symbols. As for the iconic symbols, there

are gods, goddesses, Bodhisattva, head of ogre or Kirtimukha, Brahma and mythical

creatures or motifs. For the foliage, there are, in the Late Bagan Period, the most

beautiful and tiny artistic achievements of floral decoration which prominently


It might be the cause of population growth in Late Bagan more than the former two periods.
 81

different from those of the early periods.

While it can be prominently seen as the significance of Late Bagan visual

culture, the upper portion of 13th century temples called sikhara or square tower will

be emphasized to interpret in comparison with the concept of Mahāyana Buddhism.

And then, there are three main factors to emphasize as such sikhara, goddess and head

of ogre. Sikhara was the most significant device to be portrayed the dominated

cultural context of the characteristics of Bagan civilization although the shape of

stupas_ ceti or cetiya_ was gradually replaced instead of the sikhara at the top of the

temples of Late Bagn Period. It can be assumed that it was the sacred symbols of

Bagan architectural value and directly connected with the Buddhist cultural sequences

because the architectural symbols of sikhara was obviously remained as the visual

evidences of Bagan architectural remains belonging to the simplicity of aesthetic

instruments. The aesthetic value concerning the Bagan visual culture such as both of

two and three dimensional art works can be described that the Bagan artistic ability

and inspiration of the artistic creation was more experience and complicated with the

matured transition from adaptation of visual culture to creation of art in indigenous

style. It can also be mentioned that the late style of Bagan artistic and iconographic

remains show provably the significance of the creative means although it cannot be

measured with those of early style of Bagan visual remains. It also mentions that the

Late Bagan artistic devices were almost different from the adaptation theory of Indic

styles.

The sikhara was gradually transformed into stupa typed portion of the top of

the religious edifices. In the latter periods after down fall of Bagan, the sikhara typed

temples were surprisingly faded away and almost changed to the stupa typed

buildings.
 82

The Significance of the Decorative Concept found in Late Bagan Monuments

To approach the iconographic complexity of Late Bagan Period, there are some

temples as the significances of Late Bagan Period. Almost all of Late Bagan

monuments were usually situated in the Minanthu or Amana area, East and West

Phwar Saw and Tamani areas far from the river. There are Thet Kya Muni Temple

(no. 147), Kondawgyi Temple (no. 151), Nandapyinnya Temple (no. 577),

Tayokepyae Temple (no. 539), Phara Thone Sū Temple (no 477,478,479), Thanbula

Temple (no.482), Mingalaceti Stupa (no. 1439), Than Boddhae Phaya temple

(no.657), West Zan Thi temple (no. 557), East Zan thi temple (no. 558), Ajjagona

temple (no.588), Let Put Kan temple (no. 711), Thingan yone temple (no.712),

Winido temple (no.685), Ma La Phyit temple (no. 664), Nga Lu Gu temple (no. 670),

Saw Hla Win temple (no. 676), Bo Cho Mi temple (no. 995) and so on.

Thet Kya Muni temple was located on the high cliff of Nyanung Oo at the

northern part of Bagan area. This temple was toward the west and built on the edge of

the high cliff very near to the Ayeyawdy River. This temple was also near to the

Kondawgyi temple and in the same geographical condition of Kyaukku Umin (no.

154). In this temple, so many remains of stucco decorations can be seen as the

symbols to signify the auspicious fortune, longevity and guardianship of Buddhist

religious buildings. Most popular motif of stucco decoration dominated in this temple

the association of Late Bagan Period was the guardian goddess so called Sandi that

might be adapted from Hindu origins. And the myghical concept was also dominated

in symbolic decorations. On the interior, the murals were painted delicately and Paul

Strachan had commented as,

 83

“The paingings’ subjects and layout follow the conventions that had

been established at Pagan by the beginning of the 12th century.”1

Thus, this above quotaion shows the Late Bagan decorative style adapted from the

former style of Bagan decorative elements. The stucco decorations were most

distinctive elements of Late Bagan Period. Kondawgyi temple is also seen not so far

from Thetkyamuni. The top portion of Kondawgyi temple is not sikhara and the stupa

typed superstructure on the temple based infrastructure. In this temple, the popular

stucco motif is the corner liong figure and corner ogre head. The lion motifs have one

torso and two bodies and it might be prototype of Manusimha the mythical creature.

The corner decorative motifs dominated in the Late Bagan style of decorations and

relief sculpture. The corner ogre head of stucco motifs were also abundantly found in

Late Bagan Period. Likewise, the East Zanthi temple was also not sikhara type

temple. It is the stupa typed temple built in Late Bagan Period. The prototype of this

stupa typed temple was Myin Pya Gu stupa typed temple of Early Bagan Period. But

this type of temple was not abundantly in Early Bagan Period. Therefore Myin Pya

Gu temple might be unique for Early Bagan Period. In East Zanthi temple, the

iconographic concept of Buddhavamsa can be seen in the Late Bagan style. Especially

the nativity scene of Late Bagan Period can be seen in this temple. The iconic style of

Buddha image was returned to be similar to those of Early Bagn style. But this

compromise style was also become to bear the iconic style of Late Bagan Period. In

Late Bagan murals, the Buddhist image was created with pointed nose, pointed chin,

bold eyes and the fingers was long and thin of linerl shape.2 But the proportion of

Late Bagan iconic style was finely more than those of Early Bagn Period. The Late

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.137
2
Fig.(82)
 84

Bagan artistic composition was described more delicately and tidier decorative

designs and pattern. The distinguished feature of Late Bagan decorative style can also

be emphazised that the concept of Buddhist disciples viz. Mogallana and Sariputta

flanking the main central Buddha image might be fashionable and patronized by Late

Bagan people. Then, concerning the East Zan Thi temple, the Lage Bagan style was

developed and could be described as,

“Normally this type of arrange at Pagan is completely symmetrical

with no hall or porch extensions, however, here the east transept is very

slightly expanded.”1

The most famous and beautiful murals of Late Bagan style can be uniquely

seen in Nandapyinnya temple (no. 577). It was built in the reign of King Kyazwa

(1235-49)2 and has accurate date of 1248 accroding to stone inscription. This temple

was also the stupa typed temple and it is not so much large size but the glorious and

delicate mural paintings can be richly seen. This temple is distinct among the Late

Bagan monuments like Phara Thone Sū temple. The depiction of murals found in tis

temple were almost associated with the Tantric tradition and Dr Than Tun suggested

as,

“Nandaminnya or Anantapañña is a monument of mid 13th century. Its

wall paintings are Tantric.”3

Dr Than Tun may assume that this temple was related to the Tantric tradition because

of the eye witness of erotic vision depicted on the murals and may refer to those of

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p. 126
2
Ibid, p. 134
3
Than Tun, Buddhist Art and Architecture with Special Reference to Myanma, 1st Ed, Yangon,
Monywe Press, 2002, p. 47 (Hereafter cited as Than Tun, Buddhist Art and Architecture)
 85

Duroiselle’s former speculation in 1915-16.1 In contrary, this might not only be

Tantric but also be Boddhavamsa. Although the evidences of Northern Buddhism

were also composed in this temple, the majority of Buddhist concept was distinctly

related to those of Theravada Buddhism because of Boddha enlightenment flanked by

disciples_ Mogalana and Sariputta. To describe the association of Northern school of

Buddhism, the Bodhisattva images were also painted on the walls and their form and

style was mostly similar to those of Khmar style.2 But concerning these Bodhisattva

images, Strachan remarked the concept of subsidiary in Theravada Buddhism as

follows,

“In fact, contrary to Duroiselle and others, iconographically the only

possible Tantric elements are the tribanga bodhisattva that flank the

window recesses in the north and south transept, and these, as has been

thoroughly discussed earlier in this work, had long been integrated into

the Theravada temple decorative scheme as dvarapala, rather than as

objects of people’s devotions.”3

Nevertheless, it can be assumed that the Late Bagan monuments were more

complicated with the sequence of adaptation throughout the cultural elements of two

centuries and more. Therefore, the Late Bagan style of art and architectural elements

contained the diversification of Early and Middle Bagan Period traces. The Buddha

images painted on the Late Bagan mural style were adapted from the early iconic

style.

