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Isman 2016
Isman 2016
additives and all “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS), can be used as active
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Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) and Cantrell; Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization
ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.
In South Africa, Prev-AMR is an insecticide/fungicide containing 50%
orange oil as an active ingredient; a similar product containing 60% orange oil
is sold in France and the Netherlands under the same brand. In the European
Union, orange oil is one of only two plant oils approved for use as insecticides,
although clove, spearmint, citronella and rape seed oils (and geraniol) are
approved for use as insect repellents. In China there are two registered
insecticides containing eucalyptol (= 1,8-cineole, from Eucalyptus globulus and
related species), five insecticides containing camphor (from camphor wood oil,
Cinnamomum camphora), plus fungicides based on eugenol (from clove oil,
Syzygium aromaticum) and carvacrol (from oregano oil, Origanum sativum).
In India, eucalyptus leaf extract (rich in 1,8-cineole) is approved for use as an
insecticide while in Australia an insecticide/miticide has recently been approved
containing both eucalyptus and tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oils as active
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Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) and Cantrell; Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization
ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.
of rosemary oil in the Balkan Peninsula (19). Even significant diural changes
in chemical composition have been observed in the essential oil of Ocimum
gratissimum growing in Benin (20).
Certain species of essential oil-producing plants exist as distinct chemotypes
or races that can differ markedly in chemical composition (e.g., wormwood,
Artemsia absinthium) (21). To a large extent this variation is managed or
mitigated by major producers of plant essential oils who rely on well established
supply chains starting with plant biomass that is propagated, grown and harvested
consistently following good agricultural practices. Nonetheless essential oils
as pesticides constitute a conundrum for regulatory authorities owing to their
potential chemical variation, the likelihood that toxicity cannot be attributed to
a single, major constituent, and the fact that – at least for use as pesticide active
ingredients – there is no strict chemical definition for a particular essential oil.
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Even the botanical definition of an essential oil can be subject to question; the
taxonomic boundries of some of the most common essential oils remain unclear
or controversial at best. Faced with this dilemma, a regulatory agency could
either recognize a major (and presumably toxic) constituent of the essential oil as
the active ingredient of a pesticide product, or alternatively, recognize the intact
oil itself as the active ingredient, the lack of definition of the oil noted above
notwithstanding.
Figure 1. Toxicity of rosemary oil and its major constituents to 3rd instar cabbage
looper (Trichoplusia ni) via topical administration. Based on data from reference
(14).
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Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) and Cantrell; Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization
ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.
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Practical Considerations
Regulatory Concerns
In the developed world, regulatory approval remains the final, and often
most difficult, barrier to overcome in commercializaing a pesticide. Without such
approval, no product can be sold and no revenue realized. The only obvious
exception to this is the exempt active ingredient status afforded to certain essential
oils in the USA as noted above (Table 1). In other jurisdictions, approval for
essential oil-based pesticides has been problematic because pesticide regulatory
guidelines developed historically to evaluate synthetic pesticides where there is
a single active ingredient with no ambiguity. The EU is only now preparing to
publish criteria for “low risk active substance” that some essential oils may meet,
possibly clearing a path for approval of more pesticidal products based on such
oils (22).
Regulatory approval is based on review of data on product chemistry,
environmental fate, and toxicology to laboratory animals and nontarget organisms
including fish, wildlife and pollinators. Some regulatory agencies require efficacy
data while others do not. For essential oils used as flavoring agents in foods and
beverages, as fragrances in consumer products and cosmetics, and medicinally in
aromatherapy, product chemistry and laboratory animal toxicology are often well
established and documented, although such data is usually considered proprietary
and therefore not freely accessible. Less well documented is the environmental
fate of plant essential oils, although published studies consistently indicate
that these materials are minimally persistent in the environment owing to their
volatility and consequential evaporative loss (23), except in closed containers
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Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) and Cantrell; Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization
ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.
where fumigation is the goal. Fewer still are investigations of the effects of
plant essential oils on nontarget organisms, although there is some evidence that
they can be used with a margin of safety towards biocontrol agents and fish (24,
25). Essential oils have been evaluated and sometimes used to manage Varroa
devastator, an ectoparasitic mite in honeybee colonies, but within the closed
confines of a hive the margin of safety to bees is rather narrow (26).
Given the widespread use of essential oils in foods, beverages and consumer
products, it is not surprising that most of the commonly used oils have minimal
or low toxicity to lab animals, typically with rat, oral acute LD50 values >2000
mg kg-1. One notably exception is pennyroyal (from the mint Mentha pulegium)
with a rat LD50 of 400 mg kg-1. The major constituent, pulegone, has a rat LD50
of 470 mg kg-1. Most importantly, there are reports that pennyroyal is a potential
abortifacent in humans (27). Among the more common essential oils, carvacrol,
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Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) and Cantrell; Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization
ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.
