Urbs Des aml (pemme ©] (3 ob -8) Cooling Load Estimation BCA ACADEMY ‘issetosies sands use of te nv. youre ol te rere rece reponsle or ever heeded ‘ei athe rida anya, aeerinton, eta or copying eth commancainis Learning Outcome 14. Identify Sources of Internal Heat Gain 2. Identify Sources of External Heat Gain 3. Establish Types of Heat Gain — Sensible or/and Latent Heat Gain 4. Determine the hottest day for the computation of heat gain . Identify and compute the amount of sensible and latent heat gain of a room to be air-conditioned 6. Determine the cooling coil load based on room, ventilation and other supplementary loads CA ACADEMY aCooling Load Estimation @ 2 Types of Heat Gain in a Space (Room) = Sensible Heat = Latent Heat @ 2 Classification of Heat Gain in Space a Internal Heat Gain = External Heat Gain @ Total Heat Gain refers to both Internal and External Heat = Compute the total heat load of the space Bae =: wa a wae Fi seal =z Ye a Source of Heat Gains \VeNTILATION! INFILTRATION tp:/Avww engproguides.comimages/coolingload.png BCA ACADEMY> =. lu a < Vv ae < Vv C} > = lu a =< Yo < < c Cooling Load Estimation m Types of Heat Gains ‘temal Intel RoofsiWalls - Conduction Tights (oo fs/Wails — Radiation People Kylights/Windows — Conduction Miscellaneous Equipment Skylights/Windows = Radiation = Ventilation/infiltration Note: * Solar Heat Radiation Cooling Load Estimation mRoom Heat Gain External Heat Gain Internal Heat Gain Sensible Heat | LatentHeat | Sensible Heat | Latent Heat Ventilation Ventilation People People Infiltration Infiltration Lights Roofs Misc. Equipment Wall (External) Partition (Interior) Skylights Ceiling (Interior) Windows/Glass Notes: 4 Canduiction refers tn TransmissionVvvy ew eure @ Air-conditioning & Total Heat Gain = Total Heat Gain can be removed thru’ the provision of air conditioning system = Cooling the space over a period of time helps to maintain a comfortable temperature for the occupants = Cooling Coils of A/C equipment to remove both sensible and latent heat of the peak external heat and internal heat BCA ACADEMY Design Parameters @ Designing & Sizing of Air-conditioning Equipment and Sytem = use estimated peak cooling load of space = Total Heat Gain = Internal Heat + Peak External Heat @ Apply Diversity Factor = for A/C building areas is large = for differing loads occurring simultaneously @ Estimating Cooling Load (External Heat Load) = use hottest period with highest dry bulb (DB) temperature = Use highest RH BCA ACADEMYDesign Parameters @ Estimating Cooling Load (Singapore Climate Condition) = Hottest Month > = Jun =: = July we = August a = Hottest Day at nt oe = Hottest Time for Day + Between 2.00pm to 4.00pm > Use software programme to compute Peak Cooling éi= Load estimations Cooling Load Estimation ™ Conduction Through Exterior Structure Q=UxAxCLTD where : Q = room conduction heat gain through roof, wall or glass, W U = Overall heat transfer coefficient for roof, wall or glass, Wim? K 5 A=area of roof, wall or glass, m? CLTD = Cooling load temperature difference, K = 24 tye > =: re: a < v < = Vvyy es eee = CLTD method includes the effect of : | ™ Correction for CLTD : = Correction CLTD = CLTD + (25.5 °C -t) + (ty - 29.4°C) = where t,, = max outdoor temperature - daily range/2 = For Singapore, t, = 25°C and tyisig3°C@8°C72'= 29°C" = therefore, Correction CLTD = CLTD + 0.1 BCA ACADEMY CLTD 8" CONC. WALL 2” INSULATION SOLAR RADIATION 308% Renee Rina “s 5/8" GYPSUM 187 F CI | HEAT 23.9 °C or T= 78F “Smee tip. engproguies.convimages/elcroot angCooling Load Estimation = Conduction Through Interior Surface Q=UxAxTD where @ = Heat transfer rate through partition, floor or ceiling, W U = Overall heat transfer coefficient for partition, floor or ceiling, W/m? K A = Area of partition, floor or ceiling, m? TD = Temperature difference between unconditioned and conditioned space, K BCA ACADEMY Cooling Load Estimation = Solar Radiation Through Glass Q=AxSCxSCL = Q= Net solar radiation heat gain through glass, W » A=Area of glass, m? te [@) + SC = Shading coefficient (Sk TA « SCL: Solar cooling load, W/m? = SCL for a particular zone depends on latitude, direction, nature, and quantity of enclosing surface, as well as various internal parameters CA ACADEMYvuviny Lvau Lownauul Woof | Type Thickness | Shading Glazing (mm) coetfcient Single | Clear Shading coefficient (SC) for glass Grey Tint Bronze Tint Bue Green Tint ACADEMY Double | Clear Tat Rafiectiva Tiple | Clear BCA Cooling Load Estimation g Lighting Q=W*x BF x CLF = Q =net heat gain from lighting, W = W= lighting capacity, W = BF = ballast factor, usually 1.2 or 1.25 = CLF = cooling load factor for lighting BCA ACADEMYCooling Load Estimation @ People = Sensible heat gain Q,= q, xn x CLF = Latent heat gain Q,=q, xn = n= number of people = CLF = cooling load factor for people 2. mHeat gain from occupants S « Relate to occupants’ activities <: a : 2 @ Heat gain from equipment < . ou: eas ‘ Cooling Load Estimation Heat Given Off By Human Beings In Different States Of Activity Total Heat, W_ Sensible Latent ‘dale —Adjuned, Heat, Degree of Activity mae “Mae ww pee Betatteaer These matinee us % EE Sesh vey ah work Offs, ms] © soerely ate ace wa Offices, oes perents en Lt Sanding fit wr waling Deparneatstoe;remilsore = 16D DSS Swain tanding nig stort, tk wo ows | > secrey were Resturnt “i LE Lighttenen wore ecg ee ee) Moderate dancing Dance a sD wating 8h tig machine work Fotry Sts q_Bewia! Bowtingley 5 re Be Ma 25 Heavy machine wor ing Fee, a0 a) S85 ats Ailetes Gras sss ans we Source: 2005 ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentalsty eva Louw BCA ACADEMY Recommended Rate of Heat Gain, W Energy Appliance Size pare wy] Withouthood | With hood Rated_|Sensible| Latent | Total_|sensibie Coffe brewer vee | asso | 1100 | soo | a660 | s20 Cofleheateriper Vs o2tenes] 670 | aao | 230 | 670 | 210 Eqs cooker ieges_[ aao0 | as0_| 570 | uan0 | a0 Food warmer (infrared ult) por lan 1to6 bulbs] 250 | 250 | - | 250 | 250 Ice maker (small) soke/day | 750 | 1¢80| - | 1880 Microwave oven (hear! 95, | o¢30 | 2630| - | 2030 duty, commercial) ‘Steam cooker, per cubic meter of compartment 30 to 60 L |214000| 17000 | 10900 | 27900 | 8120 Cooling Load Estimation @ Room cooling load = The sum of each net room heat gain ™ Peak cooling load = The external heat gain vary in intensity with time of day and time of year = Guideline for determination of peak load = For west-facing glass maximum total heat gains occur in the afternoon (about 4pm in Singapore) = For east-facing glass maximum solar heat gains occur in the morning = For southwest-facing glass maximum solar heat gains occur in the afternoonCooling Load Estimation @Refrigeration or cooling load = Load that handled by cooling equipment = Need to include the following : = Ventilation air = Heat gain to duct = Heat generated by the fan/pump of the air- conditioning system « Air leakage from ducts Cooling Load Estimation Ventilation air Some outside air is generally brought into a building for health and comfort reasons. The equations for determining the sensible and latent cooling loads from ventilation air are: Goo: 1G, <1) W hae =3.010 Ow, ~ 6,7 uae “123 Oh, =) = ventilation flow.t!'s oat, = outside, inside temperature °C ouiside,inide air humidity ratio, kg of water 'kg of dry air Ach, = outside.inside air enthalpy. ki Hyg dry aievyeviny Hevau Lou BCA ACADEMY Heat gain to duct = Heat gain by duct which passes through un- conditioning space Heat generated by fan and pump in the system = Depending on the air pressure of the duct, approximate allowance of 2.5 -10% to room sensible heat gain can be made for a draw- through fan arrangement BAir leakage from duct = Proper joints should limit duct leakage to 5% of total airflow » Cooling Load Estimation BCA ACADEMY ™ Cooling load calculation procedure @ Select indoor and outdoor design conditions = For Singapore, design outdoor air condition can be taken at 32°C dry bulb and 26°C with a daily range of 8°C. The indoor operative temperature should be maintained at 24°C to 26°C. The average relative humidity should not exceed 65% = Measure dimensions of all surfaces through which there will be external heat gain for each room = Calculate the areas of these surfaces = Calculate U value for each surface = Determine the time of day and month of peak load for each room by calculating external heat gains at times that they are expected to be maximum PyBCA ACAD > = ait a ts v. = id ue Cooling Load Estimation = Calculate each room peak RSHG (Room Sensible Heat Gain) and RLHG (Room Latent Heat Gain) u Find the time of building peak load = Calculate the building RSHG and RLHG at peak time. Add supply duct heat gain, duct heat leakage, draw-through supply fan gain u Find the refrigeration load by adding the ventilation load to the building heat gain Cooling Load Estimation @ SoeeemerernainPsychrometry _— bot Asseesmad ——Y48HE ON Lay ~ submte on. a a Ch ACADEMY Teodor ery noted ist ye drsomnsen. deeten rapie fs amen ry pond Learning Objectives CA ACADEMY Learner should be able to apply the principles of psychrometry to analyse air-conditioning processes. 1. Introduction to Psychrometry 2. Analyse air-conditioning processes on the psychrometric chart Describe sensible and latent heat gains in a room Calculate room sensible heat factor for a room Determine sensible heat factor of a cooling coil . Compute bypass and contact factor of a cooling coil . Discuss how air-conditioning systems adjust to cater for part load conditions NOGABCA ACADEMY m Psychrometry is the science of studying the thermodynamic properties of moist air and the use of these properties to analyze conditions and processes involving moist air. ™ Psychrometric Chart shows the thermodynamic properties of moist air at = Thermodynamic properties of moist air consists of: = Dry bulb temperature = Wet bulb temperature = Dew point temperature = Humidity ratio = Relative humidity = Specific volume = Specific enthalpy ‘Source: Voume 4: Planking Services by Rd Putt & LJ Hossack. Me Graw Fi fe) 7966Psychrometric Chart BCA ACADEMY= Basic processes in conditioning of air «= Sensible heating (O — A) = Sensible cooling (O - B) = Humidifying (0 - C) = Dehumidifying (O — D) Heating and humidifying (O - E) Heating and dehumidifying (O — H) = Cooling and dehumidifying (O - F) Cooling and humidifying (O - G) Specific Humidity W > =. ae a < . vv = =z vv -) Psychrometric Process — Air-conditioning Process Dry Build Temperature T Sensible Heat (B > A) = Consider a change in the state of air along the path BA as shown = Sensible Heat Balance Qs = Max Cp (te — ta) Watt = 1.23 x Ils x (ts — ta) W = 1.23 x m/s x (ty — t,) KW. C, : specific heat of dry air C, = 1.005 kJ/kg K Flowrate : I/s Specific Humidity W (Refer to Example 1; pg 30) BCA ACADEMY 9 2 D £ a a 3 3 8 a 3 ef eeeCA ACADEMY Psychrometric Process - Air-conditioning Process u Latent Heat and Dehumidification (C > B) = Consider a change in the state of air along the path CB as shown = Latent Heat Balance QL = Mg x hig x (We - Wa) = 3.0x Ils x (W.— Wp) W hj, : latent heat of vapourization of water at 0° C yg = 2500 kJ/kg Flowrate : l/s w Specific Humidity Dry Build Temperature T Psychrometry Process - Air-conditioning Process = Total Heat Process = Consider total heat process of an air-conditioned space where a change in the state of air along the path AC as shown Q,= 1.23 x Ils x Ah [W] or Q,= 1.23 x m/s x Ah [kW] Ss Ah = change in enthalpy of air, kJ/kg of dry air Specific Humidity W— Air-conditioning Process @ Air Mixing Process = The mixed air condition (3) will lie on the straight line (1-2) connecting the two (2) conditions (1 & 2) of the unmixed airstreams The position of the mixture state is such that it divides the straight line joining state 1 and 2 in the inverse ratio of ™. masses m, and m, of the ‘ two air streams or flow, and flow, of the two air streams. Psychrometry Process — Air-conditioning Process + Dry Build Temperature T > = a a < v =< =: oo a: @ Air mixing process (continue) vt = Two streams of air are mixed to form a third (3°) stream Wa = (Q,W,;+Q,W,)/Qg hg= (Qyh,+Q,h,)/Q, t3= (Qyt#Qpt,VQ3 Example : mixing of outdoor air with return air in AHU room) = ‘Specific Humidity W7Psychrometry Process — Sensible Heat Factor BCA ACADEMY ~ =: me ae =z v. < < eu @ Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) . RAR SET EL SERSTSI SHE ETTTie heat iransfer to the total heat enige™ t,, BCA ACADEMYBCA ACADEMY Psychrometry - RSHF Room @™ Choice of supply air design conditions = Supply air (t,,) to be at a lower temperature and moisture content than the