NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN SCIENCE

LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRONICS
STP 211
 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ELEMENTS
Electron can revolve only in permitted orbits and not in
arbitrary one. The orbits are identified using
alphabetical letters, K,L,M,N,P etc., starting from the
nucleus outwards. The shells are known by their
principal quantum number n with values n=1 for K
shell, n=2 for L shell, n=3 for M shell.
The maximum number of electrons a shell can
have=2n2.For example, for K shell, n=1, hence, it

can have a maximum of 2* 12 =2 electrons. For L shell,

n=2. Hence the maximum number of Electrons for this
shell are 2* 22 = 8 electro ns.
Figure 1.1a shows the structure of silicon atom
with 14 electrons. The first shell has 2 electrons,
the second shell has 8 electrons while the third
shell has 4 electrons.

a 1.1 b
In other words, silicon atom has K
and L shells completely filled while
M shell is partially
occupied with 4 electrons. Similarly,
germanium atom in figure 1.1b
has first three orbits fully occupied
whereas the 4th orbit which is the
outermost orbit is partially filled.
Explanation of the terms: Covalent Bond,
conductor, semi‐conductor and insulator
with their respective energy band structure

Covalent Bond

Covalent bonds are formed by sharing of

electrons. Each valence electron of an atom
forms direct bond with the valence electron of
an adjacent atom. This can occur between two
similar or dissimilar atoms.
 1.2

From figure1.2 each tetravalent silicon atom

shares one electron each with four surrounding
atom thereby completing 8 electrons in its
outermost orbit.
 Valence Band
The range of energies (i.e. bond) possessed
by valence electrons is known as valence
band. It may be either completely filled or
partially‐filled with electrons but cannot be
empty. For example, inert gases have
valence band that are full whereas for
other materials, it is only partially filled.
The partially filled band can accommodate
more electrons.
Conduction Band
Conduction band is the range of
energies (i.e. band) possessed by
conduction band electrons. All
electrons in the conduction band
are free electrons.
Generally, insulators have empty
conduction band, hence current is
not possible in conduction band.
 Forbidden Energy Gap

Forbidden energy gap is the

separation between conduction band
and valence band on the energy level
diagram. The width of the forbidden
energy gap is a measure of the
bondage of valence, electrons to the
atom. The greater the energy gap, the
more tightly the valence electrons are
bound to the nucleus.
1.3
The figure 1.3 above shows
conduction band, valence band
and forbidden energy gap. Note
that to push an electron from
valence band to conduction
band, external energy equal to
the forbidden energy gap must
be supplied.
 Energy Levels
An atom consists of a positively charge nucleus around
which negatively charged electrons revolve in different
circular orbits.
Each electronic orbit is associated with a definite
amount of energy. The electrons moving in a particular
orbit possess the energy of that orbit. The larger the
orbit, the greater is its energy. Figure shows a
convenient way of representing the energy of different
orbits.
This is known as energy level diagram. The first orbit
representing the first energy level, the second orbit
indicates the second energy level and so on. The larger
the orbit of an electron, the greater is its energy.
 Conductor

Conductors are those substances which

easily allow the passage of electric
current through them.
Looking at the energy band structure fig.
1.4a, one would observe that the valence
and conduction bands overlap each
other.
1.4a
Semi‐Conductors
Semi‐conductors are those substances
whose electrical conductivity lies in
between conductors and insulators.
The valence band is almost filled and
conduction band is almost empty. between
valence and conduction band is very small
(leV).(fig. 1.4b)
1.4b
 Insulator
Insulators are those substances
which do not allow the passage of
electric current through them. The
valence band is full while the
conduction band is empty. The
energy gap between valence and
conduction band is very large (~ 15
eV) (fig. 1.4 c)
1.4 c
 Properties of Semi‐Conductors
 They are all tetravalent, that is, they have four
electrons at the outermost shell.
 They have two charged carriers – positive and
negative charges.
 They have negative temperature gradient. This
means that as their temperature increases, their
resistance decreases.
 They all undergo covalent bonding.
 When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. arsenic,
gallium etc) is added to a semi‐ conductor, its current
conducting properties change appreciably.
 SEMI‐CONDUCTOR MATERIALS

