Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effects of adding sugarcane bagasse ash on the properties

and durability of concrete
José da Silva Andrade Neto a, Mavisson Júlio Santos de França a, Nilson Santana de Amorim Júnior b,
Daniel Véras Ribeiro c,⇑
a
Laboratory of Testing on Materials Durability (LEDMa)/Federal University of Bahia, Rua Aristides Novis, 02. Federação, 40210-630 Salvador, BA, Brazil
b
Post-Graduate Program in Civil Engineering (PPEC)/Federal University of Bahia, Rua Aristides Novis, 02. Federação, 40210-630 Salvador, BA, Brazil
c
Department of Materials Science and Technology/Federal University of Bahia, Rua Aristides Novis, 02. Federação, 40210-630 Salvador, BA, Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s

Effects of adding SCBA on the concrete properties and durability were investigated.

The durability in terms of chloride migration, carbonation and ASR was evaluated.

SCBA reduced the porosity and sorptivity and increased the strength of concrete.

SCBA increased the carbonation rates and reduced the diffusion coefficients.

Addition of 5% SCBA mitigated the alkali–silica reaction of reactive aggregates.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ashes from biomass burning, such as from sugarcane bagasse, have great potential as supplementary
Received 5 June 2020 cementitious materials. The sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) possesses high pozzolanicity. However, lim-
Received in revised form 25 August 2020 ited studies have investigated the influence of SCBA on the durability of concrete. A knowledge gap exists
Accepted 12 September 2020
regarding the influence of these ashes on the lifetime of reinforced concrete in terms of chloride migra-
Available online 1 October 2020
tion and carbonation. Moreover, additional studies on the effects of SCBA on the alkali–silica reaction
(ASR) are essential because this ash generally has a high alkali content. In this study, the effects of adding
Keywords:
5%, 10%, and 15% SCBA on the properties and durability (chloride migration, carbonation, and alkali-
Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA)
Pozzolan
aggregate reaction) of concrete were investigated. Furthermore, the SCBA pozzolanicity was evaluated
Concrete and lifetime estimations in terms of chloride ingress and carbonation were performed. The studied ash
Durability demonstrated high pozzolanic activity, which reduced the porosity and water absorption by capillarity
Lifetime and increased the mechanical strength of the concrete. However, because the alkaline reserve was
reduced, the concrete with SCBA exhibited a higher carbonation rate (up to 69%) and a shorter lifetime
regarding carbonation. Nevertheless, all concrete specimens had a lifetime of more than 50 years in an
industrial environment, except for that with 15% SCBA. Adding SCBA also reduced the chloride diffusion
coefficients, increasing the lifetime by up to 97.3%. SCBA addition of up to 5% mitigated the ASR owing to
the pozzolanic reaction and additional C-S-H formation.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Abbreviations: ASR, Alkali–silica reaction; COD, Crystallography Open Database;
C-S-H, Calcium silicate hydrate; SCB, Sugarcane bagasse; SCBA, Sugarcane bagasse
ash; SCM, Supplementary cementitious materials; SEM, Scanning electron micro-
scopy; w/c, Water to cement ratio; XR, X-ray diffractometry; XRF, X-ray fluores-
cence spectrometry.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: josedasilvaandradeneto@gmail.com (J.S. Andrade Neto),
mavissonj@hotmail.com (M.J.S. de França), nilson.amorim18@gmail.com (N.S.d.
Amorim Júnior), verasribeiro@hotmail.com (D.V. Ribeiro).
Cement production has a huge environmental impact because it
contributes approximately 9% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions [1].
Using supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) to decrease
the clinker content is a major countermeasure for reducing CO2
emissions from cement production [2]. Among the SCMs, fly ash
and blast furnace slag are the most prominent as they are already
used in large quantities by the cement industry [2,3]. However, the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120959
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.S. Andrade Neto et al.
generation of these byproducts is expected to decrease in the sub-
sequent years; this inability to cope with the increase in cement
production [3] has led to the search for new sources of SCMs [2].
One alternative is the use of vegetable ashes, which typically
have amorphous and reactive silica when calcined at low temper-
atures (600 °C–700 °C) [4]. Recent investigations [5–13] have
shown that the use of vegetable ashes as replacement or addition
to cement can increase the performance of concrete, besides
decreasing the cement content. Vegetable ashes generally increase
the mechanical performance and decrease the permeability of con-
crete owing to pore refinement, when used at optimal quantities
[5–7]. These ashes have been successfully applied in self-
compacting concrete [8,9,12,13], high-strength concrete [5,6,10],
and lightweight concrete [7,11]. Among the vegetable ashes, ashes
from sugarcane bagasse (SCB) and rice husk are the most com-
monly used [4]. SCB is the main residue of the sugar and alcohol
industry, corresponding to approximately 25%–30% of the amount
of sugar produced [14]. The combustion of bagasse produces elec-
tric energy [4,15], resulting in residual ash that is usually disposed
of in landfills [14].
The world production of sugarcane in 2018 was 1.9 billion tons
[16]. Brazil, being the world’s largest producer of sugarcane, was
responsible for approximately 746.8 million tons (39%), followed
by India (20%), China (6%), and Thailand (5%) [16]. Considering that
1 ton of sugarcane results in 6.6 kg of ash [17], it is estimated that
approximately 12.6 million tons of SCB ash (SCBA) was generated
worldwide in 2018 and approximately 4.9 million tons in Brazil.
When calcined at temperatures between 600 °C and 700 °C,
SCBA exhibits high pozzolanic activity, which is generally associ-
ated with the formation of large quantities of amorphous silica
[15,18,19]. Therefore, SCBA reacts with the portlandite produced
during cement hydration, resulting in the formation of more C-S-
H [18].
Adding SCBA delays the initial hydration [20,21], which
increases the setting time [13,22], probably because of its P2O5
and SO3 contents. Regarding rheology, the presence of ash
decreases concrete workability [13], increasing the water demand
[22]. This behavior is associated with high surface area of ash.
Owing to the pozzolanic reaction and improved packing, using
the optimum SCBA content increases mechanical strength and
reduces water permeability [14,22]. The optimum content varies
with the SCBA characteristics, but is generally between 10% and
20% of the cement weight [14,21,22]. According to Bahurudeen
et al. [21], up to 25% SCBA can be used without impairing the
mechanical performance. Replacing cement with SCBA reduces
the associated CO2 emissions during production of concrete and
mortar [23], in addition to being an environmentally friendly ash
disposal option.
Regarding durability, studies have shown that adding SCBA
increases the resistance to sulfate attack [13,24] and high temper-
atures [8]. Moreover, it reduces the permeability to carbon dioxide
[21] with no change in the resistance to acid attack [25]. Further-
more, some studies revealed that SCBA increases the resistance
to chloride penetration [17,21,22]. However, the tests used in those
studies were considerably straightforward with no evaluation of
the diffusion coefficients. In addition, there is a lack of knowledge
regarding the influence of SCBA on the carbonation resistance, and
there is no study analyzing the effect of carbonation on the lifetime
of concrete with SCBA.
Kazmi et al. [26] observed a reduction in the alkali–silica reac-
tion (ASR) when incorporating SCBA, owing to its pozzolanic effect.
The SCBA used by Kazmi et al. [26] had a low alkali content (lower
than the alkali content of cement used by the authors). However,
SCBA normally has high alkali concentrations [21,27,28], which
might enhance the ASR and increase the expansion rate. Therefore,
the effect of alkali-rich SCBA on ASR needs to be examined.
2
Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959
As highlighted by Martirena and Monzó [4] and Yadav et al.
[27], further studies are required concerning the durability of
cementitious materials containing SCBA to enable their use and
determine their influence on the lifetime of concrete structures,
particularly in relation to chloride migration, carbonation, and ASR.
This study aims to evaluate the effects of adding 5%, 10%, and
15% SCBA (relative to the cement weight) to cement on chloride
migration (by determining the chloride diffusion coefficients and
other parameters), carbonation, and ASR. The lifetimes of concrete
specimens containing different amounts of SCBA in relation to
chloride migration and carbonation were estimated. Furthermore,
the physicochemical and pozzolanic characterization of the ashes
as well as the physicomechanical characterization of the concrete
were carried out.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
SCB was supplied by Agrovale, a sugar and alcohol company in
the municipality of Juazeiro BA, Brazil. To produce concrete, CP V
ARI-RS cement (with high initial strength, resistant to sulfates,
and free from pozzolanic materials) was supplied by Mizu Cimen-
tos. Natural sand from granite deposits and gravel were purchased
in the metropolitan region of Salvador/BA, Brazil. Potable water
was used to mix the concrete. A superplasticizer additive with no
