Comparative Study of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulated

(SPWM) & Space Vector Pulse Width Modulated (SVPWM)

Two-Level Voltage Source Inverter Fed Induction Motor
Drives
A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

Shelendra Thoretha

Roll No: 16ENG3EEE1006

Under the Guidance of

Prof. R. P. Kumawat
Assistant Professor

Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

In partial fulfilment for the award

Of
Diploma
In
Electrical Engineering

1
 MANDSAUR UNIVERSITY, MANDSAUR
June – 2022
BONAFIED CERTIFICATE
This is certify that the project titled “Comparative Study of Sinusoidal Pulse Width
Modulated (SPWM) & Space Vector Pulse Width Modulated (SVPWM) Two-Level
Voltage Source Inverter Fed Induction Motor Drives” is a bonafide record of the work
done by Shelendra thorecha (Roll No-16ENG3EEE1006) in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the Diploma in electrical engineering of the Mandsaur
University 2020-2021.

Mr. R. P. Kumawat Mr. Virendra Jain

Project Supervisor H.O.D, E.E.E Department

2
 ACKNOLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor Mr. R. P. Kumawat, AP,
Dept of E.E.E for his guidance, encouragement, and support throughout the course of this
work. It was an invaluable learning experience for me to be one of his students. From him I
have gained not only extensive knowledge, but also a careful research attitude.

I am very thankful to Prof. Virendra Jain, H.O.D (E.E.E) and all faculties of E.E.E
Department for giving me the opportunity and platform to make my effort a successful one
and providing a constant support throughout the project.

At the end I would like to thank my family members, for their unconditional support,
inspiration and love.

Name: Shelendra thorecha

Roll. No: (16ENG3EEE1006)

3
 CONTENTS

Title Page
No.
Bonafide Certificate 2

Acknowledgement 3

Table of contents 4

List of tables 7

List of figures 8

List of symbols 10

Abstract 11

1 INTRODUCTION 12
1.1 Introduction 12

1.2 Literature survey 12

1.3 Dissertation Outline 13

2 INDUCTION MOTOR AND ITS MODELLING 15

2.1 Introduction 15

2.2 General principle 15

2.2.1 Advantages 16

2.2.2 Disadvantages 17

2.3 Construction 17

2.3.1 Phase wound rotor induction motor 17

2.3.2 Squirrel cage rotor induction motor 18

2.4 Working 20

2.5 Torque speed Analysis 20

4
 2.5.1 Relation between torque and slip 21

2.5.2 Torque speed curve 22

2.6 Modeling of IM 23

3 INVERTERS AND PWM TECHNIQUES 27

3.1 Introduction 27

3.2 Types of inverter 27

3.2.1 Single phase half bridge inverter 28

3.2.2 Single phase full bridge inverter 28

3.2.3 Three phase inverter 29

3.2.3.1 Three phase 180 Degree Mode VSI 30

3.2.3.2 Three phase 120 Degree Mode VSI 31

3.2.4 Multilevel inverter 31

3.3 Pulse width modulation techniques 31

3.4 Types of Pulse width modulation 32

3.4.1 Single pulse width modulation 32

3.4.2 Multi-pulse width modulation 33

3.4.3 The carrier Based pulse width modulation 34

3.5 Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation 35

3.6 Space vector Pulse width modulation 35

4 IMPLEMENTATION OF SPWM INVERTER FED 37

INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE
4.1 Introduction 37

4.2 Inverter 37

4.2.1 Voltage source inverter 37

4.2.2 Current source inverter 38

4.3 Sinusoidal pulse width modulation(SPWM) 39

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 4.4 Implementation of SPWM with induction motor drive 40

5 IMPLEMENTATION OF SVPWM INVERTER FED 41

INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE
5.1 Introduction 41

5.2 Switching states 41

5.3 Space vector concept 42

5.4 Principle of vector PWM 43

5.5 Realization of space vector PWM 44

5.6 , , and 44
Determination of

5.7 Determination of time duration , , 44

5.8 Switching time duration at any sector 45

5.9 Determination of switching time for each switch ( to ) 45

5.10 Switching Sequence Table at each sector 48

5.11 Implementation of SPWM and SVPWM with Induction Motor Drive 49

6 SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 50

6.1 Simulation results and discussion 50

6.1.1 Results for SPWM inverter fed Induction motor drive 50

6.1.2 Simulation results for SVPWM inverter fed Induction motor drive 51

7 CONCLUSION 54

8 REFERENCES 55

List of Tables

Table no. Title Page.

No.
3.1 Switching Table for Inverter 29

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 3.2 Switching Signals for Inverter 30

5.1 Switching states for two level inverter 43

5.8 Switching Sequence Table at each sector 48

6.1 Induction motor parameter 53

List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page

No.
2.1 Basic Induction Motor Construction 15

2.2 Detailed View of Three-Phase Induction Motor 16

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 2.4 Exploded View of a Slip Ring Motor 18

2.3.2 Squirrel-Cage Rotor 19

2.3.2 Exploded View of a Squirrel-Cage Motor 19

2.5 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 20

2.8 Torque slip curve 21

2.9 Torque speed curve 22

2.10 dq0 equivalent circuit of n induction motor 23

3.1 Single phase half bridge inverter 28

3.2 Single phase full bridge inverter 29

3.3 Power circuit diagram of a 3 phase bridge inverter using 6 IGBT 30

3.4 180 degree mode gate pulse wave form 31

3.5 The generation of gating signals of single PWM 33

3.6 The generation of gating signals of multi PWM 34

3.7 The generation of gating signals of carrier based PWM 34

3.8 Generation of switching pulse for SPWM 35

4.1 Phase voltage source inverter 38

4.2 Phase current source inverter 39

4.3 Generation of switching pulse for SPWM 39

4.4 Implementation of SPWM with induction motor 40

5.1 Voltage source inverter 42

5.2 Representation vector in complex 43

5.3 Voltage space vector and its (d,q) component 44

5.4 Reference vector as a combination of adjacent vector at sector 45

5.5 Switching pulse pattern for the three phase inverter in 6 different 47
sectors
5.6 Implementation of SVPWM with induction motor 49

