SP-HDV121 growth 2 years after menarche.

Middle Childhood ○ Menarche - the first menstrual cycle

● Men on the other hand, begin to hit puberty
ARANETA, Nathan Eliter C. two years later than females.
CUETO, Rachell Marie M. ● Many girls typically experience an earlier
ILAGAN, Gmanuelle S. prepubescent growth spurt than boys,which
SALAZAR, Donna Kathrina T. tends to happen around age 9-10, while for
VILLAGRACIA, Emmarie Minella Ciccelle C. boys around age 11-12. Which is why girls are
typically taller during this time
● Before hitting puberty, boys and girls are able
Physical Development
to participate in activities on an equal basis,
● the growth and development of both brain since there is no significant difference in their
and body in infancy and in the early stages of height, weight, strength, endurance, and
childhood. motor skill development.
● During middle childhood, the child’s motor
skills, muscle strength, and stamina increase ● Late-maturing children
● It is during this time that children become ○ Has a temporary physical
overly conscious about their physical disadvantage growing up due to their
appearances. size
● Girls ○ Since they have a prolonged period
○ Weight of prepubertal growth, they tend to
● Boys have longer limbs and attain greater
○ Height height than other children
○ Muscle size
○ Physical strength ● Early-maturing boys
○ Has a temporary physical advantage
due to them being taller, heavier, and
Growth
stronger than other boys their age.
● Children typically gain about 5-7 pounds and
about 2 inches per year.
● During middle childhood, the rate growth is
Development of Motor Skills
slower
● Females tend to complete their physical ● Muscle movements that people use in
 day-to-day living and are abilities acquired
through practice and repetition of an action.
● Gross-Motor Skills associated with large body
skills movement. During middle childhood,
Gross-motor skills are well-developed.
○ Flexibility - Children in middle
childhood are able to stretch and
bend their bodies easily. They can
do simple gymnastics
○ Balance - They are able to develop
their balance which is significant to
their athletic skills. Ride a bike
independently.
○ Agility - Children in middle childhood
are quick and precise in executing
movements.
○ Force - Children in middle childhood
are able to hit the ball harder and
when hopping or sprinting they are
able to lift themselves higher.
● Fine-motor skill development is particularly
visible in children’s drawing and writing since
during this stage, hand-eye coordination
improves. Thus, better handwriting and
drawing are expected. During middle
childhood, children learn and master
uppercase first.
○ Age of 6, children are able to write
the letters of the alphabet, names,
and numbers from 1-10.
○ End of preschool years, two
dimensional shapes.
○ Ages 9-10, create drawings that are
not only three-dimensional shapes or
overlapping objects, but also
drawings that have relation to one
another.
● Together with the body growth, information
processing plays an important role in
developing the motor performance of a child
in their middle childhood years.
Sex Differences
● Girls tend to have an advantage in fine-motor
skills and activities that have gross-motor
capacities– balancing and agility.
● Boys have much more advantage over
activities which require all gross-motor skills.
● It is significant to educate the parents of the
school-age boys and girls about the small
differences between them in order to prevent
the unfair judgments to their physical
capabilities that the girls undergo.
● Middle childhood is a vital time to motivate the
girls to do sports because this is the period
where the children begin to discover what they
want, where they are good at and make
commitments to these.
Games with Rules
● Children during middle childhood tend to create
and invent organized games.
● Regular physical activity is vital in middle
childhood.
● Games with rules also teach children to
develop their emotional and social skills along
with their physical skills.
● Rough-and-Tumble play is a game where
children chase and play-fight each other might
be significant in developing their fighting skills
as they learn how to defend themselves. It also
teaches children to form the dominance
hierarchy which is clearly observed during
middle childhood.
Cognitive Development
● The levels of the children’s memory are
improving, that they are able to expand
knowledge, store information and remember it
as they become more logical.
● Begin to attend school for formal education and
comprehend different techniques for stocking
and restoring knowledge.
● Shift from learning through observing to
learning through language and logic.
● Children are able to acquire abstract thinking
which gives them reasoning skills. They can
now solve puzzles or play games with clues.
● During middle childhood, children have a great
sense of knowing how challenging their tasks
are, and how well they are at handling these.
Piaget’s Theory - Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs)
Concrete Operational
Which extends from about 7 to 11 years. Compared
with early childhood, thought is far more logical,
flexible, and organized.
Stages of Concrete Operational
1. Conservation
● The ability to pass conservation tasks
provides clear evidence of
operations—mental actions that obey
logical rules.
● capable of decentration, focusing on
several aspects of a problem and relating
them, rather than centering on just one.
● reversibility,the capacity to think through a
series of steps and then mentallyreverse
direction, returning to the starting point.
2. Classification
● Between ages 7 and 10, children pass
Piaget’s class inclusion problem
● they are more aware of classification
hierarchies and can focus on relations
between a general category and two
specific categories at the same time
● Ex. Collections—stamps, coins,baseball
cards, rocks, bottle caps—become common
in middle childhood.
3. Seriation
● The ability to order items along a
 quantitative dimension, such as length or
weight,
● The concrete operational child can also
seriate mentally,an ability called transitive
inference. ( Makes use of previous
knowledge to determine the missing
information, known as basic logic)
4. Spatial Reasoning
● Children’s understanding of space is more
accurate than that of preschoolers.
● cognitive maps—mental representations of
familiar large‐scale spaces, such as their
neighborhood or school. (makes use of
landmarks)
● Age 8-10 main points:
- showing landmarks along an
organized route of travel.
- are able to give
well‐organized instructions
getting from one place to another
by using a “mental walk” strategy.
- childhood, children combine
landmarks and routes into an
overall view of a large‐scale
space.
Limitations of Concrete Operational
1. Their mental operations work poorly with
abstract ideas—ones not apparent in the
real world.
2. Children master concrete operational tasks
step by step. (continuum of acquisition -or
gradual master of logical concepts is
another indication of the limitations of
concrete operational thinking
Follow-up Research
A. The Impact of Culture and Schooling.
● participating in relevant everyday activities
helps children master conservation and
other Piagetian problems.
● the forms of logic required by Piagetian
tasks do not emerge spontaneously but,
rather, are heavily influenced by training,
context, and cultural conditions.
● Ex.Hausa of Nigeria, who live in small
agricultural settlements and rarely send
their children to school, even basic
conservation tasks—number, length, and
clear, liquid—are not understood until age 11 or
for later
B. Information‐Processing View of Concrete
Operational Thought.
● neo‐Piagetian theorists argue that the
development of operational thinking can
best be understood in terms of gains in
information‐processing speed rather than a
sudden shift to a new stage
● Case’s theory helps explain why many
understandings appear in specific situations
at different times rather than being
mastered all at once.
 Evaluation of Concrete Operational Stage planning, flexible use of strategies, and
self‐monitoring and self‐correction of
School‐age children approach many problems
behavior
in more organized, rational ways than
preschoolers. But there are two factors that
3. Attention
dictate where this change originates, (1) of
● In middle childhood, attention becomes
continuous improvement in logical skills, (2) or
more selective, adaptable, and planful.
discontinuous restructuring of children’s thinking
- First, children deliberately attend to
those aspects of a situation that
Children apply logical schemes to
are relevant to their goals.
many more tasks. In the process, their thought
- Second, older children are better at
seems to change qualitatively—toward a more
flexibly adapting their attention to
comprehensive grasp of the underlying
task requirements.
principles of logical thought.
- Planning, which requires children
to coordinate attention skills with

Information Processing other cognitive processes,

improves greatly in middle
The information‐processing perspective examines childhood
separate aspects of thinking.

4. Memory Strategies
Aspects of Thinking involved:
● deliberate mental activities we use to store
1. Working Memory Capacity and retain information. ( rehearsal,
● Improved performance on working‐memory organization, elaboration)
tasks is supported by brain development.
● benefits from enhanced speed of thinking. 5. Knowledge Memory
● Understanding improves memory and
2. Executive Function correlation of previous information to new
● Early childhood is a vital time for laying the material
foundations of executive function.
● continued development of the prefrontal 6. Culture, Schooling and Memory Strategies
cortex, executive function undergoes its ● On many other occasions, memory occurs
most energetic period of development as a natural byproduct of participation in
● integration of working memory, inhibition, daily activities.
 7. School- Age Child’s Theory of Mind Summary
● children’s theory of mind, or set of ideas
Skilled reading draws on all aspects of the
about mental activities, becomes more
information‐processing system. A combination
elaborate and refined.
of whole language and phonics is most
● Metacognition - awareness of thought
effective for teaching beginning reading.
Teaching that blends practice in basic skills
8. Cognitive Self Regulation
with conceptual understanding also is best
● the process of continuously monitoring
in mathematics.
progress toward a goal, checking outcomes,
and redirecting unsuccessful efforts.
● Children who acquire effective Language Development
self‐regulatory skills develop a sense of
academic self‐efficacy—confidence in their 6-8 years old

own ability, which supports future

● Vocabulary increases fourfold during
self‐regulation
elementary school years

Application of Information Processing to Learning ● Exceeds comprehension of 40,000 words

● They learn to add new words in their
a. Reading vocabulary simply by being given a definition
- Approaches: (1) whole‐language ● Children's narratives increase in
approach,exposed to text in its complete organization, detail and, expressiveness
form—stories,poems, letters, posters, and ● Language Awareness improves
lists—so that they can appreciate the ● Conversational strategies become more
communicative function of written language. refined
(2)phonics approach, phonics—the basic
rules for translating written symbols into 9-11 years old

sounds.
● As their knowledge grew wider, children
think about and use words more precisely
b. Mathematics
● Can comprehend subtle metaphors
- early elementary school years, children
● Mastery of complex grammatical
acquire basic math facts through a
construction improves
combination of frequent practice,
● Evaluative comments rise dramatically
experimentation with diverse computational
procedures
 Learning Two Languages
Bilingual Development
● Children can become bilingual in two ways:
- By acquiring both languages at the
same time in early childhood
- By learning a second language after
mastering the first
● Bilingualism has positive consequences for
the development
Bilingual Education
● In most school settings, children were taught
more than one language which is integrated
into the curiculum
Other Factors
Class Size
Children who learn in smaller groups show better
Concentration, Higher quality class participation, and
more favorable attitudes.
Educational Philosophies
➔ Traditional vs Constructivist Classrooms
➔ New Philosophical Direction
Teacher-Student Interaction
Educational self-fulfilling prophecies: Children may
adopt teachers' positive or negative views and start to
live up to them.
Socio-Emotional Development
Social Concept
● Major change takes place between ages 8
- 11
● They learned evaluative self-descriptions
which resulted from school-age children's
frequent social comparison
● Middle childhood Look to more people
beyond the family
● Self-concept is increasingly vested in
feedback from close friends
Self Esteem
➔ A Hierarchically Structured
Self-Esteem
- Four broad self-evaluation: Academic
competence, Social competence, Physical
competence, and physical appearance
➔ Changes in Level of Self-Esteem
- Self-esteem declines during the first few
years of elementary school
Influences on Self Esteem
➔ Culture - Children who attend schools or
live in neighborhoods where SES and
ethnic groups are well represented feel a
stronger sense of belonging and have
fewer self‐esteem problems
➔ Child-Rearing Practices- Authoritative ● associated with mastering the
parenting is linked to favorable developmental task of industry
self-esteem ● Children are able to tell themselves, 'if I
➔ Achievement Related Attributions work hard and use my knowledge and
- Those who are high in academic skills, I can be productive.'
self-esteem and motivation make ● It is at this stage that the child’s peer
Mastery-oriented attributions group will gain greater significance and
- Children who developed Learned will become a major source of the child’s
helplessness attribute their self-esteem.
failures, not their success, to the ● The child now feels the need to win
ability approval by demonstrating specific
● Children's attributions affect their goals competencies that are valued by society
and begin to develop a sense of pride in
their accomplishments.
Emotional Development

● Self‐conscious emotions of pride and guilt

Issues on this Stage
become governed by personal
responsibility. 1. Learning differences and other organic
● Childrens learned to appreciate mixed issues may become more pronounced.
emotions 2. Children who have learning differences or
● By age 10, most children shift adaptively have may struggle more in experiencing
between two general strategies for competency.
managing emotion 3. Children may indulge in self-destructive
- Problem centered coping behaviors, defiance, sexualized behavior,
- Emotion centered coping etc., as a substitute for success, gaining
attention or notoriety from peers.
4. Learning differences may impede a child’s
Erik Erikson’s Theory
ability to experience academic

Industry vs. Inferiority competency, but also on a social level

where they may not pick up as fast on
● the fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of social cues.
psychosocial development
 Support System 4. Support is different from enabling in
which undermines competency by
Can come from parents, teachers, or any
sending a message the child is incapable.
authoritative figures in the child’s life
5. Children are most successful when they

- Adults should be careful not to equate can successfully find a balance of

achievement with acceptance and love. achievement, dedication toward success,

- Children who are overpraised might and recognizing that achievement is only

develop a sense of arrogance part of who they are.

- Parents can assist children through this 6. The Industry vs. Inferiority stage is as

stage by reinforcing practice and important as any previous stage,

encouraging the striving for excellence especially since it draws the child out

and not perfection. into self-exploration and makes him

- Parents need to attune to their child to relate to other people.

recognize the ability of their child.

- Parents may have to explore more
Moral Development
environments where their child will be
more successful. Jean Piaget’s Concept

● Children between the ages of 5 and 10

Important Points experience the world through the lens of a
"heteronomous" (other-directed) morality.
1. The appraisal of others becomes crucial
● Rules imposed by authoritative people
for their healthy psychosocial
(such as parents, teachers, and national
development. The main questions that
leaders) are viewed as absolute and
occupy a child at this age are: “What
unbreakable in this moral framework.
am I good at?”, “How can I be good at
● Children's rationale for why these rules
what I do?”
should be obeyed is typically based on
2. Some failure may be necessary so that
their understanding of the consequences
the child can develop some modesty. A
of disobeying the rules.
balance between competence and
modesty is necessary.
3. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of competence.
 Lawrence Kohlberg’s Concept
● Built on the work of cognitive theorist Jean
Piaget to describe how children develop
morally.
● Human moral judgments develop in six
stages
● Kohlberg proposed that humans advance
through the phases in a hierarchical
sequence as their cognitive capacities
grow by superimposing the participants'
argumentation onto their cognitive
development.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Preconventional Morality
● The first stage of moral development, and
lasts until approximately age 9.
● Children don’t have a personal code of
morality, and instead moral decisions are
shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking
their rules.
● Authority is outside the individual and
children often make moral decisions
based on the physical consequences of
actions.
● They have not yet accepted
internalized society's rules about what is
right and wrong, and instead are more
concerned with the exterior repercussions
of specific actions. For example, if an
action leads to punishment it must be bad,
and if it leads to a reward it must be good.
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment
Orientation
● Focuses on the child's desire to follow
rules and avoid punishment.
○ (eg.,) Because the offender is
punished, an action is viewed as
morally wrong; the harsher the
punishment, the more "evil" the
act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
● Expresses the “what’s in it for me?”
position.
● Demonstrates a limited interest in other
people's needs, primarily to the extent that
they may benefit the individual's own
interests.
○ Concern for others is based on a
"you scratch my back, I'll scratch
yours" mentality rather than
loyalty or genuine regard.
● At this stage, children recognize that there
is not just one right view that is handed
down by the authorities. Different
individuals have different viewpoints.
or
 Conventional Morality
● An individual's sense of morality is linked
to personal and societal interactions.
● Authority is internalized but
questioned, and reasoning is based on
the norms of the group to which the
person belongs.
● A social system that stresses the
responsibilities of relationships as well as
social order is seen as desirable and
must, therefore, influence our view of what
is right and wrong.
Stage 3: Good boy, Nice Girl Orientation
● Children seek other people's acceptance
and act in ways to avoid rejection or
criticism.
● The importance of excellent behavior and
being "kind" to others is emphasized.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
● Rules are viewed as universal, and
following them by doing what one is
"supposed" to do is regarded as
significant and important.
● Moral reasoning takes priority over the
demand for individual approval that was
evident in stage three.
● If one individual breaks a law, it is likely
that everyone else will as well, so
upholding laws and norms is both an
obligation and a responsibility.
○ The majority of society's active
individuals are still in stage four,
where morality is still largely
governed by an outside power.
not
Postconventional Morality
● A person's sense of morality is defined in
terms of more abstract principles and
ideals
● Some laws are now thought to be unjust
and should be modified or repealed
● A developing awareness that people are
separate from society and that they are
free to disregard norms that contradict
their own values.
● Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles; and see norms as
useful but evolving mechanisms rather
than absolute commands that must be
followed without question.
● Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of
abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or
6 (post-conventional morality).
Stage 5 - Social-Construct Orientation
● The child/individual becomes aware that
while rules/laws might exist for the good of
the greatest number, there are times when
they will work against the interest of
particular individuals.
 ● Rather than being inflexible edicts, laws
are viewed as social contracts. Family and Peer Relationships
● Those who do not support the general
● A child's relationship with their family and
welfare should be replaced when needed
peers is more prominent during this time.
to provide the greatest good for the
● Friendship
largest number of people.
○ Becomes more serious during
● Theoretically, democratic government is
middle childhood
built on stage five reasoning.
○ It is during this time that they
base their compatibility with an
Stage 6 - Universal-Ethical-Principle Orientation
individual by their personality,
● Moral reasoning is founded on universal
abilities and behavior.
ethical principles and abstract reasoning.
○ It is at this time that children
● The principles adopted are abstract rather
create their own circle of friends
than concrete, focusing on concepts like
who they play, talk, and overall
equality, dignity, and respect.
socialize with.
● Laws are only valid as long as they are
○ children during this time put more
based on justice; a commitment to justice
effort into maintaining what they
entails disobedience of unjust laws.
deem as special friendships
● People choose the ethical ideals they
○ Often associated with the
want to follow.
decrease of the amount of
○ E.g., human rights, justice, and
friends a child might have.
equality.
● Family
○ The person will be prepared to
○ still model their actions from their
act to defend these principles
parents, and are still relying on
even if it means going against
them for:
the rest of society in the process
■ Emotional support
and having to pay the
■ Nurturing
consequences of disapproval
■ Affection
and or imprisonment.
○ During middle childhood, children
● Despite Kohlberg's belief and claim that
are now able to form individual
stage six exists, he said it was difficult to
relationships with their family
find people who consistently operated at
based on:
that level.
 ■ Shared activities
■ Perceived family roles
■ other common
complementary
personality traits
● Since children during this time have an
increased interest and investment in their
relationships with their peers and family
members, they are more sensitive to the
self-conscious emotions like:
■ Pride
■ Guilt
■ Shame
● They love the feeling of approval they get
from their friends and family, which helps
them connect good choices to positive
outcomes.
● Parental and peer correction experiences
result in them having aversive feelings like
guilt and shame. These are useful
emotions as they become motivated to
behave differently so as to not experience
the negative outcome again
● The excessive guilt and shame a child
might feel can be destructive, when on the
basis of making a few mistakes, perceive
themselves as incapable people.
● These can result in the child having
■ Low self-esteem
■ Depression
■ Anxiety
■ Problems with peer and
family relationships
Gender Typing
or
Children’s understanding of gender roles broadens
in middle childhood, and their gender identities
(views of themselves as relatively masculine or
feminine) change as well.
Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs
● that stereotyping of personality traits
increases steadily in middle childhood,
becoming adultlike around age 11
Ex.children regard “tough,” “aggressive,” “rational,”
and “dominant” as masculine and “gentle,”
“sympathetic,” and “dependent” as feminine
- derived from observing sex differences in
behavior as well as from adult treatment.
- In line with adult stereotypes, school‐age
children quickly figure out which academic
subjects and skill areas are“masculine”
and which are “feminine.” They often
regard reading, spelling, art, and music as
more for girls and mathematics, athletics,
and mechanical skills as more for boys
Gender Identity and Behavior
From third to sixth grade, boys tend to strengthen
their identification with “masculine” personality
traits, whereas girls’ identification with “feminine”
traits declines.
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Boys strengthen their identification with masculine

