Journal of Occupational Science

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A theory of the human need for occupation

Ann Wilcock

To cite this article: Ann Wilcock (1993) A theory of the human need for occupation, Journal of
Occupational Science, 1:1, 17-24, DOI: 10.1080/14427591.1993.9686375

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 ASTA NEWS
A THEORY OF THE HUMAN NEED FOR OCCUPATION
Ann Wilcock
Abstract
This paper discusses occupation as a central aspect of
the human experience. It argues that occupation fulfils
basic human needs essential for survival, provides the
mechanism for people to exercise and develop innate
capacities of a biological, social and cultural nature, to
adapt to environmental changes, and to flourish as
individuals. However the basic occupational needs of
people have been obscured by the current complexity of
occupational technology and economy, and the social
strictures, divisions, and values which have been
established progressively throughout time.
Key Words
ABILITY
HOLISTIC HEALTH
HOMEOSTASIS
NEEDS
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Ann Wilcock is the Head of the School of Occupational
Therapy, at the University of South Australia. She is
currently researching the relationship between occupation,
health, occupational therapy and health promotion with the
Dept. of Community Medicine, University of Adelaide.
OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE : Australia
INTRODUCTION
“ It is the unique blend of biology and culture that
makes the species 'Homo sapiens' a truly unique kind
of animal.....Humans are different, not so much for
what we do.....but rather the fact that we can do more
or less what we want.” 1
Occupation, that is, purposeful activity, is a central aspect
of the human experience. In developing a theory of the
human need for occupation an exploration of occupational
evolution as well as the biological and the socio-cultural
aspects of occupational behaviour is necessary. This
paper, which is based on a study of human occupational
behaviour throughout history, explores the proposition that
although in most instances the conception, expression and
execution of occupation is unique and motivated by socio-
cultural values and beliefs the need to engage in purposeful
occupation is innate and related to health and survival.
All animals appear to have some special characteristic which
is paramount to their survival. This varies between and
within species. For some it is speed, for others the ability to
camouflage, and for yet others, highly developed visual or
auditory capacities. Many animals possess qualities and
characteristics once thought unique to humans, which is not
surprising as all mammalian brains have neuronal circuitry
and systems which enable them to receive, attend to, interpret,
communicate with, and act upon information from the
environment. In fact, “there is no strong evidence of unique
brain-behavior relationhips in any species within the class
Mammalia” 2. The difference between species is in the
degree of capacities. Ethologist, Konrad Lorenz contends
that:
Among humans ..perceptions of depth and direction,
a central nervous representation of space, Gestalt
perception and the capacity for abstraction, insight
and learning, voluntary movement, curiosity and
exploratory behavior and imitation .... are more
strongly developed than any of them is among an
animal species, even if they represent for those
animals a fulfilment of the most vital, life-furthering
functions 3.
April 1993, Vol 1, No 1. 17
 ASTA NEWS
The difference between humans and the other mammals is occupation the greater the change to the environment which in
manifest in the size of the human brain. It is 6.3 times larger
than expected for mammals of the same body size4, with the
difference mainly attributable to an increase in association
areas of the cortex. These are responsible for the mediation
of cognitive processes such as the capacities noted by
Lorenz, and complex communication, language, thinking,
forward planning, problem solving, analysis, judgement and
adaptation. It is these highly developed cognitive capacities,
along with consciousness, which are the special survival
characteristics of humans, enabling them to adapt to and
meet the challenge of many different environments and
dangers.