chlorides (CEMIX 2000) was supplied by Vedacit. For the poz-
zolanicity test using the Fratini method, CP II-F cement, supplied
by Votorantim Cimentos, was used. For the modified Chapelle
method, 99% pure calcium carbonate p.a. was supplied by Sigma-
Aldrich.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Bagasse calcination
Initially, SCB was subjected to a washing process under running
water to eliminate impurities, such as sand, which can impair the
reactivity of ash [29–31]. The SCB was dried at 25 °C to 30 °C for
24 h and then calcined in a Linn Elektro Therm oven, model KK-
220. A heating rate of 10 °C/min was applied up to 600 °C and this
temperature was maintained for 8 h, followed by cooling at 10 °C/
min until room temperature (25 °C). The calcination temperature
was defined based on the work of Ribeiro and Morelli [15] and Cor-
deiro et al. [19], who observed that the ash obtained in these con-
ditions have the highest pozzolanic activity.
2.2.2. Raw material characterization
2.2.2.1. Portland cement. The physicochemical characterization of
the cement was performed using a semi-automatic air permeabil-
ity instrument model BSA1 for the Blaine surface area, a laser gran-
ulometer (CILAS 2000) for particle size distribution, a helium gas
pycnometer (Micromeritics AccuPyC II 1340) for the specific grav-
ity, and an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF; Shimadzu model
XRF 1800) for the chemical composition.
2.2.2.2. Aggregates (sand and gravel). Following the procedures
described in NBR NM 248:2003 [32], the granulometric distribu-
tion, maximum diameter, and fineness modulus of the aggregates
(sand and gravel) used were measured via mechanical sieving. In
addition, the specific gravity was obtained according to the proce-
dures established by NBR NM 52:2009 [33] and NBR NM 53:2009
[34], and the powdery materials content was determined accord-
ing to the procedure described by NBR NM 46:2003 [35].
J.S. Andrade Neto et al.
2.2.2.3. SCBA. The physicochemical characterization of the SCBA
was performed using the same methods as those for the character-
ization of cement. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique was used
for the mineralogical characterization of SCBA. For this, a Bruker D2
Phaser diffractometer, which has a CuKa tube, a wavelength of
1.54060 Å, and operates at a current of 10 mA and voltage of 30
kVA, was used. The diffraction spectra were obtained in the range
of 5°–90° (2h) in a continuous mode at 0.02°/s. The phases were
identified using Bruker’s Diffrac Plus EVA software and quantified
by the Rietveld method using the DIFFRAC SUITE TOPAS software
with a database from the Crystallography Open Database (COD)
system.
The amorphous content from XRD data was quantified by calcu-
lating the areas with reference to the crystalline (sharp XRD peaks)
and non-crystalline phases (smooth background). To separate the
amorphous contribution from the background, the amorphous
content was fitted by a split pseudo-Voigt peak, using the TOPAS
software. The amorphous content is given by the related intensity
between the area of the crystalline and amorphous phases over the
whole pattern. Details regarding this method can be found in the
studies by Riello [36] and Calligaris et al. [37].
To analyze the morphology of the SCBA particles, a scanning
electron microscope (SEM; Phenom, model Pro-X) with a voltage
of 10 kV and a secondary electron detector was used.
The pozzolanic activity of SCBA was assessed using the chemical
titration test proposed by Fratini and described in British Standard
BS EN 196–5 [38]. In this study, the SCBA pozzolanicity was evalu-
ated by determining the amount of excess calcium hydroxide in
aqueous solutions containing cement and SCBA after 14 days in
an oven at 40 °C ± 2 °C by titration with a hydrochloric acid and
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid solution. Additionally, the modi-
fied Chapelle test was carried out by following the procedures
standardized by NBR 15895:2010 [39]. The method consisted of
boiling a mixture with 1 g of CaO, 1 g of the studied material,
and 250 g of CO2-free water for 16 h. The result is expressed by
the amount of fixed CaO per gram of pozzolanic material. The
greater the CaO fixation, the more reactive the material.
2.2.3. Dosage of concrete and molding of specimens
In the present study, four concrete specimens were evaluated,
namely the reference (without adding SCBA) and those with SCBA
additions of 5%, 10%, and 15% relative to the cement weight. The
addition of SCBA was limited to 15% based on previous exploratory
tests, which showed that a higher SCBA content resulted in a
reduction in the mechanical performance and a significant loss of
workability.
For the dosage of the evaluated concrete, a procedure based on
the requirements of strength, durability, and workability, which
was adapted from the method proposed by the American Concrete
Institute, was used considering an environmental aggressiveness of
class III (high aggressiveness, marine, urban zone, or industrial),
according to NBR 6118:2014 [40]. The slump value in the slump
test (performed according to the procedure described in NBR NM
67:1998 [41]) was fixed at 140 mm ± 20 mm as indicated for the
class of concrete applied to structural elements.
The water to cement (w/c) ratio was set as 0.53 and defined
after correcting the slump value for the reference concrete. Adding
SCBA reduces the workability of concrete owing to the high surface
area of SCBA, as also observed by Ganesan et al. [22] and Le et al.
[13]. The lower workability of concrete containing SCBA could
result in more voids during molding of the specimens, which
would result in a higher porosity in the hardened state, decreasing
the mechanical performance and durability-related properties.
Furthermore, adding SCBA without a superplasticizer would result
in agglomerates that increase the percentage of the unreacted
3
Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959
cement and SCBA at later stages, which also affects the concrete
performance.
Therefore, for the concrete with added SCBA, a polycarboxylate-
based superplasticizer admixture was used to reach the pre-
established slump value. The superplasticizer content increases
with the increase in the added SCBA content, as presented in
Table 1.
Varying the superplasticizer content, although a common tech-
nique for maintaining similar workability between concretes with
different contents of SCMs [8,42–44], could influence the concrete
behavior as it delays the initial hydration and increases the setting
time [45,46]. However, using the same amount of superplasticizer
for all mixtures would result in concrete specimens with different
fluidity values. The concrete specimens containing SCBA would
have lower fluidity values and more agglomerates, thus compro-
mising the analysis of the mechanical and durability-related
properties.
The formulation obtained from the set parameters was
1:1.68:2.26:x:0.53 (cement:sand:gravel:SCBA:water) with  being
the amount added (0.00, 0.05, 0.10, or 0.15). Table 1 lists the con-
sumption of materials per cubic meter of concrete for the different
formulations considered.
Cylindrical specimens (/ = 100 mm, h = 200 mm) were molded
to perform the tests for physicomechanical characterization of con-
crete and to evaluate chloride migration and carbonation. These
specimens remained immersed in water saturated with lime until
the tests were conducted.
For the accelerated ASR test, prismatic specimens
(25 mm  25 mm  285 mm) of mortar were molded. For this test,
the w/c ratio was maintained at 0.47 with a cement aggregate ratio
of 1:2.25. A highly reactive aggregate was used to observe the abil-
ity of SCBA to mitigate the ASR. This aggregate was milled, washed,
and dried in an oven and then sieved to meet the granulometric
distribution required by NBR 15577:2018 [47] (similar to ASTM C
1260 [48]).
2.2.4. Physicomechanical characterization of concrete
The porosity and density of the reference concrete and the con-
crete specimens with different contents of SCBA at 28 days were
determined by measuring the dry, immersed, and saturated
weights of three specimens per mix. The dry weights were
obtained after drying the specimens in an oven at 105 °C ± 2 °C
for 48 h. The immersed and saturated weights were determined
after 72 h of immersion in water.
The values of capillary absorption (sorptivity) of three speci-
mens per formulation after 28 days of curing were obtained
according to the procedure described in NBR 9779:2012 [49]. The
specimens were previously dried in an oven at 105 °C and posi-
tioned vertically on supports in a water slide 5 mm above the bot-
tom face. The weights of the specimens were monitored for 3, 6,
24, 48, and 72 h from contact with water. The sorptivity (S), which
is the volume of water penetrating per unit of area and time (kg/
m2∙min0.5), was obtained empirically from the slope of the cumu-
lative volume of water absorbed per unit of area of the inflow sur-
face versus the square root of time, as indicated in Eq. (1).
pffiffi
V w =Ac ¼ S t þ So ð1Þ
where Vw is the weight of water absorbed (kg), Ac is the cross-
sectional area of each specimen (m2), and t is the time of exposure
(min).
The compressive strength was obtained in three specimens of
each formulation after 3, 7, and 28 days of curing according to
the guidelines of NBR 5739:2018 [50]. The tests were performed
in a hydraulic testing machine with a load capacity of 120 ton-
force using a loading rate of 0.45 MPa/s.
J.S. Andrade Neto et al. Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959

Table 1
Mix designs (by weight) of the different concrete specimens evaluated.