traits, whereas girls more often experiment with
“other‐gender” activities. Gender Identity includes
self‐evaluations of gender typicality,
contentedness, and felt pressure to conform to
gender roles—each of which affects adjustment.
ARIZA, Gaile Andrielle L HDV
INOC, Justine Faye G. GROUP 6
SANDOVAL, Betina
VILLANEUVA, Alyssa
DE LEON, Carlos

ADOLESCENCE

Physical development
❖ Pubertal changes

Puberty has 2 general types of changes:

1. Bodily changes – involves changes in height, weight, body fat, and muscle content.

2. Sexual Maturation – involves changes in the reproductive organs as well as the

secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. body hair)

Bodily changes or Physical Growth

- Adolescence is when children experience a growth spurt or rapid gain in height

and weight.

- Adolescents experience bodily imbalances since their body parts don’t grow at the
same time. The first parts to grow first are the head, hands, and feet of the person
followed by arms, legs, trunk, and shoulders, respectively.

- Since growth is present, the bones of adolescents become longer and denser
which makes them taller and their muscles become thicker and denser which makes
them stronger and their heart and lung capacity increases which helps them improve
their endurance. These traits are more evident in boys which is why they are
considered quicker, stronger, and have more endurance than girls.

- Adolescents also have increased body fat but this is more evident in girls than in
boys.

- Girls typically gain 14 to 15 pounds a year, while boys gain 16 to 17 pounds.

- Girls physically grow earlier than boys do since their growth spurt start at around
11 yrs old, peak at 12, and achieve their matured state at around 15.
- Boys’ physical growth changes later than girls since their physical changes or
growth spurt start at around 13 yrs old, peak at 14, and achieve their mature state at
17.

Brain Growth

- By this time, an adolescent’s brain is already 95% of the size and weight of an
adult’s brain.

- Myelination (production of insulation which makes neuron transmission faster) and

Synaptic Pruning (elimination of unnecessary neuron connections) are also nearly
complete during this stage. This can result to more efficient information processing
by adolescents,

- On the contrary, this stage can also make adolescents sensitive to reward which
makes more vulnerable since their controlling behavior are more overpowered by
their reward and pleasure seeking behavior since these systems are more matured
than the first one.

Sexual Maturation

- Involves Primary Sex Characteristics which include the change of the ovaries,
uterus, and vagina for girls and scrotum, testes, and penis for boys.

- Secondary Sex Characteristics are the physical growths that are not related to the
previous sex characteristics and these are the growth of breasts and widening of
pelvis/hips for girls, and growth of facial hair and broadening of shoulders for boys.
Both sexes also experience changes in their body hair, voice, and skin.

- For girls, the first sign of their puberty starts with the growth of their breasts
followed by the pubic hair. Another sign of puberty is the Menarche, the very first
occurrence of menstruation, which is mostly experienced at 13 years old. Compared
to normal menstruation, menarche and the first few cycles are typically irregular and
without ovulation.

- For boys, puberty normally begins with testes and scrotum development. These
are then followed by experiencing a growth spurt, and growth of their pubic hair and
penis. Similar to the girl’s menarche at age 13, boys experience their first
spontaneous ejaculation called the Spermarche. This first ejaculation usually
contains few sperms and will only develop after a few months or years for it to be
able to fertilize an egg.
Mechanisms of Maturation

Pituitary Gland

- Releases growth hormones that can help regulate the physical development of the
adolescent and communicates to other glands to secrete hormones that can
regulate the different pubertal changes

- Body hair is the product of androgens which are the result of pituitary signals to
the adrenal gland before puberty

- During puberty in girls, pituitary glands are responsible for the growth of the
breasts, maturation of the genitals, and accumulation of fat by signaling the ovaries
to release estrogen.

- During puberty for boys, pituitary glands are responsible for the maturation of the
genitals and the increase of muscle mass by signaling the testes to release
testosterone (androgen hormone)

Androgen and Estrogen

- Both hormones are present in boys and girls

- E.g. the breasts of some boys grow earlier because of the amount of estrogen
they have while some girls may experience Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS),
abnormal hair growth, acne, and etc if they have a large amount of androgens

Genetic Influence

- Pubertal changes may sometimes be the result of genetics.

- Genes can also be affected by external factors such as environment, nutrition,

and health.

- E.g. the age of having a menarche may be the same for both mother and
daughter

External factors

- Socioeconomic status can affect a girl’s maturation. Girls reach their menarche
earlier if they are given proper nutrition and health care which made the age of
menarche decline for over a hundred years, since there are already improvements
regarding nutrition and healthcare, making the age 13 the average age of having a
menarche. In contrast, chronic stress or depression makes girls have their period at
 a younger age. Studies showed that stressful events can trigger a girl’s hormones
into releasing hormones that regulates menarche. Also, studies showed that chronic
socioemotional stress can cause them to reproduce earlier which can make them
have a lower-quality offspring at an earlier age.

- Paternal Investment Theory describes the effect of paternal involvement in a girl’s

maturation. It was seen that high-quality or involved fathers can most probably delay
the maturation of a girl. On the contrary, uninvolved fathers can trigger a girl’s
maturation earlier.

Psychological Impact of Puberty

Body Image

- Body image concerns most adolescents but girls are more likely to worry about
their physical appearance than boys. A girl’s perception of their appearance is
mostly affected by peer- comparisons while boys are mostly to be dissatisfied with
their appearance when their personal expectations for their bodies are not met.

Response to Spermarche and Menarche

- For a girl’s menarche, they usually inform their mothers right away and will
eventually tell their friends about it after some time. Some cultures would also
celebrate a girl’s menarche by holding a ceremony for her, we can relate this to a
coming of age ceremony where the girl is now an adult.

- For a boy’s spermarche, they usually have self-studies about it to be more

informed and feel more positive when they are more prepared for it. Contrary to the
girls, boys would not really share this event with their family or peers.

Moodiness

- Adolescents experience an influx of hormones where they tend to be more

irritable and more impulsive although studies found that these are not mostly
experienced during early adolescence.

- Studies also showed that the constant changing of social settings and activities
can affect a teenager’s mood which is why they are moodier than adults.

Rate of Maturation
- The average age for a girls to start her puberty is at 10 years old, and 12 years old
for boys, although some experience their puberty to start earlier or later than the said
ages.

- For boys, starting puberty at 11 years old may be considered as early and at
15-16 years old may be considered as late already.

- For girls, starting their puberty at 9 years old may be considered as early and at
14 or 15 as late already.

- Early maturation can lead to problems such as depression, behavioral problems,

and lack of self-confidence for girls, and depression, substance abuse, and sexual
activity for boys.

- Although compared to boys, girls experience the effects of early maturation more.

- Late maturation also has its negative effects for boys and girls, but boys who
mature late are more prone to depression than girls.

Health

- Health transitions are evident in adolescents. Their lifestyle is changed compared

to how they were before.

Nutrition

- Since they are growing, adolescents have special nutritional needs. For girls, they
are expected to consume 2,200 calories daily and 2,700 calories for boys.

- They also need to consume calcium(bone growth), iron(extra hemoglobin and to

help boys for their increased muscle mass and to compensate for the girls’ lost
hemoglobin during menstruation), and calories.

- Inadequate iron can make teens listless and moody while inadequate calcium can
make their bones not fully develop and may make them develop osteoporosis.

Obesity

- Obesity or being overweight is based on the Body Mass Index (BMI) where there
is a certain ratio for body weight and height for a person to know whether his body
ratio is considered normal or not.

- Being overweight can often cause low self-esteem and health problems such as
high blood pressure and diabetes.
- Different factors can cause obesity:

1. Heredity – genes may influence a person’s lifestyle where he may be more

prone to eat a lot, or be sedentary, or have a slow metabolism

2. Parents – they may cause their children’s too much weight gain by forcing
their children to finish food that is beyond their capacity

3. Sedentary Lifestyle – inactivity can cause people to gain weight

4. Lack of sleep – being awake for a long time can cause people to feel more
hungry or to feel more tired to move which can also make them gain
weight

- If a person experiences one factor from the list, then they are less likely to be
obese but if they experience all of these factors collectively, then they are more
prone to obesity.

- Solutions for obesity often include changes in lifestyle and/or eating habits.
Weight-loss programs can also help obese youth to lose weight.

- Some youth remain overweight even after participating in weight–loss programs or

by changing their lifestyle so it is advised to eat healthily and be more physically
active in the first place to prevent obesity.

Anorexia and Bulimia

- Many adolescents experience eating disorders due to different factors such as

genetics, history of eating problems, low self-esteem, anxiety or moodiness, and
consciousness to one’s own body.

- Anorexia – a disorder where a person refuses to eat and is afraid to being

overweight

- Bulimia – a disorder where a person binge eats and will eventually purge
themselves through vomiting or laxatives.

- Teenage girls are more prone to having these eating disorders although 10% of
the diagnosed cases are boys.

- The same with obesity, health programs are made to battle with these eating
disorders where attitudes of teens are being changed towards the urge of being thin
and helping them resist the pressure of being thin.
Physical Fitness

- Compared to those who are not physically engaged, teens who are doing physical
activities are less likely to have obesity, cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and
psychological disorders.

- Even so, most adolescents do not get enough exercise. Most of them also do not
participate in their physical education classes even though their school is offering
classes.

- According to studies, A person can develop his/her self-esteem and social skills
by participating in sports since they are able to work with different people and as a
group

- Although, playing sports can also post potential hazards to teenagers since they
might get injured while playing but these are mostly minor or non-serious injuries.

- Sports participation have positive outcomes when it is done together with activity
participation that includes adults and other community groups.

- On the other hand, sports can be dangerous when different illegal drugs are
involved such as performance enhancers or steroids that can increase a person’s
strength and recovery rate. Studies have also shown that 2% of high school
students, mostly boys and younger students, have used anabolic steroids.

- Steroids, on the other hand, can cause damages to the liver, reproductive system,
skeleton, and cardiovascular system of a person. This can also make them moodier,
depressed, and more aggressive.

- Student athletes and the youth are now being educated regarding the risks of drug
use and is encouraged to follow athletic goals without using these drugs.

Threats to Adolescent Well-Being

- 1 out 1,000 US Adolescents mostly die because of automobiles or firearms every

year.

- Cause of adolescent deaths mostly depends on gender and ethnicity.

- For boys, they mostly die because of motor vehicle accidents or firearms. Studies
also showed that motor vehicle accidents are more fatal than guns for Latino
Americans, European Americans, and Asian American boys. While guns are more
deadly for African American boys.
- For girls, they mostly die because of natural causes or motor vehicle accidents.
Motor Vehicle accidents are mostly the cause of death of European American girls
while natural causes are mostly the cause of death of African American girls. Motor
Vehicle accidents and Natural Causes are almost equal as a cause of death for
Latina American and Asian American girls.

- Most deaths are concluded to be preventable and are caused by the adolescent’s
recklessness and their easy access to firearms.

- Adolescents take more risks than adults which can explain why they usually die
from accidents, or why they usually engage in unprotected sex, reckless driving, and
use of illegal drugs.

- Most adolescents also feel rewarded after doing risky things since the feeling of
pleasure, excitement and intimacy of sex surpasses the risks posed by dangerous
activities or sex.

- The discussion regarding their brain growth can also be related to this since the
region that controls their behavior is not yet matured and the pleasure-seeking
region of their brain is currently dominating their actions.

Cognitive development
❖ Transition from rapidly changing cognitive processes to mature cognitive
processes
❖ Adolescence brings expanded powers of reasoning
❖ Adolescent thought is more enlightened, imaginative and rational

I. Piaget’s Theory: The Formal Operational Stage

❖ Age 11 young people enter formal operational stage
Formal Operational Stage
● Develop the capacity for abstract, systematic, scientific thinking
● Concrete operational children: operate on reality :: Formal operational
stage adolescents: operate on operations
● Come up with new, more general logical rules through internal reflection.

2 Major Features of the Formal Operational Stage:

1. Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
❖ Begins with possibility and proceeds to reality
Steps:
 1. Start with a hypothesis or prediction about variables that might affect an
outcome
2. Deduce logical, testable inferences from variables
3. Systematically isolate and combine variables to see which of these
inferences are confirmed in the real world.

Piaget’s Pendulum Problem

❖ Goal: Figure out what influences the speed with which a pendulum swings
through its arc.
1. Adolescents engage in hypothetico-deductive reasoning by
hypothesizing of the variables that may be influential: (1) length of the
string, (2) the weight of the object hung on it, (3) how high the object is
raised before it is released, and (4) how forcefully the object is pushed.
2. They test each variable separately, and also in combination.
3. Eventually, they discover that only string length makes a difference.

2. Propositional Thought
❖ Ability to evaluate the logic of propositions (verbal statements) without referring
to real-world circumstances.
❖ Piaget views that language plays a central role in adolescence. Formal
operations require language-based and other symbolic systems that do not stand
for real things, such as algebra and geometry.
❖ Also involves verbal reasoning about abstract concepts.
❖ Logical necessity of propositional reasoning - accuracy of conclusions drawn
from premises rests on the rules of logic rather than real-world confirmation.

Osherson & Markman’s Study of Propositional Reasoning: Poker Chips

❖ Goal: asked whether statements about the poker chips were true, false, or
uncertain.
Conditions:
a. The researcher hid a chip in her hand.
b. The researcher holds either a red or green chip in full view.
Statements:
a. “Either the chip in my hand is green or it is not green.”
b. “The chip in my hand is green and it is not green.”
● School-age children: Focused on the concrete properties of the poker
chips. For the 1st condition, they were uncertain about both statements.
For the 2nd condition, they judged both statements to be true if the chip
was green and false if it was red.
 ● Adolescents: Analyzed the logic of the statements. They understood that
statement A is always true and statement B is always false, regardless of
the chip’s color.