These differences in degree of cognitive capacity are central
to the occupational nature of humans who go beyond
survival needs in their pursuit of occupation because they
free them from the functional constraints of most animals,
enabling them to use their apparently strong drive to engage
in daily, new or adventurous occupations. People are able
to undertake activities with individuality of purpose; to
think about the effects, conceptualize and plan beforehand;
and to reflect and mentally alter future behaviour as a result
of outcomes. Children, through play, the predominant
occupation of the young, learn practical skills to enable them
to survive, to interact with others, to choose future roles, in
fact to develop according to their environment and cultural
values. Occupation provides the mechanism for social
interaction, and societal development and growth, forming
the foundation stone of communal, local and national
identity, because not only do individuals engage in separate
pursuits, they are able to plan and execute group activity to
the extent of national government or to achieve international
goals, for individual, mutual and community purposes. As
Marx suggests “History is nothing but the activity of man
pursuing his aims” 5. Individuals dream and communities
plan what they will ‘do’ in the future. Such dreams and plans
often predict potential accolades for what will be achieved,
reflecting how occupations are the outward expression of
culturally desired intellectual, moral and physical attributes.
Occupation is the mechanism by which individuals
demonstrate the use of their capacities by achievements of
value and worth to their society and the world. It is only by
their activities that people can demonstrate what they are,
or what they hope to be. Occupational achievement usually
results in self development and growth experiences, which
Hegel and Marx described as “labour as man’s act of self
creation “ 6.
Marx founded much of his philosophy on the idea that
labour is the collective creative activity of mankind, in fact,
is ‘man’s species nature’ 7. As people engage in occupation
to master their environment and improve human
opportunities, well-being and survival, the physical and
social environment is altered. The more sophisticated the
18 OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE : Australia
turn causes further change to and development of people, and
“by thus acting on the external world and changing it, he at
the same time changes his own nature” 8. In the same vein,
Braverman proposes that people are the special product of
purposeful action arguing that occupation which “transcends
mere instinctual activity is the force which created human
kind and the force by which humankind created the world as
we know it” 9.
The idea that occupation is not just the object of human
function but is an integrated part of each persons being in
relationship with the world, suggests the need to explore the
biological purpose of the human need to ‘do’. This need is so
much a part of our being that we have, to this time, paid scant
attention to it’s purpose, other than, in post-industrial societies,
as an objective of living. In considering people as occupational
beings it is implied that humans need to engage in occupation
in order to flourish, and that as Selye observes purposeful use
of time is a biological necessity because”our brain slips into
chaos and confusion unless we constantly use it for work that
seems worthwhile to us.” 10. Further Sigerist argues that work
is essential in maintaining health “because it determines the
chief rhythm of life, balances it, and gives meaning and
significance. An organ that does not work atrophies and the
mind that does not work becomes dumb”11.
BIOLOGICAL NEED
Because basic biological needs are now obscured by millions
of years of acquired values, present day awareness may not
reflect human needs which were, and probably still are,
fundamental to healthy survival. In fact, the study of biological
needs has been neglected of late either because, as Allport
remarked on fashion in scientific enquiry, “we never seem to
solve our problems or exhaust our concepts; we only grow
tired of them”12, or because of a false dichotomy between
disciplines concerned with the study of biology and sociology
which mirrors the Cartesian division of mind and body. In the
long running nature versus nurture debate the need to consider
both is poorly recognised except perhaps by disciplines such
as ethology, sociobiology and occupational therapy.
Biological mechanisms aimed at ensuring survival are basic to
all animals, and the proposition put by Ornstein and Sobel in
‘The Healing Brain’13 that “the major role of the brain is to mind
the body and maintain health” appears more logical than some
of the lofty purposes attributed to it by those seeking to
differentiate humans from their animal heritage. The brain, they
argue, by making “countless adjustments” is able to maintain
stability between “social worlds, our mental and emotional
lives, and our internal physiology” . It is contended here that
biological ‘needs’ have an integral role in this process.
April 1993, Vol 1, No 1.
 ASTA NEWS
It was in the early nineteen thirties that the ‘concept oforganism by facilitating behaviour or satisfying a
need’ as a ‘central motivating variable’, made its debut
into academic psychology, eventually replacing the notion
of instinct, although unlike instinct it does not have a
‘repertoire of inherited, unlearned action patterns’ 14.