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 6.1 SPWM (a) machine current (b) harmonic analysis of current 50

6.2 SPWM (a) phase voltage (b) harmonic analysis of phase voltage 50

6.3 SPWM (a) line voltage (b) harmonic analysis of line voltage 51

6.4 SPWM (a) electromagnetic torque (b) rotor speed 51

6.5 SVPWM (a) machine current (b) harmonics analysis of current 51

6.6 SVPWM (a) phase voltage (b) harmonics analysis of phase 52

voltage
6.7 SVPWM (a) line voltage (b) harmonics analysis of line voltage 52

6.8 SVPWM (a) electromagnetic torque (b) rotor speed 52

Symbol Title
DTC Direct Torque Control

DC Direct Current

AC Alternating current

PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor

FOC Field-Oriented Control

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BLDC Brushless Direct Current

IM Induction Motor

EMF Electro Motive Force

PM Permanent Magnet

IPM Interior Permanent Magnet

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

VSI Voltage Source Inverter

DSP Digital Signal Processor

ABSTRACT
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) method is an advanced, computation
intensive PWM method and possibly the best among all the PWM techniques for variable
frequency induction motor drives. The SVPWM is an alternative method for the
determination of switching pulse width and their position. The major advantage of SVPWM
over the SPWM is that, there is a degree of freedom of space vector placement in a switching
cycle. This feature improves the harmonic performance of this method. This method has been
finding widespread application in recent years because of the easier digital realization and
better dc bus utilization. The theoretical analysis, design, switching sequence and

10
implementation of the SVPWM and SPWM for induction motor drives is presented in this
thesis.

Keywords: SPWM, SVPWM, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), Variable frequency,

Induction motor drive

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Literature Review
1.3 Dissertation Outline

1.1 Introduction

Three phase voltage-fed PWM inverters are recently showing growing popularity for multi-
megawatt industrial drive applications. The main reasons for this popularity are easy sharing
of large voltage between the series devices and the improvement of the harmonic quality at

11
the output. In the lower end of power, GTO devices are being replaced by IGBTs because of
their rapid evolution in voltage and current ratings and higher switching frequency. The
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation of a two level inverter fed induction motor drive
provides the additional advantage of superior harmonic quality and larger under-modulation
range that extends the modulation factor to 90.7% from the traditional value of 78.5% in
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation.

1.1 Literature Review

Pulse width modulated voltage source inverter fed drives are preferred in industries for
variable speed drives [1, 2, 3]. Among the various pulse width modulation (PWM) schemes,
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) method is the oldest and most popular. The
sinusoidal pulse width modulation method has got an excellent harmonic profile in which
higher amplitude harmonics are run at the carrier frequency and its side bands. In this scheme
different frequency modulating ratios are used at different speed ranges to control the
switching losses. Also, at low frequency ratios, synchronization of carrier wave with the
modulating wave is essential to control the sub-harmonics. All these necessitate a
complicated hardware for realization of SPWM. Space vector pulse width modulation
(SVPWM) techniques are becoming increasingly popular [1, 4, 5] as an alternative to SPWM
in variable speed induction motor drives. SVPWM is very much similar to SPWM and the
difference lies mainly in the distribution of zero vector state during a sampling period. The
SVPWM scheme is said to have the significant advantages over SPWM in terms of
performance, ease of implementation and maximum transfer ratio. The main advantage of
SVPWM is the explicit identification of pulse placement and the additional degree of
freedom that can be exploited to achieve harmonic performance. The principle of SVPWM is
based on the fact that there is only eight possible switch combination for three phase two
Level inverter. Due to advent of fast processor, many researchers are developing new or
modified PWM control algorithm to obtain good performances of A.C drives.

SPWM is one of the simple techniques in voltage source inverter. This technique applies
simple control strategy by comparing the three phase modulated signals (known as reference
signals) with carrier signal. In this technique the switching frequency depends on the carrier
switching. The amplitude of output voltage can be varied by controlling the modulation index
[1].Traditionally the SPWM technique is widely used in variable speed induction motor

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drives, especially for scalar control where the stator voltage and frequency can be controlled
with online computational requirement. In addition to this, it is easy to implement. However,
this algorithm has the following drawbacks.

1. This technique is unable to fully utilize the available D.C bus supply voltage to the voltage
source inverter.

2. It gives more total harmonic distortion (THD).

3. This algorithm does not smooth the progress of future development of vector control
algorithm of A.C drives.
These drawbacks led to development of a sophisticated PWM algorithm which is space
vector modulation (SVM).This algorithm gives more voltage output as compared to
sinusoidal PWM algorithm [6], thereby increasing the D.C bus utilization. Furthermore it
minimizes the THD as well as loss due to minimized no. of commutations in the inverter.

1.2 Dissertation outline

The purpose of this thesis is to compare the simulation results of SPWM inverter fed and
SVPWM inverter fed induction Motor Drive to find the better system. The simulation is
carried out by using MATLAB/SIMULINK.
The thesis is organized into six chapters.

Chapter 1 gives the introduction & the literature provided by authors related to the project
topics.

Chapter 2 discusses to Induction motor and the modelling.

Chapter 3 presents different types of inverters and different modulation techniques.

Chapter 4 presents and analyzed the implementation of SPWM 2-level inverter fed IM.

Chapter 5 presents and analyzed the implementation of SVPWM 2-level inverter fed IM.
Chapter 6 presents the simulation results and its discussion.

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 CHAPTER-2

INDUCTION MOTOR AND ITS MODELLING

2.1 Introduction
2.2 General principle
2.3 Construction
2.4 Working
2.5 Torque-Speed Analysis
2.6 Modelling of IM
2.1 Introduction

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Induction Motors account for more than 85% of all motors used in industry and domestic
applications. In the past they have been used as constant-speed motors as traditional speed
control methods have been less efficient than speed control methods for DC motors.
However, DC Motors require commutator and brushes which are hazardous and require
maintenance. As far as the machine efficiency, robustness, reliability, durability, power
factor, ripples, stable output voltage and torque are concerned; three-phase induction motor
stands at the top of the order. Thus Induction Motors are preferred.