Like Nandapyinnya murals, another temple viz. Phara Thone Sū temple is

unique in Bagan concerning the Mongol incursion in the second half of 13th century.
1
Duroiselle, Charles, “The Ari of Burma and Tantric Buddhism”, Archaeological Survey of India
Annual Report, 1915-16, pp. 79-93, p.83
2
Fig.(83)
3
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.134
 86

Phara Thone Sū temple was built as three temples in one connecting each other. It

was also built on the platform that the Late Bagan architectural arrangement usually

used the basement in concrete or distinguished platform. Professor Than Tun said

about this temple as,

“Payathonzu was not completed when the Mongols came. So half of

this monument has no interior decoration. The wall paintings are all

Mahayanist.”1

The style of Phara Thone Sū murals might be later than those of

Nandapyinnya.2 The comparison between Phara Thone Sū and Nandapyinnya murals

was noted by Picron as,

“Here, we find similar motifs, but more developed, showing more

“exaggerated” forms.”3

In murals of Phara Thone Sū temple, there are distinguished mythical

creatures such as serpent Naga, Makara, Kinnari, Kirtimukha, Himsa, lion belonged

to two bodies Manusiha, deer Vahana of dancing nat, tiger vahana of dancing nat,

peacock Vahana of attendant, lion Vahana of attendant, horse Vahana of attendant,

falcon Gruda, the flying elephant with body of bird. Although the concept of Tantric

elements were composed with the Bodhisattva flanking the consorts S'akti and

associated vahana and attendants, the central place of the entire temple was

intentionally arranged to be enshrined the Buddha images. And other subsidiary of

decorative elements was in Nakmakara mudra the respectful pose. It can also be noted

that the knowledgable information of Northern School of Buddhism was continuously

1
Than Tun, Buddhist Art and Architecture, p.47
2
Picron, Claudine-Bautze, The Buddhist Murals of Pagan Timeless vistas of the cosmos, Thailand,
Orchid Press, p. 200 (Hereafter cited as Picron, Murals of Pagan)
3
Ibid, p.200
 87

flourished in Late Bagan Period. Additionally, the floral blossom, bud, leaf and stems

were decorated on the interior of Late Bagan monuments in the same ways and the

animal figures were also involved together with the floral design to signify the

serenity of forest and devotion of people to pay homage. The another distinguished

design of Late Bagan murals can be obviously seen as the geometric pattern formed

by the small Buddha images traditionally also known as Bodhi Thathong means a

thousand of Buddha images. This style of murals was uniquely found in Late Bagan

Period.1 This might be resembled to the art of aerial mosaic consisting of a design

made of small pieces of colored stone or glass. This technique of art movement found

in Late Bagan monuemtns also notes that the Late Bagan people could be

knowledgable in geometric elements and visual experiences.

At the situation not far from Phara Thone Sū temple, there is another famous

temple viz. Thanbula containing the Late Bagan murals and stucco decorations.

According to the stone inscription found in this temple, it was built by Queen

Tilokacandadevi in 1255 AD.2 Evidently the iconic style of murals found in this

temple is most proportionate and harmonious in Late Bagan iconic style.3 The outline

drawings of human figure in dancing and moving posture found in the interior of

Thanbula temple are more realistic and noted that the advance of Bagan visual

experience was not defaced in Late Bagan Period. The paintings of human figure were

usually seen more dynamic composition. The finest outline drawing and the good

ratio of proportionate human figures of Thanbula temple were noted as,

“The paintings, here, though mainly in faded condition or

1
Fig.(84)
2
Than Tun, Buddhist Art and Architecture, p. 47
3
Fig.(85)
 88

uncompleted, remain vividly graphic. On either side of the shrine arch

are dvarapala figures seated in lalitasana, their outlines clear though

never coloure in, perhaps on account of the scarcity of colouring

pigments at pagan.”1

The geometric graphic elements were found in Late Bagan mural style likely as

aerial mosaic art works.2 The accumulation of small Buddha images were combined to

bear the graphic designs such as geometric forms of diamond, circle, cross, vertical

and horizontal rectangular forms. The mosaic style of murals can usually be seen in

the Late Bagan monuments, for example, Phara Thone Sū, Winido pagoda complex

and others.

Winido pagoda comples is the group of medium-sized temples associated with

the Late Bagan Period. There are three or more temples in Winido group and, of them;

the temple no. 660 contained the aerial mosaic murals of Bodhi Thathong.3 Strachan

noted that mosaic murals as,

“The hall paintings are in the style of the Late Period: decorative in

tendency, florid and sinuous, delicate whilst at the same time quite

extravagant.”4

In Late Bagan Period, there were also evolved the large monuments like

Shwezigon stupa of Early Period and Sulamani temple of Middle Period. These are

Htelo Minlo temple, Tayokepyae temple, Thahtay Mote temple, Thitsawady temple

and Mingalaceti stupa. At the transitional phase from the Middle to Late Period, Htelo

Minlo temple was outstanding in arthitectural grandeur. Htelo Minlo temple which

was succeded after the Sulamani temple has so many glaze decorations at the terraces

1
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p. 132
2
Fig.(86)
3
Fig.(87)
4
Ibid, p. 135
 89

and these decorative tiles were glazed on the sandstone surface. This evidence of

stone glazed art works was uniquely found in Shwezigon stupa and Htelo Minlo

temple. Professore Luce described about this sandstone glazed art works referred to U

Kyaw Nyein the glazing expert as follows,

“U Kyaw Nyein noticed (i) the glazed sandstone Pataki plaques of

Shwezigon, “severely crazed because the glaze did not fit perfectly the

temperature employed.” Still he though it “an amazing and probably

unparalleled achievement to succed in glazing the sandstone body”; (ii)

the glazed floor-tiles in the Htilominlo “still in good condition. It is one

of the few places where glazed floor-tiles are used”1

Taoukepyae temple is located in the area of Minnanthu village and can be

found so many glazed remains and stucco morifs. It was built by King Narathihapate

(1256-87) had successfully completed the early dedication of the Mingalaceti stupa in

1268.2 Both of these two monuments were undoubtly outstanding as the milestone of

Late Bagan art and architectural development. The delicate art works of glaze and

stucco elements decorated in the exterior of Tayokepyae temple was also adapted

from the legacy of Sulamani temple and it was noted by Strachan as,

“Indented into the plinth mouldings and those of the lower terraces are

glazed rondos similar to those that enliven the Sula-mani with cool

colour. The exterior stucco work here is also particularly fine, with the

east pediment, over the front, part decorative and part defensive, are

presented in clear, yet minute detail.”3

The lion stucco reliefs found in the corner of pilaster and satellite stupas of

Tayokepyae temple was continuously seen as the distinguished objects of Late Bagan

1
Luce, OBEP I, p.243
2
Strachan, Pagan Art and Architecture, p.129
3
Ibid, p.129
 90

onward to the latter period. The appeal of this lion figures can also be observed at the

Tamok Shwegu Gyi temple situated in Kyauk Se. Tamok temple contained so many

stucco motifs associated with the Late Bagan decorative style and temple architecture.

Although the glaze art works of Late Bagan Period can also be seen in

Tayokepyae temple, there are no Jataka glazed plaques like those of Mingalaceti

stupa. The glazed tiles decorated on the terraces of Tayokepyae temple were very

simple though richly obvious to be good looking. Mingalaceti stupa was not included

in the Minanthu area and it was situated very near to the river site. This stupa was

built most similar to Shwezigon stupa of Early Period and Dhammarazika stupa of

Middle Period. In Mingalaceti stupa, so many glaze art works were richly seen in the

diversity of decorative themes. Tentatively the glaze art works of Mingalaceti stupa

can be categoried according to the architectural arrangements as follows;

- At the lower basement of platform, the animal and mythical

creature were composed in the respectful or ritual pose

- At the first to third terraces, the Buddhist Jataka plaques were

composed in delicate and tidy workmanship

- At the corner satellite stupas, the glaze tiles containing the

kirtimukha and foliage

The glaze art works of Mingalaceti indicated that the Bagan glaze cultural sequence

was not defaced and continuously developed from the Early Period to Late Bagan

Period. For the Early stage of Bagan glaze culture, the glazes of Ananda temple was

measured; the Middle Bagan or transitional period associated with those of Soe Min

Gyi stupa and Sulamani temple; the Late Bagan was those of Mingalaceti although

the unique sandstone glazed technique of Htelo Minlo temple was paralleled.