Many needs theorists of the time were influenced by
physiological discoveries such as those pertaining to
homeostasis, and the notions propounded about ‘drives’ as
persistent motivations, organic in origin, which “arouse,
sustain, and regulate human and animal behavior” . These
were seen as distinct from external determinants of behaviour
such as “social goals, interests, values, attitudes and
personality traits” 15. Dashiell in ‘Fundamentals of Objective
Psychology’16 for example argues that
The primary drives to persistent forms of animal and
human conduct are tissue conditions within the
organism giving rise to stimulations exciting the
organism to overt activity. A mans interest and
desires may become ever so elaborate, refined,
socialized, sublimated, idealistic; but the raw basis
from which they are developed is found in the
phenomena of living matter.
Lorenz in examining “the purposefulness of the anatomic
characteristic as well as the behavior patterns of every
living creature "17 observes that humans do lack “long, self-
contained chains of innate behavior patterns” but that
they have more “genuinely instinctive impulses than any
other animal " 18. It is such impulses which express biological
needs.
In the 1973 Dictionary of Behavioral Science, ‘Need’ is
described as:
the condition of lacking, wanting or requiring
something which if present would benefit the
Warn of problem Protect and Prevent
Discomfort Energy surge to
calling for Action use Capabilities
↑ ↑
Feedback link
Figure 1 : Needs: three way role in health
OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE : Australia
tension.
and also as
... a construct representing a force in the brain which
directs and organises the individual’s perception,
thinking and action, so as to change an existing,
unsatisfying situation. 19
The view held here accepts and extends this concept arguing
that ‘needs’ relate not only to correction of disequilibrium
but to facilitating what is required for living organisms -
plants, animals or humans to fulfil potential and flourish 20
21
. With this view, biological needs are seen as inborn health
agents which recognise the organism as a ‘whole in
interaction with the environment’ as part of an open system.
They do not differentiate between physical, mental or social
issues in the way of modern society, or as does medicine,
psychology or sociology, but work as part of ‘a flow of
processes’ within the biological hierarchy relating structures
and function 22, and are integral to the collaboration between
biological rhythms and homeostasis as described by
Campbell23.
Using a cybernetic - that is, a transfer of information and
feedback model to assist understanding of the processes it
is proposed that needs have a three way role in maintaining
the stability and health of the organism (figure 1). They serve
to warn after a problem occurs, to protect and prevent
potential disorder, and to prompt and reward use of capacities
so that the organism will flourish, and reach potential. To
warn and protect, needs are experienced as a form of
discomfort which calls for some kind of action to satisfy or
assuage the need. Examples of these experiences are pain,
fatigue, hunger, cold, fear, boredom, tension, depression,
anxiety, anger or loneliness. To prevent disorder and prompt
Prompt and Reward
Purpose, satifaction
fulfilment
↑ ↑
Feedback link
April 1993, Vol 1, No 1. 19
 ASTA NEWS
philosopher in ‘L’Hygiene Philosophique’
use of capacities needs are experienced in a positive sense,
such as, a need to spend extra energy, walk, explore,
understand or make sense of, utilize ideas, express thoughts,
talk, listen or look, spend time alone or with others, and so
on. The third category of needs considered here to be
integral to the healthy survival of individuals are those that
reward use of capacities, such as the need for purpose,
satisfaction, fulfillment and pleasure. Pleasure and
happiness have been recognised as powerful human needs
by many, such as, Aristotle twenty three hundred years ago,
and current writers such as Argyle24 and Csikszentmihalyi25.
These three categories of needs are structured
physiologically to provide both motivation and feedback.
Founded on these notions about biological needs and
following an exploration of human occupation from early in
evolution, a theoretical framework attributing a place for
purposeful occupation in maintaining and enabling the
health of individuals and survival of the species is proposed.
Three major functions of occupation are identified They are;
. to provide for immediate bodily needs of
sustenance, self care and shelter ;
. to develop skills, social structures and
technology aimed at safety and superiority over
predators and the environment
. and to exercise personal capacities to enable
maintenance and development of the organism.