Fig.2.1 Basic Induction Motor Construction

2.2 General principle

As a general rule, conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the
rotating part of the motor. In AC motors, the rotor does not receive electrical power by
conduction, unlike DC motors, but by induction in the same way as the secondary of a 2-
winding transformer receives its power from the primary. That is why such motors are known
as induction motors.

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 Fig.2.2 Detailed View of Three-Phase Induction Motor

Of all the AC motors, the 3-phase IM is the one which is extensively used for various kinds
of industrial drives. It has the following main advantages and also some disadvantages:

2.2.1 Advantages

1. It has the simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable construction.

2. It cost is low and it is very reliable.

3. It has sufficiently high efficiency.

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4. In normal running condition, no brushes are needed, hence frictional losses are reduced.

5. It has a reasonably good power factor.

6. It requires minimum of maintenance.

7. It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and has not to be synchronized.

2.2.2 Disadvantage

1. Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.

2. Just like a DC shunt motor, its speed decreases with increase in load.

3. Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a DC shunt motors.

2.3 Construction
The Induction Motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator is wound for three phases and a fixed
number of poles. It has stampings with evenly spaced slots to carry the three-phase windings.
The number of poles is inversely proportional to the speed of the rotor. When the stator is
energized, a moving magnetic field is produced and currents are formed in the rotor winding
via electromagnetic induction. Based on rotor construction, Induction Motors are divided into
two categories

2.3.1 Phase-wound rotor induction Motor

The wound rotor type construction has winding in the rotor slot of the same type as the stator
winding. The number of slots in the rotor has to be chosen properly to avoid dead points. The
rotor winding wound for 3-phase is star connected and the end of the windings are connected
to slip rings. The rotor winding is for the same number of poles as the stator winding. When
running normally the 3 slip rings are short-circuited but at the time of staring, resistance can
be introduced in the rotor which is also star-connected. The resistance can be varied and
finally short-circuited under running condition. The motors employing phase-wound type of
rotor are variously known as ‘phase-wound’ motors or ‘wound’ motors or as ‘slip-ring’
motors. The possibility of introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during
starting period increases the starting torque of the motor and responsible of changing its
speed-torque/current characteristics. Under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is
short circuited on itself on itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.

17
 Fig.2.3 Wound Rotor

Fig.2.4 Exploded View of a Slip Ring Motor

In Wound-Rotor Induction Motors, the ends of the rotor are connected to rings on which the
three brushes make sliding contact. As the rotor rotates, the brushes slip over the rings and
provide a connection with the external circuit.

2.3.2 Squirrel-cage rotor induction Motor

The squirrel cage rotor construction has rotor conductors in the form of bars placed in the
rotor slots, short-circuited on the ends by end rings, what is so picturesquely called a squirrel-
cage construction. Copper or aluminium is used as conductor material. The aluminium alloys
bars in rotor slots and end rings are cast together and form an integral part. The slots in the
squirrel-cage rotor are not so much parallel to the shaft but are given a twist (skew) through
an angle. The skewing of the rotor eliminates cogging and noise in the motor.

18
 Fig.2.5 Squirrel-Cage Rotor

The motors employing squirrel-cage motor type of rotor are known as squirrel-cage induction
motors. Almost 90 percent of the induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type of
rotor has the simplest and most rugged construction imaginable and is almost indestructible.
In a squirrel-cage rotor the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on themselves, hence it
is not possible to add any external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting
purposes.

Fig.2.6 Exploded View of a Squirrel-Cage Motor

2.4 Working

When the stator winding is energized by a three-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is set-
up which rotates around the stator at synchronous speed Ns. This flux cuts the stationary rotor

19
and induces an electromotive force in the rotor winding. As the rotor windings are short-
circuited a current flows in them. Again as these conductors are placed in the stator’s
magnetic field, this exerts a mechanical force on them by Lenz’s law. Lenz’s law tells us that
the direction of rotor currents will be such that they will try to oppose the cause producing
them. Thus a torque is produced which tries to reduce the relative speed between the rotor
and the magnetic field. Hence the rotor will rotate in the same direction as the flux. Thus the
relative speed between the rotor and the speed of the magnetic field is what drives the rotor.
Hence the rotor speed Nr always remains less than the synchronous speed Ns. Thus Induction
Motors are also called Asynchronous Motors.

2.5 Torque-Speed Analysis

The equivalent circuit of an Induction Motor can be depicted as shown below:

Fig.2.7 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor

Where Xm= Magnetizing Reactance

Xs= Stator Reactance

Xr= Rotor Reactance
Rs= Stator Resistance
Rr= Rotor Resistance
s= slip In an Induction Motor
In an Induction Motor the slip is given as
𝑠=𝑁𝑠−𝑁𝑟/𝑁𝑠 (1)
Where Ns= Synchronous speed
Nr= Rotor speed
2.5.1 Relation between torque and slip
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A family of torque/slip curves is shown in the Fig.2.10 for the range of s = 0 to s = 1 with R 2
as the parameter. We have a relation that

k ∅ s E 2 R2
T= (2)
R22 +(s X 2)2

It is clear that when s = 0, t = 0, hence the curve starts from 0.

Fig.2.8 Torque-Slip Curve

At normal speed close to synchronism, the term (sX2) is small and hence negligible w.r.t. R2.

s
∴ T∝
R2

¿T ∝s

If R 2 is constant

Hence, for low values of slip, the torque/slip curve is approximately a straight line. As slip
increases, the torque also increases and becomes maximum when s = R 2/X2. This torque is
known as pull out torque or breakdown torque T b or stalling torque. As the slip further
increases the value of R2 becomes negligible as compared to sX2. Therefore, for large values
of slip

s 1
T∝ ∝
( s X 2) s
2

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Hence, the torque/slip curve is a rectangular hyperbola. So, we see that beyond the point of
maximum torque, any further increase in slip results in decrease of torque developed by the
motor. The result is that the motor slows down and eventually stops. The stable operation of
the motor lies between the values of s = 0 and that corresponding to maximum torque.