In Late Bagan Period, the evidences of architecutal and artistic elements were
 91

more complicated in diversity of visual tendency or experiences. The prominent

change of architectural achievement was evolved as monastery architecture. There

were many monastery complex belonged to the monaster building, stupa, sima the

ordinational building and sacred pond or lake. These four kinds of architectural

elements were built together in the same enclosure. The monastery was usually built

together with the extension of preaching hall Dhammasala constructed by the wooden

pilasters and wooden or terracotta roof tiles. The monasteries of Late Bagan Period

were usually loftier and delicately decorated with the diversity of stucco art works.

Although Soe Min Gyi monastery had been existed before Late Bagan Period, it was

different so much from those of Late Bagan monastery in architectureal arrangement.

Soe Min Gyi monstery was probably influenced by the Indian and ancient Pyu

structures such as multicell structure of KKG 2. Significantly the Suton Pyit and Lay

Myet Hnar monastery complex were emphasized.

Suton Pyit monastery is situated in the area of West Phwa Saw village the

easternmost part of Bagan hinterland. Especially the stucco pediment of Suton Pyit

monastery was more distinguished to highlight the stucco motifs of Late Bagan

Period. The pediment was attached on the preaching hall Dhammasala. In this

pediment, there are so many symbolic decorations which can be paralleled with the

murals of Phara Thone Sū and Nandapyinnya. Moreover, another pediment like Suton

Pyit pediment can be seen in Lay Myat Hnar monastery complex.

The Origin of Sikhara and Its Tradition

Sikhara means tower or spire.1 Etymologically the word Sikhara was originated from

1
Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu), Bombay, Taraporavala Press, 1995, p.62
(Hereafter this will be cited as Percy Brown, Indian Architecture)
 92

the Sanskrit word “S'ikra” means the “peak of mountain”.1 Sikhara is the tapering and

pyramidal portion of temple typed building. The sikhara is composed with artistic

expedient as the architectural motif. Sikhara is an important architectural feature in all

types of temple design in India.2 The origin of sikhara is concerned with several

theories and mostly acceptable that the form of Northern Indian or Indo-Aryan-style.3

The sikhara of Indo-Aryan is originated from the bamboo construction but not directly

derived from a primitive type of bamboo construction: it is a later development,

produced by the reduplication of vertically compressed storeys.4

The sikhara or spire evolved from the peaked or domed huts of Eastern and

Central India before the beginning of the Christian era.5 The sikhara is the spire tower

of the Northern Indian type of temple and it developed from the Buddhist stupa,

gradually becoming elongated from the semi-globular mound,6 through the early

century of Christian era. In India, the progress of early sikhara typed temple evolved

in c. 500 AD.7 Sikhara was firstly evolved as the feature of Gupta architecture in

Indian Culture.8

Sikhara is the holy part of the temple and symbolized the peak of mountain.

And it is also symbolized for the “ratha” or vehicle. Architecturally the portion of

sikhara indicated that the temple might be powerful and glorious. In 13th century

1
Britannica Online Encyclopedia 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543911/shikhara,
downloaded in the date of 20th Sept 2010
2
Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, p.63
3
Ibid, p. 63
4 Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, New York, E. Weyhe Press,
1927, p. 6 (Hereafter this will be cited as Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art)
5
Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, p.63
6
Ibid, p. 63
7
Ibid, plate- 87 (LXXXVII)
8
Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p. 75
 93

Bagan, there are so many sikhara in a large numbers.

For the interpretation of sikhara, it was related to the Indian architecture

named Bhumija which meant that the tower tapering toward the top on all four faces.

It can be compared with the sikhara of Bagan Bochyomi Gubyayk. In brief, the

sikhara was composed as the symbols of the great power; strength and stability; ratha

or vehicle to be able to carry continuously; pantheon for the spiritual god and

goddess. The architectural purpose of sikhara indicated that the temple was composed

with vertical dynamic concept of sikhara and with the horizontal and vertical row at

all the way to the top. In this architectural feature, the symbolic decoration concerned

with the religious belief or custom such as the feminine goddess, Kirtimukha and

other decorative art works.

Sikhara was combined with the Buddhist symbol of chaitya or Zedi which

eventually merged into the sikhara from the ceremonial umbrella. Additionally

sikhara may have been derived from the tall covering of the processional vehicle

(ratha) which containing an image of the deity was carried about on ceremonial

occasions.1 So sikhara symbolized the vehicle and the monument of the continuing or

enduring or lasting or eternal.

Early evidence of sikhara typed temple can be found in S'riksetra Pyu City

such as Be Be Temple. But the spire of Be Be Temple is rounded tower unlike those

of Bagan. The early design of sikhara can be rarely seen in the Pyu votive tablets. In

Bagan votive tablets, sikhara was usually composed with the branch of Bodhi tree

upon the Buddha image. The progress of Sikhara, in Myanmar, may be developed in

Bagan Period. Concerning the sikhara, Coomaraswamy said as follows:

“…….. the aspiring aspect of the mediaeval towers (sikhara) contrasts

1
Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p. 83
 94

most markedly with the static character of the early low flat-roofed

temples. Just in the same way in Burma (Myanmar) and Siam

(Thailand) stupa, originally a hemispherical dome with one umbrella

and clearly differentiated division of parts, develops into soaring types

like those of the Shwe Dagon at Ragoon (Yangon), with the continuous

convex curve from base to pinnacle.”1

In Bagan, there were two types of sikhara roughly in its significance. One is

the Mahabodi types with Pyramidal square tower and the rest is curvilinear tower like

upper structure of the temple. The Mahabodi type sikhara is the rare type in the entire

area of Bagan and it can be found in three temples_ Gubyaukgyi (Wetkyi Inn) temple

(c. 12th century temple), Mahabodi temple (c. 12th century temple) and Siri or

Bochyomi Gubyauk (c. 13th century temple). But the 13th century style of sikhara was

almost similar in form and structure. In the sikhara of Bochyomi Gubyauk temple, it

can be seen that the icons of Brahma with the Anjali mudra, the flying vidyadharas

with festoon were composed in the circular niches on the projection of sikhara. The

flying vidyadharas were carved profusely together with kirtimukha since 9th century

AD in India.

After the downfall of Bagan, sikhara was also gradually disappeared in

architectural feature of Buddhist monuments although the sikhara can be found in

India until 19th century AD.2

1
Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p.63

vidyadharas is related to the vajarana and can be similar and converted in the meaning of Zawgyi in
Myanmarization
2
Ibid, p.112
 95

The Three Jewels of Buddhism and The Holy Triad of Mahayanism

In Buddhism, there are three jewels; Buddha, Dhamma teaching of the Buddha and

Sanga the sons or disciples of Buddha. This concept is called Buddhist Triad in

Maharanism. The Buddhist Triad was deified in Mahayanism as three icons to

represent. For instance, in Nepal, deification of Three Jewels is illustrated as follows:

Buddha Image for Gotama Buddha

Goddess Image for Dhamma1

God Image for Sanga2

In Mahayanism, the Avalokitesvara was deified and symbolized the great

loving kindness and his s'akti symbolized the wisdom. And combination of

Avalokitesvara and his s'akti or consort represented the Nirvana. So the feminine

deities of Mahayanism were deified to represent for wisdom and knowledge. The

goddesses merged to the symbolic icon for the wisdom or Dhamma.3 As for the

iconography of Buddhist Culture, the schools of Mahayanist were gradually evolved

in various ways of deification. Although there was only the concept of the doctrine in

Buddhism, there were so many iconic features and symbolic objects in Mahayanism.