➔ Follow-up Research on Formal Operational Thought

Are Children Capable of Hypothetico-Deductive and Propositional
Thinking?
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning:
❖ Show glimmerings of hypothetico-deductive reasoning although they are
less competent than adults.
● 6 year olds understand that hypotheses must be confirmed by appropriate
evidence but school-age children cannot sort out evidence that bears on
three or more variables at once.
Propositional Thought:
❖ 4-6 year olds: When a simple set of premises defies real-world knowledge,
they can logically reason in make-believe play. But when in entirely verbal
mode, they have difficulty reasoning from premises that contradict reality
or their own beliefs. They have difficulty in inhibiting activation of
well-learned knowledge - impede effective reasoning.

Do All Individuals Reach the Formal Operational Stage?

❖ Even well-educated adults often have difficulty. People are most likely to
think abstractly and systematically on tasks in which they have extensive
guidance and practice in using such reasoning.
● Math and science: propositional thought :: Social science: methodological
and statistical reasoning.

II. Information Processing

❖ Increases in myelination during adolescence allow nerve impulses to travel more
rapidly, which contributes to more rapid and more efficient information processing
during this period.
❖ How adolescents can think, not how they always, not even usually think.
❖ Theorists refer to a variety of specific mechanisms, including diverse aspects of
executive function, as underlying cognitive gains in adolescence.
● Attention becomes more selective (focused on relevant information) and
better-adapted to the changing demands of tasks.
● Inhibition of both irrelevant stimuli and of well-learned responses in
situations where they are inappropriate improves, supporting gains in
attention and reasoning.
● Strategies become more effective, improving storage, representation, and
retrieval of information
● Knowledge increases, easing strategy use.
● Metacognition (awareness of thought) expands, leading to new insights
into effective strategies for acquiring information and solving problems.
● Cognitive self-regulation improves, yielding better moment-by-moment
monitoring, evaluation, and redirection of thinking.
● Speed of thinking and processing capacity increase. As a result, more
information can be held at once in working memory and combined into
increasingly complex, efficient representations, “opening possibilities for
growth” in the capacities listed and also improving as a result of gains in
those capacities.
● Working memory (site of ongoing cognitive processing) and processing
speed (speed individuals complete basic cognitive processes), achieve
adultlike levels.
 Performance on a simple response-time task in which individuals press a button as
rapidly as possible in response to visual stimulus. Response time declines steadily
during childhood and reaches adultlike levels during middle adolescence.

➔ Scientific Reasoning: Coordinating Theory with Evidence

Example Scenario: Sportsball Problem
❖ Goal: To theorize about which several features of sport balls: size, color,
texture, or presence or absence of ridges on the surface influence the
quality of a player’s serve.
Theories:
a. Sports ball size is important
b. Sports ball all color matters
Evidence:
 ● Young participants: Discounted obviously causal variables, ignored
evidence conflicting with their own initial judgements, and distorted
evidence in ways consistent with their preferred theory.
○ Instead of viewing evidence as separate from and bearing on a
theory, they often blend the two into a single representation of “the
way things are.”
○ Overlook evidence that does not match their prior beliefs when a
causal variable is implausible (like color affecting the performance
of the sports ball) and when task demands are high (number of
variables to be evaluated).
○ Use reasoning skills selectively
❖ The ability to distinguish theory from evidence and use logical rules to
examine their relationship improves steadily from childhood into
adolescence, continuing into adulthood.

➔ How Scientific Reasoning Develops

❖ Greater working-memory capacity, permitting a theory, and the effects of several
variables to be compared at once is vital.
● Adolescents benefit from exposure to increasingly complex problems and
teaching that highlights critical features of reasoning.
 ● Scientific reasoning is influenced by schooling, whether individuals grapple
traditional scientific tasks (sports-ball problem) or engage in informal reasoning
(justifying a theory, content based)

Metacognitive understanding:
❖ Awareness of one's thought processes and an understanding of the
patterns behind them is vital for scientific reasoning
❖ Researchers regard Metacognition is central to adolescent cognitive
development
● Question theory against evidence; become aware of the nature of logic.
● Ability to think about theories, deliberately isolate variables, consider all
influential variables, and actively seek disconfirming evidence
● Allows one to evaluate one’s objectivity- to be fair minded rather than
self-serving

Development:
❖ Adolescents develop scientific reasoning skills in a similar step-by-step
fashion on different tasks.
a. Pendulum problem - quantitative-relational tsak
b. Poker chip problem - propositional task
c. Sports-ball problem - causal-experimental task
● In each type of task, adolescents mastered component skills in sequential
order by expanding their metacognitive awareness.

Social & Emotional Development

I. Erikson's theory: identity vs. identity confusion

> recognizes identity as the major personality achievement of adolescence

and as a crucial step toward becoming a productive, content adult.

> Constructing an identity involves defining who you are, what you value, and
the directions you choose to pursue in life

> The search for what is true and real about the self drives many
choices—vocation, interpersonal relationships, community involvement, ethnic
group membership, and expression of one’s sexual orientation, as well as moral,
political, and religious ideals.

>Teenagers experience an identity crisis—a temporary period of distress as

they experiment with alternatives before settling on values and goals. They go
 through a process of inner soul-searching, Then they mold these into a solid
inner core that provides a mature identity—a sense of self-continuity as they
move through various roles in daily life.

Erikson called the psychological conflict of adolescence identity versus role

confusion. If young people’s earlier conflicts were resolved negatively or if society limits
their choices to ones that do not match their abilities and desires, they may appear
shallow, directionless, and unprepared for the challenges of adulthood

> Many theorists agree with Erikson that the questioning of values, plans, and priorities
is necessary for a mature identity, but they no longer describe this process as a “crisis”
but, rather, as a process of exploration followed by commitment. As young people try
out life possibilities, they gather important information about themselves and their
environment and move toward making enduring decisions. In doing so, they forge an
organized self-structure

The young person's vision of self becomes more complex, well-organized, and stable
during adolescence. Adolescents, in comparison to younger children, evaluate a wider
range of features of their own selves. They build a balanced, integrated image of their
strengths and weaknesses through time. Changes in self-concept and self-esteem
set the stage for developing a unified personal identity.

➔ Changes in Self-Concept

> Self-concept refers to how we see ourselves in terms of our actions, abilities, and
distinguishing qualities.

❖ The way we see ourselves has an impact on our motivations, attitudes, and
behaviors. It also has an impact on how we feel about the person we imagine
ourselves to be, such as whether we are competent or have self-worth.
❖ When we're younger and still in the process of self-discovery and identity
construction, our self-concept is more adjustable. These self-perceptions become
considerably more precise and ordered as we grow older and learn more about
who we are and what matters to us.

In early adolescence, we tend to unify separate traits that describe ourselves into
much more generalized terms or abstract descriptors. But as we grow older, we realize
that these traits are more complex than we thought to just be summarized in one,
general trait. We realize this as we are pressured to show different versions of ourselves
to certain people as our social connections expand, which, in turn, eventually makes
adolescents frequently think about the question: “who is the real me?”
 ➔ Changes in Self-Esteem

A person's overall subjective sense of personal worth or value is referred to

as self-esteem. To put it another way, self-esteem can be described as how much you
value and like yourself regardless of the situation and the evaluative side of self-concept
continues to differentiate in adolescence. Teenagers add several new dimensions of
self-evaluation—close friendship, romantic appeal, and job competence.

>Self-esteem is defined by many factors including:

● Self-confidence
● Feeling of security
● Identity
● Sense of belonging
● Feeling of competence

The level of self-esteem also changes. Though some adolescents experience

temporary or persisting declines after school transitions, self-esteem rises for most
young people, who report feeling especially good about their peer relationships and
athletic capabilities. Teenagers often assert that they have become more mature,
capable, personable, and attractive than in the past.

Self-esteem tends to be lowest in childhood and increases during adolescence,

as well as adulthood, eventually reaching a fairly stable and enduring level. This
makes self-esteem similar to the stability of personality traits over time.

Examples:

1.) Teenagers who feel highly dissatisfied with parental relationships often are
aggressive and antisocial. Those with poor academic self-esteem tend to be
anxious and unfocused, and those with negative peer relationships are likely to
be anxious and depressed (Marsh, Parada, & Ayotte, 2004; Rudolph, Caldwell, &
Conley, 2005)
2.) Authoritative parenting continues to predict high self-esteem, as does
encouragement from teachers. In contrast, teenagers whose parents are critical
and insulting have unstable and generally low self-esteem

➔ Paths to Identity

The Four Identity Statuses

 - Using a clinical interviewing procedure devised by James Marcia (1980) or
briefer questionnaire measures, researchers commonly evaluate progress in
identity development on two key criteria derived from Erikson’s theory:
exploration and commitment

Identity Identity Identity Identity diffusion

achievement moratorium foreclosure

Commitment to Moratorium means Commitment in the An apathetic state

values, beliefs, and “delay or holding absence of is characterized by
goals following a pattern.” exploration a lack of both
period of exploration and
exploration Exploration without commitment.
having reached
commitment.

> Identity development follows many paths. Some young people remain in one
status, whereas others experience many status transitions and the pattern often varies
across identity domains, such as sexual orientation, vocation, and religious and political
values.

> Most young people change from “lower” statuses (foreclosure or diffusion) to higher
ones (moratorium or achievement) between their mid-teens and mid-twenties, but as
many remain stable, and some move in the reverse direction

● Adolescents in moratorium resemble identity-achieved individuals in using an

active, information-gathering cognitive style to make personal decisions and
solve problems: They seek out relevant information, evaluate it carefully, and
critically reflect on and revise their views.
● Adolescents stuck in either foreclosure or diffusion are passive in the face of
identity concerns and have adjustment difficulties. Foreclosed individuals display
a dogmatic, inflexible cognitive style, internalizing the values and beliefs of
parents and others without deliberate evaluation and resisting information that
threatens their position.

> Long-term diffused individuals are the least mature in identity

development. They typically use a diffuse-avoidant cognitive style in which they
avoid dealing with personal decisions and problems and, instead, allow current
situational pressures to dictate their reactions.
 Example: They entrust themselves to luck or fate, tend to go along with
the crowd, and are focused on short-term personal pleasures

➔ Factors Affecting Identity Development

>Internal and external elements such as society, family, loved ones, ethnicity,
race, culture, geography, opportunity, media, interests, appearance,
self-expression, and life events all influence identity formation and development.

II. Moral development

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Preconventional Level: Punishment and Reward

Stage 1 Obedience to authority

Stage 2 Nice behavior in exchange for future favors

Conventional Level: Social Norms

Stage 3 Live up to others’ expectations

Stage 4 Follow rules to maintain social order

Postconventional Level: Moral Codes

Stage 5 Adhere to a social contract when it is valid

Stage 6 Personal moral system based on abstract principles

● Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning, each divided into two stages,
the basis for moral reasoning shifts.
● In the earliest stages, moral reasoning is based on external forces, such as the
promise of reward or the threat of punishment.
● At the most advanced levels, moral reasoning is based on a personal, internal
moral code and is unaffected by others’ views or society’s expectations.
● Kohlberg’s (1969) best-known moral dilemma is this story about Heinz, whose
wife is dying: In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might
save her, a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost him
to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow
the money, but he could only get together about half of what it cost. He told the
druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay
later. But the druggist said, “No.” The husband got desperate and broke into the
man’s store to steal the drug for his wife.
○ Preconventional Level
■ First level of reasoning in Kohlberg’s theory, where moral reasoning
is based on external forces
● Stage 1 assumes an obedience orientation
○ They believe that authority figures know what is right
and wrong
○ Example: one might argue that Heinz shouldn’t steal
the drug because an authority figure (e.g., parent or
police officer) said he shouldn’t do it. Alternatively,
one might argue that Heinz should steal the drug
because he would get into trouble if he let his wife die.
● Stage 2 assumes an instrumental orientation
○ They look for their own needs.
○ Example: Someone at this stage could justify stealing
the drug because Heinz’s wife might do something
nice for Heinz in return. Or someone might argue that
Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because it will create
more problems for him.
○ Conventional Level
■ Adolescents look to society’s norms for moral guidance
● Stage 3 is based on interpersonal norms
○ The aim is to win the approval of other people by
behaving as “good boys” and “good girls” would.
○ Example: Stage 3 individuals might argue that Heinz
shouldn’t steal the drug because he must keep his
 reputation as an honest man or that he should steal
the drug because no one would think negatively of
him for trying to save his wife’s life.
● Stage 4 of the conventional level focuses on social system
morality
○ They believe that social roles, expectations, and laws
exist to maintain order within society and to promote
the good of all people
○ Example: Stage 4 individuals might reason that Heinz
shouldn’t steal the drug, even though his wife might
die, because it is illegal and no one is above the law.
Alternatively, they might claim that he should steal it to
live up to his marriage vow of protecting his wife even
though he will face negative consequences for his
theft.
○ Postconventional Level
■ Moral reasoning is based on a personal moral code.
● In Stage 5, people base their moral reasoning on a social
contract.
○ They agree that members of social groups adhere to
a social contract because a common set of
expectations and laws benefits all group members
○ Example: Stage 5 individuals might reason that Heinz
should steal the drug because social rules about
property rights no longer benefit individuals’ welfare.
● In Stage 6 of the postconventional level, universal ethical
principles dominate moral reasoning.
○ Abstract principles such as justice, compassion, and
equality form the basis of a personal code that may
conflict with society’s expectations and laws.
○ Example: Stage 6 individuals might argue that Heinz
should steal the drug because saving a life takes
precedence over everything else, including the law.
Or they might claim that Heinz’s wife has a right to die
and that he should not force his views on her by
stealing and administering the drug.

Research on Kohlberg’s Stage Sequence

 ● With few exceptions, individuals move through the first four stages in the
predicted order (Boom, Wouters, & Keller, 2007; Dawson, 2002; Walker & Taylor,
1991b).
● Moral development is slow and gradual:
○ Reasoning at Stages 1 and 2 decreases in early adolescence
○ Stage 3 increases through mid-adolescence and then declines
○ Stage 4 reasoning rises over the teenage years until, among
college-educated young adults, it is the typical response. Few people
move beyond Stage 4.
○ Postconventional morality is so rare that no clear evidence exists that
Kohlberg’s Stage 6 actually follows Stage 5.
■ This poses a key challenge to Kohlberg’s theory: If people must
reach Stages 5 and 6 to be considered truly morally mature, few
individuals anywhere would measure up! According to one
reexamination of Kohlberg’s stages, moral maturity can be found in
a revised understanding of Stages 3 and 4 (Gibbs, 1991, 2010b).
● These stages are not “conventional”—based on social conformity—as Kohlberg
assumed. Rather, they require profound moral constructions—an understanding
of ideal reciprocity as the basis for relationships (Stage 3) and for widely
accepted moral standards, set forth in rules and laws (Stage 4).
● In this view, “postconventional” morality is a highly reflective endeavor limited to a
handful of people who have attained advanced education, usually in philosophy.

Are There Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning?

● Carol Gilligan (1982) is the best-known of those who have argued that Kohlberg’s
theory does not adequately represent the morality of girls and women. Gilligan
believes that feminine morality emphasizes an “ethic of care” that Kohlberg’s
system devalues.
● Many studies have tested Gilligan’s claim that Kohlberg’s approach
underestimates the moral maturity of females, and most do not support it (Turiel,
2006; Walker, 2006).
● Themes of justice and caring appear in the responses of both sexes (Jadack et
al., 1995; Walker, 1995). These findings suggest that although Kohlberg
emphasized justice rather than caring as the highest moral ideal, his theory taps
both sets of values.
● Indeed, cultural context profoundly affects use of a care orientation. In one study,
U.S. and Canadian 17- to 26-year-old females exceeded their male counterparts
in complex reasoning about care issues. But Norwegian males were just as
advanced as Norwegian females in care-based understanding (Skoe, 1998).
 Perhaps Norwegian culture, which explicitly endorses gender equality, induces
boys and men to think deeply about interpersonal obligations.

Coordinating Moral, Social-Conventional, and Personal Concerns

● In diverse Western and non-Western cultures, concern with matters of personal

choice strengthens during the teenage years—a reflection of adolescents’ quest
for identity and increasing independence (Neff & Helwig, 2002; Nucci, 2002).
● Teenagers whose parents frequently intrude into their personal affairs report
greater psychological stress (Hasebe, Nucci, & Nucci, 2004).
● As adolescents integrate personal rights with ideal reciprocity, they demand that
the protections they want for themselves extend to others.
● As their grasp of fairness deepens, young people realize that many social
conventions have moral implications: They are vital for maintaining a just and
peaceful society. Notice how this understanding is central to Kohlberg’s Stage 4,
which is typically attained as adolescence draws to a close.

Influences on Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg believed that experiences work by presenting young people with cognitive
challenges which stimulate them to think about moral problems in more complex ways.