It is assumed that occupational behaviours of early humans
of the hunter-gatherer period reflect basic phylogenic needs
of humans more closely than those of the present day
because they would be less affected by culturally acquired
knowledge, values and behaviour. Within hunter-gatherer
societies the direct provision of daily requirements formed
the foundation of occupational behaviour. This simple
occupational structure did not obscure innate physiological
needs, but catered for them to the extent that the environment
was able to furnish these needs, and people were able to
adapt to changes of habitat. Virey, French physician-
1 2
Provide for immediate Develop skills, social
bodily needs of structures and
sustenance, technology aimed at
self care, superiority over
shelter and safety. predators and the
environment.
Figure 2: Occupation: three major functions in species survival.
20 OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE : Australia
26
, asserted that
humans in a state of nature are endowed with an instinct for
health which permits biological adaptation, and which
civilised humans have lost, and it has been observed “that
people living a culturally primitive life (with less medical
care) are generally more physically perfect than those from
affluent societies” 27. This view is supported by reports from
explorers in their initial contacts with people of primitive
cultures which suggest that they appeared both happy and
healthy. For example, Captain James Cook recorded in his
Journal, 1768-1771, that he found the natives of the Pacific
islands he visited, happy, healthy and full of vigour, and of
the Australian aborigine’ he wrote “they are far happier
than we Europeans”...they live in tranquility”... and “they
think themselves provided with all the necessarys of Life,
and that they have no Superfluities (sic)” 28. On the whole,
health and well-being seems to have sat easily with the
unequivocal lifestyle.
The occupational technology and social structures of this
prolonged era aimed at safety and superiority over predators
and the environment were in accord with the natural world,
and are generally considered not to have disturbed the
environmental balance. The “overexploitation of natural
resources” does not occur in the ecology of plants and
animals, because human hunter-gatherer cultures “influence
their biotope in a way no different from that of animal
populations” 29. Whilst some may argue this assertion, it is
supported, on the whole, by observation of cultures such as
that of the Australian aborigine which do es not appear to
have over exploited the environment, and “in full tribal life
.... presented an excellent example of a society working in
rhythm with it’s environment" 30.
From such simple beginnings social structures and
technology have become dominant and self perpetuating
forces, with most people seeming to accept whatever
eventuates as an inevitable and useful progression, to the
extent they are seldom considered as having grown from
basic human needs. In fact, the needs of people pale into
insignificance beside the drive to create more and more
3
Exercise and develop
personal capacities
enabling the organism
to be maintained and
to flourish
April 1993, Vol 1, No 1.
 ASTA NEWS
sophisticated technology, and more regulated societies action to satisfy
which are no longer in step with ecology.
The exercise of personal capacities to enable maintenance
and development of the organism is perhaps the most primary
and least appreciated function of human occupation. The
organism, and all it’s parts, have to be active in order to
remain healthy. Maslow observed that:
capacities clamor to be used, and cease their clamor
only when they are well used. That is capacities are
also needs. Not only is it fun to use our capacities,
but it is also necessary for growth. The unused skill
or capacity or organ can become a disease centre or
else atrophy or disappear. 31
In other words capacities need exercise to maintain
homeostasis and health, and the expanded human brain with
it’s capacity to think, surmise, problem solve, anticipate and
plan for the future imposes upon the need for activity the
need for purpose. For millions of years basic survival
provided the purpose for required activity. With changes to
occupation and purpose due to cultural evolution,
particularly over the last 200 years, the balanced use of
capacities is compromised, and ultimately long term health
and survival of the species may be under threat.
SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS
This may have come about because biological needs are not
easy to distinguish from socio-culturally acquired needs
and wants, and neither are they omnipotent. They are subject
to scrutiny of, and adaptation by, cognitive and intellectual
capacities which are the most recent evolutionary processes
of the human brain. These are primarily responsive to the
socio-cultural environment with a functional capacity to
formulate acquired needs. Although acquired and biological
needs work in partnership, acquired needs are able to override
biological needs because of the hierarchical structure of the
Central Nervous System. “In evolution, new structures of
body and brain are often added on to existing ones” , but
are involved in the same functions. “A tension can exist
between the old and the new. Such tensions are especially
pronounced in ....humans [who are] equipped with a
powerful cortex [which] can say “no”32.