Early symbols of Buddhism were those of aniconic feature such as Wheel for

Dhamma, Deer for the Forest, and Bodhi Tree for the Buddha, Swastika for the

Buddha and Throne for the Buddha etc. In early phase of Buddhism, Theravada

Buddhism has aniconic symbols in the artistic representation because they accepted

that the Buddha is unrivaled one. Likewise, the concept of Three Jewels of Buddhism

is also believed as the simplicity of Theravada Buddhism although Mahayanists

1
In Theravada Buddhism, the symbol of Dhamma is Wheel with spokes represented the Preaching of
Dhammacakara in Migadawon, Deer Park of Sanart
2
Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, p.32
3
Ibid, p.32
 96

transformed this concept to be the Holy Triad of Buddhism represented with three

iconic symbols.

Feminine Deities Decorated on the Upper Portions

of Buddhist Religious Monuments

Feminine deities involved the representation of religious themes in Brahmanism. In

primitive ritual practice, feminine statuettes appeared as the spiritual purposes e.g. the

concept of mother goddess which the woman figures with fat womb and robust body

were created for the worship of maternity. For the early evidence of iconic worship,

the feminine deities were first evolved in ancient society as mother goddess.

Consequently, this ancient ritual concept transformed to become the

deification of goddess in many ways. So the symbol of goddess is more primitive and

important of ancient ritual sequences in iconic worship. In detail, the female

reproductive organ, Yoni, was more emphasized to symbolize for the fertility and

strength among others. Perhaps the maternity was overwhelming the primitive society

until the civilized ages. In Gupta period Temples, on the pillars of the porch are

figures of the river-goddesses, which are most characteristic of Gupta work and

persists into the mediaeval period, c. 10th to 12th century AD.1

The symbol of feminine concept involved the religious symbols. In the

Mahāyanapantheon, goddess named Tara is the common name applied to a large

number of feminine deities.2 There were so many kinds of goddesses through the

Indian culture and its influence. The word Pantheon is derived from pan-all, and

theos- god and therefore, concerns itself with all gods belonging to a community

1
Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p. 79
2
Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, p.220
 97

following the same religion. In Theravada Buddhism, there was no pantheon to which

worship was offered. But in Mahāyanaa large numbers of deities were included and

surprisingly large with deities of many descriptions.1

In Bagan Monuments with the Indian influence, the symbol of feminine deities

was composed in the upper portions of religious building. The iconic feature of

feminine deities can be identified as the goddess symbolized for the wisdom or

fertility or auspiciousness. The icons of goddess were mostly composed at the upper

portion of religious temple such as sikhara or spire or the square tower and frieze,

sometime in tympanum. The feminine deities can be found together with Ogre, Sīha

the lion, other ornamented figures. In addition, the feminine deities were also placed

at the both side of the entrance. After the decline of Bagan cultural progress, there is

no trace of feminine deities in religious building especially for the Buddhist

monuments. No more goddess or feminine deity can be found in the upper portion of

Buddhist monuments in later period.

The style of feminine deities found in the sikhara of Bagan monuments is the

affinity of Mahāyanagoddesses e.g. Tara and sometimes they were composed with the

royal clothing and flanked attendants. In contrary, according to Dr Than Tun, the

goddesses depicted on the sikharas of Bagan temples are directly related to the Hindu

goddess or S'akti of Siva and Visnu.2 While the gesture of goddess is two types_

Padumarhattha Mudra and Anjali Mudra , he goddess with Padumarhattha Mudra is

holding the lotus with both hands and Anjali Mudra is in the position of worshipping

or paying homage. The goddess with Padumarhattha Mudra can be identified that

1
Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, p.31
2
Than Tun, ordkif;xJu'DZkdif; (Myanma Design), Yangon, Plastic Rainbow Book Publication, 2005,
pp.134-158 (Hereafter this will be cited as Than Tun, Myanma Design)
 98

Candi, the śakti of Siva god1 and the rest is that Śri Lakshmi, the s'akti of Visnu2.

The Head of Ogre or the Head of Glory or Kirtimukha and Its Tradition

The head of ogre is most popular motifs in the decorative art works of Bagan

monuments. In Early Bagan Period, the icon of ogre has only a head without forepaws

or body. Only in the Later Periods, the icons of ogre were usually together with

distinct forepaws in various designs. The icon of ogre is known as Kirtimukha or the

Head of Glory;3 Sun-face or Grotesque Mask;4 Grotesque Kirtimukha;5 Monster

Mask.6

This ogre motif is probably symbolized for the Time and fertility.7 And there

is also known as the monster of time in Indian mythology.8 As for the further more

information about the monster representing time and fertility, Philip Rawson

described as follows;

“….. each person’s “present-frame” is itself a mouth of that monster

vomiting out his world of experience and knowledge. We will never be

able to find the origin or causes of all things ‘out there’, among older

1
Than Tun, Myanma Design, pp.134-137,pp.140-143,pp.145-146,pp.150-152,p.154,pp.156-158
2
Ibid, p.135,pp.148-149,p.152
3
(a) Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, p.139
(b) S.S. Panda, “Kirtimukha, Roaring Lion and Flying Vidyadharas in the Temple Art”, Orissa
Review, April, 2005, p.97 (Hereafter this will be cited as Pande, “Kirtimukha”)
4
Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, p.139
5
Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p. 202
6
Philip Rawson, Tantra The Indian Cult of Ecstasy, London, Thames and Hudson Ltd., reprinted
1993, p.13 (Hereafter cited as Rawson, Tantra)
7
Ibid, p.12
8
Ibid, p.12

the usage “monster mask” or “monster of time” is only in Tantra, the sacred writing of Tantrism
Tantric ideas and things were shared by group of Hindus, Buddhists and Jains
 99

projected things.”1

Kirtimukha, the Head of Glory, was profusely carved on the wall and the

upper portions of Indian temple since 9th century AD.2 But on the doorjambs of the

temple, since 7th century AD, Kirtimukha motif was found with the festoons of pearls,

come out of the mouth of the kirtimukha forming the top-portion of the temple in

India.3 Although there are so many legends related to kirtimukha in Indian mythology,

mythology, the symbolic meaning of kirtimukha is those of immortality and fertility.

Dr Than Tun defined that the Kirtimukha means the famous mouth.4

Kirtimukha, since 7th century AD5, was carved on the Indian temple walls

together with other popular motifs such as roaring lion and flying vidyadharas. In

Europe especially England and France, the affinities of kirtimukha was found and

called as the Green Man.6 Green Men are also categorized that human, beast-head,

cat-head etc, and with the mouth foliage, leaves from eyes and ears.7 The symbolic

meaning of Green Men is almost the same to those of Kirtimukha symbol in the

meanings of guarding, protecting and Glory. There are two Green Men strongly

resemble the Hindu Kirtimukha.

In Bagan architecture, sikhara is the most distinctive feature as the top portion

of temple building and sometimes composed with kirtimukha symbol. There are so

1
Rawson, Tantra, p.12
2
Panda, “Kirtimukha”, p.97
3
Ibid, p.97
4
Than Tun, Myanma Design, fig-32, p.134
5
Panda, “Kirtimukha”, p.97
6
“Some Thoughts on the Green Man in France and Britain”, Review Articles with the references of
these books; Basford, Kathleen, The Green man, London, Brawer Press, 1978; Harding, Mike, A
Little Book of the Green Man, France, Aurum Press, 1972; Lacoste, Jacques (ed), La Sculptor
Romane en Saintonge, France, Christian Pirot Press, 1998
7
Ibid
 100

many evidences of sikhara temple in Bagan archaeological landscape. In this sikhara

architecture, kirtimukha was composed shouldering the feminine deities and

sometimes the foliage. Although the origin of sikhara architecture was from Northern

Indian tradition or Indo-Aryan sikhara, the features of Bagan sikhara were

compromised with the indigenous attempts to have an aesthetic achievement. Perhaps

the symbolic concept of Bagan was not transformed so much from early Indian

influences.

To conclude briefly in compact, the top portion is most important for the

dignity of temple because this portion is not needed to be accessible by pilgrims and

just only for the representation the grandeur or impressiveness of temples.