room (t,,,) = Supply air conditions lie on the Room Sensible Heat Factor or RSHF line = For each supply air condition, there is a supply air rate = Good air distribution allows for 6-12 air change per hour (ACH) = Corresponding to the specified amount of supply air, the supply air (t,,) temperature would be 7.5-12.5° C below the room temperature (tn) Psychrometry — RSHF Room = Room Sensible Heat Factor or RSHF a RSHFis'the ratio of room sensible heat to the summation ‘of room sensible heat (RSH) and room latent heat (RLH) » RSHF =RSH/RSH + RLH) = The line joining the supply air (1) and room conditions (2), in the psychrometric chart, is called the RSHF line Specific Humidity W 3 Supply airrsycnrometry — KOnr Koom CA ACADEMY BCA ACADEMY Plotting Room Sensible Heat Factor Line (RSHF line) = Line can be plotted without knowing the condition of supply air. = Procedures Calculate RSHF + RSHF = RSH / (RSH + RLH) = Qs/(Qs + Q,) Draw a base line on the Sensible Heat Factor or SHF scale corresponding to calculated RSHF in the upper left comer of the Psychrometric Chart Draw the actual Rooms Sensible Heat Factor or RSHF line thru the room design conditions parallel to the base line in step (2) ‘+ This line may be drawn to the saturation line on the Psychrometric Chart RSHF Step 1 Specific Humidity W * Supply air 1° Dry Build Temperature T Psychrometry - GTH ® Air-conditioning System With Ventilation Air = Total Sensible Heat; TSH= RSH + OASH = Total Latent Heat; TLH = RLH + OALH = Grand Total Heat; GTH = TSH + TLH =» OASH: » outdoor air sensible heat =» OALH: > outdoor air latent heat —Retumair ae 2,0, Cooling Co 2 pe oi Outdoor Ae 3 4Psychrometry - GTH = Air-conditioning System With Ventilation Air (Cont'd) = Condition of air leaving the apparatus may be plotted on the Psychrometric chart and connected by a straight line (3-4) as shown = The line (3-4) represents the Psychrometric Process of air as it pass through the conditioning apparatus and referred to as: TraGeand” | Sensible Heat Factor or GSHF Line = The slope of the GSHF line represents the ratio of sensible and latent heat the apparatus must handle = GSHF line plotted between mixture conditions to apparatus and leaving conditions from apparatus = The GSHF line can be plotted as follows: 1 Calculate GSHF 2. Draw base line on the SHF Scale corresponding to the calculated GSHF in the upper left corner of Psychrometric chart >. Draw the actual GSHF line thru the mixture conditions of the air to the apparatus. BCA ACADEMY Psychrometry - GTH ‘Supply air Specific Humidity W 1-BF Dry Build Temperature T CA ACADEMYpPsycnrometry - AUP = Effective Surface Temperature (Apparatus Dew Point) = The surface temperature of a cooling coil varies throughout the surface of the coil as the air comes in contact with it. = However, the effective surface temperature can be considered to be the uniform temperature which would produce the same leaving air conditions as the non- uniform surface temperature that actually occurs when the coil is in operation = For application involving cooling and dehumidification, the effective surface temperature is at the point where GSHF line crosses the satur: ine on the psychrometric chart. = As such the dew poi a Apparatus Dew Point (ADP) BCA ACADEMY Psychrometry — CF & BF = Contact Factor and Bypass Factor = By-pass Factor (BF) «= Fraction of air leaving the conditioning apparatus completely unaltered thas - t ogp Rig-Ra Wi -W aap BF teas * tadp Rea=Ragp Wea -W aap = Contact Factor (1-BF) «= Fraction of air leaving the apparatus at ADP «From Figure, the resulting state 4 divides the line joining 3 to ADP in the ratio of BF and (1-BF) BCA ACADEMY Dry Build Temperature T Specific Humidity WPsychrometry — CF & BF @ By-pass Factor (Alternative) BF = (t, ~ t.)/ (t-te) = cb/ea el > | ss ™ Factors affecting BF / wie = Air velocity through the coil / a: _™ Free space between the coils (including fins) : ae? = Number of rows of coils | 2 ja ve. <: | <= sicsanietatens fre as i VZZZZZTLA oO O ULLLZ/TA Three (3) Row Closely Spaced Coil CA ACADEMY> = a a <= Vv < < ¥ a BCA ACADEMY Eyre ye ee Poychrometry: 2-Rew Water-coaling Cll PITCH cow DOWN, VENT plugs } DRAIN PLUGS ‘The Contact Factor And Bypass Factor Contact Factor = (Mixture DB ~ Off-coil_DB) (Mixture 08 — ADP) 3 t/t ADP) where t,= off oil temperature, normally 1 to 2° C above ADP for pull-through AHU due to by-pass/motor heat. ty = DB temperature (°C) at Mixing of RAS ODA. ADP = Apparatus Dew Point of the Cooling Coils °C) But Bypass Factor = 1 Contact Factor Hence, Bypass Factor = 1— {Mixture 08 ~ off-coil 08) (Mixture DB — ADP} = [Off-coil D8 ~ ADP) (Mixture 08 ~ ADP) = (ty ADP)/{t, ADP) A FLOW [CONTROL VALE To RETURN TAIN Supply air Dry Build Temperature T Specific Humidity WCA ACADEMY Contact Factor and Bypass Factor The Contact Factor And Bypass Factor Example Available are the followings: 41) RA and ODA Mixture DB, t, = 23.43°C. 2) ADP = 10.4°C. Hence, Offcoll DB, t,= 10.4 +15 = 11.9°C (Off-coll temperature normally 1 to 2°C higher than ADP) Contact Factor = (Mixture DB - Off-coil 08) (Mixture D8 ~ ADP) t,— tt, ADP) = (23.43-11.91/(23.43~104) 0.885 But Bypass Factor = 1 Contact Factor Hence, Bypass Factor (Of. coil DB — ADP) (Mieure 08 ADP) = (ty ADPY/{t, ADP) (11.9 ~10.4)/(23.43 -10.4) 20.15 (Note: Bypass Factor = 1 ~ Contact Factor) Dry Build Temperature T Specific Humidity W Example 1 For @ room to be air conditioned, the sensible heat gain is 12 kW and the latent heat gain is 3.5 kW. The inside design conditions are 24°C dry-bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity. Determine the apparatus dew point and also the quantity of air to be circulated, ) 100 96 re-circulated air and zero bbypass factor, and (b) 100 % re-cirulated air and 20 % bypass factor. Solution SHF= 12 /(12+3.5) as (SHF=SH /(SH + LH) =0774 From the psychrometric chart, ADP =10.3°C ‘When the bypass factor is zero, let the mass of air circulated be M ke/s. Mx 1.005 x (2410.3) = 12 If standard air is considered, then: Density = 4.2 kg/m? and Volume OF Air Circulated = 0.872 / 1.2 727 m? IseR © yuu BCA ACADEMY ACADEMY BCA But if the actual air passing through the fan is Alternatively, considered, the specific volume from the Volume of actual air circulated psychrometric chart is 0.855 m?