6.

Residual Stress and

Distortion

Residual stresses are those stresses that would exist in a structure or component after all
external loads have been removed. Reaction stresses are long--range residual stresses that
arise from restraint of welds. There are two principle sources of residual stress: uneven
plastic deformation, and uneven solid phase change. In steels, the change from austenite
to ferrite, martensite or bainite results in a volumetric expansion of about 14%. If this
occurs unevenly, which is usually where cooling rate is high, then residual stress is
created. Residual stresses may be created during the following processes.
Forming processes, particularly cold forming (casting, plate and section
rolling, forging, roll bending, pressing etc)
Heat treatment, particularly when the cooling rate is high (quenching, air
cooling thin sections), or uneven composition
Cutting (shearing, flame cutting)
Fabrication and Assembly (fit--up, jacking sections together)
Joining (Welding, brazing, bolted connections)
Finishing (Machining, grinding, shot blasting)

6.1. Residual Stress From a Thermal Gradient

One common cause of residual stress is the uneven plastic deformation due to a thermal
gradient. Wherever there is a temperature gradient, constrained thermal expansion leads
to stress. If the resultant strain is plastic, a residual stress is introduced when the
temperature gradient disappears. High temperatures are not necessary, only sufficient to
induce plastic strain.
This effect is shown using the simple model illustrated in Figure 65. Three bars of equal
length and cross section area are fixed together at their ends with rigid restraints. If the
middle bar is heated, it is constrained from expanding naturally by the outer bars.
Consequently compressive elastic stress increases in the middle bar (Curve AB),
balanced by tensile elastic stresses of half the magnitude in the outer bars. Removal of the
heat during this stage will allow the assembly to return to its original state.
As the temperature is raised there becomes a point (Point B) at which the compressive
yield strength is exceeded, beyond which the middle bar becomes plastic and suffers
permanent compression. The outer (cold) bars remain elastic because the stress is only
half that in the centre bar and the yield strength is not exceeded. As the temperature of the
middle bar is raised, three things happen. Firstly increasing plastic deformation occurs
(upsetting). Secondly the material work hardens and thirdly the yield strength decreases.

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The net effect is a slight reduction in stress as temperature increases (Curve BC). It is
because of the upsetting that residual stress is created when the temperature difference is
removed.
200

E D
150 Middle bar heated
Tensile elastic
to 600 deg C and
limit exceeded
100 cooled to original
temperature --
outer bars remain
50 cold
A
Stress in 0
Middle Bar Compressive elastic Stress reversal
MPa --50 stress increases on on cooling
heating

--100
Compressive plastic
deformation on
--150 heating (Up setting) C
B
--200
0 oC 100 oC 200 oC 300 oC 400 oC 500 oC 600 oC
Temperature in Middle Bar

Figure 65 Development of Residual Stress by Temperature Gradient

Heating is ceased when the middle bar reaches 600°C (Point C), and the assembly is
allowed to cool. As the middle bar cools, the compressive stress in it rapidly falls, and will
change to tension because of the loading applied by the sidebars. Very soon the tensile
stress reaches the tensile yield strength (Point D), and during further cooling the stress in
the centre bar is limited by the yield strength at the particular temperature (Curve DE).
When the assembly has cooled, stress in the centre bar will be at room temperature yield
strength. It will be balanced by stresses of half yield strength in the outer bars. If the end
restraints are removed the stress will be released, but the centre bar will have been
shortened. The outer bars will be their original lengths unless stresses have been
sufficient to permanently stretch them.
This simple model illustrates the development of residual stresses without a phase
change during thermal processes such as welding, flame cutting and flame shrinkage.
The essential factors are:
A thermal gradient (dependant on rate of heating and thermal
conductivity).
Constraint inhibiting free expansion
Local stresses rising above yield so that local plastic deformation
(upsetting) occurs.
Reversal of stress as the assembly cools.
Residual stress is dependent on the level of constraint and the thermal gradient. Material
properties such as yield strength, Young’s modulus, coefficient of thermal expansion,
and thermal conductivity, all affect the level of stress. Stiffness of the section is also
important, if the thermal gradient causes predominantly elastic out of plane bending
instead of plastic compression, the residual stresses will be lower. Instead of residual
stress, distortion is created.

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 6.2. Residual stress in welds
It is possible to visualise the residual stress created in a butt weld by considering the
simplified example of a hot bar (representing a weld) being fixed between to cold pieces
of plate. As the heat flows out into the plate from the bar, it causes the nearest edges to
expand. If this expansion were free, it would cause the plate to bend as shown in Figure 66
(a). However thermal expansion is restrained and yielding (upsetting) occurs instead.
When the assembly cools and the thermal gradient disappears, the stresses are reversed as
in (b).