Consequently the arrangement of sikhara with the goddess, kirtimukha can be

symbolized for the concept that the Buddhist missionary or Buddha Dhamma will

continue to be prosperous until the five thousand years from the time of Gotama

Buddha. The purpose of Buddhist missionary was also the most popular praying in the

stone inscriptions of Bagan Period. With the roots of symbolic meaning_ sikhara

symbolized vehicle; goddess symbolized wisdom or Dhamma; kirtimukha symbolized

the time of eternity, probably these three symbols indicate that the intention for the

longevity of Buddhist missionary which might also be similar to the concept of the

Buddhist missionary to be prosperous until the age of five thousand years.

Mythical Concept and Its Contextual Art Flourished in Late Bagan Period

Mythical creatures emerged as authentic as the symbols of ancient human society

since prehistoric ages. The myths can be identified as the early record of ancient

monumental phenomena before the civilized or systematic recordings or historical

documents had been advanced. Almost all of the myths contained the supernatural
 101

events and creatures with the parallel of true event and its manifestation or

exaggeration. It can be assumed that the mythical creatures and events are pointing to

the achievement of ancient artistic capacity. For instance, mythical creatures can

highlight the artistic creativity of ancient particular time span. The creativity sense of

some myths combined with the true event to be sustainable through many ages. In

Bagan, the mythical creatures can be found in both of murals and relief decorations.

Additionally the later monuments of Bagan mostly contained the decoration of

mythical creatures and had various kinds of mythical creatures. Here, the method of

classification will be proceeded to contribute the Bagan decorative art works with the

prototype of Bagan mythological factors.

Bagan is the most important place for the Southeast Asian Study because of

the plenty of material remains concerning the Indianized scattering tradition and

ancient Buddhist cultural remains. In Myanmar, the Buddhist cultural remains can

also be found abundantly with the early emerging of urbanization such as Pyu and its

descendant. After being the Pyu Buddhist cultural remains, Bagan was evolved as the

incredible lands among the mainland Southeast Asian regions. It can be two major

factors of Bagan civilization such as _ 1. The prosperous remains of adaptation from

Indian Influences; 2. The distinct remains of Buddhist cultural tradition.

The Buddhist cultural remains of Bagan are most outstanding among the

neighbourings. In these Buddhist cultural remains, there are three main categories

such as architectural fabrics, decorative arts, didactic depictions adapted from Indian

influences. As for the architectural fabrics, there are the orientation and arrangement

of constructed buildings attached with the cosmological system of ancient Indian

 102

origins such as mandapa and mandala.1 For instance, there are the ground plan,

infrastructure, exterior motifs.

Especially for the decorative art works of Buddhist monuments, there are so

many items it can be studied and categorized such as many kinds of murals and

diversification of reliefs on the exterior and interior walls. The wall art of interior

decoration provide to the main Buddhist shrine and pantheon. The obvious portion of

Buddhist shrine is the type of pediment, pointed niche, arch way of passage. In all of

these portions, so many decorative motifs can be seen as the stucco and stone

sculptures. In these decorative items, most of them are mythical creatures such as ogre

known as Kirtimukha, anthropomorphic bird known as Kinera, aquatic animal known

as Makara and other subordinated creatures which provided to main mythical

creatures.

The mythical creatures can be seen as both of the relief sculpture and mural

pictures. The mythological matter was descended from the origin of Indian

mythology. In Indian mythology, there are so many deities in various forms and their

servants, vehicles and context. Additionally it can also be classified as the superior

and inferior deities. And deities are also different in gender position. The

personification of animation can be formed in ancient Indian scriptures such as Vedic

and Puranic.

In the decorative motifs found in Bagan monuments, most of them are directly

influenced by ancient Indian mythical factors. The mythical factors might be

compromised with the Buddhist cultural remains such as Buddhist didactic art of

murals and sculptures. The mythical factors with Indian influences were succeeded to

1
Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, P. 41
 103

continue to create the glorious things of Buddhist cultural sanctum. So it can draw out

of the relationship between Buddhist cultural achievements and mythical creatures.

The Architectural Fabric and Decorative Items

Related to the Mythical Creatures

Especially for the later monuments of Bagan period, it can be assumed that those of

the second half of 12th century and 13th century buildings. As for the distinctive

characteristics of decorative art works, there are stucco carvings, moldings and

murals. Most of the later monuments of Bagan are smaller size more than those of

early periods. The quantity of later monuments is more than those of early periods.

The later monuments can be mostly seen as the grouped monuments which are

formed by clustering the small monuments contained so many decorations in detail.

The common style of later architectural fabric oriented to have large numbers of

smaller monuments including the tiny decorations. In later architectural fabric, the

dynamic arrangement of stucco motifs can be mostly found as the pictorial pages of

Buddhist theme. The Buddhist Jatakas were depicted on the walls as the mural

painting to educate so many populaces. And the mythical creatures can be seen as the

implements for the spatial architecture such as the portions of corner, frieze, vault,

pediment, dado, tympanum, projection and depression of walls. With the Bagan

architectural fabric, the Makara, the mythical creature of Indian origins1, was mostly

formed as the auspicious symbols. In detail depiction of Makara, there are the big

mouth including the sharp canines and teeth, elephant trunk. And the smaller figure of

lion was figured in the Makara’s big mouth with the decoration of pearls also known

1
Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, P. 48
 104

as Vindu and lotus blossom.

The mythical creature of Makara can also be found abundantly on the sacred

places of Buddhist sanctum such as the pediment of central shrine, the pediment of

main archway and also on the mural depictions. The most distinctive Architectural

fabric is, in late period of Bagan, the vault typed smaller temple with the special aim

to have represented the Buddhist thematic matters. In these purposes, it can be seen

obviously that the Buddhist textual depictions with other spiritual beliefs such as

Hindu mythological factors, Tantric factors and Mahayanist themes because of the

remains of Avalokitesvara and Hindu mythical creatures.

Almost all of the decorative arts are mostly related to the mythical factors.

Even geometric patterns were related to the Hindu mythical factors such as mandala

or mandapa. The lotus blossom is directly related to the symbolic themes of Buddha

Gotama and other sacred deities. The Bagan decorative foliages were directly based

on the lotus blossom, leaves, stems and tendril. But the latter foliage decorations were

based on other kinds of flowers such as Chin Pon (rosella; Hibiscus Sandariffa) and

Gadamar (Chrysanthemum).

The Architectural fabric included the plinth structure with the form of sacred

pot also known as Kalasa and the form of royal throne. The Bagan architecture had

also been built with the conceptual factors of Kalasa the sacred pots. The composition

of Bagan architecture included the special aim to put the symbolic or mythical

creatures up to the architectural fabric. From the infrastructure to superstructure of

exterior portion, there are many kinds of spiritual deities and mythical creatures

attached to the sacred portions of Buddhist thematic factors such as finial, dome,

terraces, platforms, arches and architraves.

 105

Brief Account of Hindu Mythology and Its Context

The oldest Hindu mythology has two portions namely Vedas and Purānas. Vedas texts

are older than the Purānas. The root of the word “vedas” is “vid”, “to know” and the

term Veda signified knowledge.1 Vedic age is considered to have extended from BC

2000 to BC 1200 but some of oldest hymns may have been composed BC 2400.2

Concerning the Vedic gods, it was commented as follows;

“There are three deities, according to the expounders of the Vedas:

Agni, whose place is on the earth: Vāyu or Indra, whose place is in the

air; and Surya, whose place is in the sky.”3

The Vedic deities are mostly related to and concerned with the earth, water and air or

sky. There are deified beings of natural matters very powerful and also known as

Devatā.

