ANAPHY REVIEWER – PAU

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
PROTRACTION RETRACTIO
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - system that deliver ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
oxygen to the circulatory system for transport to
all body cells.
PARTS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Structurally Respiratory system is composed

of 2 major parts

 Upper respiratory system (nose,

pharynx, and associated structures)
IMPORTANCE OF OXYGEN
 Lower respiratory system (larynx,
 Oxygen is needed by the body because it trachea, bronchi and the lungs)
is the final electron acceptor in the
Functionally the Respiratory system is
electron transport.
composed of 2 major parts
 Without Oxygen there is little or no ATP
produced.  Conducting portion - composed of the
 Oxygen is required to sustain all cellular series of interconnected cavities and
activities such as growth, repair, and tubes both outside and within the lungs.
locomotion.  Respiratory portion - It is composed of
tissues with in the lungs where actual gas
Hemoglobin - It is where oxygen and carbon
exchange occurs.
dioxide attach themselves.
PATHWAY OF AIR FROM THE EXTERNAL
Globin - Is the protein part of hemoglobin.
ENVIRONMENT TO THE LUNGS
Heme - The non-protein part of hemoglobin.
NOSE - site where air is filtered, warmed, and
moisten.

SOFT AND HARD PALATE - It separates the

nasal cavity (where air passes) and the oral cavity
(where food enters).
PHARYNX (THROAT) - where air and food meet GAS EXCHANGE IN THE ALVEOLI AND THE
together. BLOOD

LARYNX (VOICE BOX) - An organ where voice  The air enters the alveoli from the
is formed. respiratory tract.
 The air diffuses to the thin walls of the tiny
sacs into the surrounding capillaries.
 As the blood moves through the
capillaries, the blood picks up oxygen
coming from the alveolus and return
carbon dioxide back to the alveolus for
exhalation.

Glottis - A pair of vocal folds responsible in the

production of sound.
TRACHEA (WIND PIPE) - tubular passageway of
air.
BRONCHI - separated by carina a part of the
trachea.
MECHANICS OF BREATHING
LUNGS - responsible for exchange of gas with
the circulatory system. BREATHING - Breathing occurs because of air
pressure changes between the lungs and the
atmosphere. Human breath about one liter of
air per second.
Two phases of breathing

 Inspiration (inhalation) - The movement

of air into the lungs.
 Expiration (exhalation) - The movement
of air out of the lungs.

ALVEOLI (ALVEOLUS) - actual exchange of

gases happens between the blood and the lungs.
DIAPHRAGM - dome-shaped muscle at the
bottom of the lungs.
LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM IMMUNOCOMPROMISE - having an immune
system that has been impaired by disease or
treatment.
RESISTANCE - ability of the body to ward off
damage or disease through our defenses.
SUSCEPTIBILITY - vulnerability or lack of
resistance of one’s body.
TWO TYPES OF RESISTANCE
Nonspecific resistance (Innate defenses)
- Present at birth
Specific resistance (Immunity)
- Develops in response to contact with a
particular invader.
FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 Draining excess interstitial fluid.

 Transporting dietary lipids such as fat-
soluble vitamins.
 Carry out immune response.
STRUCTURES IN THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 Lymph - colorless, watery fluid that

surrounds the body tissues and circulate
in the lymphatic system.
 Lymph vessels - the passageway of the
fluid called lymph.
 Lymphoid tissue and organs – tissues
and organs found in the lymphatic system.

Lymphatic System - Responsible for the body

defense against pathogens present everywhere in
our environment.
PATHOGENS - disease causing microbes such
as bacteria, fungi, viruses etc.
2 categories of Lymphatic tissues and organs
IMMUNOCOMPETENT - capable of mounting
Primary lymphatic organs - sites where stem
immune response.
cells divide and produce healthy WBC that carry
IMMUNOSUPPRESS - have their immune out immune response.
system being suppressed by certain agents such
Red bone marrow
as drugs, radiation etc.
Thymus
 PHYSICAL FACTORS
SKIN - largest organ in our body.
MUCOUS MEMBRANES - secretes the fluid
called mucus.
LACRIMAL GLAND - produce the fluid called
tears.
Secondary lymphatic organs - sites where most
immune responses occur.
Lymph nodes
Spleen
Lymphatic nodules (follicles)

SALIVA - produced by the salivary glands that

washes away microbes.