Cold Hot Hot Cold

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 66 Creation of residual stress

In reality the plates are welded together. To straighten the plates, the weld, as is shown in
(b), exerts a bending force. This results in the pattern of longitudinal stress shown in (c)
and transverse stress in (d).
Measurements of residual stress in real welds show this model is quite accurate in
predicting the residual stress in single pass welds. Figure 67 shows the residual stress
distribution of a single pass weld made automatically with no intermediate stops and
starts. Real welds, which are usually multipass, have numerous stops and starts, are of
complex shape, and therefore have a more complicated stress field. Residual stress varies
through the thickness of thicker sections.

Y 0
σx

σy -- +
X X
σx

σy
+
0
-- --

Figure 67 Residual Stresses in a Butt Weld

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Most of the residual stress arises because of heating of the plate edges by the weld. Only a
small proportion is from cooling and shrinkage of the weld metal. Residual stress is
relatively localised in a large weldment.

6.2.1. Restraint and reaction stresses

The stresses described as residual stress above are short range and arise because of local
heating of the weld edges. Reaction stresses are transverse to the weld and extend a long
way from it. The magnitude and dimensions of external restraint preventing free
contraction determine them. They are dependent on the degree of restraint, K, which is
defined in terms of dimensions and the modulus of elasticity, E, in Figure 68 below.

t K = Et tw
L

Figure 68 Definition of restraint

Free contraction essentially occurs in two stages. The first stage occurs while the weld is
hot and lasts a relatively short time. Heat flows out radially from the weld, causing local
contraction. While the heat is still between the reference points, little further contraction
then occurs. When heat is conducted past the reference points Stage 2 contraction then
commences and continues until the weldment has completely cooled.

6.2.2. Fabrication stresses

Although it is not good practice, fabricators can sometimes use considerable force to fit
members together. Hydraulic jacks, chain blocks, levers and even large weights can be
used to force members together until they are held with heavy tack welds. This practice
can lock considerable amounts of stress, which can extend over a considerable area. It is
worth limiting the amount of force that a fabricator can use to pull items together, for
example to a 2 tonne chain block. (The actual capacity depends on the material
thickness). Fabricators should be encouraged to trim items to fit, or to use buttering to
close excessive gaps, rather than spring components together and use heavy tack welds. If
force has to be used, then it is preferable to bend the item until it yields and fits without
any force.

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An Engineer’s Guide
to Fabricating Steel
Structures

Volume 2
Successful Welding of
Steel Structures
By

John Taylor
BSc, Sen.MWeldI
 Contents

List of Figures v

List of Tables vii

1. Welded Connection Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2. Weld Preparation Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3. Butt Weld Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4. Standardised and Prequalified Weld Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5. Joint Preparations at Skewed Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6. Common Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7. From Design to Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2. Fatigue of Steel Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.1. Fatigue of Polished Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2. Fatigue Tests of Real Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3. Fatigue Design using AS 4100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4. Structural Detail Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5. Factors Affecting Fatigue Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6. Designing to Improve Fatigue Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7. Treatments to Improve Fatigue Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3. Column and Beam Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2. Columns and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3. Rigid and Flexible Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4. Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5. Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6. Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

4. Tubular Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1. Tubular Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2. Bend--forming of CHS, SHS and RHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3. Forming of Tube from Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.4. Weld Joint Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.5. Welding and Inspection of Tubular Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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5. Storage and Processing Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.1. Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2. Design of Tanks and Bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3. Manufacture of pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.4. Manufacture of flat bottomed tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

6. Residual Stress and Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

6.1. Residual Stress From a Thermal Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2. Residual stress in welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.3. Consequences of residual and reaction Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.4. Measurement of Residual Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.5. Reduction of Residual Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.6. Distortion and its Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

7. Inspection and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

7.1. Flaws, Non--Conformities and Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.2. Inspection Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.3. Management of Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.4. Level of Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.5. Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.6. Pre--welding Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.7. Liquid Penetrant Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.8. Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.9. Radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.10. Ultrasonic Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.11. Proof Loading Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.12. Other Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.13. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

8. Management of Fabrication Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

8.1. Aims of Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.2. Appropriate Level of Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.3. Quality Assurance to ISO 9000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.4. AS / NZS / ISO 3834 Quality Requirements for Welding . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.5. Design and Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.6. Inspection and Test Plan (ITP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.7. Process Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.8. Welding Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.9. Welding Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.10. Fabrication Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.11. Identification and Traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.12. Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.13. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.14. Examples of Quality Assurance Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

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