However it can be argued that the biological mechanism of
needs has focussed human energies towards developing
socio-cultural structures to meet those needs. Humans'
intellectual, cognitive and cultural capacity has enabled
them through engagement in occupation, to satisfy, in large
measure, the three categories of needs identified earlier.
Because of this, and despite diverse challenges, humans,
unlike other mammals, have been successful survivors - to
the point of over-population. In post-industrial countries,
OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE : Australia
or assuage discomfort, such as, food
production, the regulation of temperature, and measures to
reduce pain, have reached a level of sophistication far
beyond the simple methods used by all other animals living
in natural habitats. To prevent disorder humans have
developed ways of using their capacities in adaptive,
inventive and exploratory fashions to the extent that they
provide purpose, reward and the pursuit of happiness.
The human brain’s capacity to adapt to and indeed construct
social environs different from those in which humans evolved
appears to alter the significance of biological needs, so that
“even phylogenetically evolved programs of....behavior
are adjusted to the presence of a culture” 33. This has led
to “culture itself” creating “norms of human behavior that,
in a certain sense, can step in as substitutes for innate
behavior programs” 34.
Humans ability for socio-cultural adaptation enables infants
at a very early age to assimilate and retain information from
the environment, before a conscious appreciation of meaning
or significance is possible. This early absorption of observed
behaviours enables ontogenic development to be in step
with socio-cultural expectations. Attitudes, as well as
behaviour are absorbed and adopted, and it is those formed
before intellectual capacities are sufficiently advanced to
allow for adequate understanding or refuting, that have the
strongest, because ‘unconscious’, hold on individuals.
Whilst this mechanism was central to early human’s healthy
survival because it allowed essential learning to occur from
birth, and stimulated cognitive capacities to develop, in
latter day cultures, despite these benefits, what is absorbed
may have little to do with health. Socio-cultural survival as
observed by infants is, in post-industrial societies,
concerned, in large part, with material things. In addition,
infants are encouraged to hide many physiological actions,
such as yawning or scratching, because they are counter to
socio-cultural rules. In this way biological needs are gradually
suppressed to the point where, in order to meet social
expectations, they are not adequately recognised. It is from
views such as this that sociologists developed one of the
fundamental postulates of the modern discipline, that human
actions are limited or determined by past and present
environments, and that humans are the products and the
victims of their society35 .
In a continuous but accelerating process occupation has
increased in complexity and division along with socio-
cultural change. In large part changes to the socio-cultural
world can be traced to occupational technology and the
human need to exercise intellectual capacities to meet
challenges imposed by social and ecological environments.
Purposeful use of time is an issue of great complexity which
has been poorly recognised because it forms the substance
of everyday life and is taken for granted36 . As Primeau, Clark
April 1993, Vol 1, No 1. 21
 ASTA NEWS
and Pierce37 describe, each day, people weave together their
dividing of occupation resulting from cultural evolutionary
own particular multiplicity of occupations within the context
of contemporary society, with its many stresses, pressures,
regulations and changing values. The gradual evolution of
complex occupational structures in response to cultural
forces has led to the present situation in which it is difficult
to tease out the survival and health maintaining behaviours
which were once dominant in human occupation and, on the
whole, health and well-being seem to sit uneasily amidst the
rush and stresses of present day occupational structures.
This raises the question of whether occupational structures,
the social environment and political agendas which support
these structures, provide people with opportunities for
health enhancing, balanced and stimulating use of physical,
mental and social capacities, and whether the passion to
continue developing technology, which is known to be to
the detriment of the ecology, is also to the detriment of basic
human needs.
John Maynard Keynes, the economist, in 1931, observed
“the struggle for subsistence, always has been hitherto the
primary, most pressing problem of the human race.....Thus
we have been expressly evolved by nature ". If this need is
removed:
... mankind will be deprived of its traditional
purpose......Thus for the first time since his creation
man will be faced with his real, his permanent
problem - how to use his freedom.... how to occupy the
leisure, to live wisely and agreeably and well.......It is
a fearful problem for the ordinary person, with no
special talents, to occupy himself, especially if he no
longer has roots in the soil or in the custom or in the
beloved conventions of a traditional society38.