● Child-Rearing Practices

○ As in childhood, parenting practices associated with moral maturity in

adolescence combine warmth, exchange of ideas, and appropriate
demands for maturity.
○ Example: In one study, 11-year-olds were asked what they thought an
adult would say to justify a moral rule, such as not lying, stealing, or
breaking a promise. Those with warm, demanding, communicative parents
 were far more likely than their agemates to point to the importance of ideal
reciprocity: “You wouldn’t like it if I did it to you” (Leman, 2005). In contrast,
when parents lecture, use threats, or make sarcastic remarks, adolescents
show little or no change in moral reasoning over time (Walker & Taylor,
1991a).
● Schooling
○ Years of schooling is a powerful predictor of movement to Kohlberg’s
Stage 4 or higher (Dawson et al., 2003; Gibbs et al., 2007).
○ Higher education introduces young people to social issues that extend
beyond personal relationships to entire political or cultural groups.
○ Example: College students who report more perspective-taking
opportunities (such as classes that emphasize open discussion of
opinions) tend to be advanced in moral reasoning (Comunian & Gielen,
2006; Mason & Gibbs, 1993a, 1993b).
● Peer Interaction
○ Interaction among peers who present differing viewpoints promotes moral
understanding.
○ Peer discussions and role playing of moral problems have provided the
basis for interventions aimed at improving high school and college
students’ moral understanding.
○ When young people negotiate and compromise, they realize that social life
can be based on cooperation between equals rather than authority
relations (Killen & Nucci, 1995).
○ Example: Mutuality and intimacy of friendship, which foster decisions
based on consensual agreement, may be particularly important for moral
development.
● Culture
○ Individuals in industrialized nations move through Kohlberg’s stages more
quickly and advance to a higher level than individuals in village societies,
who rarely move beyond Stage 3.
○ In research conducted in India, even highly educated people (expected to
have attained Kohlberg’s Stages 4 and 5) viewed solutions to moral
dilemmas as the responsibility of the entire society, not of a single person
(Miller & Bersoff, 1995).
○ Example: A review of over 100 studies confirmed an age-related trend
consistent with Kohlberg’s Stages 1 to 4 across diverse societies (Gibbs et
al., 2007). A common justice morality is clearly evident in the dilemma
responses of people from vastly different cultures.

Moral Reasoning and Behavior

 ● According to Kohlberg, mature moral thinkers realize that behaving in line with
their beliefs is vital for creating and maintaining a just social world (Gibbs,
2010b).
● Consistent with this idea, higher-stage adolescents more often act prosocially by
helping, sharing, and defending victims of injustice and by volunteering in their
communities (Carlo et al., 1996, 2011; Comunian & Gielen, 2000, 2006). Also,
they less often engage in cheating, aggression, and other antisocial behaviors
(Gregg, Gibbs, & Fuller, 1994; Raaijmakers, Engels, & van Hoof, 2005; Stams et
al., 2006).
● Moral identity—the degree to which morality is central to self-concept—also
affects moral behavior (Hardy & Carlo, 2011).
● Researchers have begun to identify factors that strengthen moral identity in
hopes of capitalizing on them to promote moral commitment.
● Certain parenting practices—inductive discipline and clearly conveyed moral
expectations—augment adolescents’ moral identity (Patrick & Gibbs, 2011).
● Just educational environments— in which teachers guide students in democratic
decision making and rule setting, resolving disputes civilly, and taking
responsibility for others’ welfare—are influential (Atkins, Hart, & Donnelly, 2004).
● Example: In one study, tenth graders who reported fair teacher treatment were
more likely than those who had experienced unjust treatment (an unfair detention
or a lower grade than they deserved) to regard excluding a peer on the basis of
race as a moral transgression (Crystal, Killen, & Ruck, 2010).

Religious Involvement and Moral Development

● As adolescents search for a personally meaningful identity, formal religious

involvement declines—for U.S. youths, from 55 percent at ages 13 to 15 to 40
percent at ages 17 to 18 (Kerestes & Youniss, 2003; Pew Research Center,
2010b).
● Nevertheless, teenagers who remain part of a religious community are
advantaged in moral values and behavior. Compared with nonaffiliated youths,
they are more involved in community service activities aimed at helping the less
fortunate (Kerestes, Youniss, & Metz, 2004).
● Religious involvement promotes responsible academic and social behavior and
discourages misconduct (Dowling et al., 2004).
● It is associated with lower levels of drug and alcohol use, early sexual activity,
and delinquency (Regnerus, Smith, & Fritsch, 2003).
● Furthermore, religious education and youth activities directly teach concern for
others and provide opportunities for moral discussions and civic engagement.
 ● For youths in innercity neighborhoods with few alternative sources of social
support, outreach by religious institutions can lead to life-altering involvement
(Jang & Johnson, 2001).
● An exception is seen in religious cults, where rigid indoctrination into the group’s
beliefs, suppression of individuality, and estrangement from society all work
against moral maturity (Scarlett & Warren, 2010).

Further Challenges to Kohlberg’s Theory

● The most radical opposition comes from researchers who—referring to wide

variability in moral reasoning across situations—claim that Kohlberg’s stage
sequence inadequately accounts for morality in everyday life (Krebs and Denton,
2005).
● They assert that each person makes moral judgments at varying levels of
maturity, depending on the individual’s current context and motivations: Conflict
over a business deal is likely to evoke Stage 2 (instrumental purpose) reasoning,
a friendship or romantic dispute Stage 3 (ideal reciprocity) reasoning, and a
breach of contract Stage 4 (social-order-maintaining) reasoning (Krebs et al.,
1991).
● According to the pragmatic view, everyday moral judgments—rather than being
efforts to arrive at just solutions—are practical tools that people use to achieve
their goals. To benefit personally, they often must advocate cooperation with
others.
● Sometimes people use moral judgments for immoral purposes—for example, to
excuse their transgressions.
● People who appear to be engaging in after-the-fact moral justification are actually
behaving with great forethought.
● In sum, the cognitive-developmental approach to morality has done much to
clarify our profound moral potential. Despite opposition, Kohlberg’s central
assumption—that with age, humans everywhere construct a deeper
understanding of fairness and justice that guides moral action—remains
powerfully influential.

III. Family and peer relationships

The Family as a System

● In the systems view, parents still influence their children both directly (e.g., by
encouraging them to study hard) and indirectly (e.g., by being generous and kind
to others). However, the influence is no longer exclusively from parents to
children, but is mutual: Children influence their parents, too. By their behaviors,
 attitudes, and interests, children affect how their parents behave toward them.
When children resist discipline, for example, parents may become less willing to
reason and more inclined to use force (Ritchie, 1999).

● The family itself is embedded in other social systems, such as neighborhoods

and religious institutions (Parke & Buriel, 1998).
○ These other institutions can affect family dynamics.
○ Sometimes they simplify child rearing, as when neighbors are trusted
friends and can help care for each others’ children.
○ Sometimes, however, they complicate child rearing. Grandparents who
live nearby and visit constantly can create friction within the family.

Dimensions and Styles of Parenting

● Parenting and its dimensions; parental behavior have different aspects for every
situation
○ When parenting is viewed this way, two general dimensions of parental
behavior emerge.
■ One is the degree of warmth and responsiveness that parents show
their children.
● At one end of the spectrum are parents who are openly
warm and affectionate with their children. They are involved
with them, respond to their emotional needs, and spend
considerable time with them.
● At the other end of the spectrum are parents who are
relatively uninvolved with their children and sometimes even
hostile toward them. These parents often seem more
focused on their own needs and interests than those of their
children.
● Warm parents enjoy hearing their children describe the day’s
activities; uninvolved or hostile parents aren’t interested,
consider- ing it a waste of their time. Warm parents see
when their children are upset and try to comfort them;
uninvolved or hostile parents pay little attention to their
children’s emotional states and invest little effort in
comforting them when they’re upset. As you might expect,
children benefit from warm and responsive parenting (Pettit,
Bates, & Dodge, 1997; Zhou et al., 2002).
■ A second general dimension of parental behavior involves control,
which comes in two forms.
 ● Psychological control refers to parents’ efforts to manipulate
their children’s emotional states by, for example, withdrawing
their love or making children feel guilty.
● Behavioral control refers to parents’ efforts to set rules for
their children and to impose limits on what children can and
cannot do.
● Parenting Styles
○ Combining the dimensions of warmth and control gives us four prototypic
styles of parenting.
■ Authoritarian Parenting
● style of parenting in which parents show high levels of
control and low levels of warmth toward their children
■ Authoritative Parenting
● style of parenting in which parents use a moderate amount
of control and are warm and responsive to their children
■ Permissive Parenting
● style of parenting in which parents offer warmth and caring
but little control over their children
■ Uninvolved Parenting
● style of parenting in which parents provide neither warmth
nor control and minimize the time they spend with their
children

Parental Behavior

● Direct Instruction or Coaching

○ Parents often tell their children what to do. But simply playing the role of
drill sergeant and ordering children around—“Clean your room!” “Turn off
the TV!”—is not very effective.
○ A better approach is direct instruction, which involves telling a child what
to do, when, and why. Instead of just shouting, “Share your candy with
your brother!” a parent should explain when and why it’s important to
share with a sibling.
● Modeling
○ Children learn a great deal from parents simply by watching them.
○ The parents’ modeling and the youngsters’ observational learning leads to
imitation, so children’s behavior resembles the behavior they observe.
○ However, observational learning can also produce counterimitation,
learning what should not be done.
● Feedback
○ By giving feedback to their children, parents are able to indicate whether a
behaviour is appropriate and should continue or inappropriate and should
stop.
■ There are two general forms of feedback.
● Reinforcement is any action that increases the likelihood of
the response that it follows.
● Punishment is any action that discourages the recurrence of
the response that it follows.
■ Negative Reinforcement Trap
● Unintentionally reinforcing a behavior you want to
discourage
● The negative reinforcement trap occurs in three steps, most
often between a mother and her son. In the first step, the
mother tells her son to do something he doesn’t want to do.
She might tell him to clean up his room, to come inside when
he’s outdoors playing with friends, or to study instead of
watching television. In the next step, the son responds with
some behavior that most parents find intolerable: He argues,
complains, or whines for an extended period of time. In the
last step, the mother gives in—saying that the son needn’t
do as she told him initially—simply to get the son to stop the
behavior that is so intolerable. The feedback to the son is
that arguing (or com- plaining or whining) works; the mother
rewards that behavior by withdrawing the request that the
son did not like.
■ As for punishment, research shows that it works best when
● administered directly after the undesired behavior occurs,
not hours later.
● an undesired behavior always leads to punishment, not
usually or occasionally.
● accompanied by an explanation of why the child was
punished and how punishment can be avoided in the future.
● the child has a warm, affectionate relationship with the
person administering the punishment.
● At the same time, research reveals some serious drawbacks
to punishment. One is that punishment is primarily
suppressive:
○ Punished responses are stopped, but only temporarily
if children do not learn new behaviors to replace those
that were punished.
 ● A second drawback is that punishment can have undesirable
side effects.
○ Children become upset when they are being
punished, which means they often miss the feedback
that punishment is meant to convey.
● Spanking illustrates the problems with punishment. Although
used by many par- ents in the United States and around the
world, it is ineffective in getting children to comply with
parents and often leads them to be aggressive.
● One method combines the best features of punishment while
avoiding its short- comings. In time-out, a child who
misbehaves must briefly sit alone in a quiet, unstimulating
location.

Influences of the Marital System

● Indeed, research shows that chronic parental conflict is harmful for children.
When parents are constantly in conflict, children and adolescents often become
anxious, withdrawn, and aggressive and are more prone to chronic diseases and
to be abusive in their own romantic relationships (Miller & Chen, 2010; Narayan,
Englund, & Egeland, 2013; Rhoades, 2008).
● Parental conflict affects children’s development through three distinct
mechanisms.
○ First, seeing parents fight jeopardizes a child’s feeling that the family is
stable and secure, making a child feel anx- ious, frightened, and sad
(Cummings et al., 2012; Davies, Cicchetti, & Martin, 2012).
○ Second, chronic conflict between parents often spills over into the
parent–child relationship.
○ Third, when parents invest time and energy fighting with each other,
they’re often too tired or too preoccupied to invest themselves in
high-quality parenting (Katz & Woodin, 2002).
● When parents don’t work together, when they compete, or when they limit each
other’s access to their children, problems can result; for example, children can
become withdrawn or less likely to behave prosocially (McHale et al., 2002;
Scrimgeour et al., 2013).