The second oldest text is Purānas means “old traditional stories”, and saying

as follow:

“The chief sources of information respecting the modern mythology of

the Hindus are the tow great Epics_ the Rāmāyana and the

Mahābhārata_ the Purānas, or “old traditional stories,” eighteen in

number, and the five principal Tantras.”4

The date of Purānas is almost difficult to determine and believed that none of them

are older than the 8th century AD.5 Purānas can be classified upon the praise of three

great gods_ Brahmā, Vishnu and Siva. As for the exact commentary of Purānas great

gods_
1
W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology Vedic and Puranic, Calcutta (Kolkata), Rupa Co., 12 ed, 1991, p.3
(Hereafter cited as Wilkins, Hindu Mythology)
2
Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, p.7
3
Ibid, p.9
4
Ibid, p.89
5
Ibid, p.90
 106

“I. Those which are devoted to the praise of Brahmā; viz. the Brahmā,

the Brāhmanda, the Branmāvaivarta, the Mārkandeya, the Bhavishya,

and the Vaman

II. Those which relate to Vishnu; viz. the Vishnu, the Bhāgavata,

the Naradiya, the Garuda, the Padma, and the Vārāha

III. Those which are chiefly connected with Siva; viz. the Siva, the

Linga, the Skanda, the Agni, the Matsya, the Kūrma. For the Agni

Purānas another called the Vāyu is sometimes substituted”1

From the Purānic three great gods, so many inferior deities were evolved combining

with the natural matters, animals, vegetables, places, customs and other indigenous

taboo. For instance, there are animal-vehicles called as Vahana, pedestal called as

Asāna or Throne, particular kinds of weapons and tools such as Trisula, Spear, Club,

animal-disciple such as Snake, Bull, Bird and then the creativity of Brahmā was

signified by the artistic depicting which formed some kinds of mythical forms and

content such as multi-heads and hands portraying.

As for the mythical content, there are, for example, man-lion, man-bird, man-

snake and other combination of different animals and anthropomorphic characteristics

likely animistic objects. For instance, man-lion is also known as Narasimha or

Manutsimha; man-bird is Kinnari; man-snake is Nagaraja or monster of Mara. The

diversified gods and goddesses from three great gods, with the mercantile voyages,

scattered around the East and Southeast Asian regions and comprised with the

particular indigenous traditions or rite.

Since primitive age, hence, mythical content had been concreted among the

ancient human society as the ritual or some other magic purposes. At the time of

Buddhist cultural influences, Indian was firstly reformed to be a Buddhist cultural

1
Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, p.90-91
 107

development with the architecture, artistic creativities and literature. The root of

Buddhist Culture from India spread towards both of eastern and western direction. As

for the east, it was flourished towards the far eastern Asia and for the west.

Especially for the Bagan Buddhist cultural sequences, there are so many

material remains such as architectural fabric, handicraft and artistic remains, scripture

and any other mythological evidences directly adapted from ancient Indian origins.

Therefore, it can be assumed that the mythical creatures are varied and mingled with

the Buddhist thematic matters as the guards, disciples, auspicious symbols, signified

objects, metaphor, figurative objects, literal depicting and supernatural powerful

matters.

Significant Decorations of Mythical Creatures

In late Bagan monuments, there are so many detail decorations to support the

Buddhist thematic factors. The Hindu cosmological symbols can also be seen on the

murals such as horoscopes, the cosmological depictions and other geometric symbols.

As for the distinctive monuments including the rich decorative art works, there

are Nandapyinnya temple, Phara Thone Sū temple, Tayokepyae temple, Thamanphara

temple, West-Zanthi temple, Ajjagona temple, Maungyon Gu temple, Aleya temple

group, Winido temple group, Thanbudephara temple, Malaphyitphara temple,

Sohlawun temple, Hsinphyu Shin temple group, Letput Kan temple, Thinkan Yon

temple and so on.

The above list of monuments was concerned with the decorative art works of

mythical creature. The most common items are makara attached with the lion figure,

kirtimukha, double-bodies-animals, half bird half mammal like centaurs and lotus

symbols. The auspicious symbol was also used with the pot also known as Kalasa.
 108

The mythical creatures of Hindu Puranic pantheon were also decorated, in the

parallels of Buddhist shrine in Bagan, to signify the symbols for auspicious;

prosperous; eternity; immortal; supreme; safety; suffering; and other supernatural

believe.

The most prominent one is those of goddesses also known as S'akti in the

Hindu Mythology and it meant energy. In Hindu origins, the S'akti of Siva, one of the

three Puranic great gods and named Candi or Kali or Uma or Porvati is most popular

deity and signified for the energy and protection from destruction. Likewise the S'akti

Candi can also be identified as the symbol for protection and longevity.

Makara was believed that the vehicle of Ganga the goddess of Ganga River. In

Hindu Mythology, the goddess of Ganga is daughter of Himalaya and the sister of

Porvati the S'akti of Siva and also the consort of Visnu.1 Nevertheless, the Ganga

River is the most distinctive and important one for India because the ancient longest

history of India was relied on this river and so many ritual practices and traditions

were alive together with this river. So Hindu mythology said that the Ganga is sacred

and energetic for the whole Indian people who believe the Ganga goddess can give

good fortune descending from the heaven. Some says that Ganga goddess rides the

big fish or some says crocodile2 or some says Makara. But the powerful and sacred

one is also known as Makara. So Makara is most popular symbol to signify the

auspicious things for religious monuments. In the ancient time of Southeast Asian

regions, the symbol of Makara can be seen abundantly with particular indigenous

styles influenced the Indian origins.

In contrary, the other S'akti is the consort of Vishnu and signified to the

1
Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, P. 460
2
Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, P. 41
 109

growth or prosperity. This S'akti is also known as Lakshmi and believed that this

goddess can give fortunately so many good or auspicious things.1 As for the attitude

of Lakshmi goddess, the prominent feature is that of hand position showed the

worshipping gesture on the breast. The Asāna the leg position is like the JanAsāna

showed the crossed leg position. Especially the symbol of Lakshmi goddess signifies

the auspicious and prosperous fortune and meanings.

The main mythical concept shows the two main goddesses and concerned the

three main gods of Hindu mythology. The two main goddesses are Porvati and

Lakshmi who are the consorts of Visnu and Siva. The unique one the creator is

Brahma and the S'akti is Saravati goddess.2 The inferior goddess can be showed that

the guards, vehicle animals and personification or any forms related to the spiritual

gods and goddesses.

From the root of Hindu mythological factors, the diversification of any other

mythical creatures could be formed and believed by the immediate people and their

successors. On these beliefs of mythical tradition, they created the ritual practice with

the material objects such as idol, altar and any other ritual forms. In Bagan, the most

flourished concept is those of Buddhism and its relative practice such as Hindu and

Tantric tradition at least. The perception of Buddhist cultural remains can be defined

as the centralization of Buddha Gotama and His doctrines such as the canonical text

or visual arts.

To depict the Buddhist cultural materials, Bagan artists used any other forms

of decoration and creativities in various technologies and methods for visual arts. In

1
Wilkins, Hindu Mythology, P. 127
2
Ibid, P. 107
 110

that case, the material and concept can be categorized as the main two perceptions.

The material can help to be durable and glorious and concept is to be grandeur and to

educate and to disseminate the Buddhist doctrine for the Bagan contemporary

populaces. The Bagan kings tried to have so many monasteries to educate the

Buddhist concept and then the paralleled custom which evolved from the

dissemination of Buddhist concept was also progress as the adapted traditional

practice of Hindu spiritual gods and goddesses or the perceptions of combining the

different believes. For instance, the different believes such as Theravada and Tantric

concepts would be combined to be a new class of spiritual concepts such as the

Buddha icon was depicted in the central place and also flanked by the Tantric

Bodhisattva icons and the Nats or Devata or celestial gods and goddess with the form

of Tantric perception such as the Bodhisattva and S'akti. This reason can show that

Buddhist concept was ornamented with the other celestial concepts in visual culture.

Likewise, in Bagan monuments, the artistic depictions of Buddhist conceptual

materials used so many forms of Hindu mythological factors, other Mahayanist and

Tantric factors.

The most popular depictions of Late Bagan monuments are mostly similar to

those of Sumetra and Java because the Buddhist art influences, from the origin of

Eastern and Southern India, were arrived at the Sumatra and Java islands in so much

earlier time. In the period paralleled with the Pyu, c. 7th and 8th century AD1, the

Buddhist artistic tradition had already arrived at Indonesian Islands and the most early

1
U Yee Sein, “ysLacwfESifhyk*HMum;jzpfumv[lí&Sdygoavm”(Is that particular period between Pyu and
Bagan periods), OD;&nfpdef\vufa&G;pifpmwrf;rsm;(Selected Research Papers of U Yee Sein), Yangon,
Historical Research Centre, 2007, pp.82, 87
 111

than those of Bagan monuments. Other Southeast Asian countries were almost later

than those of Bagan Buddhist cultural remains. So the characteristics of Bagan

Buddhist cultural remains can be affinities to those of Indonesian Sumatra Island. The

prominent instance is that the depiction of Makara with other supported creature of

lion or ogre at the sacred portion of temple e.g. the Sikhara or square tower, Tanke or

flamboyant pediments, the façade of the temple architecture.