/kg, then, = 1,089 x 0.855 Volume of air circulated = 0.931 m3/s = 0.872 x 0.855 .746 m/s When the bypass factor is 20 %, let the mass of alr circulated be M ke/s 0.2 (ts 10.3) / (24-10.3) (as BPF = (ts~ty)/ (ty-t)) ty = 13.00°C Mx 1.005 x (2413.04) = 12 M=1.089 kg/s Volume of standard air circulated 089 / 1.2 = 0.908 m?/s . Example 2 A lecture theatre is 12 mx 12mx6m. Itis maintained at 23°C DB, and has four air change per hour of cooled air-conditioned air supplied at 15°C DB. Calculate the maximum. cooling load that the equipment can meet. Air flow = Nai changes. y 943 Ue A 3600S 1 =4x12x12x6x——m/s= P 1s = 96011, X12 4126 2 m/s =0.96 m/s = 9601/8 0-123 x4 x At=1.23 x960 (23-15) = 9.46 EW sExample 3 An office has a sensible heat gain of 10 kW when the room air temperature is 25°C DB. Calculate the necessary volume flow rate of supply air to maintain the room at the design 2 ai ; temperature when the supply air temperature = canbe 13°C. aa S =< ‘ O=123x a v. ‘ ez eS 00 Gristle a s 123xAt 1.23(25-13) Ve a Example 4 ‘An office has a sensible heat gain of 12 kW Soliton: and four occupants each having alatent heat | (a) calculate the supply air quantity from the ‘output of 40W when the room air condition is | sensible load equation, 23°C DB and 50% RH. F200 agit = Calculate the necessary volume flow rate of is eat ee) Supply air and its moisture content to {o) tatent heat gain = 4 person x 40 W/person = maintain =160W 5 the room at the design state when the supplY | se the latent heat equation to find the air temperature can be 12°C DB. The room air | supply air moisture, moisture content is 0.0088 kg/kg of dry o_o 17505887 axe a Ss wp, =006013 vw, =, 006013 =£.8- 0.06013 =8.78 g/g of de w= 0.06013 g/kg of ary air ‘Therefore supply air conditions are 12°C DB, hnontetiniiatin a8 7A alba nf dew sie CA ACADEMY> = lu a <= Vv <= <= Vv a LAGHIVIG Vv Agiven space is to be maintained at 25.6°C DB and 18.3°C WB. The total heat gain to the space has been determined to be 17.6 kW of which 12.3 kW is sensible heat. The outdoor air requirement of the occupants is 236 I/s. The outdoor air has a temperature and humidity of 32.2°C and 55 % RH, respectively. Ifthe supply air is supply at 12°C, determine the quantity and the state of the air supplied to the space and the required capacity of the cooling equipment. Solution 2307 76 112300 sup ply air quamity = —_12300_ PPD a anil ST F056-12) Return air quomtty = 735-236 = 4991/2 Oi Ost, = Ost, a TS anc Re BEC — aI Dry Bulld Temperature 7 27-7 °C Example 5 (cont’d) BCA ACADEMY Draw a line from 1 with slope SHF =0.7 and Intersect the 12 degree C line at point 2 Point 2 is 12°C DB and 90% RH (Supply air to room). The cooling coil capacity =1 a3-Esfak)=1 23x735 x(62.8-38.4)¥ = 2115497 = 21.158 = 6 tons aC WESC aPC Dry Buld Temperature 7 27-7 °C Specie Humiity W Specific Humidity WTutorial Example The indoor condition of a rooms to be maintained at 25°C and 50% RH .The outdoor condition is 33°C DB and 27°C WB. The room, hhas a design cooling load of 7 kW sensible and 5 kW latent load. If the mixing ratio of the return air to the outdoor air is 3 : 1 Find: (a) The apparatus dew point. (b) The bypass factor of the coil (c]_ The condition and quantity of the cooled air to be supplied to the room in order to the achieve design condition. Tutorial dw PSYCHROMETRIC TAderf DBAS. Ru SoH, CHART Outer Paine wear, Mixed Bic Retie = Be ea fir Reto = 88, Solution: Plot the following points on the psychrametrie chart: (1) Indoor: DI (2) Outdoor: DB = 33°C, WB = 27°C, (3) Room Sensible Heat Factor = T/(7#1.5) = 0.82 Plot the SHF line on the psychrometric chart through the Indoor point & cutting the 100% RH saturation curve, (Note: This line shall be parallel to the Sensible Heat Ratio line drawn on the Semi-Circle, passing through 0.82) {4) Determine & plot the mixing air point of ‘the ODA & RA quantities on the psychrometric chart using the inverse principle ratio. All the air properties of the above points plotted on the chart could now be determined a tabulated in the Table.ruvuiiar > = lu a < v < < uy a Dota Fom Povo chart tem ont oe we speevot Deny me entaley oa * bac he lens taeda fads 3) Outer 2 2 z oxo an om 8 2 near Ea 0 = oso as ois 0 3) Miese a a 20a oxo aus ons o 4108 ne wo ns oxo an om % 5) oftcon 1a ” m3 ons an cosa " Note: Of-col Temperatures estimated, normaly about 1102 deg. C above ADP. Tutorial 2° > = lu a: < Vv <= =< Vy a {a} From the psychrometric plot, the ADP = 12.69. (b) Bypass factor (Off-coil DB — ADP)/(Min-ir DB ~ ADP) = (14.1 ~12.6)/027 - 12.6) 0.104 Or Contact factor = (Mix-ai DB — Off-coll 08)/(Mix-air DB - ADP) (27 -14.1/(27- 12.6) 0.896 {6) Supply air to the air-conditioned room. Its to be noted that the supply aircon will be any point along the line from the off- il point to the room indoor point. Depending on the supply air duct insulation, length of duct, location of duct, there isa temperature rise above the off-coll which is normally 1t0 2°, Using a supply air D8 temperature FF-coll DB +1.5°C DB=14.1 +15 =15.6°C From the psychrometric chart, at 15.6°C DB, the specific volume = 0.83 m#/kg. Hence, p = 1/0.83 = 1.2 ka/m? Using. Sensible Heat (kW) = 1.2 x m3/s x (25 ~ 15.6) Hence, m? /s = 7/(1.2x9.4) = 0.62 (Note that if a higher supply air temperature is used, then the air flow rate is higher. The density of air hardly change}.Part Load Condition of Air- conditioning Systems @ Peak Load Operation = Alc equipment required to maintain proper air-conditions of the room is normally selected for peak load operation ‘ = Peak load operation occurs a few times per year @ Partial Load Issues oe: = Caused by reduction in = Sensible Heat Load (SH) = Latent Heat Load (LH) a = Outdoor Air Load (OA) = Combination = (SH + LH + OA) loads B Partial Load Analysis @ 6 most common method for capacity control, used singly or in combinations of controlling space conditions are: 1) Reheat the supply air 2) Bypass the cooling coils 3) Control the volume of supply air 4) Use on-off control of the AHU or FCU 5) Use on-off control of the refrigeration compressor 6) Control the refrigeration capacity CA ACADEMY1 aiuarevau miuayowo 1. Reheat the Supply Air = Reheat control maintains the DB in the A/C room by replacing any decrease in the SHL by artificial (re-heater) load = Re-heating element is normally located at the cooling