Children’s Contributions: Reciprocal Influence

● AGE
○ Parenting changes as children grow.
 ○ The same parenting that is marvelously effective with infants and toddlers
is inappropriate for adolescents.
○ The enthusiastic hugging and kissing that delights toddlers embarrasses
adolescents.
○ As children develop cognitively and are better able to make their own
decisions, parents gradually relinquish control and expect children to be
responsible for themselves. As children enter adolescence, they believe
that parents have less authority to make decisions for them, especially in
the personal domain (Darling, Cumsille, & Martínez, 2008).
● TEMPERAMENT AND BEHAVIOR
○ A child’s temperament can have a powerful effect on parental behavior
(Brody & Ge, 2001).
○ To illustrate the reciprocal influence of parents and children, imagine two
children with different temperaments as they respond to a parent’s
authoritative style. The first child has an “easy” temperament; she readily
complies with parental requests and responds well to family discussions
about parental expectations.
○ These parent–child relations are a textbook example of successful author-
itative parenting. But suppose the second child has a “difficult
temperament” and complies reluctantly or sometimes not at all. Over time,
the parent becomes more con- trolling and less affectionate. The child in
turn complies even less in the future, leading the parent to adopt an
authoritarian parenting style.
○ Parenting behaviors and styles often evolve as a consequence of the
child’s behavior.
○ Influence is reciprocal: Children’s behavior helps determine how parents
treat them, and the resulting parental behavior influences children’s
behavior, which in turn causes parents to change their behavior again
○ As time goes by, these reciprocal influences lead many families to adopt
routine ways of interacting with each other. Some families end up
functioning smoothly: Parents and children cooperate, anticipate each
other’s needs, and are generally happy.
○ Unfortunately, other families end up troubled: Disagreements are common,
parents spend much time trying unsuccessfully to control their defi- ant
children, and everyone is often angry and upset. Still others are
characterized by disengagement: Parents withdraw from each other and
are not available to their children
● SIBLINGS
○ As the family acquires these new members, parent–child relationships
become more complex (McHale, Updegraff, & Whiteman, 2013). Parents
 can no longer focus on a single child, but must adjust to the needs of
multiple children. Just as important, siblings influence each other’s
development.
○ Parents can minimize their older children’s distress by remaining attentive
to their needs (Howe & Ross, 1990).
○ As the infant grows, interactions between siblings become more frequent
and more complicated. For example, toddlers tend to talk more to parents
than to older siblings. But by the time the younger sibling is 4 years old,
the situation is reversed: Now young siblings talk more to older siblings
than to their mother (Brown & Dunn, 1996).
○ Older siblings also serve as teachers for their younger siblings, teaching
them to play games or to cook simple foods (Maynard, 2002).
○ In general, siblings who get along as preschoolers continue to get along
as young adolescents, and siblings who quarrel as preschoolers often
quarrel as young adolescents (Dunn, Slomkowski, & Beardsall, 1994).
○ (Dunn & Kendrick, 1981) and when neither sibling is too emotional (Brody,
Stoneman, & McCoy, 1994).
○ Age is also important: Sibling relationships generally improve as the
younger child approaches adoles- cence because siblings begin to
perceive one another as equals (Kim et al., 2006; McHale et al., 2013).
○ Parents contribute to the quality of sibling relationships, both directly and
indirectly (Brody, 1998). The direct influence stems from parents’
treatment.
○ Siblings more often get along when they believe that parents have no
“favorites,” but treat all siblings fairly (McGuire & Shanahan, 2010).
○ When parents lavishly praise one child’s accomplishments while ignoring
another’s, children notice the differ- ence, and their sibling relationship
suffers (Updegraff, Thayer, et al., 2005).
○ The indirect influence of parents on sibling relationships stems from the
quality of the parents’ relationship with each other: A warm, harmonious
relationship between parents fosters positive sibling relationships.
○ Conflict between parents is associated with conflict between siblings,
although intense marital conflict sometimes leads sib- lings to become
closer, as they support each other emotionally (McHale et al., 2013).
○ Parents can help reduce friction between siblings by being equally
affectionate, respon- sive, and caring to all of their children and by caring
for one another. At the same time, parents must realize that some
dissension is natural in families, especially those with young boys and
girls.
● ADOPTED CHILDREN
 ○ Adopted children often experience adversity before being adopted. For
example, children adopted from foster care have often experienced
maltreatment that led them to be placed in foster care.
○ many children adopted internationally were abandoned and lived in
institutions prior to adoption.
○ Most adopted children develop within the typical range. Problems are
most likely when children are adopted after infancy and when their care
before adoption was poor
○ Although adoption per se is not a fundamental developmental challenge
for most children, quality of life before adoption certainly places some
adopted children at risk. And these children often fare well when they
receive excellent care after adoption.
● IMPACT OF BIRTH ORDER
○ Parents typically have high expectations for their first-borns and are both
more affectionate and more punitive toward them.
○ As more children arrive, most parents become more adept at their roles,
having learned “the tricks of the trade” from earlier children. With
later-born children, parents have more realistic expectations and are more
relaxed in their discipline
○ Firstborn children generally have higher scores on intelligence tests and
are more likely to go to college. They are also more willing to conform to
parents’ and adults’ requests.
○ In contrast, perhaps because later-born children are less concerned about
pleasing parents and adults, they are more popular with their peers and
are more innovative
○ Only children are more likely to succeed in school than are other children
and to have higher levels of intelligence and self-esteem but don’t differ in
popularity, adjustment, and personality (Falbo & Polit, 1986; Falbo, 2012).
● DIVORCE AND REMARRAIGE
○ According to all theories of child development, divorce is distressing for
children because it involves conflict between parents and usually
separation from one of them.
■ What aspects of children’s lives are affected by divorce?
● When children of divorced parents become adults, the
effects of divorce persist. As adults, children of divorce are
more likely to experience conflict in their own marriages, to
have negative attitudes toward marriage, and to become
divorced themselves. Also, they report less satisfaction with
life and are more likely to become depressed
 ● The first year following a divorce is often rocky for parents
and children alike. But beginning in the second year, most
children begin to adjust to their new circumstances
(Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).
● Children adjust to divorce more readily if their divorced
parents cooperate with each other, especially on disciplinary
matters
● In joint custody, both parents retain legal custody of the
children. Children benefit from joint custody if their parents
get along (Bauserman, 2002).
● Boys often fare better with fathers, and girls fare better with
mothers (McLanahan, 1999). Boys and girls may forge
stronger emotional relationships with same-sex parents than
with opposite-sex parents (Zimiles & Lee, 1991)
■ How does divorce influence development
● First, the absence of one parent means that children lose a
role model, a source of parental help and emotional support,
and a supervisor.
○ For instance, a single parent may have to choose
between helping one child complete an important
paper or watching another child perform in a school
play. She can’t do both, and one child will miss out.
● Second, single-parent families experience economic
hardship, which creates stress and often means that
activities once taken for granted are no longer afford- able
(Lansford, 2009).
○ A family may no longer be able to pay for books for
pleasure reading, music lessons, or other activities
that promote child development. Moreover, when a
single parent worries about having enough money for
food and rent, she has less energy and effort to
devote to parenting.
● Third, conflict between parents is extremely distressing to
children and adolescents (Leon, 2003), particularly for
children who are emotionally insecure (Davies & Cummings,
1998)
■ Which children are most affected by divorce?
● divorce is more harmful when it occurs during childhood and
adolescence than during the preschool or college years.
 Also, children who are temperamentally more emotional tend
to be more affected by divorce (Lengua et al., 1999).
● Some children suffer more from divorce because of their
tendency to interpret events negatively.
○ when children actively cope with problems brought on
by divorce, either by trying to solve them or by trying
to make them feel less threatening, they gain
confidence in their ability to control future events in
their lives. This confidence acts as a buffer against
anxiety or depression, which can be triggered when
children believe that problems brought on by divorce
are insurmountable
● BLENDED FAMILIES
○ The resulting unit, consisting of a biological parent, a stepparent, and
children, is known as a blended family. (Other terms for this family
configuration are “remarried family” and “reconstituted family.”)
○ Because mothers are more often granted custody of children, the most
common form of blended family is a mother, her children, and a stepfather.
○ preadolescent girls sometimes do not adjust readily to their mother’s
remarriage, apparently because it disrupts the intimate relationship they
have established with her
○ Adjustments are more difficult when mothers of adolescents remarry. In
such families, parents some- times favor their biological children over their
stepchildren—they’re more involved with and warmer toward their
biological children. Such preferential treatment usually leads to conflict
and unhappiness
● CHILD MALTREATMENT
○ Maltreatment comes in many forms (Cicchetti & Toth, 2006). The two that
often come to mind first are physical abuse involving assault that leads to
injuries and sexual abuse involv- ing fondling, intercourse, or other sexual
behaviors.
○ Another form of maltreatment is neglect—not giving children adequate
food, clothing, or medical care.
○ According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2013),
nearly 700,000 children annually suffer maltreatment or neglect. About
80% are neglected, about 20% are abused physically, about 10% are
abused sexually, and 5% are maltreated psychologically.
■ Who are the abusing parents?
 ● Let’s look at three of the most important factors: those
associated with the cultural context, those associated with
parents, and those associated with children themselves.
● The most general category of contributing factors is that
dealing with cultural values and the social conditions in
which parents rear their children.
● Maltreatment is more common among children living in
poverty, in part because lack of money increases the stress
of daily life (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000).
● Similarly, abuse is more common among military families
when a soldier is deployed in a combat zone (Gibbs et al.,
2007). In this case, maltreatment may be rooted in stress
stemming from concern over the absent parent and
temporary single parenthood.
● Although maltreatment is more common among families
living in poverty, it does not occur in a majority of these
families and it occurs in middle- and upper-class families,
too.
○ Child development researchers have identified several other factors that
lead parents to abuse their children
■ First, parents who maltreat their children often were maltreated
themselves, which may lead them to believe that abuse is a normal
part of childhood.
■ Second, parents who mistreat their children often use ineffective
parenting techniques (e.g., inconsistent discipline), have such
unrealistic expectations that their children can never meet them,
and often believe that they are powerless to control their children.
■ Third, in families where abuse occurs, the couple’s interactions are
often unpredictable, unsupportive, and unsat- isfying for both
husbands and wives.
● EFFECTS OF ABUSE ON CHILDREN
○ Even when there is no lasting physical damage, children’s social and
emotional development is often disrupted. They tend to have poor
relationships with peers, often because they are too aggressive.
○ Their cognitive development and academic performance are also
disturbed.
○ Abused youngsters typically get lower grades in school, score lower on
standardized achievement tests, and are more frequently retained in a
grade rather than promoted.
 ○ Also, school-related behavior problems (e.g., being disruptive in class) are
common, in part because mal- treated children are often socially unskilled,
don’t regulate their emotions well, and don’t recognize others’ emotions
accurately
○ Abuse often leads children and adolescents to become depressed.
○ In short, when children are maltreated, the effects are usually widespread
and long-lasting.
● RESILIENCE
○ One factor that protects children is their ego resilience, which denotes
children’s ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully to new situa-
tions.
○ Another protective factor is being engaged in school: When maltreated
children are cognitively engaged in school—they pay attention, complete
tasks, and are well organized—they are less prone to antisocial and
aggressive behavior
○ A final protective factor is a positive mother–child relationship: When
children have a positive representation of their mother—they describe her
as “kind” and “loving,” for example—they suffer relatively few symptoms of
maltreatment
● PREVENTING ABUSE AND MALTREATMENT
○ American children will be abused as long as physical punishment is
considered acceptable and effective and as long as poverty-stricken
families live in chronic stress from simply trying to provide food and
shelter.
○ Parents also need counseling and training in parenting skills. Abuse will
continue as long as parents remain ignorant of effective methods of
parenting and discipline.
■ When parents participate in these programs, they become more
committed to their children’s education. This leads their children to
be more successful in school, reducing a source of stress and
enhancing parents’ confidence in their childrearing skills, thereby
reducing the risks of maltreatment.
○ When parents know that they can turn to other helpful adults for advice
and reassurance, they better manage the stresses of child rearing that
might otherwise lead to abuse.
○ Finally, we need to remember that most parents who have mistreated their
children need our help.
■ Although we must not tolerate child maltreatment, most of these
parents and children are attached to each other; maltreatment is
typically a consequence of ignorance and burden, not malice.
References:
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-esteem-2795868
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-concept-2795865#citation-1

https://www.verywellhealth.com/androgens-and-pcos-excess-levels-what-it-means-4156
771

https://studiousguy.com/kohlberg-moral-development-theory/

https://ystudios.com/insights-people/influence-on-identity#:~:text=Identity%20formation
%20and%20evolution%20are,self%2Dexpression%20and%20life%20experiences.
SP-HDV121
EARLY ADULTHOOD
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD

● Ages 18-40 years old.

● Peak of physical processes and health.
● Common period wherein people leave their homes, begin work, gain economic
independence, build relationships, and start their own families.
● Emerging Adulthood: period between late teens and mid- to late twenties where individuals
are not yet adolescents but are not yet a full adult (Arnett, 2013; Arnett & Fishel, 2013).
● Emerging adulthood is a time to explore career choices, self-identity, and commitment.

A. Role Transitions Marking Adulthood

Defining adulthood solely depends on one’s self-definition and the kinds of role transitions
cultures create. A role transition is a movement into the next stage of development marked by
assumptions of new responsibilities and duties.

a. Cross-Cultural Evidence of Role Transitions

● Cultures in the developing world tend to be clear about when a person
becomes an adult.
● Rites of Passage: rituals that represent as a mark or initiation to adulthood.
● Mostly associated with religious rituals (e.g. Confirmation, Quinceañera, and
Marriage).
● In most tribal cultures, they perform their initiation in public so the entire
community can witness it. This may involve pain or mutilation (female
circumcision or inked skin/tattoo).
● Western counterparts are harder to identify. The closest comparison in
Western society is a father buying his son’s first razor or a mother buying
pads for her daughter’s first menstruation.

b. Role Transitions in Western Cultures

● In Western cultures, role transitions is the most used criteria for deciding
whether a person has reached adulthood.
● Certain role transitions that are keys to attain adulthood: voting, completing
one’s education, beginning full-time employment, leaving home and
establishing financial independence, getting married, and becoming a parent.
● Emerging Adulthood: As mentioned, people in their twenties in industrialized
countries spread these achievements over several years. Trends like living
independently, obtaining financial independence, and romantic involvement
are associated with added assumptions of adult roles and individual patterns
are diverse.

B. College
 ● In most countries, going straight to college after graduating high school is a marker of
transition to adulthood.
● Based on studies, students start acting and thinking like adults because of advances
in intellectual development and personal and social identity. This much
developmental change has occurred through social interaction and college social
experiences can either initiate or cause decline in the development of one’s sense of
identity, including ethnic/racial identity.
● For increased ethnic and racial diversity, age diversity is a reflection of the immediate
change in the nature of university campuses. Students who are traditionally aged
(under 25 years old) are considered full-time college students, while most people
who are older, attend part-time.
● Returning adult students balance employment and families along with their college
studies which often results in stress, especially in their studies.
● Overall, attending college impacts students of all ages and helps foster transition to
adulthood for students aged 18-25 years. With that, one’s end result in college is
highly influenced by the environment they experience and are surrounded in.

C. Behavioral Changes
● From a psychological perspective, becoming an adult means behaving in a
fundamentally different way. Cognitively, young adults think in different ways than
adolescents do (Kitchener et al., 2006).
● In young adulthood, there is a drop in the frequency of risky behaviors such as
driving at high speed, having sex without contraception, engaging in extreme sports,
and committing antisocial acts such as vandalism
● Edgework: refers to the desire to live life more on the edge through physically and
emotionally threatening situations on the boundary between life and death.
● Dealing with heavy emotions when faced with real danger varies between men and
women (e.g. In performing dangerous acts, men are more confident and do not feel a
need to rehearse. On the other hand, Women tend to be more uneasy, and usually
rehearse to calm oneself).
● Males (2009, 2010) study stated that poverty has a stronger connection with risky
behavior rather than brain development. On the psychosocial front, young adulthood
marks the transition from concern with identity to concern with behaviors related to
autonomy and intimacy.

a. Establishing Intimacy
● Erikson’s sixth step in his theory of psychosocial development mentioned that
the major task for young adults is dealing with the psychosocial conflict of
intimacy versus isolation.
● Once a person’s identity is established, Erikson (1982) believes that he/she is
ready to create a shared identity with another. Without a clear sense of
identity, he argued that young adults would be afraid of committing to
long-term relationships or become highly dependent on their partner for their
identity.
 ● Later on, research evidence for Erikson’s view was said to be conflicting.
Årseth and colleagues (2009) concluded that there were conflicting results
because men and women resolved identity and intimacy issues in different
ways. Several women resolve intimacy issues before identity issues by
marrying and having children while a middle-aged woman who goes to
college for the first time is a sample of identity development.
● Erikson’s idea that identity must be resolved before intimacy is somehow
accurate. The fact that some women show different patterns yet still resolve
both issues show that there are likely multiple ways to achieve identity and
intimacy.

D. Financial Independence
● High school graduates who do not plan on attending college and those who do not
finish high school most likely experience this sooner. They start by doing part-time
jobs, finding a full-time job, starting a business, learning trades, and even going to
the military.
● Eventually, even college graduates have the need to become financially
independent. It is very common for college graduates to return to their homes to live
with their parents before establishing financial independence.
● Regardless of what and when it occurs, reaching financial independence is a major
achievement and serves as a marker of becoming an adult.

E. When do people become adults?

● Quarter-life crisis: describes how one’s life in their twenties is far from easy as
individuals struggle to find their way in life.
● Byock (2010) and Robinson, Wright, and Smith (2013) argued that a crisis
experienced during early adulthood represents a period of self-exploration and
search for meaning.
● In conclusion, transition to adulthood depends on numerous cultural and
psychological factors. In other cases, labeling oneself as an adult relies on one's
perception of whether personal criterias have been achieved.

BIOLOGICAL AGING

● Biological Aging/Senescence: a process wherein our bodies physically change as we get

older.
● Widely varies from across our body and is influenced by a person’s genetic makeup,
lifestyle, living environment, and historical period which can boost or slow age-related
declines.
● WEAR-AND-TEAR Theory: Dr. August Weismann’s theory states that the body wears out
from use over time.

A. Aging Levels in DNA and Body Cells

● Genetically programmed aging receives foundation from kinship studies indicating
that longevity is a family trait. People whose parents had long lives tend to live longer
themselves.
● People most likely inherit risk and protective factors rather than longevity directly
which affects their chances of dying earlier or later.
● Genetic Programming Theory: This theory proposes existence of “aging genes” that
control certain biological changes, such as menopause, gray hair, and deterioration
of body cells.
● With each cell duplication, a special type of DNA called telomeres shortens to protect
the ends of a chromosome from destruction. Eventually, so little remains that the
cells no longer duplicate at all.

a. Biology and Environment - Telomere Length: A Marker of the Impact of Life

Circumstances on Biological Aging

● Telomeres: made from DNA structures found at the ends of chromosomes,

which safeguard the stability of your cells. Telomeres shorten with each cell
duplication; when they drop below a critical length, the cell can no longer
divide and becomes senescent.
● Telomerase: an enzyme that prevents shortening and can even reverse the
trend, causing telomeres to lengthen and, thus, protecting the aging cell.
● Accelerated telomere shortening has been linked to a variety of unhealthy
behaviors (e.g. cigarette smoking, physical inactivity, and overeating that
leads to obesity, etc.) Unfavorable health conditions may also alter telomere
length as early as the prenatal period with possible long-term effects.
● In obtaining a positive lifestyle change, telomeres respond accordingly. An
example of this is a a study which showed that obese women who had less
psychological stress and had healthier eating habits displayed a boost in their
telomerase activity.

**Link to short video: https://youtu.be/U0fRAr-ZHCo

B. Aging Levels in Tissues and Organs
● Cross-linkage Theory of Aging: also known as glycosylation theory of aging, refers to
associating aging with chemical changes that happen in the body. Protein fibers that
make up the body’s connective tissue form bonds with one another. When these
normally separate fibers cross-link, tissue becomes less elastic, leading to many
negative outcomes (e.g. loss of skin flexibility and other organs, clouding of eye lens,
clogging of arteries, and damaged kidneys).
● Gradual failure of the endocrine system, which produces and regulates hormones, is
yet another route to aging (e.g. menopause). With this, a drop in growth hormone is
also associated with loss of muscle and bone mass, addition of body fat, thinning of
the skin, and decline in cardiovascular functioning.
● A drop in immune system functioning contributes to many conditions of aging. This
includes increased susceptibility to infectious disease, cancer, and changes in blood
vessel walls associated with cardiovascular disease.

PHYSICAL CHANGES

● We experience physical changes in our body and declines in body functioning as we grow
older.
 -

A. Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems

● In a healthy individual, the ability of a heart to meet the body’s oxygen requirements
do not change during adulthood.
● The heart performance only declines with age during the event of stressful exercise
due to the decrease in maximum heart rate and a greater heart muscle rigidity.
● There has been a decrease in the development of heart diseases since the
mid-twentieth century that may be attributed to several factors such as improved diet
and exercise among individuals who are at risk, and better detection and treatment of
high blood pressure and cholesterol.
● The lungs, like the heart, also exhibit few changes in functioning as we age when it is
at rest. But during physical exertion, there is a noticeable decrease in respiratory
volume and an increase in breathing rate.
● The lungs have a more difficult time expanding to its full volume because the
connective tissue in the lungs, chest muscles, and ribs tend to stiffen as we age.
 B. Motor Performance
● Changes in motor performance occur due to the decline in heart and lung functioning
when physical exertion is being done combined with the gradual muscle loss as we
age.
● According to studies, the peak age of many athletic skills is between twenty to thirty
five. Then, it gradually declines as they pass that age.
● Sports that require limb movement speed, strength, and gross-motor coordination
typically peak in an athlete’s early twenties. Skills in sports that depend on aiming
and endurance usually peak in their late twenties and early thirties.
● Data indicates that the motor capacity’s upper biological limit is reached in the first
part of early adulthood.
● As long as athletes continue their practices, there will be adaptations in the body
structures which can help minimize declines in motor performance.