The most different matter between Java style and Bagan style decorative

creatures can be proved that the indigenous style of Bagan was mostly obvious than

those of Java/Sumatra because the Sumatra and Java style was mostly affiliated to the

root of Indian style more than those of Bagan. Although the geographical feature of

Bagan is more closed to the boundary of Eastern Indian, the Java Buddhist cultural

remains were mostly alike to the Indian origins than those of Bagan. The Bagan style

adapted from Indian influences was different from its original style and can show the

hybrid or compromised style with indigenous tradition. Most of the symbolic

materials which adapted from the Indian origins can be changed and re-created to be

different style which can be proved that the Bagan people used so many source-

materials from their neighbouring and influenced culture to found the Bagan Buddhist

cultural society and artistic atmosphere.

Bagan have flourished gradually after being the Buddhist oriented land almost

since 11th century AD. The dawn of Bagan Buddhist cultural development can be

identified that it was not so much different from Indian origins because of the traces

of the remains of Kyaukku Umin and Nanphara temples. Although it might be those

of Buddhist thematic monuments, it could not be quite different in architectural

concept and detail decorative matters from Indian origin of Buddhist cultural

heritages.
 112

In later period of Bagan, most of the monuments were changed in smaller size

and composition of clustering with the platform or sometimes enclosures. The

prominent factor of later monuments is that the stucco reliefs of exterior decoration

and dynamic murals of interior. Most of the later decorations can be seen likely the

design pattern in symmetrical balance. In the panel of design patterns, such as circular

pattern, rectangular pattern, the mythical creatures were fitted up harmoniously to

have a scene of nice balancing.

Almost all of the mythical creatures of Bagan are still continued to up to date,

e.g., Manutsimha, Kinnari, Kinnara, Bilu (Ogre), and other spiritual gods and

goddesses. Hence, mythology of Bagan can be assumed that the descents from the

Indian mythological factors were used to compose to the Buddhist thematic art works.

For instance, the figure of Brahma was portrayed with multi-head position like the

Brahma of Hinduism. The sacred place of Buddhist shrine was portrayed with the

holy symbols concerning Hindu mythical creatures such as Makara, Kirtimukha and

so on. Summing up, the distinctive characteristics of 13th century monuments of

Bagan can be identified with two major factors such as clustering style of small

temples and being so many mythical creatures which can be seen in both of Interior

and exterior. Some mythical creatures cannot easily be defined and it might be simple

artistic achievement or unique creativity of Bagan indigenous style.

Mingalaceti was also the largest and one of the famous monuments in Bagan.

it was built with the adaptation of early stupa Shwezigon and Dhammarazika dome

shaped and terraces. The strange things of this stupa were those of many glazed relief

sculptures which were decorated on the places from the lower base of platform to the

upper satellite stupas. At the basement of platforms, the inferior god, goddess and

mythical substances such as Garuda the mythical king of bird might be falcon,
 113

Kanara, Bilu ma the ogress or female monster and their stuffs. And then the Buddhist

Pataki gazed plaques were arranged inside the pockets of terraces. The depiction of

Buddhist Jacanas was very tiny and varied in different items associated with the

Bagan social image and it can be conjured how Bagan people communicated each

other and the situation in the contemporary of Late Bagan Period was.

The complicated myths and its contextual figures evolved abundantly in later

period of Bagan, 13th century AD. A variety of depictions were concerning some parts

of Hindu mythical creatures. It must be suggested that the existing of mythical

creatures mingled with Buddhist monuments can provide how Bagan cultural progress

was sophisticated and they had right to create artistic achievements with the special

references and with their adaptation from great origins contemporarily with other

Southeast Asian civilization.

 114

CONCLUSION

Iconographic study, in this dissertation, of Bagan cultural remains is directly

concerned with the visual evidences of architectural fabric decorated with the

sculptural objects of religious themes. Sometimes it can also be seen as the

dedications of Bagan kings and his family. Sometimes the dedication of Bagan elite

showed their properties of richness. Hence, there were so many remains of cultural

heritage of Bagan civilization associated these visual evidences of artistic objects_

painting and sculpture.

The Early Bagan Period was more flourished by the adaptation the

contemporary of Pāla coincidently with the civilized features of Pyu and Mon prior to

the founding of Bagan urbanization. So Bagan was one of the civilized city states

among the Southeast Asian regions. The aesthetic value of Bagan was prominently

able to be proved that the planning and finishing of their architectural fabric and

decorative art and the religious esteem of Bagan would be surprisingly developed on

the wild semi-desert plain relying on the bank of Ayeyawady River. Since the time of

Early Bagan Period, the famous and well-known king Anawratthā had initiatively

transformed the Bagan society and its intellectual properties to bear the offspring of

Buddhist cultural practice in Bagan. It was highlighted by the early iconographic

evidences depicting the majority of Buddha enlightenments and the subsidiary of

Bodhisattva concept flanking by the Hindu and Mahāyanapantheons.

The majority or the essence of Bagan iconographic evidences can prove that

Bagan was flourished mostly by the syncretism of religious dedication. Traditionally,

for instance, the local people usually said that the Nathlaung Kyaung was built for the

Brahmana so called Punna who had served as the teacher of the king and the head of

the coronation ceremony. Nevertheless, the sculptural remains from this Hindu temple
 115

were the important evidences to tell about the Early Bagan society and its relationship

with other boundaries. It can be compared with those of east Bengal, the old Pyu and

Mon; the S'riksetra of old Pyu and Kawtgun Cave of Old Mon.

In contrary, folklore said that this temple was the cell or storage building for

the spiritual gods and goddesses after the king Anawratthā attempted to purify the

religious atmosphere of Buddhism the Sāsana. Although the myths, folklore and

legendry cannot be reliable for research, there might be some valuable clues

associated the particular ancient time if they can be investigative by chances. The

traces of Early Bagan artistic and architectural remains were associated with the

influence of the neighboring such as the Bengal, Rakhine The Vesāli, the old Pyu of

S'riketra, and the old Mon prior to Bagan. This can be proved with the visual

evidences of the style of stupas and temples in Early Bagan Period and the

physiognomic identification of early iconographic evidences which can undoubtedly

be influenced with Indian Pāla arrived throughout the Rakhine ranges from the

Vesāli, the contemporary of S'riksetra old Pyu. The bulbous type of stupas such as

Lokananda, Bu phara1, Ngekywenadaung was shown as the affinity of S'riksetra stupa

such as Baw Baw Gyi and Phara Gyi. In Bagan no architectural fabric can be found

without decorations and ornamentation.

The factor that all of the religious monuments were composed with the

different typed and style in Bagan indicates how the ancient Bagan had been

improved in such as administration, mutual communication, religious missionary and

being wealthy and powerful in political status. The statecraft of Bagan can also be

assumed that the fairness and justice on the multi ethnic minorities because of the

1
Because this stupa was already collapsed down to the river in 1975 earthquake, the latter
reconstruction had been restored according to the photographic records.
 116

evidences of Rājakumā inscriptions with the four language Pyu, Mon, Myanmar and

Pāli. It might be considered that the Pyu and Mon were the ancestors of Bagan and

Myanmar especially ancient Myanmar writing system can only be seen in this

inscription. Pāli must be indication of the time of Buddhist flourishing in the royal

and elite of Bagan society. In the temple viz. Myingaba Gubyauk Gyi with which the

Rājakumā inscriptions were associated, there are so many decorative arts both of

murals and sculptures. The Hindu spiritual substances and the Mahāyanasymbolic

objects can easily be seen in this temple as the subsidiary concept of the protecting,

guardianship and visualization because the main themes of enshriment can distinctly

be seen as the Buddha enlightenments with the Bhumiparsa mudra.