coils and the amount of reheating is automatically controlled by the room DB = 3 Types of commonly used re-heater Electric elements v Steam coils » Hot water coils Disadvantage = Re-heat control is a waste of energy and should not be used for comfort cooling = Rawenergy (eg electricity, fuel gas, fuel oil) is not allowed to be used for re-heating as stated in SS CP 13: COP for Mechanical Ventilation & Air-con in Buildings > = ee a =<, v < < v a Partial Load Analysis 2. Bypass Control . Bypass Control Maintains DB within the Space > By modulating the amount of air to be cooled, thus varying the ‘supply air temperature to the space; or > By bypassing a mixture of outdoor and return air around the cooling coils = Reduction in Sensible Load > — causes the bypass control to reduce the amount of air through the cooling coils Control Dampers > control the amount of air passing through (or bypassing) the cooling coils Rising RH & Constant DB - With Bypass Control > Bypass controls maintains the DB but does not prevent the RH from rising above the design RH > Increased RH occurs under conditions of decreasing room sensible load and relatively constant latent load and outdoor air load. CA ACADEMYBCA ACADEMY Partial Load Analysis 3. Volume Control Volume control of the supply air quantity is similar to the control that results from bypassing the return air around the heat transfer equipment (cooling coils) Disadvantage > May produce problems in air distribution within the space > Required air quantity at partial load should be evaluated for proper air distribution 4. On-off Control of Air-Handling Equipment P. On-off control of air-handling equipment (AHU, FCU) results in a fluctuating room DB and space RH During Off Operation > Ventilation air supply is shut off but chilled water continues to flow through the coils » This method is not recommended for high latent load applications as control of humidity may be lost at reduced room sensible loads artial Load Analys CA ACADEMY a . On-off Control of Refrigeration Equipment = On-off control of refrigeration equipment (eg large packaged equipment) results in a fluctuating room DB and space RH. ™ Excessive Humidity when Equipment Turned-Off = 2 conditions that increase the space latent load = During the “off” operation, air is available for ventilation purposes but the coil does not provide cooling > Outdoor Air in the system is introduced into the space unconditioned = Condensed moisture that remains on the cooling coil is re- evaporated in the warm air stream. @ Not recommended for high latent load applications since control of humidity maybe lost at decreased room sensible loads.6. Control Capacity of Refrigeration & Refrigeration capacity control maybe used on either chilled water or DX refrigeration equipment = Partial Load Control = Accomplished on chilled water equipment by bypassing the chilled water around the air-side equipment (eg FCU, AHU) or by shutting down one or more of a multiplicity of chilled water units operating either in series or in parallel. = Direct expansion or DX refrigeration equipment is controlled either by the flow of refrigerant to the FCU or AHU (VRV) > controlled by reducing number of operating compressors or reducing the speed of the compressor. CA ACADEMY 8 BCA ACADEMY m z 0len a oe Duct Design BCA. DEMY ‘is stores rere we of he re nersrecsiert responsi doer ne ee whet led ba ye, seman Sot pe connor Sh hte Learning Outcome Discuss the economic considerations in duct design. Explain the requirements in selecting duct material. Describe the steps involved in duct design. Discuss the technical considerations in duct design. Explain the change in total, static and velocity head along a ducting system Apply equal friction method to size a ducting system 7. Calculate pressure loss using c-factor method 8. Calculate pressure loss using equivalent length method Measure air flow at diffusers. aeons CA ACAD EMS ©Duct Design Round duct versus rectangular duct m Round duct = Lower construction cost = Occupy bigger headroom = Rectangular duct « Higher construction cost « Require less headroom not frien) Source: htp:eng vac blogspot. sq/2011/10ouct ar condoning certain! C Aspect Rat ie ) > = rr) a = 1S] <= <= Vv ao Duct Design Internal Ducting for ACMV System sii = Bee sol : roar yu a bt : Cae IG om : i menpem mem eg ial Ke GL 3 = ee 2 Sy. = LO SE aE Se ‘a | he enact yng Bs | ‘Source: hitp://eng-hwvac. blogspot. s9/2011/10/duct-air-conaitioning-centralai him!" *Hte seme BCA ACADEMYDuct Design External Ducting for ACMV System Duct Design @ Duct material = Commonly used material: galvanized sheeting, aluminum, stainless steel, fiberglass, phenolic foam, etc ACADEMY CABCA ACADEMY = Duct classification = By air velocity = Supply air = Low velocity (365 - 670 m/min) * High velocity (760 - 1500 m/min) = Return air * Commercial building (450 — 550 m/min) * Factor{(550 - 670 mimin) = By pressure in the duct = Low pressure — up to 95mm WG = Medium pressure — 95 to 170mm WG = High pressure — 170 to 310mm WG Duct Design = Duct System Pressure Loss = The System Pressure Loss is the Total Pressure Loss through the duct path that has the largest pressure losses including the fittings and consists of: a Pressure loss at suction opening and friction loss at inlet grille a Pressure loss of return air duct, air filters, dampers, cooling coils, heater, etc a Pressure loss at supply air duct a Friction loss at the outlet grille a Velocity pressure required (to throw the air at a distance) at the outletDuct Design Example: Non return damper (Fig. from OLS) Duct Design PERFORMANCE DATA PRESSLIRE DROP OF NON-RETURN DAMPER ‘Novem ange th tors bah Pressure changes during flow in duct = Change in total, static and velocity head along a ducting system = Velocity Pressure = 0.6V? = Total Pressure = static pressure + velocity pressure = Duet friction = Duct : f (UD) x V2/2g = Duct fitting : K(V2/2) or f(LyD) x V2I2g CA ACADEMY Cin fram ACUDAECircular Equivalent of Rectangular Ducts ™ Rectangular ducts are often used than circular duct. = Same Cross Sectional Area = With same cross-sectional area as Circular duct, it offers greater frictional resistance due to greater perimeter = Equivalent Dimension = Rectangular duct that is equivalent with circular duct will have same frictional