Mix Percentage of SCBA addition (wt% cement) Material Consumption (kg/m3 of concrete)
Portland cement SCBA Sand Gravel Water Admixture
REF 0 438.95 0.00 737.44 992.03 232.64 0.00
C5 5 436.42 21.82 733.18 986.30 231.30 0.44
C10 10 433.91 43.39 728.97 980.64 229.97 1.30
C15 15 431.43 64.72 724.81 975.04 228.66 2.16

2.2.5. Concrete durability assessment
2.2.5.1. Chloride migration. For the chloride migration tests, an
equipment based on ASTM C 1202:2019 [51] and UNE
83987:2014 [52] (Fig. 1a), proposed by Ribeiro [53] in 2010, was
used. Fig. 1b shows an illustration of the equipment used. Four
specimens of each formulation were tested. These specimens, with
a thickness of 40 mm, were extracted from cylindrical specimens
(/ = 100 mm, h = 200 mm).
Owing to the diversity of the concrete components and varia-
tions in the molding procedure, the selection of representative
specimens is a complex process. For this, an adaptation of the stan-
dard test method of ASTM E 562:2019 [54], proposed by Ribeiro
et al. [55] and used by Amorim Júnior et al. [56], to determine
the volume fraction by counting points was used. The method
makes it possible to estimate the percentage of a phase of interest
(coarse aggregate in this work) from the overlap of a reference grid
and the number of nodes located in the middle or at the edges of
the phase of interest, as illustrated in Fig. 2. After this procedure,
four of eight specimens with the most similar mortar contents
were selected.
After 28 days of curing in a lime-saturated solution, the speci-
mens were immersed in distilled water for 24 h before conducting
the chloride migration tests. The electrical conductivity of the ano-
dic cell was monitored daily with a portable digital conductivity
meter (Homis model 42). The chloride concentration was esti-
mated using the equation y ¼ 132:89x (R2 = 0.997), where  is

Fig. 1. (a) Apparatus used in the present study. (b) Schematic of the apparatus used in the chloride migration test.

4
J.S. Andrade Neto et al. Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959

zeDU
v¼ ð3Þ
kT

J Cl RTl
Ds ¼ ð4Þ
zFC Cl cDU
where l is the thickness of the sample (cm), s is the time lag (s), z is
the valence of the ions (equal to  1), e is the electric charge of an
electron (1.6  1019C), DU is the voltage (V), k is the Boltzmann
constant (1.38  1023 J/K), T is the temperature (K), JCl is the ion
flux (mol/(s∙cm2)), R is a constant (1.9872 cal/(mol∙K)), F corre-
sponds to the Faraday constant (23063 cal/(volteq)), CCl is the chlo-
ride concentration in the cathode cell (mol/cm3), and c is a constant
(0.657 for Cl).
With the parameters obtained in the chloride migration test,
the DURACON software was used to estimate the lifetime
in a probabilistic way. The software is based on a Monte Carlo
simulation of Fick’s second diffusion law [58,59], according to
Eqs. (5)–(7).
" !#
xc
Cðx; tÞ ¼ C S 1  erf pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð5Þ
2 DðtÞt

Fig. 2. Process of sample selection and component quantification for the chloride
migration tests (in gray, the ‘‘gravel phase”) (grid nodes inside the phase (in white)
correspond to 1, while boundary intersection points (in black) correspond to 0.5).
the conductivity in mS/cm and y is the concentration of Cl in
mol/L. This equation was determined empirically with solutions
of NaCl and deionized water at 20 °C.
At the commencement of the test, the concentration of chlo-
rides in the anodic cell was low. Then, it increased gradually, char-
acterizing the transient or non-stationary state of the diffusion of
chlorides in the specimen. After this period, the ionic flux became
constant, characterizing the stationary state. The time lag (s), as
defined by Castellote et al. [57], is the time required for the chlo-
ride to establish a constant flow through the specimen in migration
or diffusion tests. The time lag was obtained through the intersec-
tion between the extension of the line that characterizes the sta-
tionary regime and the axis of the abscissa (time), as depicted in
Fig. 3.
The diffusion coefficient in the non-steady state (Dns), in cm2/s,
can be determined based on migration tests using Eqs. (2) and (3),
as proposed by Castellote et al. [57]. The steady state diffusion
coefficient (Ds), in cm2/s, was calculated by applying the modified
Nernst–Planck equation (Eq. (4)).
2l h v i
2
Dns ¼ v  coth 2 ð2Þ
sv 2 2 Ribeiro et al. [55] and Amorim Júnior et al. [56], the concentration
where C(x,t) is the chloride concentration at depth Xc after time t, Cs
is the chloride concentration on the concrete surface, D is the
diffusion coefficient of chlorides, and erf is a mathematical function
(error function or Gaussian curve).
" 0 1a  0 1a # a
D0 t t t0
DðtÞ ¼ 1þ  ke ð6Þ
1a t t t
where D0 is the diffusion coefficient after the reference time t0, and
t0 is the age of concrete at the time of exposure to chlorine ions. The
parameter a represents the influence of age on the diffusion coeffi-
cient, while ke is a parameter that considers the effect of
temperature.
  
EA 1 1
ke ¼ exp  ð7Þ
R 293 293 þ T
where exp is an exponential function, EA is the activation of energy
for the diffusion of chlorides, R is a constant (1.9872 cal/(mol∙K)),
and T is the temperature.
When the concentration of chlorides, C(x), is equal to the critical
concentration of chlorides in concrete (CCR), depassivation and cor-
rosion start, as indicated in Eq. (8).
CðxÞ ¼ C CR ð8Þ
To estimate the lifetime, based on the studies conducted by
of chlorides on the surface (Cs) was fixed at 1.80% ± 0.60% in rela-
tion to the cement weight (corresponding to approximately 0.32%
± 0.11% of the concrete weight).
The critical chloride concentration (CCr) adopted was 0.40% ±
0.10% in relation to the cement weight. The SCBA weight corre-
sponded to approximately 0.07% ± 0.02% of the concrete weight,
according to the studies by Ribeiro et al. [55], Amorim Júnior
et al. [56], and Medeiros and Helene [60]. The cover (Xc) adopted
was 50 mm ± 5 mm, the analysis time (t) ranges from 0 to 100
yrs, the temperature (T) was 20 °C, and the age of the concrete
when tested (t0) and when exposed to chlorides (te) was equal to
28 days. The age influence coefficient (a) was 0.40 ± 0.08, as indi-
cated for conventional Portland cement concrete [61]. Finally, a
10% corrosion probability value was chosen for the lifetime esti-
mate, following the recommendations of the fib Model Code [62].