2.5.2 Torque – speed curve

The torque developed by a conventional 3-phase IM depends on its speed but the relation
between the two cannot be represented by a simple equation. It is easier to show the
relationship in the form of a curve (Fig. 2.11). In this diagram, T represents the nominal full-
load torque of the motor. As seen, the starting torque (at N = 0) is 1.5T and the maximum
torque (also called breakdown torque) is 2.5T.

Fig.2.9 Torque-Speed Curve

At full-load, the motor runs at a speed of N. When mechanical load increases, motor speed
decreases till the motor torque again becomes equal to the load torque. As long as these two
torques are in balance, the motor will run at constant (but lower) speed. However, if the load
torque exceeds 2.5T, the motor will suddenly stop.

2.6 Modelling of IM

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The voltage and torque equations that describe the dynamic behaviour of an induction motor
are time-varying. It is successfully used to solve such differential equations and it may
involve some complexity.

Fig.2.10 dq0 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor

A change of variables can be used to reduce the complexity of these equations by eliminating
all time-varying inductances, due to electric circuits in relative motion, from the voltage
equations of the machine [1, 2, 3, 4]. By this approach, a poly phase winding can be reduced
to a set of two phase windings (q-d) with their magnetic axes formed in quadrature. In other
words, the stator and rotor variables (voltages, currents and flux linkages) of an induction
machine are transferred to a reference frame, which may rotate at any angular velocity or
remain stationary. Such a frame of reference is commonly known in the generalized machines
analysis as arbitrary reference frame [5, 6, 7].

The dynamic analysis of the symmetrical induction machines in the arbitrary reference frame
has been intensively used as a standard simulation approach from which any particular mode
of operation may then be developed. Matlab/Simulink has an advantage over other machine
simulators in modelling the induction machine using dq0 axis transformation [8, 9]. It can be
a powerful technique in implementing the machine equations as they are transferred to a
particular reference frame. Thus, every single equation among the model equations can be
easily implemented in one block so that all the machine variables can be made available for
control and verification purposes. In this paper, Matlab/Simulink is used to simulate the

23
dynamic performance of an induction motor model whose stator and rotor variables are
referred to an arbitrary reference frame [1, 6, 8, 10]. The provided machine model is
simulated in a way that makes it easy for the reader to follow and understand the
implementation process since it gives full details about Simulink structure of each of the
model equations. The equivalent circuit of the induction machine in the arbitrary reference
frame is shown in figure 13.

Driving the model equations can be generated from the dq0 equivalent circuit of the induction
machine shown in figure 1. The flux linkages equations associated with this circuit can be
found as follows:

d φqs
dt
ωe
[
=ωb V qs − φds +
ωb
Rs
( φ −φ )
X ls mq qs ] (2.3)

d φds
dt
ω
[ R
=ωb V ds + e φ qs+ s ( φ md−φds
ωb X ls
)] (2.4)

d φqr
dt [
( ω −ω r )
=ω b V qr − e
ωb
R
φ dr + r ( φmq −φ qr )
X lr ] (2.5)

d φdr
=ω b ¿ (2.6)
dt

Where

φ mq=X ml
[ φqs φqr
+
X ls X lr ] (2.7)

φ md= X ml
[ φds φdr
+
X ls X lr ] (2.8)

1
X ml=
( 1 1
+ +
1
X m X ls X lr ) (2.9)

Then substituting the values of the flux linkage to find the currents, we get:

1
i qs = ( φ −φ )
X ls qs mq
(2.10)

1
i ds = ( φ −φ )
X ls ds md
(2.11)

24
 1
i qr = ( φ −φ )
X lr qr mq
(2.12)

1
i dr = ( φ −φ )
X lr dr md
(2.13)

Based on the above equations, the torque and the rotor speed can be determined as follows:

T e= ( )
3 P 1
( φ i −φ i )
2 2 ωb ds qs qs ds
(2.14)

P
ω r=∫ ( T −T L ) (2.15)
2J e

Where P= number of poles; J= moment of inertia (Kg/m2).

For squirrel-cage IM, the rotor voltages Vqr and Vdr in the flux equations are set to zero since
the rotor cage bars are shorted. After driving the torque and speed equations in terms of d-q
flux linkages and currents of the stator, the d-q axis transformation is applied to the machine
input (stator) voltages.

The 3-phase stator voltages of an induction machine under balanced condition can be
expressed as:

V a =√ 2 V rms sin ( ωt ) (2.16)

(
V b =√ 2 V rms sin ωt−
2π
3 ) (2.17)

(
V c = √ 2 V rms sin ωt−
2π
3 ) (2.18)

These 3-phase voltages are transferred to a synchronously rotating reference frame in only
two phases (d-q axis transformation). This can be done using the following two equations:

[]
Va
[ ] [
V α 2 1 1 / √ 2 −1/2
=
V β 3 0 √ 3/ 2 −√ 3 /2
Vb
Vc
] (2.19)

Then the direct and quadrature axes voltages are:

[ ][
Vd
=
cos θ sin θ V α
V q −sin θ cos θ V β ][ ] (2.20)

25
The instantaneous values of the stator and rotor currents in 3-phase system are ultimately
using the following transformation:

[][
iα
ib
=
sinθ cos θ i q][ ]
cos θ −sin θ i d
(2.21)

[] [ ][ ]
ia 1 0
2 i
i b = −1/2 −√ 3/2 α (2.22)
3 i
ic −1/2 √ 3/ 2 β

The three phase induction machine model is simulated by using the Matlab/Simulink. The
Model is implemented using all the same set of equations provided above.

In this model the simulation starts with generating a three-phase stator voltages according to
the equations (14, 15, 16), and then transforming these balanced voltages to two phase
voltages referred to the synchronously rotating frame using Clarke and Park transformation as
in equations (17, 18). After that the d-q flux linkage and current equations were implemented
as to be demonstrated ahead. Figure 3 illustrates the internal structure of the induction
machine d-q model by which the flux linkages, currents, torque and the rotor angular speed
are calculated.

