Theoretic Perspectives in Sociology
Sociology – science of society
and the social interaction taking place
among individuals in a social group.
Community behavior – starts from family
 Human behavior is social
Areas of sociology
1. Social organization
a. Basis of what we have now
b. Scope: social institutions (school,
family), social groups (professional
association, organizations)
2. Social psychology
a. Individual is affected by larger
social structure
b. E.g., Holocaust
c. Scope: group dynamics, ethnicity,
gender
3. Social change and social
disorganization
a. Alteration in how society is
organized
b. Explain cause and effect of social
change
c. Causes: Migration, social
transformation, modernization
- Influences social change:
o Physical environment –
climate change
o Population changes –
migration (PH is top 2 with
most migrants); new people
can create subcultures or
affect existing cultures
o Isolation and contact –
pandemic
o Technology – cars and
airplanes
4. Population and demographics
a. Trends in population growth
b. Social, economic and political
systems
5. Human ecology
6. Sociological methods and research
a. Social experiments (obtain theories
to explain behavior)
7. Applied sociology
a. Create solutions
Evolutionary theory
- Society is developing and always
growing/improving
- Present people are superior than
ancestors
Unilinear – all people pass the same changes
and has the same end point
Who believed in unilinear change?
1. Auguste Comte – people are developing
based on application of sciences
2. Emile Durkheim – social structures and
civilizations start from simple to
complicated
3. Herbert Spencer – societies are
complicated / complex systems
Multilinear – change occurs in several ways; not
in one direction
- Believed by modern evolutionists
Lenski – evolution is multilinear
Structural-Functional theory
Durkheim:
1. Mechanical solidarity – occurs in simple
societies (herds cattle, Amish societies)
2. Organic solidarity – people are
interdependent
Types of functions:
1. Manifest function – Robert Merton;
deliberate and transparent
2. Latent function - obscure
Conflict theory
- Karl Marx
- Focus on negative or conflict
- Challenges status quo
(encourages revolution and social
change)
Symbolic interaction theory
- People give symbols and
meanings
- People interpret
 Founders of Sociology
1. Auguste Comte
a. French
b. Father of sociology
c. Coined the word sociology as a
body of science
3 stages of societies
o Religious
o Metaphysical
o Scientific
2. Herbert Spencer
a. English
b. Change in one part of society also
changes the other
c. Society will correct its own defects
by survival of the fittest
i. Fittest: rich, powerful,
successful
ii. Unfit: Poor, unsuccessful
d. Lean towards homeostasis
e. Government interference will
weaken society
f. Interdependence and stability
define society
3. Karl Marx
a. German
b. Disagrees with Spencer
c. Studied exploitation of the poor
d. Cause of social change is conflict
and competition
Bourgeoisie – capitalist; owns means of
production
o exploits laborers
(proletariats)
Marx predicted that laborers are not
destined to be “unfit” but are destined to
overthrow capitalists
- proletariats should work according
to abilities and needs
- take an action in changing society
4. Emile Durkheim
a. Used scientific methods to
sociology (first three acknowledged
science but did not apply to study)
b. Interested with phenomenon of
suicide
c. Uses systematic observation and
considers facts
5. Max Weiber
a. German
b. Believes in protestant ethics (e.g.,
hardwork)
Culture
Cultural values and norms
1. Cultural values
a. Good, bad, right, wrong
b. Functionalism is prevalent across
cultures (American culture:
achievement and prestige,
democracy)
Ideal culture – society professes to believe
Real culture – society actually follows
2. Cultural norms
a. Culture’s established guidelines
b. Different per cultures
c. Americans – eye contact when
speaking; Asians – gaze out when
speaking
4 main categories of norms:
1. Folkways – convention and norms
(e.g., burp after meals)
2. Mores – governs morality (e.g.,
showing to church naked)
3. Laws
4. Taboo – e.g., incest, child abuse
Cultural diversity
1. Subculture
a. Smaller cultural groups coexist but
diverge from dominant cultures
b. Utilize separate language and
attires (e.g., chinoys)
2. Counterculture
a. Defying prevailing culture
b. “protest” groups
3. Assimilation and multiculturalism
a. Recognizes social/cultural
distinctions and differences
b. E.g., New York – melting pot of
diverse cultures
4. Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism
a. What’s normal here may not be
normal in others
Ethnocentrism – own culture is superior
than others
Xenocentrism – other culture Is superior
than one’s own culture
Cultural relativism – culture should be
understood in own culture’s lenses
5. Material vs non-material culture
a. Material – physical objects define
culture (church, school)
b. Non-material – nonphysical
(values, norms, beliefs)