Fig. 3. Experimental determination of the time lag (s), onset (D), and end (s) of the 2.2.5.2. Accelerated carbonation. The carbonated depth assessment
steady state diffusion stage. was performed using an accelerated method by exposing the
5
J.S. Andrade Neto et al.
specimens to an atmosphere rich in CO2 inside a chamber with
constant moisture and temperature, according to the parameters
established by ISO 1920–12:2015 [63].
After 28 days of curing in a lime saturated solution, six speci-
mens of each formulation with a thickness of 60 mm were cut from
cylindrical specimens (/ = 100 mm, h = 200 mm). For uniformity of
the humidity before the beginning of the tests, the specimens
remained for 24 h in an oven at 50 °C and were then sealed later-
ally with the use of paraffin to ensure that carbonation would not
occur on the side faces. Finally, the specimens were placed in a
Quimis carbonation chamber (model Q316C), with a CO2 concen-
tration of 3.0% ± 0.5%, relative humidity of 65% ± 5%, and tempera-
ture of 27 °C ± 2 °C.
After exposure to the carbonation chamber for 3, 9, and
12 weeks, the specimens were removed from the chamber and
ruptured by diametrical compression. To measure the carbonated
depth, an aquo-alcoholic solution with a 1% phenolphthalein indi-
cator was sprayed. This solution had a turning pH of approximately
9, exhibited a reddish color for values above 9, and showed itself
transparent at lower values. The carbonated depth was determined
from the analysis of images in AutoCAD software.
Finally, the lifetimes of the concrete specimens with different
SCBA contents were estimated. For this, the accelerated carbona-
tion coefficients (Kacel) of the concrete were calculated from
Eq. (9), which is a simplification of Fick’s first diffusion law.
x were monitored daily until after 30 d, using a comparator clock
kacel ¼ pffiffi
t (extensometer) with an accuracy of 0.001 mm.
where x is the depth of carbonation determined by the phenolph-
thalein spray and t is the time at which the measurements were
made.
The Global Monitoring Laboratory [64] reported that the aver-
age concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere in May of 2020 was
413.6 ppm (0.0414%), according to the values collected in remote
locations at sea level such as Mauna Loa in Hawaii (United States)
and Wisconsin in the Great Lakes region (United States). Nonethe-
less, CO2 concentrations in rural, urban, and industrial environ-
ments are reasonably higher than the average global value,
owing to anthropogenic emissions and natural sources.
Table 2 presents the average values of CO2 concentrations
obtained in four different environments, including several cities
in the United States, United Kingdom, China, Italy, Poland, Japan,
and Kuwait [65]. Mai-Nhu et al. [66] concluded that in industrial-
ized cities or cities with extremely high density, these values could
reach 0.30%.
Eq. (10) [67–69] was used to estimate the useful life and car-
bonation coefficients in four different environments with different
concentrations of CO2, as listed in Table 2.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
cnat
knat ¼ kacel
cacel
where knat is the estimate of the natural carbonation coefficient in a
given environment with a CO2 concentration equal to cnat, and cacel
is the CO2 concentration in the accelerated test (3.0%).
Table 2
Average concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere and in dense
urban, mild urban, and rural environments [64–66].
Environment CO2 Concentration (%)
World average (2020) 0.04
Rural <0.04
Urban 0.04–0.06
Intense Urban 0.06–0.08
Industrial 0.08–0.30
Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959
Finally, Eq. (11) was used to estimate the lifetime (Lt) of the
concrete specimens with different contents of SCBA in the four dif-
ferent environments considered, where cov is the concrete cover
(50 mm).
The lifetime was considered to be equal to the moment when
the carbonation depth reaches the reinforcement, depassivating
it and leaving it susceptible to corrosion. The estimate is only for
the chamber environment, with a relative humidity of 65% ± 5%
and a temperature of 27 °C ± 2 °C, and therefore, variations in
the real environment were not considered. The lifetime estimated
here is conservative, with the consideration that the environment
keeps the humidity and temperature constant and favorable to car-
bonation, neglecting the period of corrosion propagation with loss
of section.
 2
cov
Lt ¼ ð11Þ
knat
2.2.5.3. ASR. The evaluation of the accelerated ASR in the mortar
bars was conducted using the method proposed by NBR
15577:2018 [47] (similar to ASTM C 1260 [48]). In this test, pris-
matic specimens (25 mm  25 mm  285 mm), which were
demolded after 24 h, were used. Their initial lengths were mea-
sured and then, they were immersed in an aqueous NaOH solution
(1 M) at 80 °C ± 2 °C. The dimensional variations of the specimens
ð9Þ
3. Results
3.1. Materials characterization
Table 3 presents the results of the physical characterization
while Fig. 4 shows the particle size distribution of the raw materi-
als used in this study. It is observed that the SCBA has a larger sur-
face area than the cement but a much larger median diameter (D50)
of particles. These differences are due to the angular shape of the
ash particles, as illustrated in Fig. 5, which can lead to an increased
demand for water and/or admixture in concrete to maintain
workability.
Table 4 lists the chemical compositions of the SCBA and cement
in terms of oxides, as determined by X-ray fluorescence. The chem-
ical composition of the cement used meets the limits of NBR
16697:2018 [70] with respect to the amounts of SO3 (<4.50%)
and MgO (<6.50%), and loss on ignition (<12.50%).
The ashes primarily comprised silica and most of the require-
ments of NBR 12653:2014 [71] and ASTM C618-19 [72] were sat-
isfied. These standards require the pozzolanic material to have the
sum of the percentages of silica, alumina, and iron oxide greater
ð10Þ than 70%, a SO3 content of less than 4%, and loss on ignition of less
than 10%. However, the SCBA had an equivalent alkali content (%
Na2O + 0.658%K2O) of 4.81%, which is approximately thrice the
limit established by the Brazilian standard (1.5%).
The high alkali content of SCBA was also observed by Bahu-
rudeen et al. [21] and Setayesh Gar et al. [28]. Such high content
represents a greater risk of ASR occurrence in concrete and mortar
containing SCBA as a pozzolanic addition.
Fig. 6 presents the SCBA X-ray diffractogram, with phase identi-
fication and quantification. It can be observed that the ash has a
high content of amorphous phases (87.90%), which is an important
characteristic for pozzolanic activity. Among the crystalline phases,
there are quartz (COD: 1011097) and calcite (COD: 9000095)
phases, which were also identified by Zareei et al. [7].
To evaluate the pozzolanicity of the SCBA, chemical titration
tests were performed using the Fratini method. The results are dis-
6
J.S. Andrade Neto et al. Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959

Table 3
Physical properties of the raw materials used.

Properties SCBA Cement Sand Gravel

D50 (mm) 36.68 mm 12.59 mm 0.25 mm 6.20 mm
Blaine surface area (cm2/g) 4946 4255 – –
Specific gravity 3.78 3.13 2.62 2.87
Fineness modulus – – 1.32 5.72
Powdered material content (%) – – 0.53 0.40
Maximum diameter (mm) – – 1.18 9.50

3.2. Physicomechanical characterization of concrete

The apparent porosity, density, and sorptivity at 28 d, including

Fig. 4. Particle size distribution of the raw materials.
played in Fig. 7. Owing to the fixation of OH and CaO ions in the
pozzolanic reaction, the SCBA has points below the saturation
curve and is therefore characterized as a pozzolanic material. The
CP II-F 32 cement has points above the characterization curve,
being classified as a non-pozzolanic material. This was expected
because only a limestone filler, which had no pozzolanic activity,
was added to it.
In the modified Chapelle test, a fixed 1023.96 mg Ca(OH)2/g of
SCBA was obtained. This is more than twice the minimum limit
established to classify an addition as pozzolanic (436 mg Ca
(OH)2/g [39]), showing the high reactivity of the ash.
the compressive strength at 3, 7, and 28 days of the concrete spec-
imens are summarized in Table 5.
The addition of 5%, 10%, and 15% SCBA resulted in reductions of
14.11%, 19.65%, and 36.45%, respectively, in the apparent porosity
of the concrete, and reductions of 66.67%, 76.19%, and 80.95% in
the sorptivity, respectively. Similar observations were reported
by Ganesan et al. [22]. In addition, enhancements in compressive
strength were observed, especially at 7 and 28 d, with the addition
of ash, as also observed by Amin [14], Bahurudeen et al. [21], and
Ganesan et al. [22].
When adding SCBA, the empty spaces in the cementitious
matrix are filled with fine particles of ash, reducing the porosity
of the matrix (filler effect) and increasing the mechanical strength
[73]. Moreover, as observed in the Fratini and modified Chapelle
tests, SCBA has a high pozzolanic activity; thus, its amorphous sil-
ica and alumina react with portlandite from cement hydration,
especially at later ages, forming C-(A)-S-H, which fills the pores
formed during hydration, reducing the porosity and increasing
the compressive strength.
Finally, the combination of physical and pozzolanic effects con-
tributed to the reduction in pore interconnectivity, reducing the
sorptivity. This parameter is fundamentally important in studying
the durability of concrete because the entry of aggressive agents
(such as chlorides and sulfates) dissolved in water occurs through
the pore network of concrete. With a reduction in the interconnec-
tivity of these pores, less aggressive agents are expected to enter.

Fig. 5. Scanning electron microscopy micrographs of SCBA particles.

7
J.S. Andrade Neto et al. Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959

Table 4 3.3. Assessment of concrete durability

Chemical composition (in terms of oxides) of the cement and SCBA (% by weight)
determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry.
3.3.1. Chloride migration
Oxide Cement SCBA Fig. 8 depicts the evolution of the concentration of chlorides in
SiO2 19.10 63.10 the anodic cell as a function of time. This is the result of the chlo-
Al2O3 4.80 7.56 ride migration test, in which D represents the beginning of the
Fe2O3 3.20 4.59 steady state and s the end.
CaO 61.10 8.28
MgO 2.70 4.54
The profile of the curves of ion concentration in the anodic cell
SO3 3.40 1.92 over time was the same for all mixtures. In the initial hours of test-
Na2O 0.24 1.24 ing, low concentrations of chlorides were observed in the anodic
K2O 0.70 5.43 cell, indicating that these had not yet crossed the specimen, which
P2O5 – 2.13
characterizes the non-stationary state. In this state, according to
Others 4.76 0.90
LOI* 4.10 3.10 Talero et al. [74], chlorine ions are fixed to the matrix by adsorp-
Na2Oequiv.** 0.70 4.81 tion on the pore walls and by reacting with the aluminates present
in the cement and in aluminum-containing SCMs (such as SCBA),
* Loss on ignition at 1000 °C.
** %Na2O + 0,658%K2O.
with the formation of Friedel’s salt. Then, an increase in the con-
centration of chlorides was observed at a constant rate, which
characterizes the steady state, until stabilization was reached, cor-
responding to the limit concentration of chlorides.
The increase in SCBA amount added to the concrete causes a
shift in the curve to the right. This represents a delay in the pene-
tration of chlorine ions, that is, an increase in the time required to
start the stationary diffusion regime and consequently, an increase
in durability. This behavior is related to the changes in physical
properties (reduction in porosity and sorptivity) and microstruc-
tural characteristics (refinement of the porous network) caused
by the addition of SCBA to concrete. Such changes, together with
the minute increase in the content of aluminates provided by the
addition of SCBA, are responsible for the higher chloride fixation
in the steady state.
From these results, the time lag, ion flow (JCl), and diffusion
coefficients in steady (Ds) and non-steady (Dns) states were calcu-
lated for the evaluated concrete specimens, as listed in Table 6.
Fig. 6. X-ray diffractogram of the SCBA with identification and quantification of
All specimens showed a high resistance to chloride ingress accord-
phases.
ing to the classification proposed by Nilsson et al. as cited by Gjørv,
that is, their Dns varied between 2.5 and 5.0  108 cm2/s [61].