26
 CHAPTER-3

INVERTERS AND PWM TECHNIQUES

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of inverter
3.3 Pulse width Modulation Techniques
3.4 Types of pulse width modulation Techniques

3.1 Introduction
D.C power can be converted into A.C power at desired output voltage and frequency by
using a power electronics device that is called an inverter. Industrial applications of inverters
are for adjustable-speed AC drives, UPS (uninterruptible power supply), HVDC transmission
lines and other. DC power inputs that inverters can use are power supply network or rotating
alternator through rectifier, full cell, or photovoltaic array.

3.2 Types of inverter

There are two common types of inverters, voltage source inverters (VSI) and current source
inverters (CSI). When an inverter has a D.C source with small or negligible impedance,
which means the inverter has a stiff D.C voltage source at its input terminal, it is called a VSI
or voltage fed inverter (VFI). When the input D.C source has high impedance, which means
the D.C source has a stiff DC current source, the inverter is called a CSI or current fed
inverter (CFI).
According to number of phases types of inverter are

1. Single phase inverter

It is divided into two types

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(a) Single phase half bridge inverter

(b) Single phase full bridge inverter

2. Three phase inverter

According to different conduction modes types of inverter are

(a) Three-Phase 180o Degree Mode VSI

(b) Three-Phase 120o Degree Mode VSI

According to the number of levels types of inverter are

(a) Three- phase two-level inverter

(b)Three -phase Multi level inverter

3.2.1 Single phase half bridge inverter

A half-bridge voltage source-inverter with resistive load can be considered as shown in Fig.
3.1 with representing load by only resistance. The circuit is operated by switching S1 (T1 &
D1) and S2 (T2& D2) alternatively at 50% duty cycle. It is seen that for 0 < t < π Transistor
T1 conducts and the load is subjected Vs/2 due to the upper voltage source Vs/2. At t = π,
transistor T1 is commutated and T2 is gated on. During the period π < t < 2π, transistor T2
conducts and the load is subjected to a voltage (-Vs/2) due to the lower voltage source Vs/2.

Fig. 3.1 Single Phase Half-Bridge Inverter

3.2.2 Single Phase Full-Bridge Inverter

The power circuit diagram of a single phase full bridge inverter is shown in Fig. 3.2. When
T1 and T2 are connected, the input voltage Vd appears across the load. If T3 and T4 are

28
connected the voltage across the load is –Vd. Table-1 shows the main principle of a single
phase full bridge inverter.

TABLE-1
Switches States for Single-Phase Full-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

Fig. 3.2 Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter

A full-bridge voltage source-inverter with resistive load can be considered as shown in Fig.
3.2 with representing load by only resistance. The circuit is operated by switching S1, S2, S3,
and S4. S1-S2 and S3-S4 are switched on and off at a 50% duty cycle. When T1 and T2 are
connected, the input voltage Vs appears across the load. If T3 and T4 are connected the
voltage across the load is –Vs. Table-1 can be considered the operation table for a single-
phase full-bridge Inverter with resistive load.

3.2.3 Three-Phase Inverter

A three phase inverters are used to provide industrial applications by adjustable frequency
power. Three phase inverters are more common than single phase inverters. DC supply for

29
three phase inverters is taken from a battery or usually from a rectifier. A six steps bridge is
used for three phase inverter by using six switches, two switches for each phase. Each step is
defined as a change in the time operation for each transistor to the next transistor in proper
sequence. For one cycle 3600, each step would be of 600 intervals for a six step inverter. Fig.
3.3 shows the power circuit diagram of a three phase bridge inverter using six IGBTs. Large
capacitors are connected at the input terminal to make the DC input constant and also
suppress the harmonics fed back to the source.

Fig. 3.3 The power circuit diagram of a three phase bridge inverter using six IGBTs

There are two patterns of gating transistors. In one pattern, each transistor conducts for 180 o
and in the other, each transistor conducts 120 0. But both patterns gating signals are applied
and removed at 600 intervals of the output voltage waveform. Both modes require a six step
bridge inverter.

3.2.3.1 Three-Phase 180o Degree Mode VSI

By referring to Fig. 3.3, each switch conducts for 1800 of a cycle. Transistor pair in each arm,
i.e. T1, T4; T3, T6 and T5, T2 are turned on with a time interval of 180 0. It means that T1
conducts for 1800 and T4 for the next 1800 of a cycle. Transistors in the upper group i.e. T1,
T3, and T5 conduct at an interval of 120 0. It implies that if T1 is operated at ωt =0 0, then T3
must be operated at ωt =1200 and T5 at ωt =2400, the same thing for lower group of
transistors. Table-2 shows the switching states for six switches and fig.3.4 shows the gating
signals.

TABLE-2
Switching states for Three-Phase Voltage Source Inverter 1800 Degree conduction

30
 Fig 3.4 1800 mode gate pulse wave form

3.2.3.2 Three-Phase 120o Degree Mode VSI

The power circuit diagram of this inverter is the same as shown in Fig.3.3. For the 120 0
degree mode VSI, each transistor conducts for 120 0 of a cycle. Like 1800 mode, 1200 mode
inverter requires six steps each of duration 600 for one cycle of the AC output voltage. In first
1200 T1 conducts with T6 for 600 then conducts with T2 for another 600. T3 will conducts for
120 0 (from 120 0 to 240 0) 60 0 (from 120 0 to 180 0) with T2 and then conducts another 60 0
(from 180 0 to 240 0) with T4. T5 will conducts 120 0 (from 240 0 to 3600) with T4 for 600
(from 2400 to 3000) and then conducts for another 600 (from 3000 to 3600) with T6. The
conduction sequence can be written as follows:-

T6T1, T1T2, T2T3, T3T4, T4T5, T5T6

3.2.4 Multilevel Inverters

Inverters are commonly used for medium voltage applications. For high-voltage high-power
applications, the inverter also serves as a control mechanism for the reactive power and
voltage stabilisation. With the multilevel converter topology the output waveform can be

31
formed with smaller voltage steps, which also decreases the stress on the bearings and
winding isolation. It obviously also gives a lower total harmonic distortion (THD) in the
output, because of the closer resemblance to the sinusoidal waveform. For multilevel
converters, medium voltage semiconductors devices can still be utilized for high-voltage
high-power applications. Still standing is the issue with the capacitor voltage balancing
problems. However, still the multilevel converter dominates on the power electronic
platform.

