ME 10320

Mechanical Engineering Principles

CHAPTER 3: Review

The Effects of Forces on Materials

3 main types of mechanical force
 Stress

Stress is the ratio of the applied force to

cross-sectional area of the material.

Cross sectional area:

for tensile and compressive forces is for a shear force is parallel to the
at right angles to the direction of the direction of the force.
force.
 Strain

Strain is the fractional change in a dimension of a material produced by a force.

• For a tensile or compressive force • For a shear force

• Thermal strain
 Example

 A split pin requires a force of 400 N to shear it. The maximum shear
stress before shear occurs is 120 MPa. Determine the minimum
diameter of the pin.

 A tube of outside diameter 60 mm and inside diameter 40 mm is

subjected to a tensile load of 60 kN. Determine the stress in the
tube.
 Example

A steel rain may be assumed to be stress free at 5 °C if the stress

required to cause buckling of the rail is -50 MPa, at what
temperature will the rail buckle? It may be assumed that the rail is
rigidly fixed at its ends take E=2×1011 N/m2 and α=14×10-6 /C
 Elasticity, limit of proportionality & plastic limit
• Limit of proportionality: is the point beyond which the material behave in
a non-linear elastic or plastic manner.

Below the limit of proportionality,

• extension is directly proportional to the applied force
• the strain is directly proportional to the applied stress
 Hooke’s law

Within the limit of proportionality, the strain is directly

proportional to the applied stress producing it.

The constant of proportionality: Young’s modulus of elasticity

 Example

A bar of thickness 20 mm and having are rectangular cross-section

carries a load of 82.5 kN determine:
a) The minimum width of the bar to limit the maximum stress to
150 MPa
b) The modulus of elasticity of the material of the bar if the 150 mm
long bar extends by 0.8 mm when carrying a load of 200 kN.
CHAPTER 4

Tensile Testing
 Chapter’s Objectives

Examine the effects of external forces on the behaviour of materials

and the test methods employed in determining their mechanical
properties.

Tension test elastic modulus, yield stress, ultimate strength,

ductility, toughness

Compression test: useful for metalworking processes

Bending test: useful for brittle materials
Hardness test: resistance to permanent indentation
Impact test
Fatigue: failure due to repeating or cyclic loads
Creep: deformation due to a constant load over an extended
period
Bicycle Materials
Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials at
Room Temperature
 Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine

Left: A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final gage
lengths.
Right; A typical tensile-testing machine.
Stress-Strain Curve
Stress-Strain Curve
mild steel
Measures of ductility- the extent of
plastic deformation that the material
undergoes prior to fracture
 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at
Room Temperature
TABLE 2.2 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature
Elongation
in 50 mm
Metals (Wrought) E (GPa) Y (MPa) UTS (MPa) (%)
Aluminum and its alloys 69–79 35–550 90–600 45–4
Copper and its alloys 105–150 76–1100 140–1310 65–3
Lead and its alloys 14 14 20–55 50–9
Magnesium and its alloys 41–45 130–305 240–380 21–5
Molybdenum and its alloys 330–360 80–2070 90–2340 40–30
Nickel and its alloys 180–214 105–1200 345–1450 60–5
Steels 190–200 205–1725 415–1750 65–2
Titanium and its alloys 80–130 344–1380 415–1450 25–7
Tungsten and its alloys 350–400 550–690 620–760 0
Nonmetallic materials
Ceramics 70–1000 — 140–2600 0
Diamond 820–1050 — — —
Glass and porcelain 70-80 — 140 —
Rubbers 0.01–0.1 — — —
Thermoplastics 1.4–3.4 — 7–80 1000–5
Thermoplastics, reinforced 2–50 — 20–120 10–1
Thermosets 3.5–17 — 35–170 0
Boron fibers 380 — 3500 0
Carbon fibers 275–415 — 2000–3000 0
Glass fibers 73–85 — 3500–4600 0
Kevlar fibers 62–117 — 2800 0
Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals.
Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.
 Example

The results of a tensile test are:

Diameter of specimen 15 mm
Gauge length 40 mm
Load at limit of proportionality 85 kN
Extension at limit of proportionality 0.075 mm
Maximum load 120 kN
Final length at point of fracture 55 mm

Determine:

a) Young’s modulus of elasticity

b) The ultimate tensile strength
c) The stress at the limit of proportionality
d) The percentage elongation
 Example

A tensile test is carried out on a specimen of mild steel of gauge

length 40 mm and diameter 7.42 mm The results are:
At fracture the final length is 40.90 mm. plot the load/extension
graph and determine:
Load (kN)
0 10 17 25 30 34 37.5 38.5 36
Extension (mm)
0 .05 .08 0.11 0.14 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.90

a)Young’s modulus of elasticity

b) The stress at the limit of proportionality
c) The ultimate tensile strength
d) The percentage elongation
Proof Stress

• soft & ductile materials do not exhibit a

definite yield point in their stress-strain
curve

• 0.1 % or 0.2 % proof stress is used to

determine their yield stress.
 Resilience &Toughness

• Resilience: capacity to absorb energy elastically

The energy per volume is the area under the stress-strain curve up to the
yield point.

• Toughness: ability to absorb energy up to fracture.

The energy per volume is the total area under the stress-strain curve
 True Stress-True Strain Curve
• For engineering stress & engineering strain the
original dimensions of specimen are used.
• Length and cross-sectional area change in plastic
region.
• True strain and true stress are used for accurate
definition of plastic behavior of ductile materials
by considering the actual dimensions.
True Stress-True Strain Curves
True stress-true strain
curves in tension at room
temperature for various
metals. The curves start at
a finite level of stress: The
elastic regions have too
steep a slope to be shown
in this figure, and so each
curve starts at the yield
stress, Y, of the material.
Application: selecting the optimum material in
design