Fig. 8. Chloride concentration in the anodic cell solution as a function of time for
Fig. 7. Diagram for determining the SCBA pozzolanicity according to the NP EN the concrete specimens with 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% SCBA (D = beginning of steady
196-5 standard. state and s = end of steady state).

Table 5
Physicomechanical properties of concrete specimens with different amounts of SCBA.

Property Age (days) Mix

REF A5 A10 A15
Apparent porosity (%) 28 9.27 ± 0.25 7.96 ± 0.26 7.45 ± 0.12 5.89 ± 0.08
Density (g/cm3) 28 2.31 ± 0.01 2.38 ± 0.01 2.38 ± 0.01 2.37 ± 0.01
Sorptivity (kg/m2/min1/2) 28 0.21 ± 0.01 0.07 ± 0.01 0.05 ± 0.01 0.04 ± 0.01
Compressive strength (MPa) 3 22.21 ± 0.53 25.44 ± 1.32 24.97 ± 2.10 22.27 ± 2.18
7 26.50 ± 1.14 29.82 ± 1.22 32.38 ± 2.76 36.06 ± 0.59
28 30.62 ± 0.97 31.76 ± 2.75 34.16 ± 3.06 36.99 ± 0.93

8
J.S. Andrade Neto et al. Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959

Table 6
Durability parameters and estimated lifetimes with respect to chloride ingress in concrete specimens with different amounts of SCBA.

Parameter Mix
REF A5 A10 A15
Time lag (h) 440 ± 43 457 ± 53 526 ± 20 704 ± 57
JCl (1010 mol/s.cm2) 4.62 ± 0.01 3.99 ± 0.04 3.16 ± 0.09 2.29 ± 0.02
Ds (108 cm2/s) 1.18 ± 0.03 1.00 ± 0.14 0.79 ± 0.06 0.57 ± 0.02
Dns (108 cm2/s) 4.42 ± 0.21 4.13 ± 0.08 3.60 ± 0.16 2.77 ± 0.05
Lifetime (years) 23.2 ± 1.7 25.4 ± 0.7 30.9 ± 2.0 45.4 ± 1.2

Increases of 3.86%, 19.55%, and 60% were observed in the con- The reference concrete and concrete specimens with 5% and
crete time lags by adding 5%, 10%, and 15% SCBA, respectively. 10% SCBA presented an estimated lifetime well below 50 yrs and
The higher the SCBA content, the longer the time required for the exhibited a high resistance to chloride ingress according to the
chlorine ions to diffuse in the steady state. This is reflected by
the reduction in the values of the diffusion coefficients of the
non-steady state (Dns) by 6.56%, 18.55%, and 37.33% for the con-
crete specimens added with 5%, 10%, and 15% SCBA, respectively.
Reductions of 13.64%, 31.60%, and 50.43% in the chlorine ion
flow (JCl) for mixtures with 5%, 10%, and 15% SCBA were also
observed. These reductions showed that the ash, besides delaying
the initiation of stationary diffusion, delayed the passage of chlo-
rides after initiation, which occurred because of the lower porosity
of the matrix. The reduction in the chloride ion flow (JCl) led to
reductions of 15.25%, 33.05%, and 51.69% in the diffusion coeffi-
cients of the steady state (Ds) for the concrete specimens with SCBA
additions of 5%, 10%, and 15%, respectively.
The greater resistance of concrete with SCBA to chloride pene-
tration was also observed by Cordeiro et al. [17], Bahurudeen
et al. [21], and Ganesan et al. [22], who assessed chloride penetra-
tion using the ASTM C1202-19 [51] test.
The reduction in diffusion coefficients and the consequent
greater resistance to chloride penetration from the addition of
SCBA are related to the reduction in pore interconnectivity owing
to the physical effect of the addition and the pozzolanic reaction
[21]. The reduction in porosity is even more evident in the interfa-
cial transition zone of the concrete, which has a higher w/c ratio
owing to the water adsorbed by the aggregates in the mixture,
resulting in greater formation of long portlandite crystals. When
SCBA is added, portlandite is consumed to form C-S-H. This reduces
the porosity of this zone, which is primarily responsible for the
entry of chlorine ions.
Fig. 9 illustrates the probability of corrosion as a function of
time for the different evaluated compositions obtained with the
aid of the DURACON software. In Table 6, the estimated lifetimes
for the concrete specimens are highlighted considering a corrosion
probability of 10%.

Fig. 9. Probability of corrosion as a function of time for the concrete specimens Fig. 10. Carbonated specimens (after spraying the phenolphthalein solution)
with 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% SCBA, according to the results of the chloride migration exposed to (A) 3 wk, (B) 9 wk, and (C) 12 wk in the accelerated carbonation
tests. chamber.