resistance and allow the same volume of air flow. = Dimension of Equivalent circular and rectangular ducts = Connected by formula: : D= 1.265 x [ (axb)? / (atb) ]°? Where, 2 D = diameter (in mm) of circular duct 3 a & b= sides (in mm) of rectangular duct @ The Table of Circular Equivalent of Rectangular Ducts is used for selecting the correct measurements for the sides of a rectangular duct equivalent to a certain circular one. BCA ACADEMYCA ACADEMY ca StEab ea “B ig tamee BEE HHS vaaes) ia antea.nuaee an0u8 waazs Sau ME Guise fre, inst a Hedig 8 Voraing Erne. London Friction Chart Friction chart is used to determine duct size, the loss of pressure due to friction between 2 points. Friction chart is based on Fanning’s friction formula The loss of pressure due to friction in Pa (N/m?) per m of circular duct is shown along the x-axis. The volume of air flow in m*s is shown along the y-axis. Duct diameters in mm are shown by diagonal lines sloping upwards from Left to Right = While air velocities in m/s are shown by diagonal lines sloping downwards from Left to Right The given friction chart for ducts is made of galvanise sheets or material of the same roughnessFriction Loss in Duct (SI unit) - ASHRAE Exercise BCA ACADEMY si Lf we b @ A rectangular duct (25 m x 400 mm x 600 mm) carries 2m*/s of air flow. Calculate the loss of pressure due to friction. = Solution = From Table of Circular Equivalent of Rectangular Ducts, the = diameter of equivalent circular duct is 537 mm. «= From Frictional Chart, the point of intersection of the horizontal line representing 2m*/s and the diagonal line representing 537 mm diameter is located = From this point, tracing down vertically to the x-axis, the pressure loss due to friction per m length is found to be 1.4 Pafm. = Pressure loss/25m duct = 1.4 x 25 = 35 Pa Lam oe = Go? X09 YE Naam : lew => sp Ams aca aaDuct Design m Main Steps involved in duct General Rules for designing air ducts: design 1), For energy saving, air should be ducted : ; direct (not going round indirecty). * Know the usage, velocity and 3) sen changes indirection shouldbe flow rate requirement avoided. un-avolded, woe turing guide > + Determine the locations of the vanes at bends and elbows, 3) Tominimize noise, ai velocities should be =: registers within recommended permissible limits. we + Determine the routing for the 4) expansion and contrection (Divergence) 2 main duct and branches section should be pradua a: Carry out duet sizing 5) permissible, use round ducts : 15). Rectangular ducts should be as nearly < ° square as possible. _ Duct Sizing Methods TT Ai aspect ati (Suet whith [Buck depihy 3 ese Rascal ‘of 4:1 of less should be used me > Yelocnynecucion 8) Ducts should be made of smooth surface. 3 ® Equal Friction materials such a galvanized steel sheet or ° + Static Regain eat ea < “ eg 9) Dampers should be provided in each u- branch outlet fr balancing the system, ¥ 10) Avoid any duct obstruction. o> Duct Design — General Approach @ Aspect ratio; W/H = 4:1 or lessKnow flow rate requirements (I/s or CMH) and location of the diffusers/registers O O a; 100 V/s 100 V/s wo: © © O 100 Is 100 V/s 100 V/s 2 100 V/s 100 I/s 100 I/sDuct Design — General Approach Carry out duct sizing; each branch to have with VCD for air balancing 100 V/s 100 V/s 100 V/s Duct Design = Velocity Reduction Method (1/3) = Design Steps: « Arbitrary velocities are selected for various sections of the duct « Area of each section A=qlv where v : velocity of air in the duct section q:: air flow rate through the duct section = This method is for simple duct layout & damper must be <= used to correct any inaccuracyDuct Vesign Example 2adjacent bathrooms are to be ventilated by ducted air. The air required for each is 2 m?/s, From the fan located at the partition between the 2 bath- rooms, the main duct rises vertically : ) toa height of 4 m and then branches horizontally into two duets, each 3m Jong. The main duct is square in section, and the horizontal side of each branch duct is equal to that of the main duct. The T-fitting atthe junction may be considered as two 90° elbows of centre \ line radius 600 mm. Determine the sizes of the ducts and the pressure against which the fan has to operate. Neglect the pressure losses at the outlets. = CA ACADEMY Solution * Determine Sizes of Ducts and Pressure acting on them. 3m 3m ais) S| SS 2 ms ‘ rs soni | ‘ md Hint: Convert Rectangular to Circular Duct > less frictional losses. ., BCA ACADEMYCADEMY Duct Design Solution: Referring to Table on Allowable Velocities, the velocity in the main duct is assumed to be 10 m/s and that in each branch duct to be 8 m/s. Area of main duct = 4/10 = 0.4 m? Diameter D of the main duct is obtained from n/4 x (0/1000)? = 0.4 Hence, D = 714mm, Fromffable on Circular Equivalents of fectangular Duets, fthe sides of the square duct are 650 mm X 650 mm. ‘Area of branch duct = 2/8 = 0:25 m? Diameter D of each branch duct is obtained from 1/4 x (0/1000)? = 0.25 Hence, D = 564mm From Table on Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts, as 1 side should be ‘650 mm, the other side is 450 mm, From the Friction Chart, for volume rate of 4m? /s and duct diameter 714 mm, the friction loss per m length is 1.3 Pa, Loss of pressure/4 m duct =13x4=5.2Pa Referring to Figure on Radius Ration of Elbows, Radius ratio of elbow = 600/450 = 1-333 H/W ratio of elbow = 650/450 = 1.444 = = BEE oh ee te eralDuct Design i Allowable velocities in ducts tor diffecant applications 8 >: s sf “[ Waseaiy tor eonaroting = { Noise | Friction los we | re Taasin [| Mam austs a: | | 922! Sipay [ Boren é onags mariners Ts lepat eed = | 4 ial bedrooms 5 ws | 65] 6 | 5 v ibrres| 6 | 10 | 78] 8 | 6 = a | 65 88 5 & | <<: banks 75 | 10 75 8 s | : a |i | | 8 | 6 Z 125, 15 a W ™ < Vv [-- Duct Design @ Equal Friction Method (2/3) = Steps: = Select the velocity in the main duct leading from fan = Determine the friction loss in Pa/m for the main duct (obtain from friction chart) ‘ = Maintain this friction loss for other duct = This method is fairly simple and gives reliable result. = However, it is good practice to locate dampers in each duct for final regulation BCA ACADEMYCA ACADEMY Duct Design Example A duct layout is shown in Figure 12.22. Outlets | and 2 deliver 0-4 m3/s each; outlet 3 delivers 0-S m3/s. The velocity of air in the main duct may be assumed ‘to be 10 m/so All 90° elbows have a radius ratio of | -S. Dynamic loss at each outlet is 20 Pa. There is a height restriction of 300 mm for the main duct and 200 mm for the branch ducts. Determine: (a) the sizes of the ducts by ‘the equal friction method, and (b) the static pressure requirement. Duct Design Solution: Itis convenient to solve problems involving equal friction by adopting a ‘tabular form. All the sections in order, from the fan to the last outlet, are entered in the 1* column. The 2°¢ column is completed by starting at the bottom. In section €3, the flow rate is the same as that of the air leaving outlet 3, which is os m/s. Similarly, in section C2, the volume flow rate is 0.4 m? /s. In section BC, enough air must flow to allow for 0.5 m?