Commerical Challenges
Apart from the obvious issues of cost, availability and consistency, there are
a number of challenges for those producing pesticides based on plant essential
oils. The first of these is long term stability of a formulation containing essential
oils, in storage and transport. Typically an agrochemical product is expected
to remain stable for up to two years in storage; short term stability trials at
elevated temperatures (e.g., 50°C for 90 days) attempt to simulate this. Though
relatively stable, some oils are susceptible to oxidation in the absence of any
antioxidants, even though certain oils themselves have been reported to have
antioxidant properties. Given the volatility of many constituents of essential oils,
the packaging material (bottles) used can be a factor in maintaining chemical
consistency and stability of a product containing an essential oil, with the least
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Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) and Cantrell; Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization
ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.
Future Sources
Research interest in the insecticidal and repellent effects of plant essential
oils has grown dramatically since 2000. By 2011, 23% of all published papers
on botanical insecticides focused on essential oils, representing almost 5% of all
published papers on insecticides (32). Between 2004 and 2014, over 3,600 papers
were published on essential oils associated with insects and arthropods, according
to the Web of Science. The vast majority of these reported on the screening
and bioactivity of relatively exotic essential oils to insects, so the ‘discovery’
end of the R&D spectrum is well represented in the literature. Unfortunately
there is a relative dearth of papers toward the ‘development’ end of the spectrum,
although to be fair, a high proportion of the research effort in that regard is expected
to be protected information (i.e., intellectual property) that might only reach the
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scientific literature after patent protection has been secured. But it is easy to
observe that only a handful of essential oil-based pesticides have seen successful
commercialization, relative to the expansive scientific literature devoted to the
area.
That being said, and noting the practical considerations and challenges
described above, what are the prospects for the introduction of new pesticides
based on plant essential oils not currently in wide use in other industries? As
of this writing, even the most successful essential oil-based pesticides occupy
only a paper-thin share of the global insecticide market, although all indications
are that they are at a very earlier stage in that market and are poised for faster
market growth over the next decade than conventional pest management products.
Perhaps if these predictions have any accuracy, essential oil-based pesticides will
become significant participants in the rapidly expanding biopesticide market and
in so doing make the prospects for the introduction of pesticides based on exotic
oils more economically attractive.
One such example that has been subject to an extensive research effort
in recent years is the essential oil from wormwood, Artemisia absinthium
(Asteraceae) growing in Spain. This aromatic plant with a long history of
medicinal use is also the botanical source of absinthe, a bitter liqueur banned for
many years owing to its human toxicity, attributable to its major constituents, α-
and β-thujone. Thujone-rich oils have also been demonstrated to be insecticidal.
Although commercial samples of wormwood oil are often rich in thujones, there
are numerous chemotypes of the species, some of which lack these compounds
entirely (21). A series of thorough investigations of domesticated plants collected
from two locations in Spain and grown under both field conditions and controlled
conditions (in a growth chamber, greenhouse and in aeroponic culture) have
documented chemical variations in their essential oils (33). The major constituents
of essential oils produced from these cultivated plants, which lack thujones, are
cis-epoxycimene, chrysanthenol and chrysanthenyl acetate. Though less active
than thujones as antifeedants to the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), bird
cherry oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi) and the cotton leafworm (Spodoptera
littoralis), oils containing the above noted compounds are effective antifeedants.
Interestingly, bioactivity to insects was not well correlated to concentrations
of any of the three compounds, providing another example of internal synergy
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Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) and Cantrell; Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization
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amongst constituents of an essential oil. These oils and extracts also have valuable
bioactivity against the human parasites causing leshmaniasis and trypanosomiasis
(33, 34). Rather striking quantitative year-to-year differences (up to 10-fold
for individual constituents) in oil composition were found in cultivated plants
from the two populations, and these in turn differed from plants grown under
controlled conditions and from wild conspecifics (33, 34). However, supercritical
fluid extraction of these plants gave much higher yields of the three compounds
relative to hydrodistillation or organic solvent extraction, and the SF extracts
were significantly more bioactive against all three pests (11, 35). Thujone-free
cultivated A. absinthium appears to have good potential for the production of
essential oils and extracts that can be formulated as biopesticides and for use
as antiparasitic agents, but production practices will require standardization to
achieve the consistency seen in other essential oils produced commercially over
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Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) and Cantrell; Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization
ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.
Acknowledgments
David Herbst (Berjé Inc.) generously provided valuable insight on the
essential oil industry to the author, as did Rod Bradbury (EcoSafe Natural Proucts
Inc.) on formulation chemistry. Dr. Rita Seffrin assisted with literature review.
Supported in part by grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council of Canada (NSERC).
References
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