9
J.S. Andrade Neto et al.
classification by Nilsson et al. as cited by Gjørv [61], demonstrating
the limitation of deterministic methods. The lifetimes of such types
of concrete can be improved by increasing the thickness of the cov-
ering layer [75] to reduce the water/cement ratio [56] and/or
changing the type of cement used [76]. However, comparatively,
the addition of SCBA decreases the probability of corrosion as
shown in Fig. 9. At any specific time (below 50 yrs), a lower prob-
ability of corrosion is attained by adding a higher SCBA content.
Consequently, considering the lifetime as the time in which the
probability of corrosion reaches 10%, the larger the SCBA content,
the higher the estimated lifetime. Increases of 9.6%, 33.4%, and
95.7% in the estimated lifetimes were observed with the addition
of 5%, 10%, and 15% SCBA, respectively, demonstrating the poten-
tial of using this ash. The decrease in probability of corrosion and
the increase in lifetime are attributed to the refinement of the
pores and the consequent reductions in the diffusion coefficients,
making it difficult for chlorides to enter into the concrete.
3.3.2. Accelerated carbonation
In Fig. 10, the carbonated depth in the specimens just after
spraying the solution containing phenolphthalein can be observed.
AutoCAD software was used to increase the accuracy of the car-
bonation depth measurements. The measurements were treated
and are presented in Fig. 11, where increases in the carbonation
depth due to the increase in the SCBA content can be observed.
Table 7 presents the results of the carbonation coefficients in
the accelerated test (Kacel) and the estimated lifetimes for the dif-
ferent environments considered. The Kacel values increased by
16%, 19%, and 69% with SCBA additions of 5%, 10%, and 15%, respec-
tively; therefore, reductions in the estimated lifetimes are
expected in all considered scenarios.
An increase in the carbonation rate was observed owing to the
increase in SCBA content in the concrete. This behavior is common
in concretes with pozzolanic additions, such as fly ash [69,77,78],
calcined clays [69], silica fume [79], and blast furnace slag [69,80].
The addition of SCM, analogous to SCBA addition, generally
results in a reduction in capillary pores due to the formation of
C-S-H, which reduces both gas permeability [21] and carbonation
Fig. 11. Carbonation depth of the concrete specimens with different amounts of
SCBA after 3, 9, and 12 wk.
Table 7
Carbonation rate and estimated lifetimes for concrete specimens with different amounts of SCBA.
Environment (%CO2) Parameter
Accelerated Test (3.00) Kacel (mm/week0.5)
Rural or Small City (<0.04) Lifetime (years)
Urban (0.04–0.06) Lifetime (years)
Intense Urban (0.06–0.08) Lifetime (years)
Industrial (0.08–0.30) Lifetime (years)
Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959
rate; this phenomenon is similar to that observed when the w/c
ratio is reduced [69]. However, the pozzolanic reaction fixes the
Ca(OH)2 (portlandite), forming hydrated compounds such as C-S-
H and reducing the alkaline reserve, which increases the carbona-
tion rate [81].
Although the addition of SCBA results in an increase in the car-
bonation rate and therefore a reduction in the concrete lifetime,
the studied concrete specimens had lifetimes of more than 50 yrs
in all considered environments, except for the specimen with
15% SCBA exposed to the industrial environment.
3.3.3. ASR
Fig. 12 displays the results of expansion of the mortar bars used
in the reactivity analysis of the SCBA, with evaluation of the poten-
tial ASR of the concrete specimens using these ashes. Despite the
high alkali content present in the SCBA (see Table 4), the addition
of 5% SCBA mitigated the ASR and reduced the expansion of the
bars, which was below 0.20% after 30 days of testing. However,
for higher contents of SCBA (10% and 15%), a gradual increase in
ASR was observed and the concrete containing 15% SCBA showed
a behavior similar to that of the reference mixture. The mixture
with 5% SCBA was the only one that met the limits of ASTM
C1260-14 [48], that is, expansion below 0.1% and 0.2% at 14 and
28 d, respectively.
The above results show that there is an optimum SCBA content
for mitigating the ASR, in which the positive effect of the poz-
zolanic reactions (pore refinement) surpasses the negative effect
(increase in the alkali content in the mixture). A similar behavior
was observed by Zerbino et al. [82] when studying ground rice
husk ash.
According to Thomas [83], some pozzolanic materials promote
a reduction in the alkalis available in the solution, despite having
alkali contents higher than those observed in the cement, such as
with SCBA. This occurs because of the consumption of portlandite
in pozzolanic reactions, reducing the amount of hydroxyls avail-
able for ASR and leading to greater formation of C-S-H, which
absorbs part of these alkalis [83,84].
Fig. 12. Expansion of mortar bars with different amounts of SCBA.
Mix
REF A5 A10 A15
2.52 ± 0.13 2.94 ± 0.09 3.01 ± 0.17 4.26 ± 0.11
566 ± 65 418 ± 26 397 ± 45 199 ± 10
377 ± 43 279 ± 17 265 ± 30 132 ± 7
283 ± 33 209 ± 13 199 ± 22 99 ± 5
75 ± 9 56 ± 3 53 ± 6 26 ± 1
10
J.S. Andrade Neto et al.
In addition, the C-S-H formed in the pozzolanic reaction has a
lower Ca/Si ratio. According to Hong and Glasser [85], when the
Ca/Si ratio of C-S-H is reduced, its capacity to absorb alkalis
increases owing to a change in the electrical charge on the C-S-H
surface. The C-S-H surface charge with high Ca/Si ratios is positive,
which repels cations (Na+ and K+). By reducing the Ca/Si ratio, the
surface will have excess electrons (negative charge), increasing the
capacity to absorb cations (with a positive charge), especially alka-
lis [83,85].
Moreover, the refinement in the pore structure of the concrete
and the consequent reduction in sorptivity when adding the SCBA
contribute to the reduction in the diffusion of alkalis through the
concrete, thereby reducing the expansion due to ASR.
With the increase in the added SCBA content, a reduction in the
mitigation effect was observed, owing to an increase in the alkali
content in the mixture and the formation of SCBA agglomerates,
which can act as reactive aggregates, aggravating the ASR, as
observed in concrete containing silica fume [86].
Kazmi et al. [26] also observed reductions in expansion caused
by ASR when using SCBA. However, different from what was
observed in the present study, the higher the amount added (up
to 40%), the smaller the expansion observed. The difference in
behavior is presumably because the SCBA used by Kazmi et al.
[26] exhibited a considerably lower amount of alkali equivalent
(%Na2Oequiv. = 0.77%) than that in the present study (%
Na2Oequiv. = 4.81%).
4. Conclusions
SCBA is a promising SCM that generally shows a high pozzolanic
activity. However, to enable its use, it is crucial to thoroughly
understand its effect on the durability of concrete. Therefore, in
the present study, the effect of SCBA on the lifetime of concrete
in terms of chloride ingress and carbonation was evaluated for
the first time. Furthermore, the effect of an alkali rich SCBA on
the ASR was examined for the first time. Based on the experimental
results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

SCBA, calcined at 600 °C, has a high pozzolanic activity owing to
the presence of amorphous silica and alumina.

The addition of up to 15% SCBA resulted in reductions in the
porosity and sorptivity and enhancements in the compressive
strength, owing to the physical effect, better packing, and poz-
zolanic reaction.

Increasing the content of SCBA delays the time required for the
chlorine ions to diffuse in the steady state, which is demon-
strated by the reduction in the values of the non-steady state
diffusion coefficients (Dns). This behavior is attributed to the
changes in the physical properties and microstructural charac-
teristics by the addition of SCBA to concrete, which, together
with the small increase in the content of aluminates provided
by the addition of SCBA, are responsible for the higher chloride
fixation in the steady state.

Increasing the SCBA content also resulted in reduced chloride
flow (JCl) and steady state diffusion coefficient (Ds), indicating
that the presence of this ash, besides delaying the onset of sta-
tionary diffusion, delays the passage of chlorides after initiation,
which is due to the lower porosity of the matrix.

With the increase in time lag and reduction in chloride diffusion
coefficients, the addition of SCBA resulted in a higher lifetime
against the penetration of chlorine ions. The larger the SCBA
content, the higher the estimated lifetime, increasing by up to
95.7% for the concrete containing 15% SCBA.

Concrete containing SCBA showed a higher carbonation rate
owing to the reduction in the alkaline reserve (consumption
11
Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959
of portlandite), reducing its lifetime. However, except for the
concrete specimen with 15% SCBA exposed to the industrial
environment, all specimens had a lifetime of more than 50 yrs
in all environments considered.