/sin section C3 and (0.4 in section C2. Thus it must be In section AB, the volume rate of flow is, 09+0.4=13m*/s. From the Friction Chart, fora volume rate of flow of 1.3 m? /s and a velocity of 10 m/s, the friction loss is 26 Pa/m. As the friction loss per m is the same in each section, 26s entered in the third column forall the sections. Again, from the Friction Chart, for a friction loss of 2-6 Pa/m and a volume rate of flow for each section of 1.3, 0.4, 0.9, 0.4 and 0.5 m/s, the duct diameters are 405, 268, 355, 268 and 288 mm, respectively. These values are entered in the 4™ column.Duct Design CA ACADEMY ACADEMY oo ao It is convenient 10 solve problems involvitig equal friction by adopting a tabular f T Volume rai of | ] Ductdiameter | Rectangular size] Becton | Maumee - ion — - — 4. | >. i | | a} BI i 268 | 200% 300 | | | | 355 | 300 380 Le | Duct Design From Table on Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts) - since the duet diameters are known and 1 side of the main duct is 300 mm and 1 side of each branch duct is 200 mm - the rectangular sides are easily found and entered in the 5® column. The maximum pressure drop will occur in the longest run (including the fittings). Itis clear, then, that the longest run is AB + BC +C3 + one elbow + one outlet Note: The gradual expansion has been omitted since there will be no pressure loss (because V, = V?} For the elbow, H/W = 300/225 =1.333 RAWLS From Table on Total Pressure Losses Due to Elbows (additional equivalent losses): L/W = 4.66 (interpolation required). Hence, L= 4.66 x 0.225 =1.05 m AB +BC+C3+one elbow =6+34941,05=19.05m Therefore, Friction loss = 2.6 X 19.05 = 49.53 Pa Taking into account outlet 3, Total pressure requirement = 49.53 + 20 = 69.53 PaDuct Design ™ Static regain Method (3/3) = Steps « Select the main duct velocity = Determine the area & diameter of the main duct = Static regain as a result of velocity reduction, will be equal to the friction loss of next section ¥ Fiction Loss in next section need to be assumed, for calculation of the air flow velocity ¥ Once the flow velocity is calculated, the area of next section can be determined ¥ Check the assumed value of friction loss ¥ If assumed value is not correct, procedure need to be repeated x > =: uw a < v =< < v a Duct Design @ Static regain method of sizing duct are tedious if perform manually. = Hence, regain method is best carried out with the > aid of computer dd ka: = This method is accurate and give better result for a: large systems involving long runs of ducts and many : branches v. <- = Balancing the system becomes easy and the need for dampers is minimuma z wi KWIdVIV Vo4aa Example 1 Solution (A) Area (2) Area (walls) = (6x32) + (4x 3x2) (Ix 15x2)- (1x2) =55 m2 (b) Area (windows) =1x 1.5 x2=3 m2 (9) Area (door) = 1x2=2 m? (d) Area (ceiling) = 6x4 =24 me (e) Area (floor) = 6x 4 = 24 m? Example 2 Solution From Table given, considering the customers and cashier as seated at rest: Sensible heat = 90 W per person Latent heat 5 W per person Considering the waiters/waitresses to be doing light work: Sensible heat = 100 W per person Latent heat 40 W per person Total sensible heat load = (61 X 90) + (8 x 100) = 6290W 6.29 kW vlz fos Chen Example 3 Solution {a) Incandescent lights: All sensible heat = 1.0 x 0-9 X 5000 = 4500 W (b) Fluorescent lights: All sensible heat = 1-2 X 2000 = 2400 W (c} Coffee urns: Sensible heat = 0:5 X 0-6 X 2 x 450 Latent heat= 0-5 X 0-6 X 2.x 4500. (4) Air-supply fans: All sensible heat= Therefore, Total sensible heat = 4500 + 2490 + 2700 + 1000 = 10-600 W = 10.6 kW Total latent heat = 2700 =27kW Total heat = Total sensible heat + Total latent heat =10-6 +2-7 =13.3 kW S00 = 1000WDuct Design Part 2 Loss of Pressure Due to Duct Fittings = Elbows fittings = Allow changes in direction = Cause pressure (dynamic) losses = Surface roughness plays a small part in press loss a Dynamic loss is proportional to velocity pressure @ Velocity Pressure = 0.6 x V? [Pa] = For standard air condition > = kad a: < vo = Loss of Pressure (Elbow) = C x 0.6 x V? [Pa = V = velocity of air flowing through it [m/s] = C=aconstant for the elbow; depends upon the 2 radius ratio of the elbow — greater the radius ratio, o- the lower value of C and vice versa= Radius ratio is the ratio of the radius (R) of the centre line of the elbow to the >: diameter (D) of its cross-section. R =: = From Diagram 1; ta: = Radius Ratio = RID ©) = Rectangular Elbow Fittings Diagram 4 si = Radius ratio is the ratio of the radius (R) o. of the centre line of the elbow to the < width (W) of the elbow a = From Diagram 2; : = Elbow 1; Radiu Ratio = R,/b ow = Elbow 2; Radiu Ratio = R,la : cas Elbow Fittings BOW RADIUS = A, WIDTH EIGHT (H) © RADIUS RATIO’ 8 = Horizontal Consideration eS < Ah RADIUS RATIO™= 8 Diagram 2 =<: By Convention oo: -Wicth(W) of the elbow is messured onthe curves surtace “ -Wiat (WW) and Height (1) of elbow can also be ciferent tothe width and height of duct ma + Due to horizontal & vertical sides of the duct are always taken as with and height respectively.Elbow Fittings = Total Pressure Losses Due to Elbow ™ Source: > a ASHRAE Handbook of =: Fundamentals 1972 La a: ie v. << <<: o- a; Elbow Fittings CA ACADEMY™ Keep Pressure Loss Low = Increase Radius Ration = make as large as possible = Prov le Splitters or Vane (Aerofoil design) = streamline the air flow and thus reduce pressure loss Wy Vanes, Elbow Fittings BCA ACADEMY = Change of Cross-sectional Area in Duct = Abrupt