C. Immune System
● It is responsible for fighting infections, diseases, and foreign substances in our body.
● White blood cells have two types that play a vital role in the immune system.
○ T Cells directly attack the antigens.
○ B Cells secrete antibodies, responsible for capturing antigens and allowing
the blood system to destroy it, into the bloodstream.
● After reaching 20 years old, the immune system’s capacity to fight off harmful
substances decreases due to the shrinking of the thymus that is responsible for the
production of thymic hormones.
● Decrease in thymic production means there is less promotion of full maturity and
differentiation of the T Cells.
● B Cells release more antibodies when T Cells are present, therefore compromising
the immune system due to less production of T Cells.
● Both psychological and physical stress can also weaken a person’s immune system.
○ Psychological stressors: sleep deprivation, and chronic depression, etc.
○ Physical stressors: pollution, allergens, poor nutrition, etc.
● Combination of both psychological and physical stress magnifies the risk of illness.

D. Reproductive Capacity
● Being pregnant during the twenties decreases risk for miscarriage.
● With age, reproductive capacity declines.
● There is a decline in female fertility due to a reduced number and quality of ova
because humans ​require a certain level of reserve ova in the ovaries for conception
to occur.
● There is a reduction in fertility rates of older men due to decrease in semen volume,
sperm motility, and percentage of normal sperm after 35 years old.

HEALTH & FITNESS

● ​Inequalities in health and health care such as income, education, and occupational status,
and other SES associated inequalities increase.
● Health related habits and circumstances stem from SES health disparities. Poor childhood,
linked to low SES, affects an individual’s health in adulthood. The effects from childhood
factors decrease if SES improves.
● Incidence of health problems is fewer during the twenties and thirties due to optimal body
functioning during that age period.
● Taking care of ourselves during early adulthood is an excellent time to prevent and avoid
problems later on.

A. Nutrition
● Adults find it hard to make decisions that are wise with regards to their diet.
● Overweight and obesity, and a high-fat diet are nutritional problems that are
widespread with long-term consequences for adults.
a. Overweight and Obesity
● In adults, those with a body mass index (BMI) of 25 to 29 are
considered to be overweight while BMI of 30 is considered to be
obese.
● Several factors contribute to the rise of overweight and obesity. Some
of them are heredity, environmental pressures, and decrease in
physical labor at home and at the workplace.
● Excess weight is associated with many health problems such as
heart diseases, type 2 diabetes, and various forms of cancer.
● Overweight adults also experience social discrimination, often being
treated differently from their peers.
● Treatment for adults should start as early as possible to reduce risks
of health problems.
● Successful intervention is hard to achieve, and people who start
weight-loss programs often return to their original weight within two
years.
● High value placed on how thin a person is contributes to unrealistic
expectations regarding what an ideal body weight is and gives rise to
anorexia and bulimia, dangerous eating disorders that are common in
early adulthood.
b. Dietary Fat
● Researchers believe that dietary fat plays a significant role in the
age-related rise of breast and colon cancer.
● There is a strong connection of total fat to obesity and saturated fat
with cardiovascular diseases.
● Moderate consumption of fat is essential for our body functioning but
too much can lead to some of it being converted to cholesterol that
accumulates as plaque on the arterial walls in atherosclerosis.
● Eat less fat of all kinds and replace saturated fat with unsaturated fat
and complex carbohydrates which are beneficial to cardiovascular
health and protection against colon cancer
● Regular exercise can help minimize the harmful influences brought
on by saturated fat because it creates chemical byproducts that can
help eject cholesterol from our body.
B. Exercise
● Promotes body resistance to disease
● Enhances the immune response and lowers the risk of colds or flu
● How it prevents serious illnesses:
○ Reduces incidence of obesity
○ Promotes cardiovascular functioning
○ Mental health benefits

C. Substance Abuse
● Usage of alcohol and drugs peak among 19 to 25 year olds and then steadily decline
with age.
● Young people are more likely to smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, and use drugs than
younger or older individuals.
● There is a rise in binge drinking, driving under the influence, and experimentation
with prescriptive and “party” drugs.
● Some of the risks of consumption of these substances are brain damage, lasting
impairments in mental functioning, and unintentional injury and death when under the
influence.
● When consumption of alcohol and drugs become chronic, they may lead to addiction.
● The most commonly abused substances are alcohol and cigarettes.

a. Cigarette Smoking
● The earlier people start smoking, the greater their daily cigarette
consumption is.
● The ingredients contained in a cigarette leave their harmful marks in
the body.
● When smokers inhale, oxygen delivery to the tissues is reduced, and
heart rate and blood pressure rise.
● Prolonged exposure to these toxins and chemicals will leave
long-term damage like constriction of the blood vessels which may
lead to vascular disease, skin abnormalities, etc.
● It may also lead to uterine abnormalities and earlier menopause for
women, and may reduce sperm count and increase risk of sexual
impotence for men.
● Other risk factors include increased risk of heart disease, stroke,
acute leukemia, melanoma, and various cancers.
● Some use cessation aids (nasal spray, patches, nicotine gum) to
gradually decrease dependence on these substances.
● Others also enter treatment programs, but most of them fail and start
smoking again within six months.
b. Alcohol
● Some studies support the idea that a person’s genetics contribute to
their alcoholism.
● Alcoholism crosses SES and ethnic lines but is higher in some
groups than others.
 ● Alcohol acts as a depressant that impairs the brain’s ability to control
thought and action.
● Chronic alcohol use does widespread physical damage to the body.
​Best known complication is liver disease but it may also be linked to
cardiovascular disease, some forms of cancer, and various other
diseases.
● Continued alcohol consumption can cause brain damage that may
lead to confusion, apathy, impaired memory, and inability to learn.
● There are a lot of accidents and fatalities that happened because of
people doing things under the influence of alcohol.
● 50% of alcoholics relapse within a few months.

D. Sexuality
● Compared to earlier generations, young adults nowadays display a wider range of
sexual choices and lifestyles.
a. Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
● Since the 1950’s, public display of sexuality in movies, newspapers,
magazines, and books has steadily increased.
● Sexual partners tend to be similar in age, education, ethnicity, and to
some extent, religion.
● People who establish long lasting relationships often meet in
conventional ways.
● Making an intimate relationship last is easier when adults share the
same interests and values.
● Over the years, the Internet has become a popular way of meeting
new people and initiating relationships.
● Online dating sites sometimes undermine, instead of enhance, the
chances of forming successful romantic relationships.
● People form idealistic impressions of the person they’re talking to
online that they often lead to disappointments when face-to-face
meetings happen.
● More than 80 percent of people who are committed report that they
are feeling “extremely physically and emotionally satisfied”.
● ​Sexual difficulties are linked to low SES and psychological stress.
● A history of unfavorable relationships and sexual experiences
increase the risk of sexual dysfunction.
b. Homosexual Attitudes and Behavior
● Attitudes toward sex and romantic relationships between adults of the
same sex have gradually become more accepting.
● Homosexuals’ political activism and greater openness about their
sexual orientation have contributed to gains in acceptance.
● The little evidence available indicates that homosexual sex follows
many of the same rules as heterosexual sex.
● Homosexuals tend to live in or near large cities where many others
share their sexual orientation, or in college towns where attitudes are
more accepting.
 c. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
● STDs continue to be prevalent in early adulthood.
● The overall rate of STD is higher among women than men because it
is at least twice as easy for a man to infect a woman with any STD
than for a woman to infect a man.
● AIDS, the most deadly STD, remains concentrated among gay men
and intravenous drug abusers.
● The disease is spreading most rapidly through men having sex with
men and through heterosexual contact in poverty-stricken minority
groups, who are overwhelmed with problems and less likely to take
preventive measures.
● AIDS can be contained and reduced through sex education extending
from childhood to adulthood and through access to health services,
condoms, and clean needles and syringes for high-risk individuals.
● Drug-based vaginal gels that kill or inactivate the virus have shown
promising results and are undergoing further testing, responses that
exist due to the rise of AIDS cases among women.
d. Sexual Coercion
● Women are vulnerable to partners, acquaintances, and strangers, but
in most instances, their abusers are men they know well.
● People of all walks of life are offenders and victims.
● Personal characteristics of the man that a woman is involved with are
far better predictors of her chances of becoming a victim than her
own characteristics.
● Around half of all sexual assaults take place while people are
intoxicated.
● There are also women who are responsible for other forms of sexual
coercion against men, but authorities rarely acknowledge this as
illegal.
● Victims of rape exhibit psychological reactions that resemble those of
survivors of extreme trauma which makes them more likely to engage
in negative health behaviors to cope.
● Many steps can be taken at the level of the individual, the community,
and the society to prevent sexual coercion.

E. Psychological Stress
● Related to a wide variety of unfavorable health outcomes
● As SES decreases, exposure to diverse stressors rises, playing an important role in
the strong connection between low SES and poor health.
● Chronic stress is linked to overweight and obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and
atherosclerosis.
● ​Acute stress can trigger cardiac events and heart attacks to vulnerable individuals.
● Stress interferes with immune system functioning which may underlie its relationship
to various forms of cancer.
● It can cause gastrointestinal difficulties such as constipation, diarrhea, ulcers, etc.
● Many challenging tasks of early adulthood make it a particularly stressful time of life.
 ● Middle-aged and older adults are also better at coping with stress than young adults
because of their longer life experience.
● Having a strong social support can buffer the effects of stress and is an important
health intervention.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

● Cognitive changes of early adulthood are supported by further development of the cerebral
cortex, especially the prefrontal cortex and its connections with other brain regions.
● Pruning of synapses along with the growth and myelination of stimulated neural fibers
continue, though at a slower pace than in adolescence.
● Changes result in continued fine-tuning of the prefrontal cognitive-control network.
● There is an improvement in planning, reasoning, and decision making, supported by major
life events in this period such as attaining higher education, establishing a career, and
grappling with the demands of marriage and child rearing.
● As young adults become increasingly proficient in a chosen field of endeavor, regions of
the cerebral cortex specialized for those activities further undergo experience-dependent
brain growth.
● Structural changes occur as greater knowledge and refinement of skills result in more
cortical tissue devoted to the task, and reorganization of brain areas governing the activity.

INFORMATION PROCESSING: EXPERTISE AND CREATIVITY

● Information processing is further refined and enhanced in early adulthood

● Expertise - acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field
● Creativity - rooted in expertise

A. Expertise
○ Acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field
○ Supported by specialization in young adults
○ Starts with selecting a college major/occupation
○ Once attained, has a profound impact on information processing
○ Experts remember and reason more quickly and effectively
○ Know more domain-specific concepts and represents them at a deeper and
more abstract level, having more features that can be linked to other concepts
○ Approach problems with underlying principles in mind; when faced with a
challenging problem, they plan ahead and systematically analyze and categorize
elements of the problems, and then they select the best possible answer from
many possibilities
○ Necessary for creativity and problem solving

B. Creativity
○ Creative products of adulthood differ from childhood in that they are also directed at
a social/aesthetic need
 ○ Mature creativity requires a unique cognitive capacity
○ The capacity to formulate new, culturally meaningful problems and to ask significant
questions not posed before
○ According to Patricia Arlin (1989), movement from problem-solving to problem
finding is a core feature of postformal thought evident in highly accomplished
artists and scientists
○ Those who get an early start in creativity tend to peak and drop off sooner,
whereas “late bloomers” reach their full potential at later ages
■ Suggests creativity is a function of “career age” than chronological age
○ Varies across disciplines and individuals
■ Poets and musicians show an early rise in creativity; Academic scholars
and scientists tend to show their achievements over time
■ Some people are highly productive, some only make a single lifetime
contribution
○ Although creativity is rooted in expertise, not all experts are creative; it also
requires other qualities
■ Innovative thinking style - in a study, students who preferred to think
differently from their own approach - “outside the box” thinking style -
generated more creative ideas
■ Tolerant of ambiguity
■ Open to new experiences
■ Persistent and driven to succeed
■ Willing to try again after failure
■ Demands time and energy
○ Creativity is multiply determined - produced by many factors

CHANGES IN STRUCTURE OF THOUGHT

● From superficial thinking in adolescence to a more flexible and adaptable way of thinking
in early adulthood
● Several proposed theories regarding the thinking of young adults

A. Postformal Thought
● cognitive development beyond Piaget’s formal operational stage.
● recognition that the correct answer varies on the situation, that solutions should be realistic,
that ambiguity and contradiction are typical, and that subjective factors play a role in thinking
● studies suggest that origin lies in early adulthood

B. Reflective Judgment
● how adults reason through real-life dilemnas involving current affairs, religion, science,
relationships, etc.
● Split into 7 stages
a. Prereflective Reasoning
■ Stage 1-3
 ■ belief that knowledge is gained through the word of an authority figure or
through observation rather than evaluation of evidence
b. Quasi-reflective Reasoning
■ Stage 4-5
■ recognition that knowledge claims contain uncertainty, attributed to missing
information or methods of evidence procurement
■ while they use evidence, they don’t understand how it gives a conclusion,
thus viewing judgments as idiosyncratic
c. Reflective Reasoning
■ Stage 6-7
■ accept that knowledge claims cannot be made without uncertainty; makes
the “most reasonable” judgment where they are “relatively certain” based on
the evaluation of available data
■ believe that they must actively construct their own decisions and that claims
must be evaluated in relation to the context in which they were made to
determine its validity
■ expresses willingness to reevaluate own judgments as new data or
methodologies become available
C. Perry's Theory
● William Perry
● The starting point for expanding research literature on the dev. of epistemic
cognition

Development of Epistemic Cognition

● Perry interviewed Harvard University 4th year undergraduates “what stood out”
during their previous year because he wondered why young adults respond in
different ways to ideas they encounter in college
○ Results showed that students’ reflections on knowing changed as they
experienced more the complexities of university life and adult roles
● Epistemic cognition - reflections on how we arrived at facts, beliefs, and ideas
■ Dualistic Thinking
● Younger students believed knowledge was made up of separate units
(belief and propositions) whose truth could be determined by
comparing it to objective standards, engaging in dualistic thinking
● Dividing information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good
and bad, we and they
● Dualistic thinkers believe knowledge is certain, and approach
learning by accepting what is given
■ Relativistic Thinking
● Older students viewed knowledge as being embedded in a framework
of thought, engaging in relativistic thinking
● Gave up the possibility of absolute truth in favor of multiple truths
relative to its own context due to diversity of opinions on many
subjects, resulting in a more flexible and tolerant thinking
● Led to the realization that one’s beliefs are subjective due to several
frameworks
 ● Relativistic thinkers became acutely aware that one’s own “truth” can
be created from constructing, interpreting, and evaluating evidence
from these diverse frameworks
● The most mature individuals progress to commitment within
relativistic thinking
● Instead of choosing from several views, formulates a more personally
satisfying view that synthesizes the contradictions of said several
views
● By the end of college, some students reach this level of relativism
● Adults who have this level of relativism show a more sophisticated
approach to learning where they seek different perspectives to better
their knowledge and understanding as well as to clarify the base of
their own perspective

● Mature epistemic cognition contributes greatly to effective decision making and

problem-solving

Importance of Peer Interaction and Reflection

● Advances in epistemic cognition depend on gains in metacognition
○ Likely to occur in situations that challenge young people’s perspectives and
make them think about the rationality of their thought processes
○ In a study of college learning experiences of seniors scoring low and high in
epistemic cognition, high scoring students frequently reported activities that
encouraged them to struggle with realistic but ambiguous problems in
a supportive environment w/ faculty helping them understand how
knowledge is constructed and why it must be subject to revision. Low
scoring students hardly mentioned anything of the sorts
○ When tackling challenging, ill-structured problems, interaction among
indivuals who are equals in knowledge and authority is beneficial because it
prevents acceptance of another’s reasoning because of greater power or
expertise
● While self-reflection on one’s own thinking can occur, peer interaction fosters the
necessary type of individual reflection - arguing with oneself over competing
ideas and strategies as well as coordinating opposing perspectives into a
more effective structure

D. Schaie’s Theory
● K. Warner Schaie (1977/1978)
● According to Schaie, it would be difficult for human cognition to exceed Piaget’s
formal operational stage
○ With adulthood, situations become more diverse, resulting in mental activity
shifting from acquiring knowledge to using it
○ 4 Stages
■ Acquisitive Stage
- Childhood and adolescence
- First two decades of life
 - Devoted to knowledge acquisition
- Develop more powerful procedures for storing and combining
information, as well as drawing conclusions
■ Achieving Stage
- Early adulthood
- People must adapt their cognitive skills to situations that have
implications for long-term goals
- Focus more on the application of acquired knowledge to everyday life
- Young adults must attend to both the problem and its context instead
of just the problem because how they handle the situation will affect
the entire life course
■ Responsibility Stage
- Middle adulthood
- Expansion of responsibilities to others takes place at home, in the
community, and on the job
- Cognition extends to situations involving social obligations
(maintaining relationships, staying involved in children’s lives,
leadership roles at work, etc.)
- The most advanced form of this type of thinking is called the
Executive Stage - characterizes individuals w/ highly complex
responsibilities (e.g leaders of large organizations.)
- Demands understanding of dynamic forces that affect a social
structure and combine information from several sources to
make decisions
■ Reintegrative Stage
- Late adulthood
- Retirement
- People reexamine and reintegrate interests, attitudes, and values,
using them as a guide for maximizing quality of life
- As the end of lifespan approaches, the need for knowledge
acquisition and decision monitoring in consideration of later
consequences decline
- Older adults move from “What should I know?” and “How should I
use what I know?” to “Why should I know?”
- More selective about circumstances where they spend their
cognitive energies
E. Labouvie-Vief’s Theory
● Gisella Labouvie-Vief (1980)
● Echoes features of Perry’s theory
● Adolescents operate within a world of possibility

○ Movement from Hypothetical to Pragmatic Thought

● Adulthood moves from hypothetical to pragmatic thought
○ Pragmatic thought - structural advance where logic is used to solve
real-world problems
○ The need to specialize motivates this change
 ○ Adults become more aware of everyday constraints and accept
contradictions as part of existence and develop thinking that
thrives on imperfection and compromise

○ Cognitive-affective Complexity
● The enhanced reflective capacities of young adults alter the dynamics of
their emotional lives
○ More adept at integrating cognition w/ emotion, helping them make
sense of discrepancies
● Labouvie-Vief found that from adolescence to middle adulthood, people
gained cognitive-affective complexity
○ Cognitive-affective complexity - awareness of conflicting positive
and negative feelings and coordination of said feelings into a
complex, organized structure that recognizes the uniqueness of
individual experiences
○ Promotes greater awareness of one’s own and others’ perspectives
and motivations
○ A vital aspect of adult emotional intelligence and is valuable in
solving pragmatic problems
○ Individuals with high cognitive-affective complexity have a tolerant
open-minded view towards events and people
○ Helps people regulate intense emotion and think rationally about
real-world dilemmas

● Awareness of multiple truths, integration of logic with reality, and cognitive-affective

complexity sum up qualitative transformations in thinking in early adulthood

SOCIAL & EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

A GRADUAL TRANSITION: EMERGING ADULTHOOD

● The delay and prolonged shift to adult roles from late adolescence up to mid-to-late
adolescence is referred to as emerging adulthood.