The addition of 5% SCBA mitigated the ASR because of the poz-
zolanic reaction that leads to higher C-S-H formation and pore
refinement. However, for larger SCBA amounts (10% and 15%),
there was a gradual increase in ASR owing to the increasing
alkali content of the added SCBA.
The feasibility of using SCBA as an SCM for concrete manifests
great potential in terms of concrete durability. However, further
investigations are necessary, including analysis of the corrosion
process in concrete containing SCBA by half-cell measurements
and impedance spectroscopy.
Investigations regarding the durability of concrete containing
SCBA with different w/c ratios and/or different cement types, are
also recommended. Moreover, in the present investigation, the
superplasticizer content varied with the amount of SCBA to main-
tain similar workability. However, the superplasticizer could influ-
ence several properties of concrete. Therefore, studies evaluating
concrete containing SCBA with the same superplasticizer content
as the reference concrete should be carried out.
Because the addition of SCBA showed promising results in
terms of mechanical and durability performance, studies regarding
the durability of concrete with partial replacement of cement by
SCBA are encouraged to further decrease the cement content.
Finally, lifecycle analyses of the use of SCBA in concrete, consider-
ing the entire production chain and changes in the lifetime of con-
crete, are extremely important to verify the environmental impact
of the use of SCBA as an SCM.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
José da Silva Andrade Neto: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Mavisson Júlio
Santos de França: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology.
Nilson Santana de Amorim Júnior: Investigation, Methodology,
Writing - review & editing. Daniel Véras Ribeiro: Supervision,
Writing - review & editing, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Coordenação de Aper-
feiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior for the scholarship
granted to José da Silva Andrade Neto and Nilson Santana Amorim
Júnior during the period of this study.
References
[1] S.A. Miller, A. Horvath, P.J.M. Monteiro, Readily implementable techniques can
cut annual CO 2 emissions from the production of concrete by over 20%,
Environ. Res. Lett. 11 (7) (2016) 074029, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/
11/7/074029.
[2] M.C.G. Juenger, R. Snellings, S.A. Bernal, Supplementary cementitious
materials: new sources, characterization, and performance insights, Cem.
Concr. Res. 122 (2019) 257–273, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconres.2019.05.008.
[3] K. Scrivener, F. Martirena, S. Bishnoi, S. Maity, Calcined clay limestone cements
(LC3), Cem. Concr. Res. 114 (2018) 49–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconres.2017.08.017.
J.S. Andrade Neto et al.
[4] F. Martirena, J. Monzó, Vegetable ashes as supplementary cementitious
materials, Cem. Concr. Res. 114 (2018) 57–64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconres.2017.08.015.
[5] N. Van Tuan, G. Ye, K. van Breugel, A.L.A. Fraaij, D.D. Bui, The study of using rice
husk ash to produce ultra high performance concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 25
(4) (2011) 2030–2035, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.046.
[6] M.Z. Al-mulali, H. Awang, H.P.S. Abdul Khalil, Z.S. Aljoumaily, The
incorporation of oil palm ash in concrete as a means of recycling: a review,
Cem. Concr. Compos. 55 (2015) 129–138, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconcomp.2014.09.007.
[7] S.A. Zareei, F. Ameri, N. Bahrami, Microstructure, strength, and durability of
eco-friendly concretes containing sugarcane bagasse ash, Constr. Build. Mater.
184 (2018) 258–268, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.153.
[8] L.C.A. de Mello, M.A.S. dos Anjos, M.V.V.A. de Sá, N.S.L. de Souza, E.C. de Farias,
Effect of high temperatures on self-compacting concrete with high levels of
sugarcane bagasse ash and metakaolin, Constr. Build. Mater. 248 (2020)
118715, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.11871510.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2020.118715.
[9] J.P. Moretti, S. Nunes, A. Sales, Self-compacting concrete incorporating
sugarcane bagasse ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 172 (2018) 635–649, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.277.
[10] S.A. Zareei, F. Ameri, F. Dorostkar, M. Ahmadi, Rice husk ash as a partial
replacement of cement in high strength concrete containing micro silica:
evaluating durability and mechanical properties, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 7
(2017) 73–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2017.05.001.
[11] S.A. Zareei, F. Ameri, N. Bahrami, F. Dorostkar, Experimental Evaluation of Eco-
friendly Light Weight Concrete with Optimal Level of Rice Husk Ash
Replacement, Civil Eng. J., 3 (2017) 972. https://doi.org/10.28991/cej-030930.
[12] F. Ameri, P. Shoaei, N. Bahrami, M. Vaezi, T. Ozbakkaloglu, Optimum rice husk
ash content and bacterial concentration in self-compacting concrete, Constr.
Build. Mater. 222 (2019) 796–813, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2019.06.190.
[13] D.-H. Le, Y.-N. Sheen, M.-T. Lam, Fresh and hardened properties of self-
compacting concrete with sugarcane bagasse ash–slag blended cement,
Constr. Build. Mater. 185 (2018) 138–147, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2018.07.029.
[14] N.-u. Amin, Use of bagasse ash in concrete and its impact on the strength and
chloride resistivity, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 23 (5) (2011) 717–720, https://doi.org/
10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000227.
[15] D.V. Ribeiro, M.R. Morelli, Effect of calcination temperature on the pozzolanic
activity of Brazilian sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA), Mater. Res. 17 (2014) 974–
981. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-14392014005000093.
[16] FAO, The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, (2020).
http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC (accessed April 19, 2020).
[17] G.C. Cordeiro, R.D. Toledo Filho, E. de Moraes Rego Fairbairn, Use of ultra-fine
sugar cane bagasse ash as mineral admixture for concrete, ACI Mater. J. 105
(2008) 487–493. https://doi.org/10.14359/19978.
[18] T.A. Santos, J. da S. Andrade Neto, V.S. Santos, D.V. Ribeiro, Influence of
physicochemical properties of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) in Portland
cement hydration, in: Key Engineering Materials, Trans Tech Publications Ltd,
2018: pp. 324–328. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.765.324.
[19] G.C. Cordeiro, R.D. Toledo Filho, E.M.R. Fairbairn, Effect of calcination
temperature on the pozzolanic activity of sugar cane bagasse ash, Constr.
Build. Mater. 23 (10) (2009) 3301–3303, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2009.02.013.
[20] G.C. Cordeiro, P.V. Andreão, L.M. Tavares, Pozzolanic properties of ultrafine
sugar cane bagasse ash produced by controlled burning, Heliyon 5 (10) (2019)
e02566, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02566.
[21] A. Bahurudeen, D. Kanraj, V. Gokul Dev, M. Santhanam, Performance
evaluation of sugarcane bagasse ash blended cement in concrete, Cem.
Concr. Compos. 59 (2015) 77–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconcomp.2015.03.004.
[22] K. Ganesan, K. Rajagopal, K. Thangavel, Evaluation of bagasse ash as
supplementary cementitious material, Cem. Concr. Compos. 29 (6) (2007)
515–524, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.03.001.
[23] E.M.R. Fairbairn, B.B. Americano, G.C. Cordeiro, T.P. Paula, R.D. Toledo Filho, M.
M. Silvoso, Cement replacement by sugar cane bagasse ash: CO2 emissions
reduction and potential for carbon credits, J. Environ. Manage. 91 (9) (2010)
1864–1871, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.04.008.
[24] A. Joshaghani, A.A. Ramezanianpour, H. Rostami, Effect of incorporating
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) in mortar to examine durability of sulfate
attack, Ii International Conference on Concrete Sustainability – Iccs16. (2016)
576–596.
[25] I. Santos, J.P.L. Rodrigues, C.G. Ramos, C.C. Martuscelli, U.N. Castañon, V.C.C.
Alves, G.M. Abreu, Effect of the chemical attack on the properties of
cimentititous composites with partial substitution of ash from sugar cane
bagasse in natura, Matéria (Rio J.) 22 (2) (2017), https://doi.org/10.1590/
s1517-707620170002.0169.
[26] S.M.S. Kazmi, M.J. Munir, I. Patnaikuni, Y.F. Wu, Pozzolanic reaction of
sugarcane bagasse ash and its role in controlling alkali silica reaction,
Constr. Build. Mater. 148 (2017) 231–240, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2017.05.025.
[27] A.L. Yadav, V. Sairam, L. Muruganandam, K. Srinivasan, An overview of the
influences of mechanical and chemical processing on sugarcane bagasse ash
characterisation as a supplementary cementitious material, J. Cleaner Prod.
245 (2020) 118854, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118854.
12
Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959
[28] P. Setayesh Gar, N. Suresh, V. Bindiganavile, Sugar cane bagasse ash as a
pozzolanic admixture in concrete for resistance to sustained elevated
temperatures, Constr. Build. Mater. 153 (2017) 929–936, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.107.
[29] F.C.R. Almeida, A. Sales, J.P. Moretti, P.C.D. Mendes, Sugarcane bagasse ash
sand (SBAS): Brazilian agroindustrial by-product for use in mortar, Constr.
Build. Mater. 82 (2015) 31–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2015.02.039.
[30] M.M.N.S. de Soares, D.C.S. Garcia, R.B. Figueiredo, M.T.P. Aguilar, P.R. Cetlin,
Comparing the pozzolanic behavior of sugar cane bagasse ash to amorphous
and crystalline SiO2, Cem. Concr. Compos. 71 (2016) 20–25, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.04.005.
[31] G.C. Cordeiro, L.M. Tavares, R.D. Toledo Filho, Improved pozzolanic activity of
sugar cane bagasse ash by selective grinding and classification, Cem. Concr.
Res. 89 (2016) 269–275, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2016.08.020.
[32] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR NM 248: aggregates – sieve
analysis of fine and coarse aggregates (in portuguese), Test (2003).
[33] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR NM 52: Fine aggregate -
Determination of the bulk specific gravity and apparent specific gravity (in
portuguese), (2009).
[34] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR NM 53: Coarse aggregate -
Determination of the bulk specific gravity, apparent specific gravity and water
absorption (in portuguese), (2009) 8.
[35] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR NM 46: Aggregates -
Determination of material finer than 75 mm sieve by washing, (2003).
[36] F. Riello, Quantitative Analysis of Amorphous Fraction in the Study of the
Microstructure of Semi-crystalline Materials, in: E.J. Mittemeijer, P. Scardi
(Eds.), Diffraction Analysis of the Microstructure of Materials, Springer, 2004,
pp. 167–184, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-56680-6.
[37] G.A. Calligaris, T.L.T. da Silva, A.P.B. Ribeiro, A.O. dos Santos, L.P. Cardoso, On
the quantitative phase analysis and amorphous content of triacylglycerols
materials by X-ray Rietveld method, Chem. Phys. Lipids 212 (2018) 51–60,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2018.01.003.
[38] British Standards Institution, BS EN 196-5 - Methods of testing cement.