Common Types of Semi‐Conductors

Two types of widely used semi‐conductor
materials are silicon and germanium. Both
the silicon and the germanium atoms have
four valence electrons. They differ in that
silicon has fourteen protons in its nucleus
and germanium has 32. The figures below
show the atomic structure for both
materials.
 Intrinsic Semi‐Conductor

Semi‐conductor in an extremely pure

form is known as an intrinsic
semi‐conductor

1.5
Here, neighboring atom shares one valence electron with
the central atom.
Note: the situation in a germanium crystal is similar to
that in silicon except that, because of its atomic structure,
pure germanium has more free electrons than silicon and
therefore a higher conductivity. Silicon, however, is the
favoured semi‐conductor material and is far widely used
than germanium. One reason for this is that silicon can be
used at a much higher temperature than germanium.

Note also that conduction in an intrinsic semi‐conductor is

known as intrinsic conduction.
 Extrinsic Semi‐Conductor
Intrinsic semi‐conductor has little current
conduction capability at room temperature. To be
useful in electronic services, the pure semi
conductor must be altered so as to significantly
increase conducting properties. This is achieved
by adding a small amount of suitable impurity to
a pure semi‐conductor. The resulting
semiconductor is known as extrinsic
semiconductor.
In other words, extrinsic semi‐conductor is that
semi‐conductor that has been doped
With impurities.
NOTE: the process of adding impurities to an intrinsic
semi‐conductor to increase and control conductivity is
called DOPING.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the
number of free electrons or holes in the semi‐conductor
crystal. If a pentavalent impurity is added to the
semi‐conductor, a large number of free electrons are
produced in the semi‐conductor. On the other hand,
addition of trivalent impurity creates a large number of
holes in the semi‐conductor crystal. Depending upon the
type of impurity added extrinsic semi‐conductors are
classified into:
n‐type semi‐conductor and p‐type semi‐conductor
Effect of Temperature Change on Semiconductors

The electrical conductivity of a semi‐conductor

change with temperature variations.
At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons are
tightly held by the semi‐conductor atoms. At this
temperature, the co‐valent bonds are very strong
and there are no free electrons Therefore, no
valence electron can reach the condition band to
become free electron. When the temperature is
raised, some of the covalent bonds in the
semiconductor break due to the thermal energy
supplied.
The breaking of bonds sets those
electrons free which are engage in the
formation of these bonds. The result is
that a few free electrons exist in this
semiconductor and these, can constitute
a tiny electric current if potential
difference is applied across this
semiconductor crystal.
 P‐N JUNCTION DIODE
Formation of Depletion Region
As soon as the junction is produced, free
electrons near the junction in the n‐type
material move (by diffusion) across the
junction into the p‐type material where they
fill holes. At the same time, holes diffuse
from p‐type to n‐type, capturing electrons
there. The exchange of charge soon stops
because negative charges in the p‐type
materials oppose the further flow of
electrons and the positive charges on the
n‐type oppose the further flow of holes. The
region on either side of the junction
becomes fairly free of majority charge
carriers and is called the DEPLETION OR
BARRIER LAYER.
The situation is just as if there was a
battery across the junction with a
voltage of a few tenths of a volt as
shown above. The voltage is known as
junction potential.
Applying voltage across pn junction

The potential difference across a PN

junction can be applied in two ways,
namely,
Reverse biasing

When the external voltage applied to the

junction is in such a direction that potential
barrier is increased it is called reverse
biasing.
To apply reverse bias, connect negative
terminal of the battery to p‐type and
positive terminal to n‐type as shown above.
 Forward biasing