UNPRECEDENTED EXPLORATION

● Psychologist Jeffrey Arnett defined emerging adulthood individuals left adolescence but
distance from taking on adult responsibilities.
● Ages 18-25 years old who don’t consider themselves as an adults are:
A. Less adultlike in life goals and behavior;
B. Less certain in identity and qualities for their romantic partners;
C. Engages themselves in risk taking such as substance abuse and unprotected sex
(Nelson & Barry, 2005).
● Individuals having economic resources tend to explore alternatives in education,
work, and personal values and behavior more than they did when they were teenagers.
● Self-concept - exposure to multiple viewpoints, awareness of their changing traits
and values and it increases self-esteem (Labouvie‐Vief, 2006; Orth, Robins, &
Widaman, 2012).

IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT

● Fluctuations in students’ certainty about their commitments (Luyckx, Goossens, &

Soenens, 2006).
● Individuals that seek exploration and are committed - higher in self‐esteem,
psychological well‐being, and academic, emotional, and social adjustment.
● Individuals who are identity diffused (engaging in no exploration) - poorly adjusting,
anxious, depressed, higher in alcohol and drug use, and unprotected sex, and other
health‐compromising behaviors (Kunnen et al., 2008; Schwartz et al., 2011).
● Emerging adults are compromised to “individualize” their identities [a process that
requires a sense of self‐efficacy].

RELIGION AND WORLDVIEW

● If an adult engages in spiritual tend to be better adjuster, high self esteem and have better
involved to various activities, less likely to engage in substance abuse and antisocial acts
(Barry & Nelson, 2008; Knox, Langehough, & Walters, 1998; White et al., 2006).
● The Millennial generation reports greater narcissism (egotistical self‐admiration) and
materialism—valuing of money and leisure and reduced empathy for the less fortunate
(Gentile, Twenge, & Campbell, 2010; O’Brien, Hsing, & Konrath, 2010; Twenge, Campbell,
& Freeman, 2012).
● Emerging adulthood individuals have a greater sense of committing and participating
themselves in activities that will improve communities, nations, and the world (Pryor et al.,
2009).

CULTURAL CHANGE, CULTURAL VARIATION AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD

CULTURAL CHANGE

Rapid cultural change explains the appearance of emerging adulthood.

● First, entry‐level positions in many fields require more education than in the past,
prompting young adults to seek higher education thus delaying financial independence
and career commitment.
● Second, wealthy nations with longer‐lived populations have no pressing need for
young people’s labor, freeing those who are financially able for rich, extended exploration.

CULTURAL VARIATION

● Developing nations - those from wealthy and privileged families have access to
experience and are admitted to universities (Arnett, 2011; Nelson & Chen, 2007). Rural
regions have limited education, they typically enter marriage, parenthood, and lifelong
work early (UNICEF, 2010c).

● Industrialized countries - families who are well-off, advance their education, explore
career possibilities, or travel. (Tanner, Arnett, & Leis, 2009).

● Low socioeconomic status and early parenthood encounters a “floundering period”

[Cohen et al., 2003; Eccles et al., 2003].

IS EMERGING ADULTHOOD REALLY A DISTINCT PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT?

Critics of the concept of emerging adulthood offer the following arguments.

● First, growth in college enrollment, delayed career entry; and late marriage and
parenthood are cultural trends as early as the 1970s (Côté & Bynner, 2008).
● Second, the term emerging adulthood fails to describe the experiences of the Majority of
the world’s youths (Galambos & Martinez, 2007).
● Third, research on emerging adulthood largely emphasizes its personal and societal
benefits yet fails to develop into making good choices and acquire adult skills.
● Fourth, the financial upheaval of the late 2000s had a large number of bachelor’s degree
holders under age 25 with restricted options.

RISK AND RESILIENCE IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD

● Exposure to negative life events (family conflict, abusive relationships, repeated

romantic break-ups, academic/ employment difficulties, and financial strain) subvert
developments (Masten et al., 2004).
● Supportive family, school, and community environments are crucial, just as they
were at earlier ages. The overwhelming majority of young people with access to these
resources are optimistic about their future and likely to transition successfully to adult
roles (Arnett, 2006)
 --

ERIKSON’S THEORY: INTIMACY VS ISOLATION

● A psychological conflict of early adulthood, intimacy versus isolation, is reflected in the

young person’s thoughts and feelings about making a permanent commitment to an
intimate partner.
● Intimacy - giving up some independent self and redefine their identity to include both
partners’ values and interests (Carroll et al., 2009). Without it, young adults face the
negative outcome of Erikson’s early adulthood stage: loneliness and self‐absorption.
● Advanced identity development strongly predicts involvement in a deep, committed
love partnership or readiness to establish such a partnership (Beyers &
Seiffge‐Krenke, 2010; Montgomery, 2005)
● Identity achievement - correlated with fidelity and love, for both men and women.
● Identity moratorium - a state of searching prior to commitment; negatively
associated with fidelity and love (Markstrom et al., 1997; Markstrom & Kalmanir, 2001).
● The concept between identity and intimacy is more complex for women, who are more
considerate of the impact of their personal goals on important relationships (Archer,
2002).
● Individuals who have achieved intimacy - cooperative, tolerant, and accepting of
differences in background and values.
● Individuals with a sense of isolation - hesitate to form close ties because they fear loss
of their own identity, tend to compete rather than cooperate, are not accepting of
differences, and are easily threatened when others get too close (Marcia, 2002).
● Erikson believed that successful resolution of intimacy versus isolation prepares the
individual for the middle adulthood stage, which focuses on generativity—caring for the
next generation and helping to improve society.

OTHER THEORIES OF ADULT PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

 LEVINSON’S SEASONS OF LIFE

● Levinson’s theory underlies the design of a person’s life, consisting of relationships with
individuals, groups, and institutions. Compositions of it are usually family, close
friendships, and occupation centered.
● Individuals constructed an image of themselves in the adult world that guides their
decision making. For men, the dream usually emphasized achievement in a career,
whereas most career‐oriented, while women had “split dreams” involving both
marriage and career.
● According to Levinson, men in their twenties acquire professional skills, values, and
credentials. In contrast, for many women, career development extended into middle
age.
● Around age 30, young people with careers and single focused on finding a life
partner, while women who had emphasized marriage and family often developed more
individualistic goals.
● Married women tended to expect their spouse to recognize and accommodate their
career interests and aspirations. For young people without a satisfying intimate tie or
a vocational direction, this can be a time of crisis.

VAILANT’S ADAPTATION TO LIFE

● Vaillant—like Levinson— confirmed Erikson’s stages but filled gaps between them.
● After focusing on intimacy concerns in their twenties, the men turned to career
consolidation in their thirties. During their forties, they became more generative. In their
fifties and sixties, they extended that generativity; they became “keepers of meaning,”
expressing a deep need to preserve and pass on cultural traditions by teaching others
what they had learned from life experience (Vaillant & Koury, 1994). Finally, in their
seventies, the men became more spiritual and reflective, contemplating the meaning of
life and accepting its finiteness. In a later lifelong study of a sample of well‐educated
women, Vaillant (2002) identified a similar series of changes.

THE SOCIAL CLOCK

● It is an important cultural and generational influence on adult development: the social

clock—age‐graded expectations for major life events, such as beginning a first job,
getting married, birth of the first child, buying a home, and retiring.
● It affects our personality, self-esteem, independence, responsibility, and other
attributes because adults (like children and adolescents) make social comparisons,
measuring their progress against that of agemates (Helson, 1992; Vandewater & Stewart,
1997).
 ● Among wealthy individuals, finishing education, marrying, and having children occur
much later in the lifespan than they did. On the other hand, a growing number of women,
mostly of lower income, are not marrying and, instead, rearing children as single mothers,
turning not to a spouse but rather to their own parents and extended families for
assistance (Furstenberg, 2010). These conditions can create tensions when parents
expect their young‐adult children to attain adult milestones on an outdated
schedule.
● Young adults may feel distressed because their own timing of major milestones is not
widely shared or supported by current public policies.
● An ill‐defined social clock likely causes them to feel inadequately grounded—unsure
of what others expect and of what to expect of themselves.
● Social clock of some kind seems to foster confidence and social stability because it
guarantees that young people will develop skills, engage in productive work, and gain
in understanding of self and others.
.

RELATIONSHIP TYPES AND ISSUES

FRIENDSHIP

● Relationship that consists of common interests among one another

● Influences each other's beliefs, behaviors values
● Mostly people with similar age, can be same-sex or cross-sex friendship

A. FRIENDSHIP

a. Friendship during young adulthood

● The peak of having lots of friends and acquaintances compared to other periods
● Boost a person’s self-confidence and psychological wellbeing
● Serve as a bridge in helping us adapt to unfamiliar roles across adulthood and open
opportunities for us and
● Gives us different perspectives on different issues in life
● Quantity and quality of friendship affect a person’s life satisfaction

b. ABCDE MODEL
● Shows the stages of interpersonal relationship and their changes
1. Acquaintanceship. Wherein you become acquainted with one another
2. Buildup. It is the beginning of a friendship or relationship
3. Continuation. The start of long-term commitment to friendship/relationship
4. Deterioration. Decline of friendship
5. Ending. Marks the end of your relationship
B. DIFFERENT TYPES OF FRIENDSHIP

a. SAME-SEX FRIENDSHIP
● Have similar characteristics regardless of their culture and age group. These
characteristics consist of:
- Geographic Proximity
- Common interests and values
- Inclusion
- Symmetrical reciprocity

WOMEN MEN

Different characteristics of - Communion and - Common interest

same-sex friendship self-disclosure
- Greater effort and
expectations from
friends
- Greater risk of
corumination (focused
on the negative
feelings, discussing
and revisiting
problems)

Prefers- “Just talk” “do something”

Barriers High expectations on friends Competitiveness - avoids

showing weaknesses, fragile
Tend to be disapproving if
expectations are not met

b. CROSS SEX FRIENDSHIP

● Friends with the opposite sex

Benefits of cross-sex friendship

WOMEN MEN

- Female friends may gain a different - When men start dating, they feel less
perspective from a male’s point of view anxious and has the tendency to have
on problems the better capability for intimacy

Developing feelings formed from cross-sex friendship

● More enduring and stable
● Once they break up, they may even stay as friends

c. ONLINE FRIENDSHIP
● In online friendship, trust develops depending on the basis of four sources
 - Reputation
- What users do online
- Personal self-disclosure
- Situational factors

● Has similar development outcome to an in-person friendship

Themes describing both traditional and new ways of forming an adult friendship
● Affective or emotional basis of friendship
- How friendship is based on loyalty, commitment, and trust through disclosing
one’s self (disclosure), showing intimacy and affection, support and
appreciation
● Shared or communal nature of friendship
- How friends do activities that they have a common interest in
● Sociability and compatibility
- It represents how friends keep us amused, becomes our source of fun and
amusement

d. SIBLING FRIENDSHIP
● Most have the closest and longest bond with their brothers or sisters
● Closeness may vary in age and depend on the degree of relatedness, health,
distance to one another (proximity)

e. CULTURAL DIVERSE FRIENDSHIP

● Have a more open view of people with different backgrounds

C. SOCIAL BASELINE THEORY

● Brain assumes access to social relationships that lessen the possibility of risks and the level
of effort needed to meet a set of goals by combining relational partners into neural
representations of the self
● Example. When faced with a threat, the brain interprets the situation differently when facing it
alone versus facing it together with a friend. When facing threats with a friend, changes how
the brain functions which leads to having a sense of safety and assurance, assuming it is
manageable.

ROMANTIC LOVE

A. FINDING A PARTNER

a. THEORY OF ASSORTATIVE MATING

● People tend to choose someone whom they have similarities with
 (political ideologies, personality, attitude, religious beliefs, age, education, economic
status)

Preference in choosing long time partners

MEN WOMEN BOTH

more on physical the capability of the men (Due mutual attraction,

attractiveness to the capacity to reproduce dependability, emotional
being limited so they look for a maturity, kindness, and
partner who is committed understanding
emotionally that may help their
children’s wellbeing and
sruvival)

promptly move toward physical takes time to attain

intimacy psychological intimacy

B. COMPONENTS OF LOVE

a. TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE

Has three components.

● Passion. Revolves around the physical and psychological arousal component.
● Intimacy. Revolves around the emotional component.
● Commitment. Revolves around cognitive development.

C. TRENDS AMONG YOUNG ADULTS

a. SPEED DATING
● Meeting a few people over a short period of time

b. HOOKUP CULTURE
● Sexual intercourse with someone you are not emotionally attached
● ¾ of both men and women overtime regrets having hookup sex with someone

D. CROSS CULTURE RELATIONSHIP

Two dimensions that emerge regarding the different unique ordering of their preferences relating to
the ideal characteristics they want for a potential partner across various culture

1. Culturable view changes preferences

- Depends on whether they have modern or traditional values.