Other obvious instance, the Mahāyanapantheons which was painted on the

interior of Abeyadana temple in Early Bagan Period can be prominently found and

observed on the interior walls and cloister vaulted ceiling. In this temple, Hindu

spiritual substances such as Brahmin, S'akti, Vāhana, Asāna, Vajrā, and other inferior

spirits Nat were completely painted in beautiful and colourful scenery. According to

these murals of Hindu god and goddess, U Mya was described in his book titled

“Apeyadana temple” as follows:

“Apeyadana temple was also called as the Nat Kyi Phara (Pagoda of

Huge god) because the people in environs of this temple came and

prayed to this temple to get the good fortune and jewelry for wearing in

the donation ceremony.”1

Then this might be considered that it had been compromising between the ancient

religious practice prior to the flourishing of Buddhism and the latter motivation of

Buddhist missionary.

1
U Mya, Apeyadana, P. 109
 117

In the later phase of Early Bagan Period, the architectural and artistic concept

was gradually changed into Buddhist canonical tradition. It can be proved by the

visual evidences of Buddha Jataka story-plaques made of baking clay material so

called terracotta. The iconographic remains of terracotta votive tablets were found in

Shewsandaw and Phet Leik double stupas. Shwesandaw stupa was also found together

with the Hindu spiritual substances on the upper terraces and also known as

Mahāpeinhne pagoda means the Ganasha stupa because of rich findings of Ganahsa

stone statutes. In the pockets of each terrace, the Buddhist jataka plaques were placed

firmly to show the Buddha previous lives. The Phet Leik double stupa_west and east_

were excavated in 1916s and most popular of the terracotta jataka plaques. In the west

Phet Leik, the seriation of Buddhist Jataka numbers can be seen as the 550 jatakas

although the Theravada theme of Buddhist Jataka was only 547 jataka.1 The added

three jataka was not included in Jataka text and they can only be found in Cariya

pitakat and Buddhavamsa. It might be shown that the context of Bodhisattva in

Mahāyanism cannot be depicted as inferior forms in His past lives. So these three

added jatakas are Mahagovimda, Sumedapanita and Velama. All of these three jataka

showed that the Bodhisattva had been alive in the past as the Cariya means the teacher

of kings, the elite of society, the scholar among the peoples. In contrary, it can also be

considered that the Phet Leik jataka plaques were made of fine clay materials with the

skillful controlling of temperature because their texture and colour are fine.

Iconographic evidences of west Phet Leik stupa can effectively described how the

early Bagan people was lived and earned along the Ayeyawady River.

After these, Bagan iconographic elements might be transformed gradually

1
To record easily, it was called as the 550 jataka though, indeed, the 547 jataka was in Jataka text
 118

relying on their political condition. The transition of architectural and artistic elements

can also be paralleled with the contemporary of Bagan political changes. For the

distinct instances, for the significance of initiative to found the Early Bagan Period it

can be shown as the Ngekywenadaung bulbous typed stupa, the compromised stupa

Shwesandaw or Genasha; the representation of Buddhist jatakas mingle with the trace

of Mahāyanathemes in Phet Leik, and the latter Buddhist matured monuments. The

significance of adaptation of Indian origins can be traced in the iconographic remains

of Buddha Dhammacakkra in Kyauk Saka temple. The Significance of compromising

with old Pyu can be traced and proved with the iconographic remains unconvered from

the excavation of Paung Gu temple. And for the significant remains of transitional

style from the end of Early Bagan to the first half of Middle Bagan can be shown as

the architectural fabric and floral designs of Taungbon Lokanatha, Myingba Gubyauk

Gyi, Myaebonthar Pharahla, Loka Ushaungand others like that. In the matured statue

of 12th century style of iconographic evidences, the huge sandstone reliefs which

carved of the Buddhavamsa were found in Myingaba Gubyauk Nge the 12th century

temple and the popular monuments of Bagn which Ananda temple1, Dhammayan Gyi

temple and Thetbyinnu temple. There is a famous slogan of Bagan as such

“the fine art of Bagan is those of Ananda temple

the loftiest edifice of Bagan is those of Thetbyinnu temple

the massiveness of Bagan is those of Dhammayan”

This above slogan must be born with the visual evidences without miscalculation. In

transitional style was mostly compromised with so many elements such as symbolic

1
Ananda temple was also considerably guessed the date of building as the second half of 11th century
the Early Bagan Period. In other way, this temple can also be taken as the highest legacy of Early
Bagan Period and the ideal standard of transitional period style e.g. the Dhammayan Gyi temple
referred to those of Ananda temple.
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objects of Hindu, Mahayana, and Tantric. Some mythical concepts were started to be

decorated in Buddhist representative art. The style of foliage lineal designs was also

obviously transformed to bear the new hybrid designs in the first half of 12th century

AD. For instance, it can be differentiated between the foliages of Kyaukku Uhmin,

Nanphara and Myinpya Gu stupa_ in Early Bagan Period_ and those of Ananda,

Myaebonthar Pharahla, Myingaba Gubyauk Gyi, Loka Ushaungof 12th century Bagan

Period.

The top point of floral design KluPan is more distinct to differentiate the

stylistic approaches. The early style foliage was inert and not sharp points. They were

composed in static or serenity and massive concepts and not so much energetic for the

visual feeling. Some says this style of early foliage as the head of Kyae Zee the

triangular brass gong because of the rounded top no point. The transitional style was

evolved based on these early foliage designs but different the top portion and the

body of foliage. The top was transformed to bear the sharp point partially and the

stem of foliage changed to bear the more rhythmic lines than the early one. The early

foliage designs mostly closed to the realistic appearance and the transitional style was

changed to be similar to the linear or abstract forms. So this is starting point to be

continued to transform to bear the later dynamic style of foliage pattern. The realistic

or representative art works were gradually changed to bear the geometric patterns,

designs and abstract form which is more related to the inspiration of

conceptualization such as visual-oriented style.

The murals were painted with three or four colours and spatial composition

paralleled with the architectural space. The Late Bagan Period was matured with the

Theravada Buddhist practice and Myanmar official writing system, so the evidences

of the Late Bagan society and social communication can be seen in the epigraphic
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evidences of stone inscriptions and ink glosses. It can be considered that so many

monasteries were emerged like the universities of that time. But the political power of

Late Bagan Period was gradually down fallen by the cause of population and other

foreign frightening. So in Late Bagan monuments, the small buildings were more

built as the pagoda complex such as Winido temple groups, Sin Phyu Shin groups,

and Tamani. In the same way, the Late Bagan style of iconographic remains was not

grandeur more than those of early style because they were emphasized to compose

the tiny and dynamic or energetic style. So the visual experience on the Late Bagan

style foliage or some other mythical substances can be seen as the demographic

evidences of Late Bagan contemporary and more complicated features among the

social communication. The diversification and complicated nature of the Late Bagan

architectural and artistic achievement can be observed in the Minanthu and Phwar

Saw villages.

In conclusion, the iconographic remains of Bagan Period can provide the

Buddhist dissemination from the origins of India to the East and Southeast Asian

regions throughout the land route of Bagan regions because so many visual remains

can be found in Bagan as the adapted; influenced; flourished; and compromised

features with the neighboring boundary. Consequently the Bagan art and its

contextual information were continuously transformed to the latter periods of

Myanmar and its boundaries. Then, the foundation of Buddhist cultural elements was

found in Bagan not only as of the Theravada Buddhist tradition but also as of the

other Hindu, Mahāyanaand Tantric elements. But the Bagan Buddhist culture was

able to bear the civilized society of ancient Myanmar which can expertly be managed

how to create the fine art; how to make Buddhist missionary with the visual elements

for educated purports; how to share the knowledge of religious and artistic
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experiences. While the material of Bagan prosperity such as the tangible value of

Bagan had already been old and damaged, the aesthetic and intellectual senses such as

the intangible value of Bagan will always be alive as the immortality itself living with

the visual symbols of iconographic manifestation of Bagan.