To apply forward bias, connect positive terminal

of the battery to p‐type and negative ton‐type as
shown above.
When external voltage applied to the
junction is in such a direction that it
cancels the potential barrier, thus
permitting current flow, it is called
forward biasing.
LIST OF SOME DIODES AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS
Types of Diodes
i. Zener Diode
Applications
Zener diode is used; as voltage
i. regulators
ii. fixed reference voltage in a network
iii. blazing and comparison purpose
iv. calibrating voltmeters. peak clippers (in
war shaping circuits) for meter protection
against damage from accidental
application of excessive voltage.
 Tunnel diodes
Tunnel diode is used;
i. as logic memory storage device
ii. as an amplifier
iii. as microwave oscillator at a frequency
of about 10 GHZ
iv. in relaxation oscillator circuits
v. as an ultrahigh‐speed switch due to
tunneling mechanism which essentially
takes place at the speed of light.
Light Emitting Diode
LED is used
i. as indicator lamps
ii. in seven‐segment displays
iii. for numeric displays in hand held
or pocket calculators
 Photodiodes
Photodiode is used
i..as fast counters which generate a
current pulse every time a beam of
light is interrupted.
ii. in switching circuits
iii. as encoders
iv. optical communication equipment
v. in switching
vi. in Demodulation
Varactor diodes
Varactor diode is used
i. as automatic frequency control
device
ii. as FM modulator
iii. As adjustable band pass filler
 HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

When the sine wave goes positive, the diode is

forward biased and conducts current to the
load resistor RL. The current develops a voltage
across the load which has the same shape as
the positive half‐cycle that is, the input.
 Full wave rectification
 Centre‐Tap full‐wave rectification.
Breakdown Mechanisms in
Semiconductor Diodes
Avalanche Breakdown
This occurs when carriers accelerate
and gain enough energy due to intense
electric field in the depletion layer to
collide with valance electron and knock
them loose.
This causes an avalanche of carriers
and the reverse current flow increases
tremendously.
Zener Breakdown
This is another process which increases
the reverse current. When the p and n
regions are heavily doped, the depletion
layer of the p‐n junction becomes very
narrow and the electric field strength in
the depletion layers increases
sufficiently to break covalent bonds and
generate hole‐election pours
consequently, the reverse current rises
abruptly.
SEMI‐CONDUCTOR DEVICES
The bipolar junction transistor is
constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separate by two
pn junctions. The three regions are
called emitter, base, and collector.
Basic Transistor Operation
In order for the transistor to operate
properly as an amplifier, the two
junctures must be correctly biased with
external voltages.
Transistor Configuration
There are basically three possible ways
to connect a transistor within an
electronic circuit arrangement with
regards to the input signals.
THE TRIODE VALVE
In a triode, the potential of the anode is always
positive with respect to the filament, so that
electrons tend to be attracted towards it from the
space charge surrounding the cathode . The effect of
making the grid positive with respect to the cathode
is to attract more electrons from the space charge.
Most of these electrons pass through the gaps
between the grid wires, but some of them are caught
by the grid and return to the cathode via the grid
circuit. On the other hand, the effect of making the
grid negative is to neutralize, partially or wholly, the
effect of the positive potentials of the anode
The magnitude of the anode current
can be controlled by varying the p.d
between the grid and the cathode; and
since the grid is in close proximity to the
space charge surrounding the cathode,
a variation of, say, one volt in the grid
potential produces a far greater change
of anode current than that due to one
volt variation of anode potential.
TETRODE VALVE
The tetrode is a four – electrode valve containing a
cathode, anode, control grid and an additional grid,
referred to as a screen grid, situated between the
control grid and the anode.
The main function of the screen grid is to provide
an electrostatics shield between the anode and the
control grid and thereby minimize the feedback
effects experienced in the triode.
An additional function of the screen grid is to
reduce the effect of the anode voltage on the space
charge at the cathode. Consequently the anode
current remains nearly constant over a large
variation of anode voltage.
PENTODE VALVE
PENTODE VALVE
In order to eliminate the undesirable effects of
secondary emission, an additional grid, known as
suppressor grid is inserted between the anode and the
screen grid of the tetrode. This gives the five electrode
valve called the pentode. The suppressor grid prevents
the secondary electrons, released from the anode,
reaching the screen grid. Hence the kink of the tetrode
characteristic is eliminated.
The suppressor grid also provides further electrostatic
shield of the anode from the control grid, hence putting
the control grid in a more commanding position.
Amplification factor is thereby increased.
The suppressor grid also reduces grid to anode
capacitance. This eliminates the feedback action.
 THANK YOU
BY

Mr. MOSES N. JAMES

(Course Lecturer)