NON-SPECIFIC RESISTANCE (INNATE

DEFENSE) - body defense that is present at birth.
PHYSICAL FACTORS - natural physical
processes happening in our body.
CHEMICAL FACTORS - helps our body from
pathogens.
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System - Is a highly complex, highly

organized network of billions of neurons and
neuroglia.
STRUCTURES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain - It is enclosed by the skull

2 PARTS OF BRAIN
Right hemisphere - controls the left side of your
body.
Left hemisphere - controls the left side of your
body.
Some functions are controlled by both.
The Brain Stem Relays Signals Between the
Brain and Spinal Cord and Manages Basic
Involuntary Functions
Medulla oblongata - continuous with the spinal
cord and connects to the pons above.
Midbrain – connects the pons to the
diencephalon and forebrain.
Pons - helps control breathing rhythms.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine system - body’s main systems for
communicating, controlling and coordinating the
body’s work.
Exocrine – release products (enzymes) into
ducts
Endocrine – directly to bloodstream; NO DUCTS
The endocrine system is consisting of;
Endocrine glands - glands of the endocrine
system that secrete their products, hormones.
Hormones - Is a mediator molecule that is
released in one part of the body but regulates
activity of the cells in others parts of the body.
2 TYPES OF CELLULAR SIGNALING USING
HORMONES
CIRCULATING HORMONE - they pass from the
secretory cells that make them into interstitial fluid
and then into the blood.
LOCAL HORMONE - act locally on neighboring
cells or on the same cell that secreted them
without first entering the bloodstream.
2 TYPES OF LOCAL HORMONES
PARACRINES- (para-= beside or nearby)
those that act on the neighboring cell.
AUTOCRINES- (auto-=self) those that act
on the same cell that secreted them.
CHEMICAL CLASSES OF HORMONES
LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONE
- hormones that are soluble in lipids.
WATER SOLUBLE HORMONES
Lipid soluble hormones includes;

 STEROID HORMONE- these are

hormones that derived from cholesterol,
 TWO THYROID HORMONE- these are
hormones that came from the synthesis of
iodine and amino acid tyrosine.
 NITRIC OXIDE- it is both a
neurotransmitter and hormone, cause
vasodilation of blood vessels.
WATER SOLUBLE HORMONES
- hormones that is soluble in water.
Water soluble hormones includes;

 AMINE HORMONES - these are amino

acid that retains their amine group,
 PEPTIDE HORMONES - protein
hormones that came from combination of
amino acid
 EICOSANOID HORMONES - (20 carbon
fatty acid)
EXCRETORY /URINARY SYSTEM ORGANS FOR EXCRETION
Contractile Vacuoles - Found in paramecium
Flame Cells, Protonephridia - Planarians have
two protonephridia composed of branched
tubules that empty wastes through excretory
pores on their surface.
Metanephridia - Earthworms have two
metanephridia in almost all of the body segments.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 eliminating of the bodies nitrogenous

(nitrogen-containing) and other wastes.
 regulates the amount of water and ions
Malphigian Tubules - The excretory organs of
present in the body fluids.
insects are malphighian tubules.
WATER BALANCE
Green gland - Excretory organ of crustaceans
Osmoconformers - Organisms that can adapt in (crab, shrimp)
wide range of salinities.
Kidneys - kidneys of vertebrate’s function in the
Osmoregulators - Animals that tend to maintain a removal of nitrogenous and other wastes and in
constant concentration. osmotic regulation of the body fluids.

DIFFERENT WAYS IN HOW ANIMALS NITROGENOUS WASTE - The nitrogen

COTROL THE WATER AND SALT CONTENT containing compounds produced as a result of
OF THEIR BODY protein breakdown are toxic and must be
removed by the excretory system.

Ammonotelic - Animals that eliminate

nitrogenous waste in a form of ammonia.
Uricotelic - Group of some terrestrial animals
that conserve water by converting urea to uric
acid.
Ureotelic - Excrete urea as their major
nitrogenous waste.
The excretory/urinary system - is responsible
for filtering wastes from the blood and both
forming and secreting urine.
The urinary system is relatively simple
anatomically and consists of:
Kidneys
Ureters
Bladder
Urethra

Nephrons - are the actual filtration elements of

the kidneys.