3.3 Pulse width Modulation Techniques

Because of advances in solid state power devices and microprocessors, switching power
converters are used in industrial application to convert and deliver their required energy to the
motor or load. PWM signals are pulse trains with fixed frequency and magnitude and variable
pulse width. There is one pulse of fixed magnitude in every PWM period. However, the
width of the pulses changes from pulse to pulse according to a modulating signal. When a
PWM signal is applied to the gate of a power transistor, it causes the turn on and turns off
intervals of the transistor to change from one PWM period to another PWM period according
to the same modulating signal. The frequency of a PWM signal must be much higher than
that of the modulating signal, the fundamental frequency, such that the energy delivered to
the motor and its load depends mostly on the modulating signal.

The advantages possessed by PWM techniques are Lower power dissipation, Easy to
implement and control, No temperature variation and aging-caused drifting or degradation in
linearity, Compatible with today’s digital micro-processors, the output voltage control can be
obtained without any additional components and with the method, lower order harmonics can
be eliminated or minimized along with its output voltage control. As higher order harmonics
can be filtered easily, the filtering requirements are minimized. The main disadvantage of this
method is that SCRs are expensive as they must possess low turn-on and turn-off times.

3.4 Types of pulse width modulation Techniques

PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width of these pulses is
however modulated to obtain output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic content. The
different PWM techniques are Single-pulse modulation, Multiple pulse modulation and
Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (Carrier based Pulse Width Modulation Technique).
These techniques are explained below in brief:
3.4.1 Single pulse width modulation

32
In single pulse-width modulation control, there is only one pulse per half-cycle and the width
of the pulse is varying to control the output voltage. Fig.-3.5 shows the generation of gating
signals of single pulse width modulation. The gating signals are generated by:
The single pulse-width modulation converts the reference signal to the square wave signal.
This process is obtained by inter the reference signal to the zero-crossing circuit witch
consider the positive part of the input signal is positive part of the output signal(square wave)
and the negative part of the input signal is negative part of the output signal as shown in Fig.-
3.5.

3.4.2 Multi-Pulse width modulation

The harmonic content can be reduced by using several pulses in each half-cycle of output
voltage. The generation of gating signals for turning on and off transistors is shown in Fig.-
3.6. The gating signals are produced by comparing reference signal with triangular carrier
wave. The frequency of the reference signal sets the output frequency (𝑓𝑜) and carrier
frequency (𝑓) determine the number of pulses per half cycle,

P=fc /2f0 (3.1)

The variation of modulation index (M) from 0 to 1 varies the pulse from 0 to ᴨ/p and the
output voltage from 0 to Vm.

33
 Fig 3.5 The generation of gating signals of single pulse width modulation

Fig 3.6 The generation of gating signals of multi -pulse width modulation

3.4.3 The Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Technique

As mentioned earlier, it is desired that the ac output voltage Vo = VaN follow a given
waveform (e.g., sinusoidal) on a continuous basis by properly switching the power valves.
The carrier-based PWM technique fulfils such a requirement as it defines the on and off
states of the switches of one leg of a VSI by comparing a modulating signal V c (desired ac
output voltage) and a triangular waveform VΔ (carrier signal). In practice, when V c > VΔ the
switch S+ is on and the switch S- is off; similarly, when Vc < VΔ the switch S+ is off and the
switch S- is on.

34
 Fig 3.7 The generation of gating signals of Carrier-Based pulse width modulation

Fig.-4 clearly shows that the ac output voltage V o = VaN is basically a sinusoidal waveform
plus harmonics. A special case is when the modulating signal V c is a sinusoidal at frequency
𝑓𝑐 and amplitude, Ṽc and the triangular signal VΔ is at frequency 𝑓Δ and amplitude ṼΔ. This is
the Sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) scheme.

3.2.3.1 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

Sinusoidal pulse width modulation is one of the pulse width modulation technique used for a
two level inverter to reduce the harmonics. In this technique three sinusoidal reference
voltages are compared with a carrier (triangular) wave of desired magnitude and frequency.
Here comparator output forms the gate pulses for three phase two level voltage source
inverter. The diagram for implementation of SPWM is shown in figure 3.8.

3.2.4 Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation

A different approach to PWM modulation is based on the space vector representation of

voltage in α, β plane. The components are found by transformations. The determination of the
switching instant may be achieved using space vector modulation technique based on the
representation of switching vectors in α, β plane. The Space Vector modulation technique is
an advanced, computation intensive PWM technique and is possibly the best among all the
PWM techniques for drives applications. Because of its superior performance characteristics,
it has been finding wide spread application in recent years. It is a more sophisticated
technique for generating a sine wave that provides a higher voltage to the motor with lower
total harmonic distortion.

35
 Fig 3.8 Generation of Switching Pulses for SPWM

The concept of space vector is derived from the rotating field of A.C machine which is used
for modulating the inverter output voltage. In this modulation technique the three phase
quantities can be transformed can be transferred to their equivalent 2-phase quantity either in
synchronously rotating frame or stationary reference frame. From this 2-phase component of
the reference voltage vector magnitude can be found and used for modulating the inverter
output.

In this project the SVPWM technique has been used. The implementation part of the space
vector modulator is explained in detail in chapter-4.