Pozzolanicity test for pozzolanic cement, (2011).
[39] ABNT, NBR 15895 - Pozzolanic materials - Determination of calcium hydroxide
fixed - Modified Chapelle’s method (in portuguese), Associação Brasileira de
Normas Técnicas. (2010) 1–10. https://doi.org/01.080.10; 13.220.99.
[40] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR 6118: Design of concrete
structures — Procedure (in portuguese), Associação Brasileira de Normas
Técnicas. (2014) 256. https://doi.org/01.080.10; 13.220.99.
[41] A.B.D.N. Técnicas, NBR NM 67: concrete – slump test for determination of the
consistency (in portuguese), Abnt. Nbr. Nm. 67 (1998) 1998.
[42] A.A. Ramezanianpour, S.M. Motahari Karein, P. Vosoughi, A. Pilvar, S. Isapour,
F. Moodi, Effects of calcined perlite powder as a SCM on the strength and
permeability of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 66 (2014) 222–228, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.086.
[43] B.S. Dhanya, M. Santhanam, R. Gettu, R.G. Pillai, Performance evaluation of
concretes having different supplementary cementitious material dosages
belonging to different strength ranges, Constr. Build. Mater. 187 (2018) 984–
995, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.185.
[44] H. Du, S.D. Pang, High-performance concrete incorporating calcined kaolin clay
and limestone as cement substitute, Constr. Build. Mater. 264 (2020) 120152,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120152.
[45] F. Puertas, H. Santos, M. Palacios, S. Martínez-Ramírez, Polycarboxylate
superplasticiser admixtures: effect on hydration, microstructure and
rheological behaviour in cement pastes, Advances in Cement Research. 17
(2005) 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.17.2.77.65044.
[46] F. Kong, L. Pan, C. Wang, D. Zhang, N. Xu, Effects of polycarboxylate
superplasticizers with different molecular structure on the hydration
behavior of cement paste, Constr. Build. Mater. 105 (2016) 545–553, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.178.
[47] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR 15577: Aggregates - Alkali
reactivity of aggregates (in portuguese), (2018).
[48] American Society for Testing and Materials., ASTM C1260-14 Standard Test
Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method),
Annual Book of ASTM Standards Volume 04.02. (2014) 1–5. https://doi.org/
10.1520/C1260-14.2.
[49] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR 9779: Hardened mortar and
concrete - Determination of water absorption by capillarity - Method of test
(in portuguese), (2012) 2.
[50] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR 5739: Concrete — Compression
test of cylindrical specimens (in portuguese), (2004).
[51] American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM C1202-19: Standard Test
Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion
Penetration, American Society for Testing and Materials. (2019). https://doi.
org/10.1520/C1202-12.2.
[52] ASOCIACIÓN ESPAÑOLA DE NORMALIZACIÓN, UNE 83987:2014 Concrete
durability 2014 Test methods. Measurement of chloride diffusion coefficient
in hardened concrete Multiregime method (in Spanish).
[53] D.V. Ribeiro, Influence of the addition of red mud on properties and the
corrosibility of armed concrete (in portuguese), 2010. https://doi.org/10.1558/
jsrnc.v4il.24.
[54] American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM E562-19: Standard Test
Method for Determining Volume Fraction by Systematic Manual Point Count,
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1520/mnl10913m.
J.S. Andrade Neto et al.
[55] D.V. Ribeiro, J.A. Labrincha, M.R. Morelli, Effect of the addition of red mud on
the corrosion parameters of reinforced concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (1) (2012)
124–133, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.09.002.
[56] N.S. Amorim Júnior, G.A.O. Silva, C.M.R. Dias, D.V. Ribeiro, Concrete containing
recycled aggregates: estimated lifetime using chloride migration test, Constr.
Build. Mater. 222 (2019) 108–118, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2019.06.136.
[57] M. Castellote, C. Andrade, C. Alonso, Measurement of the steady and non-
steady-state chloride diffusion coefficients in a migration test by means of
monitoring the conductivity in the anolyte chamber. Comparison with natural
diffusion tests, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (10) (2001) 1411–1420, https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00562-2.
[58] S. Demis, V.G. Papadakis, Durability design process of reinforced concrete
structures – service life estimation, problems and perspectives, J. Build. Eng. 26
(2019) 100876, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100876.
[59] R.M. Ferreira, S. Jalali, Software for probability-based durability analysis of
concrete structures, Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting, in:
Proceedings of the International Conference on Concrete Repair,
Rehabilitation and Retrofitting, 2006, 2005,, pp. 117–118.
[60] M.H.F. Medeiros, P. Helene, Surface treatment of reinforced concrete in marine
environment: Influence on chloride diffusion coefficient and capillary water
absorption, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (3) (2009) 1476–1484, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.06.013.
[61] O.E. Gjørv, Durability Design of Concrete Structures in Severe Environments,
CRC Press, 2017.
[62] Fib Model Code, Fib Model Code – Model Code 2010 Final Draft, International
Federation for Structural Concrete, 2012. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.35789/fib.
BULL.0065.
[63] International Organization for Standardization, ISO 1920-12: Testing of
concrete - Part 12: Determination of the carbonation resistance of concrete -
Accelerated carbonation method, (2015).
[64] GLOBAL MONITORING LABORATORY, Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide –
Global 2020, (2020). www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/global.html
(accessed August 25, 2020).
[65] L. Peng, M.G. Stewart, Corrosion and damage risks for reinforced concrete
infrastructure in China due to a changing climate, in: Proceedings of 11th
International Conference on Safety, Reliability, Risks and Life-Cycle
Performance of Structures & Infrastructures, ICOSSAR2013, New York, NY,
USA, 2013: pp. 1527–1534.
[66] J. Mai-nhu, P. Rougeau, F. Duprat, A. Sellier, Probabilistic optimization of the
concrete cover for structures exposed to chlorination and carbonation
according to climate change, in: Proceedings of 11th International
Conference on Safety, Reliability, Risks and Life-Cycle Performance of
Structures & Infrastructures, ICOSSAR2013, New York, NY, USA, 2013: pp.
1535–1542.
[67] K. Sisomphon, L. Franke, Carbonation rates of concretes containing high
volume of pozzolanic materials, Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (12) (2007) 1647–1653,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.08.014.
[68] E. Gruyaert, P. Van den Heede, N. De Belie, Carbonation of slag concrete: Effect
of the cement replacement level and curing on the carbonation coefficient –
effect of carbonation on the pore structure, Cem. Concr. Compos. 35 (1) (2013)
39–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.08.024.
[69] V. Shah, S. Bishnoi, Carbonation resistance of cements containing
supplementary cementitious materials and its relation to various parameters
13
Construction and Building Materials 266 (2021) 120959
of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 178 (2018) 219–232, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.162.
[70] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR 16697: Portland cement -
Requirements (in portuguese), (2018).
[71] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, NBR 12653: Pozzolanic materials —
Requirements (in portuguese), (2014).
[72] American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM C618-19: Standard
Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use,
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1520/C0618.
[73] M.C.G. Juenger, R. Siddique, Recent advances in understanding the role of
supplementary cementitious materials in concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 78 (2015)
71–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.03.018.
[74] R. Talero, L. Trusilewicz, A. Delgado, C. Pedrajas, R. Lannegrand, V. Rahhal, R.
Mejía, S. Delvasto, F.A. Ramírez, Comparative and semi-quantitative XRD
analysis of Friedel’s salt originating from pozzolan and Portland cement,
Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (5) (2011) 2370–2380, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2010.11.037.
[75] H. Justnes, M.O. Kim, S. Ng, X. Qian, Methodology of calculating required
chloride diffusion coefficient for intended service life as function of concrete
cover in reinforced marine structures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 73 (2016) 316–
323, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.08.006.
[76] K. Wu, J. Long, L. Xu, G. de Schutter, A study on the chloride diffusion behavior of
blended cement concrete in relation to aggregate and ITZ, Constr. Build. Mater.
223 (2019) 1063–1073, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.068.
[77] W. Wang, C. Lu, Y. Li, G. Yuan, Q. Li, Effects of stress and high temperature on
the carbonation resistance of fly ash concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 138 (2017)
486–495, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.02.039.
[78] S. Hussain, D. Bhunia, S.B. Singh, Comparative study of accelerated carbonation
of plain cement and fly-ash concrete, J. Build. Eng. 10 (2017) 26–31, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2017.02.001.
[79] M.P. Kulakowski, F.M. Pereira, D.C.C.D. Molin, Carbonation-induced
reinforcement corrosion in silica fume concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (3)
(2009) 1189–1195, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.08.005.
[80] M.Á. Sanjuán, E. Estévez, C. Argiz, D. del Barrio, Effect of curing time on
granulated blast-furnace slag cement mortars carbonation, Cem. Concr. Comp.
90 (2018) 257–265, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.04.006.
[81] F. Pacheco Torgal, S. Miraldo, J.A. Labrincha, J. De Brito, An overview on
concrete carbonation in the context of eco-efficient construction: evaluation,
use of SCMs and/or RAC, Constr. Build. Mater. 36 (2012) 141–150, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.066.
[82] R. Zerbino, G. Giaccio, O.R. Batic, G.C. Isaia, Alkali–silica reaction in mortars and
concretes incorporating natural rice husk ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 36 (2012)
796–806, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.049.
[83] M. Thomas, The effect of supplementary cementing materials on alkali-silica
reaction: a review, Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (12) (2011) 1224–1231, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.11.003.
[84] A.J. Maas, J.H. Ideker, M.C.G. Juenger, Alkali silica reactivity of agglomerated
silica fume, Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (2) (2007) 166–174, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconres.2006.10.011.
[85] S.Y. Hong, F.P. Glasser, Alkali binding in cement pastes, Cem. Concr. Res. 29
(12) (1999) 1893–1903, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00187-8.
[86] H.T. Le, H.M. Ludwig, Alkali silica reactivity of rice husk ash in cement paste,
Constr. Build. Mater. 243 (2020) 118145, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.conbuildmat.2020.118145.