This suggests that if the human need to use cognitive
capacities continues in the present direction without
consideration of how basic biological needs for occupation
can be met, health, wellbeing and survival may well suffer.
The human use of capacities has changed as occupation has
changed and as technology builds upon technology. Human
creativity has effectively changed “manual work into
machine work: machine work into paper work: paper work
into electronic simulation of work, divorced progressively
from any organic functions or human purposes, except
those that further the power system” 39. This changed use of
human energies and potentials via technology, is primarily
to meet production purposes rather than human needs. It is
argued that the state of technology and the social structures
which support it are not conducive to the maintenance of
occupational balance for the majority of people, the result
being boredom or burnout. Ironically, in part, boredom or
burnout is caused by the drive for human creativity and
cognitive capacity. In part it is also caused by the arbitrary
22 OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE : Australia
forces which makes it difficult to consider occupation from
a holistic perspective. This impedes the conscious awareness
of the need to balance mental, physical and social occupations
as integral aspects of health; to balance energy expenditure
and rest; and social activity and solitude. Additionally,
although affluent societies appear to have an abundance of
occupational choices offering opportunity for the exercise
and development of physical, mental and social skills, the
structures and values placed upon different aspects of
occupation may well affect how successfully individuals
access these opportunities. People may be restricted in their
choice by many factors such as lack of time or material
resources. They may be disadvantaged in comparison with
early humans because they are not socialised into selecting
occupations conducive to health.
They may of lack opportunity to provide for their own basic
needs because changing occupational structures and
technologies:
. restrict freedom of action by ever increasing
rules and regulations,
. replace ongoing human endeavour with techno
logical labour saving devices,
. reduce the availability of paid employment,
. create an addictive way of life out of step with
sustaining the ecology.
It is argued here that post-industrial societies have reached
a stage in which the need to use human capacities is being
overlooked. We are now creating a world in which what has
been created by the capacities of humans appears more
important than the balanced use of capacities. Use of
capacities and needs are subjugated to external purpose
which, for mankind in a natural state, was the motivation
to use capacities. The purpose takes on a life form of it’s own
and becomes a primary socio-cultural need, such as the
apparently overwhelming need at present for technology or
money. The greater the need for the created rather than for
the creating the less health enhancing it becomes (Figure 3).
People need to make use of their capacities through
engagement in individually motivating and ongoing
occupations, and if they are able, or encouraged to pursue
this need, they will, apart from supplying sustenance for
survival and safety, enhance their health. As was possible
pre-history the total range of an individuals purposeful and
fulfilling occupations can provide individuals with sufficient
exercise to maintain homeostasis, to keep body parts and
neuronal physiology, and mental capacities functioning at
peak efficiency, and enable maintenance and development
of satisfying and stimulating social relationships. A range
of occupations can provide balance between physical,
mental and social challenges and relaxation. This is part of
April 1993, Vol 1, No 1.
 ASTA NEWS
Capacities
í é î
Health Purpose
ê
ë ì
Needs
Figure 3 : Capacities and needs are subjugated to external purpose
the complex neural system aimed at maintenance of
homeostasis, growth and development because occupations
act as a focus for integrating physical, mental and social
capacities.
Humans are occupational beings with a need to use time in
a purposeful way. This need is innate and related to health
and survival because it enables individuals to utilise their
biological capacities and potential, and thereby flourish.
Because of the adaptive capacity of the human brain the
innate drive for purposeful occupation has been influenced
over time by socio-cultural forces and values which has
added ever increasing complexity to the relationship between
biological needs and how people ‘spend their time’. This
paper has proposed a theory of the primary functions of
occupation and how they relate to health and survival, and
it has proposed that socio-cultural factors are deflecting
occupation from its primary functions. It is desirable that
following increased articulation and research into the
possible consequences of the changes, political, social and
health policy can be influenced so that human rather than
economic needs are central in future societies.
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