36
 CHAPTER-4

IMPLEMENTATION OF SPWM INVERTER FED INDUCTION

MOTOR DRIVE

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Inverters
4.3 sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)
4.4 Implementation of SPWM with induction motor drive
4.1 Introduction
Three phase voltage-fed PWM inverters are recently showing growing popularity for multi-
megawatt industrial drive applications. The main reasons for this popularity are easy sharing
of large voltage between the series devices and the improvement of the harmonic quality at
the output as compared to a two level inverter. In the lower end of power, GTO devices are
being replaced by IGBTs because of their rapid evolution in voltage and current ratings and
higher switching frequency.
The sinusoidal pulse width modulation method has got an excellent harmonic profile in
which higher amplitude harmonics are run at the carrier frequency and its side bands. In this
scheme different frequency modulating ratios are used at different speed ranges to control the

37
switching losses. Also, at low frequency ratios, synchronization of carrier wave with the
modulating wave is essential to control the sub-harmonics.
This technique applies simple control strategy by comparing the three phase modulated
signals (known as reference signals) with carrier signal. In this technique the switching
frequency depends on the carrier switching. The amplitude of output voltage can be varied by
controlling the modulation index .Traditionally the SPWM technique is widely used in
variable speed induction motor drives.
4.2 Inverters
A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is
called an inverter. Some industrial applications of inverters are for adjustable-speed ac drives,
induction heating, UPS, HVDC transmission lines etc. DC power inputs that inverters can use
are power supply network or rotating alternator through rectifier, full cell, or photovoltaic
array. There are two common types of inverters, voltage source inverters (VSI) and current
source inverters (CSI).
4.2.1 Voltage Source Inverters (VSI)
When an inverter has a DC source with small or negligible impedance, which means the
inverter has a stiff DC voltage source at its input terminal, it is called a VSI or voltage fed
inverter (VFI). In VSIs using thyristors some type of forced commutation is usually required.
In case VSIs are made up of using GTOs, power transistors, power MOSFETS or IGBTs,
self-commutation with base or gate drive signals is employed for their controlled turn-on and
turn-off. In these inverters, input voltage is maintained constant and the amplitude of output
voltage does not depend on the load. However, the waveform of load current as well as its
magnitude depends upon the nature of the load impedance.

Fig: 4.1 phase voltage source inverter

38
4.2.2 Current Source Inverter (CSI)
A current source inverter (CSI) is fed with adjustable current from a dc source of high
impedance, i.e. from a stiff dc current source.
The amplitude of output current from CSI is independent of the load. However, the
magnitude of output voltage and its waveform output from CSI is dependent upon the nature
of load impedance. The dc input to CSI is obtained from a fixed voltage source through a
controlled rectifier bridge, or through a diode bridge and a chopper. In order that current
input to CSI is almost ripple free, L-filter is used before CSI.
A CSI converts the input dc current to an ac current at its output terminals. The output
frequency of ac current depends upon the rate of triggering the SCRs. The amplitude of ac
output current can be adjusted by controlling the magnitude of dc input current. A CSI
does not require any feedback diodes, whereas these are required in a VSI.

Fig: 4.2- phase current source inverter

4.3 sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)

In this method of modulation, several pulses per half cycle are used; the pulse width is a
sinusoidal function of the angular position of the pulse.
For realizing SPWM, a high-frequency triangular carrier wave is compared with a sinusoidal
reference wave of desired frequency. The intersection of these waves determines the
switching instants and commutation of the modulated pulse.
The carrier and reference waves are mixed in a comparator. When sinusoidal wave has
magnitude higher than the triangular wave, the comparator output is high, otherwise it is low.
The comparator output is processed in a trigger pulse generator in such a manner that the

39
output voltage wave of the inverter has a pulse width in agreement with the comparator pulse
width.
The ratio of amplitude of the reference wave to the carrier wave is called the modulation
index and it controls the harmonic content of the output voltage waveform.

Fig: 4.3 Generation of switching pulses for SPWM

4.4 Implementation of SPWM with induction motor drive

Fig.4.4 indicates the implementation of SPWM with induction motor drive. In SPWM a
triangular signal is compared with sinusoidal signals to produce gate pulses for VSI.

Fig.4.4 Implementation of SPWM with induction motor

40
 CHAPTER-5

IMPLEMENTATION OF SVPWM INVERTER FED INDUCTION

MOTOR DRIVE

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Switching states
5.3 Space Vector concept
5.4 Principle of space vector PWM
5.5 Realization of space vector PWM
5.6 Determination of , , and
5.7 Determination of time duration , , :
5.8 Switching time duration at any sector
5.9 Determination of switching time for each switch ( to )
5.10 Switching Sequence Table at each sector

5.1 Introduction
A different approach to PWM modulation is based on the space vector representation of
voltage in α, β plane. The components are found by transformations. The determination of the
switching instant may be achieved using space vector modulation technique based on the
representation of switching vectors in α, β plane. The Space Vector modulation technique is
an advanced, computation intensive PWM technique and is possibly the best among all the

41
PWM techniques for drives applications. Because of its superior performance characteristics,
it has been finding wide spread application in recent years. It is a more sophisticated
technique for generating a sine wave that provides a higher voltage to the motor with lower
total harmonic distortion.

5.2 Switching states

The operating status of the switches in the two-level inverter in Fig. 5.1 can be represented by
switching states. Switching state „1‟ denotes that the upper switch in an inverter leg is on and
the inverter terminal voltage is positive (+Vdc) while „0‟ indicates that the inverter terminal
voltage is zero due to the conduction of the lower switch. There are eight possible
combinations of switching states in the two-level inverter as listed in Table-1. The switching
state [100], for example, corresponds to the conduction of S1, S6, and S2 in the inverter legs
a, b and c respectively. Among the eight switching states, [111] and [000] are zero states and
the others are active states.

Fig.5.1 voltage source inverter

5.3 Space Vector concept

In this modulation technique the three phase quantities can be transformed can be transferred
to their equivalent 2-phase quantity either in synchronously rotating frame or stationary
reference frame. From this 2-phase component of the reference voltage vector magnitude can
be found and used for modulating the inverter output. Considering the stationary reference
frame the process of obtaining the space vector can be explained. Let the three phase
sinusoidal component be

42
 (5.1)

(5.2)

(5.3)
When this 3-phase voltage is applied to the A.C machine it produces a rotating flux in the air
gap of the A.C machine. This rotating flux component can be represented as single rotating
voltage vector. The magnitude and angle of the rotating vector can be found by mean of
Clark’s Transformation as explained below in the stationary reference frame. The
representation of rotating vector in complex plane is shown in Fig. 5.2.
Space Vector representation of the 3 phase quantity

(5.4)

TABLE-3

Switching states for two level inverter

Where,

(5.5)
Equating the real and imaginary part of equation (5.4)

(5.6)

43
Fig.5.2 Representation of Rotating Vector
in Complex plane

5.4 Principle of space

vector PWM

(1) Here the sinusoidal

voltage is treated as a constant
amplitude vector rotating at
constant frequency.
(2) SVPWM approximates

the reference voltage by a combination of the eight switching patterns ( to )

according to the sector in which is present.