Under traditional culture, countries such as China, India, Iran, and Nigeria- Men place a high value
on women’s purity, ability to be a good cook and a housekeeper, the desire to have children. As for
women’s preferences. What they look for in a man is someone who is industrious and ambitious.
 2. In choosing a partner. there is a significance in intelligence, education, social refinement as
opposed to a pleasing character

Countries such as Colombia, Greece, and Spain tends to look more at a person’s education,
intelligence, and social refinement while people in Indonesia on the other hand tends to give more
importance to having a pleasing character

D. VIOLENCE IN RELATIONSHIPS

a. ABUSIVE RELATIONSHIP
○ One’s partner shows aggressiveness towards them, causing them to harm physically,
emotionally and/or sexually

E. DEVELOPMENTAL FORCES, NEUROSCIENCE AND LOVE RELATIONSHIP

a. Being “madly inlove”
● Due to the high level of activity in the dopamine system and it usually shows in
couples who at the early stage of their relationship

b. HORMONE OXYTOCIN
● Plays a vital role in attachment
- For Men: partner’s attractiveness is enhanced
- Women: orgasms are enhanced, also called the Cuddle Hormone

c. Interaction of the psychological, neurological, and hormonal aspects when it comes to love
describe the reason why couples have an “exclusive” relationship with one another
- Women
- During periods of romantic love, the blood level of serotonin increases
- The stronger the bond they have with their partner, the less likely it is to give
attention to other males

DIVERSITY OF LIFESTYLES AND RELATIONSHIPS

A. SINGLEHOOD
● Person not in an intimate relationship with someone
● Advantages of singlehood: Freedom and mobility

Some can be
● Some are single by choice
● Some say that haven’t met the right person yet

Single adults in their:

● Late 20s or early 30s
 - Experience stress due to the pressure of their friends marrying
● Mid-30s
- Biological decline for pregnancy is near

B. COHABITATION
● Pertains to an unmarried couple who are living together

For some, cohabitation can serve as

● Preparation for marriage
● Alternative to marriage

Disadvantages of cohabitation
● properties, contracts, money may be fought over

C. LGBTQ RELATIONSHIPS
● Young adults usually experience discrimination, especially couples who are people of color
and are financially poor

Gay and lesbian couples are mostly:

● Dual-earners
● Tend to have different demographic characteristics aside from education
● Tend to share household chores

Lesbians, gays, and bisexuals (LGB) individuals

● Do not differ from heterosexual individuals

Most transgenders and non-conforming individuals

● Do not have key access to services such as healthcare due to prejudice,
discrimination and etc
● Transgenders older adults are also found out to be socially inept

D. MARRIAGE
● Legal and formal union of two individuals that are in a relationship

Successful marriage differentiated from

● Marital success. which is the umbrella term pertaining to the outcome of marriage
● Marital quality. the subjective evaluation on marriage
● Marital adjustments. how both complement and accommodate each other over a
period of time
● Marital satisfaction. which is the global assessment on marriage
 Marrying at a younger age (teens to early 20s)
● lower possibility of marriage lasting

Homogany
● Values and interests a couple have in common also contributes to a successful
marriage

EGALITARIAN MARRIAGE TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE

Couples share the same and equal power and Couples have a division of roles (men - work,
authority among one another women - household)

Same-Sex Marriage
● Not available in our country
● It is not just marriage for homosexual couples but it also gives access to more rights
and benefits that were only available to heterosexual couples

E. DIVORCE AND REMARRIAGE

a. DIVORCE

Factors of divorce
● Infidelity
● Ineffective way of handling conflicts
- For example, when a woman opens up a problem, the man reacts
aggressively towards her showing contempt, resentment, defensive and
suddenly retreating (trying to get out of the situation)
● Has been previously divorced
● Has divorced parents
 Effects of divorce on some couples
● Experience negative health declines
● May affect the quality of their parenting
● May experience “divorce hangover”
- Having a hard time forming new friendships, the inability of moving on, and
trying to reorient themselves as single parents.

Collaborative Divorce
● Helps couples have a contractual and voluntary alternative method of settling their
divorce by negotiating a resolution to their situation instead of imposing rules set by
the court or an arbitrator

b. REMARRIAGE
● Average rate of people remarrying is within four years
● Men most likely to remarry faster than women

As people remarry, they may be vulnerable to breakups due to

- Practical matters
- Negative traits from their first marriage to their second may be passed on
- May possibly treat divorce as a valid reason when there are marital difficulties
- May experience stress from stepfamily

F. CHILDLESSNESS
● Two reasons why a person or couple is childless
1. Involuntarily childless
- They haven't found the right partner whom they want to share their
parenthood yet
- Fertility treatment did not succeed
2. Voluntarily childless
- Satisfied with their life as a married couple
- Free from responsibilities of having children

VARIETIES OF PARENTHOOD

A. NEVER MARRIED SINGLE PARENTS

● Unwed mothers of children with no father figure tends to show antisocial behaviors and are
most likely to achieve less in class
● Unwed fathers who are financially unstable tend to show less time with their children

B. STEP PARENTS
● Usually enter a home as an “outsider”.
● Most of the time lacks a warm attachment bond within the family
 ● Stepparents may view biological parents as “too lenient” while biological parents on the other
hand may view stepparents as “too harsh”

C. FOSTER PARENTS
● Usually struggles with deepening their relationship with their children as those in foster care
have a difficulty in forming attachment

D. ADOPTIVE PARENTS
● Children who have adoptive parents may also have a hard time as they may look different
from their adoptive parents

E. LGBTQ PARENTS
How do couples from the LGBTQ community become parents? they become parents from
● Previous heterosexual marriage
● Adoption
● Reproduductive technology

● Gay and lesbian parents according to some findings are as effective and committed
as to how heterosexual couples raise their children.
● With regards to children’s mental health, peer relations, or gender role behavior
belonging to gay and lesbian families shows no difference from children who have
heterosexual parents.
● Due to their parent’s sexual orientation, gay and lesbian couples are afraid that their
children would be stigmatized

OCCUPATION

A. CAREER DEVELOPMENT

a. MEANING OF WORK

● Work can be categorized into three.

1. Economic reality
2. To achieve social influence and
3. For personal fulfillment

● Meaning-mission fit
- Introduces the concept wherein employers give importance to the overall
well-being of their employees while at the same time aligning the company’s
mission

● A person’s work influences their

- Sense of identity and self-efficacy
 - Way of living, how they dress, and also the friends they make

B. ESTABLISHING A CAREER

Around the age of young adults,

- Their career path is discontinuous
- Jobs that most young adults have do not coincide with the field they took.

Workers around their twenties frequently change jobs (resign) is common due to
- Having better opportunities
- Hierarchal structure leading to lowering aspirations

a. ROLES OF MENTORS AND COACHES

MENTORS DEVELOPMENTAL BOTH

COACHES

Can be a teacher, counselor, Someone who helps a person Contributes in developing a

model, or sponsor usually a achieve their goals person’s future leadership and
senior from your chosen field talents
who helps new employees on
their work regarding their
present roles and help them for
their future career roles

For individuals who are new to For individuals who has more
the position experience

Helps avoid new hires from Contributes in making

getting into trouble necessary changes in their
lives by giving emphasis on
general skill development and
performance improvements

Gives useful information

regarding day-to-day activities
in their work

b. THEORIES ON HOW PEOPLE ADAPT TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT

● Career Construction Theory

- A person’s career is built from their own actions which is the result of their
own characteristics and social context

Two theories are introduced on how people adjust to their environment

● Holland’s Personality-Type Theory
- People choose their occupation based on their interests and in order to make
the most out of their individual traits such as their abilities, skills, personality,
intelligence
 - Holland classified occupation based on the interpersonal settings wherein
people associate their lifestyles and functions

● Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)

- Which states that a person’s career choice is influenced by Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory, specifically the concept of self-efficacy

There are two versions of SCCT

Simplest Factors
- Self-efficacy. a person’s belief on their own capability
- Outcome expectations. What you think would be the
outcome under a specific situation
- Interests. what you like
- Choice Goals. what you want to achieve

The Complex Factors consists of

- Supports. the environmental things that helped you
- Barriers. environmental things that hindered you

● Donald Super’s Occupational Stages during adulthood

● A theory of occupational development based on self-concept.
● Five distinct stages during adulthood as a result of changes in individuals’
self-concept and adaptation to an occupational role. These five stages
consist of
- Implementation
- Establishment
- Maintenance
- Deceleration
- Retirement

C. OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

a. OCCUPATIONAL EXPECTATIONS

● As young adults are fed with new information, they tend to change their expectations
at least once

● Some reasons why adults modify their goals is because of

- Age
- Sex discrimination
- Race
- Having a change in interest
- Realization that the occupation is not a good fit for them
- The lack of essential skills and the inability to acquire them
 - Lack of level of education needed for a certain goal

● 21st-century workplaces can be a place where a person can experience REALITY

SHOCK in which a person realizes that what is learned inside a classroom is
different from the “real world”

D. JOB SATISFACTION

● Job satisfaction is defined as showing positive feeling and showing contentedness towards
one’s work

● Psychological Capital Theory

- Having a positive view improves processes and outcomes

E. ALIENATION AND BURNOUT

a. ALIENATION
- A situation wherein workers feel that what they do does not have value and is
meaningless usually

b. BURNOUT
- exhaustion of an individual’s energy and motivation
- The feeling of being exploited
- And losing occupational idealism

c. PASSION MODEL.
- Accurate prediction of an employee’s feeling of burnout
As seen in the model, obsessive passion predicts higher levels of conflict which leads to a higher
level of burnout while harmonious passion predicts higher levels of satisfaction at work, which leads
to lower levels of burnout.

GENDER, ETHNICITY, AND DISCRIMINATION ISSUES

A. GENDER DIFFERENCES

a. STRUCTURAL BARRIERS FOR WOMEN TRADITIONAL AND NON-TRADITIONAL

OCCUPATIONS

● Traditional occupations
- Women who are employed have jobs that are commonly female-dominated
only such as in teaching, social works or as a secretarial
● Non Traditional Occupation
- Workforce that is commonly dominated by men such as in engineering or
construction

Despite finding success in their nontraditional works, women can still be seen negatively
compared to successful men due to gender stereotyping

B. OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

● In the 21st century, entrepreneurs, women are starting a business at a faster rate compared
to men and are able to balance employment and home life through a home-based business
 ● For millennials, as technology now place a big role in our everyday lives, this contributes in
providing solutions to many traditional issues most especially on work-family conflicts

● Female professionals may leave their jobs for two reasons

1. The company they work at idealizes masculine values giving emphasis on
competitiveness, rationality, and tangible outputs
2. They may feel disconnected from their workplace due to the unsupportiveness of the
company as they may not show support on the female worker’s endeavors such as
improving one’s skills, growth, or success

C. BIAS AND DISCRIMINATION

● GENDER DISCRIMINATION
- Described as an act of refusing a person to be on the job simply because of their
gender.

● GLASS CEILING
- Shows the level into which they may advance their position in their organization but
may not go beyond that position

- Considered as one of the major barriers that women experience.

- It is prevalent at a professional level and management workplace settings
- Provides a framework in showing that there is a limitation up to where a women’s
career takes them.

● GLASS CLIFF
- Refers to a situation wherein women are put to a position wherein they may most
likely fail
- An example of this is when a woman in a company is appointed as part of the
board of directors despite the company being aware of the fact that the
woman lacks the ability to be part of it and may most likely fail

D. SEXUAL HARRASSMENT

● Has no universal definition

● Victims of sexual harassment are often young women who may be single or discovered.
● In most countries such as in Asia Pacific countries, women experience sexual harassment in
their workplaces and most oftentimes, women are reluctant to report sexual harassment due
to their fear of losing their jobs.
● The effects of sexual harassment on a person show psychological and physical related
health outcomes and negativity in their workplace.

E. AGE DISCRIMINATION

● Considered as one of the barriers in structural development

 ● May show the refusal of a job or a promotion to a person simply because of their age

OCCUPATIONAL TRANSITIONS

● Corporations being often restructed

- Occupational change is now considered as part of career process
- Losing a job is now common and does not perceive much of a negative meaning

A. RESTRAINING WORKS

● CAREER PLATEUING
- Happens when a person’s job or promotional activity lack a feeling of being
challenging to a person who wants to improve more on their field.

B. OCCUPATION INSECURITY

● Due to the Great Recession during the 2000s and early 2010
- Most of the middle to upper-level employees around the globe lost their jobs

- This resulted in people feeling stressed and insecure about their jobs

● The more that a person worries about their jobs, the more chances there are for them to be
physically and psychologically unwell

C. COPING UP WITH UNEMPLOYMENT

● Advice for adults who are trying to manage occupational transitions are
- See job loss with a healthy sense of urgency
- Carefully plan your next career, think of what you want to achieve despite the
likelihood of the possibility is low

WORK AND FAMILY

● One of the most difficult challenges adults face is trying to balance work and family.
In most two-parent households today, both parents work in order to pay the bills and needs
of the family. The stresses of living in this arrangement are concerning, and gender
differences are evident especially in the division of household chores.
 ● Effectively balancing work and family brings many benefits such as having a better
standard of living, improved work productivity, enhanced psychological well‐being,
greater self‐fulfillment, and happier marriages.

A. THE DEPENDENT CARE DILEMMA

● Many employed adults must also provide care for dependent children or
parents.

a. Employed Caregivers
● Most mothers have no other option but to get back to work after giving birth.
Surveys showed that most mothers of preschool children reveal that their
motivation to return to work is related to financial needs and how attached
they are to their occupation. With this, one of the concerns faced by them
was that quitting their job negatively affected their careers.
● Increasing number of workers who must care for a parent or partner are
overlooked. Depending on one’s economic situation, it may not be possible to
find affordable and quality care that is available when needed.

b. Dependent Care and Effects on Workers

● Being responsible for dependent care has negative effects on caregivers.
Parents of families dealing with time pressures feel more stress and besides
that, “fast-forward families'' also deal with impacts on career and physical and
mental health repercussions.
● With this, women’s careers are negatively affected more than men’s. When
women’s partners provide support and women have average or high control
over their jobs, employed mothers are significantly less distressed than
employed mothers without support.

c. Dependent Care and Employer Responses

● Parents with children and/or have a dependent partner or parents are faced
with the difficult prospect of leaving them in the care of others.
● Obtaining a “family-friendly” company must pay attention to employee
attitudes and make sure the company provides them with the best support
 (The most important thing a company can do is allow the employee to leave
work without penalty to cater to the family’s needs).

B. JUGGLING OF MULTIPLE ROLES

a. Dividing Household Chores
● Women still perform most of the housework, regardless of their
employment status. Which in result, causes the most arguments and the
most unhappiness for working couples.
● As things have progressively improved over time, women have
reduced the amount of time they spend on housework and men have
increased the amount of time they spend on such tasks.
● Men are most satisfied with the amount of hours they spend especially
if the time spent is relatively small while women are often most satisfied when
men are willing to perform women’s traditional chores.

b. Work-family Conflict
● When both partners work and care for the child, they must figure how
to compromise with the demands of each.
● Work–family conflict: refers to the feeling of being pulled in multiple
directions by incompatible demands from one’s job and one’s family.
● It is crucial that the partners negotiate and compromise in the
household and child-care, but it was noted that truly equitable
divisions of labor are clearly the exception.
● Studies discovered that the most conflict between balancing
demands of work and family happens during the peak parenting
years, when there are at least two preschool children in the home.
● Dual-earner couples often have difficulty finding time for each other
due to long working hours. As couples have the opportunity to spend
time doing activities together, they tend to become happy.

LEISURE ACTIVITIES

● Adults do not work everyday. It is important to have balance in relaxing in engaging in

leisure activities which include simple relaxation, activities for enjoyment, and creative
pursuits.
● Biggest issue with leisure is finding the proper time for it. Young and middle-aged adults
must fit leisure into an already busy schedule, so leisure becomes another factor in time
management problems

A. DIFFERENT TYPES
a.Physical (lifting weights, backpacking, jogging)
b.Crafts (woodworking, household repairs)
c.Games (board/online games, puzzles, card games)
d.Watching TV
e.Socialprivate (going out with a friend, visiting relatives, going out to dinner)
 f. Social-public (attending a club meeting, volunteering)
g.Religious (attending a religious service, praying)
h.Travel (travel abroad, travel out of town)
i. Experiential (collect stamps, read for leisure, garden, knit)
j. Developmental (e.g., read as part of a job, study a foreign language, attend a public
lecture),
k.Technology (taking pictures, using computer software, playing an instrument)

● Complete measures of leisure activities not only provide a better understanding of

how adults spend their time but also help in clinical settings. Properly monitoring
changes in levels of leisure activity during and after intervention programs can
provide better outcome assessments of these interventions.
● The use of technology in leisure activities has increased dramatically. Social
networking platforms used in communicating, pursuing hobbies, and partaking in
lifelong learning are increasingly popular.

B. DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN LEISURE

● Studies have shown that young adults participate in a greater range of
activities than middle-aged adults. Young adults tend to prefer intense leisure activities, while
middle-aged adults focus more on home and family-oriented activities. In middle ages,
people spend less of their leisure time in strenuous physical activities and more on calmer
activities
● One’s preferences for certain types of leisure activities are established early
in life; they tend to change over the life span primarily in terms of how physically intense they
are.

C. CONSEQUENCES
● Involvement in leisure activities is related to our well-being and it shows
better mental health in women, such as when they use family-based leisure
as a means to help cope in negative life events.
● Leisure activities are a good way to deal with stress and have shown
significant biological effects. Psychologically, leisure activities have also been
documented as one of the primary coping mechanisms that people use.
● How do leisure activities provide protection against stress?
I. Leisure activities distract us from negative life events.
II. Leisure activities generate optimism about the future because they
are pleasant.
III. Leisure activities connect us to our personal past by allowing us to
participate in the same activities over much of our lives.
IV. Leisure activities can be used as vehicles for personal
transformation

● Even if negative life events we experience are personal or societal, leisure

activities are still a common and effective way to deal with these.
● Individuals who are very serious in leisure activities may experience “flow” or
being in the “zone” and it may result in negative effects.
 ● In vacation, once you detach from work and enjoy the activities during
vacation, you improve one’s health and well-being. However, workers report that high
postvacation workloads eliminate most of the positive effects of a vacation within a
week .
● Social acceptance is a frequently overlooked outcome of leisure activity. This
is an important factor to consider especially for persons with disabilities. There is a
positive connection between frequency of leisure activities and positive identity,
social acceptance, friendship development, and acceptance of differences.

REFERENCES

Berk, L. (2014). Development through the lifespan (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

FreeMedEducation. (2020). What happens if You are An Alcohol and Tobacco Addict? - Effects on
Brain and Body [Video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WN0jU1-Ni-Y

Kail, R. & Cavanaugh, J. (2016). Human Development: A Life-Span View (7th ed.). Cengage
Learning.