KIDNEY AND ITS ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Biparental Reproduction - most common form
of reproduction found among many invertebrates
Reproduction - Is the biological process by
and vertebrates.
which new individual organisms are produced.
HUMAN REPRODUCTION AND
2 main types of reproduction
DEVELOPMENT
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - process by which
an organism creates a genetically-similar or
identical copy of itself without a contribution of
genetic material from another individual.
Types of asexual reproduction

 Binary fission
 Budding
 Vegetative reproduction/propagation
 Spore formation
 Fragmentation
 Parthenogenesis
 Apomixis
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - New individuals are
produced by the fusion of haploid gametes to
form a diploid zygote. Sperm are male gametes;
egg cell are female gametes.
Mitosis and meiosis are an integral part
of cell division.
Mitosis - occurs in somatic cells, the resultant
number of cells in mitosis is twice the number of
original cells.
Meiosis - occurs in gametes, the resultant
number of cells is four times the number of
original cells.

Gonads - are sex organs that produce gametes

(sex cells).
Male gonads are the testes, which produce
sperm and male sex hormones (testosterone).
Female gonads are the ovaries, which produce
eggs (ova) and female sex hormones (estrogen
and progesterone).

Type of sexual reproduction are; Male reproductive system is consisting of;

Conjugation - simplest form of sexual TESTES/TESTICLES

reproduction.
DUCT SYSTEM
Hermaphroditism - organism that have both
ACCESSORY GLANDS
male and female gonads
PENIS
Testosterone - hormone that causes guys to
develop deeper voices, bigger muscles, and body
and facial hair, and it also stimulates the
production of sperm. Reproductive Ducts Push Sperm and Semen
Through the Internal Genitalia
The Testes Produce Millions and Millions of
Sperm Each Day
The testes (or testicles) are the male gonads and
sit below the penis within a sac called the
scrotum

DUCT SYSTEM - Pathway of sperm cell, where

sperm cell travels towards the external
environment.

When the body is cold, the scrotum shrinks and

becomes tighter to hold in body heat.
When it's warm, the scrotum becomes larger and
floppier to get rid of extra heat.
 Erection - first sign of sexual excitement.
Ejaculation - powerful release of semen
2 Types of female ejaculate
Squirting fluid – usually colorless and odorless
Ejaculate fluid – typically thick and appear
sticky.
Health Benefits of Ejaculation

 Helps you sleep

 Prevention of prostate cancer
 Relieving tension
 Relieving from urinary tract infection
 Makes your harder or strong
 Earning some extra money

Male G spot - is the prostate. It is located just

inside the rectum, and a person can stimulate the
prostate either internally or externally.
Bulbourethral glands - These glands add mucus
that helps with sperm motility. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Fructose - used by sperm cells for their energy.
Prostaglandins - serve as a signaling molecules
that induces contraction of the female
reproductive organ that aids the movement of
sperm toward the egg cell.
PENIS - It is made up of two major parts;
SHAFT – main part of the penis
GLANS - the tip (sometimes called the head).

EXTERNAL GANITALIA
The female external genitalia (vulva) is consist
of;

 LABIA
 MONS PUBIS
 VAGINA
 CLITTORIS
 URETHRA
Vagina - is a muscular, hollow tube that extends
from the vaginal opening to the uterus.
Inner mucous membrane – lines the smooth
muscle walls of the vagina.
Vagina Functions

 For sexual intercourse

 The pathway that a baby takes out of a
woman's body during childbirth
 The route for the menstrual blood (the
Vulva - External part of the female reproductive
period) to leave the body from the uterus.
organs. Located between the legs, the vulva
covers the opening to the vagina and other Hypen - A thin sheet of tissue with one or more
reproductive organs located inside the body. holes in.
Mons pubis - fleshy area located just above the
top of the vaginal opening.
Clitoris - has a single purpose: to enable you to
experience sexual pleasure.
INTERNAL GENITALIA
The internal genitalia of female are consisting
of;

 VAGINA
 UTERUS
 FALLOPIAN TUBE
 OVARIES

G spot, or Gräfenberg spot - located a few inches

inside the vagina along the upper wall.