5.5 Realization of space vector PWM

The space vector PWM is realized based on the following steps:

Step 1: Determine , , and angle ( ).

Step 2: Determine time duration , , .
Step3: Determine the switching time of each transistor (S1 to S6).

5.6 Determination of , , and

Coordinate transformation: to . The Voltage Space vector and its Components in
plane are shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig.5.3 Voltage Space Vector and its components

Using Fig. 5.3
44
 (5.7)

(5.8)

The voltage , , and angle are Calculated using the above equation.
5.7. Determination of time duration , , :

Reference vector as a combination of adjacent Vectors at sector

Fig.5.4

Considering the sampling time to be sufficiently small, the reference voltage remains

constant during . When it falls in sector 1 as shown in Fig. 5.4 , it can be found by two

adjacent active vectors , and and the equation of the reference voltage can be
written as follows:-

(5.9)
Where

(5.10)
, , are the time for , , respectively.

45
 (5.11)

(5.12)
(5.13)
Where , modulation index

(5.14)

(5.15)
5.8. Switching time duration at any sector

(5.16)
(5.17)
Where ( sector number),

5.9. Determination of switching time for each switch ( to )

( ) Sector

( ) Sector

) Sector
(

46
 ( ) Sector

( ) Sector

( ) Sector

Fig.5.5 Switching pulse pattern for the three phase inverter in different sectors

The Switching pulse pattern for the three phases in the 6 different sectors are shown in the
Fig.5.5.The Switching sequence table for the lower and upper thyristors are shown in the
table 2. The above construction of the symmetrical pulse pattern for two consecutive

47
intervals are shown and ( = Switching frequency) is the sampling time.
Note that the null time has been conveniently distributed between and vectors to
describe the symmetrical pulse width. Studies have shown that a symmetrical pulse pattern
gives minimal output harmonics [ ].

5.10. Switching Sequence Table at each sector

TABLE-4
Switching sequence table

48
5.11-Implimentation of SPWM and SVPWM with Induction Motor Drive
Fig.5.6 indicates the implementation of SVPWM with induction motor drive where a
reference voltage vector and sector number of the voltage vector is used to generate gate
pulses.

49
 Fig.5.6 Implementation of SVPWM with induction motor

CHAPTER-6

SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 Simulation results and discussion

6.1.1 Results for SPWM inverter fed Induction motor drive
6.1.2 Simulation results for SVPWM inverter fed Induction motor drive

50
 6.1 Simulation results and discussion
6.1.1 Results for SPWM inverter fed Induction motor drive

40

20
Current iabc in ampere

-20

-40
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time in second

(a) (b)

Fig.6.1 SPWM (a) machine current (b) harmonic analysis of current

400

200
Phase voltage in volt

-200

-400
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time in second

(a) (b)

Fig.6.2 SPWM (a) phase voltage (b) harmonic analysis of phase voltage

400

300

200
Line voltage in volt

100

-100

-200

-300

-400
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time in second

(a) (b)

Fig.6.3 SPWM (a) line voltage (b) harmonic analysis of line voltage

51
 15
Electromagnetic torque in N.m 400

10 300

Angular speed in rad/sec

200
5
100
0
0

-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 -100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time in second Time in second

(a) (b)

Fig.6.4 SPWM (a) electromagnetic torque (b) rotor speed

From Fig. 6.1, 6.2 & 6.3 it can be observed that the THD of machine current, phase voltage,
line voltage for SPWM induction motor drive for no load condition are 7.52%, 163.61% and
163.21% respectively.

6.1.2 Simulation results for SVPWM inverter fed Induction motor drive

40

20
Current iabc in ampere

-20

-40
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time in second

(a) (b)

Fig.6.5 SVPWM (a) machine current (b) harmonic analysis of current

300

200

100
Phase voltage in volt

-100

-200

-300
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time in second

(a) (b)

Fig.6.6 SVPWM (a) phase voltage (b) harmonic analysis of phase voltage

52
 400

200
Line voltage in volt

-200

-400
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time in second

(a) (b)

Fig.6.7 SVPWM (a) line voltage (b) harmonic analysis of line voltage

20
400
Electromagnetic torque in N.m

10
300

Angular speed in rad/sec

0
200

-10 100

-20 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time in second Time in second

(a) (b)

Fig.6.8 SVPWM (a) electromagnetic torque (b) rotor speed

From Fig. 6.5,6.6 & 6.7 it can be observed that the THD of machine current, phase voltage,
line voltage for SPWM induction motor drive for no load condition are 4.47%, 131.06% and
127.12% respectively.
From the above it is inferred that the THD is remarkably reduced in case of SVPWM
induction motor drive.

TABLE-5
Induction Motor Parameter

53
 CONCLUSION

54
Study of Two Level Inverter fed induction motor drive using SPWM and SVPWM was
carried out in this paper. Harmonic analysis for both the methods was done using MATLAB-
simulink. From the simulation results it was found that THD for phase current, phase voltage,
and line voltage of SPWM fed induction motor are 7.52%, 163.61% and 163.21%
respectively & the corresponding values for SVPWM induction motor drive are 4.47%,
131.06% and 127.12% respectively. Again SVPWM technique utilizes DC bus voltage more
efficiently. Hence it is concluded that the harmonic content of voltages and current is
significantly reduced by using SVPWM. So due to better performance over SPWM, the
SVPWM is a better choice for induction motor drives.

REFERENCES

55
[1] J. Holtz, “ Pulse width modulation – A Survey”, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
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[3]G. Narayanan, and V.T. Ranganathan, “Synchronized PWM strategies based on space
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[4] N. Mohan, T.M. Underland, and W.P. Robbins, J. D. Irwin, “Power Electronics:
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[5] R. Krishan, “Electric Motor Drives: Modelling, Analysis and Control”, Printice Hall,
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[6] B. K. Bose, Power Electronics and AC Drives. Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006
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56