Duct Expansion or Contraction = Cause excessive pressure loss ™ Gradual Duct Expansion (Widening) and Contraction (Narrowing) = Cause a smaller loss of pressure ™ Practice Guideline = Angle a of an expansion or contraction a < 16° and not exceed 30°Expansion or Contraction in Duct | Sudden Widening Sudden Narrowing Gradual Widening Gradual Narrowing = For Contraction = Velocity Pressure (smaller area) « Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x V? [Pa] >: + C= dynamic loss coefficient and =: * V= velocity of air (m/s) in smaller area aa @ For Expansion a > at: = Pressure loss due to faster air stream expanding into slower we * stream ie = Abrupt Expansion = Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x (V, — V2)? [Pal : = Vj, = velocity in smaller area A, " * Vp = velocity in larger area Aym Using Continuity of Flow Equation mAYXV,;=AQxVz Or Vz =(Ay/ Az) xVy @ Substituting into the equation for loss of pressure = Loss of Pressure = C x [1—A,/A, }? x 0.6 x V,2 =C,x0.6xV,2 @ Written in terms of V2 = Loss of Pressure = C, x 0.6 x V,? [Pa] = C,= dynamic loss coefficients for the smaller (A1) area = C,= dynamic loss coefficients for the larger (A2) area BCA ACADEMY @ Gradual Expansion = Loss of Pressure = C, x C, x 0.6 x V,? [Pa] = Loss of Pressure = C, x C, x 0.6 x V,? [Pa] = C, = constant for the angle 41, @ Table for Dynamic Loss Constants a = For contractions, expansions, orifices and other fittings that involve changes in the area through which the air flows.Loss Coefficient ree For Area Changes ee ee = Source: = ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals >: 1972 =: atl e: ee Ve. <= *: wo a: Example Find the dynamic loss in Pa that could be expected in a 90° rectangular elbow in a sheet- metal duct (800 mm wide and 200 mm high) handling 2 m/s of standard air. The turn is in the vertical plane and the centre line radius is 300 mm. Solution = From Table on Total Pressure Losses Due to + Elbows, = For HW = 4 and RW = 1.5, the dynamic loss constant C = 0.07 = Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x V2 = V=2i(0.8 x0.2) = 12.5 mis = = Loss of Pressure = 0.07 x 0.6 x (12.5)? = 6.56 Pa W=200 mm= Equivalent length (Le) = For usage convenient, the loss of pressure is expressed in equivalent length of straight duct = Equivalent length (Le) refers to the straight length of similar duct that offers the same pressure loss as the fitting. = Pressure Loss in Ducts (Calculation) = Equivalent Lengths of Fittings (Le) + Straight Length of Duct (Ly = L= measured along centre line from one intersection to the next (shown by AB, BC and CD in Diagram Radiu Ratio on Elbow) Equivalent Length of Duct Fittings @ Total Equivalent Length of Duct (TL,) a TLeL +L = Pressure Loss in Duct = Pressure Loss per m length (from Friction Chart) x TL, = Table on Total Pressure Losses Due to Elbows = gives the L/D ratio for circular cross-section elbow and LIW ratio for rectangular cross-section elbows, where L is the equivalent length of the fitting = Given the diameter of the circular cross section elbow or the width of the rectangular cross-section elbow = equivalent length of the fitting can be easily calculated. BCA ACADEMY80 ~P 60 3 s 2 40 5 z a z 20 & 2 ADDITIONAL EaUIV. TTT T Fat oe ait | = a0 qO 2 Piece Etbows 14 Place Einows | For 90° elbows of circular cross-section that consist of a number of pieces (see chart). On loss in 90° elbows of t : Round Cross Section can ae ote LF be used to obtain the L/D or More Pieces ratio for calculating the { equivalent length 05 10 20 40 60 60 100 RADIUS RATIO, A/D. Loss in 90° Elbows of Round Cross Section Example EMY CA ACAD m Refer exampleCA ACADEMY Example ““ A portion of an air duct is shown in Figure. The duct is 600 mm wide and 150 mm high. @ Elbow 1 and 2 have centre line radii of 450 and 225 mm, respectively. ™ AB = 2m, BC = 6m, and CD = 5m = Determine (a) the total equivalent length of the duct, and (b) The pressure loss when the volume of air flow = 1 m%s. Ly ee : Solution @ Elbow 1 @ Elbow 2 = H1= 150mm = H2= 600mm = W1=600 mm = W2= 1500 mm = H1MW1 = 150/600 = H2/W2 = 600/150 = 0.25 =4 = R11 = 450/600 = R2W2 = 225/150 =0.75 15 @ From Table m From Table & For Elbow 1 x = For Elbow 2 = L1MW1 = 42x0.6m = L2/W2 = 6x0.15m =7.2m = 0.9m \ Total Equivalent Length = i“ Re]= From the Table on Circular Equivalent Rectangular Ducts, = Diameter of the circular duct that is equivalent to a rectangular duct of 600mm x150mm = 316mm = Referring to Friction Chart for an airflow = 1m3/s and Duct Diameter = 316mm «= Friction Loss = 5.5 Pa/m = Pressure Loss in Duct = 5.5 x 17.6 = 96.8 PaJacky Chen nhs Duct Design Part 2 Updated 12 Jul 2013, Loss of Pressure Due to Duct Fittings @ Elbows fittings = Allow changes in direction = Cause pressure (dynamic) losses = Surface roughness plays a small part in press loss = Dynamic loss is proportional to velocity pressure @ Velocity Pressure = 0.6 x V? [Pa] = For standard air condition @ Loss of Pressure (Elbow) = C x 0.6 x V? [Pa] = V = velocity of air flowing through it [m/s] = a constant for the elbow; depends upon the radius ratio of the elbow — greater the radius ratio, the lower value of C and vice versa CA ACADEMYBCA ACADEMY BCA ACADEMY @ Total Pressure Losses Due to Elbow m Source: = ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals 1972 Elbow Fittings RS Lan ed Pier net fo?Expansion or Contraction Duct (=——) (~—) bas Sudden Widening Sudden Narrowing «, ot. vo: Gradual Widening Gradual Narrowing @ For Contraction = Velocity Pressure (smaller area) = Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x V? [Pa] = C= dynamic loss coefficient and * V= velocity of air (m/s) in smaller area @ For Expansion = Pressure loss due to faster air stream expanding into slower stream = Abrupt Expansion = Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x (V, - V,)? [Pal * Vj, = velocity in smaller area A, * Vp = velocity in larger area A, CA ACADEMYFor Area Changes = Source: = ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals e 1972 BCA ACADEMY Example @ Find the dynamic loss in Pa that could be expected in a 90° rectangular elbow in a sheet- metal duct (800 mm wide and 200 mm high) handling 2 m/s of standard air. The turn is in the vertical plane and the centre line radius is 300 mm. Solution = From Table on Total Pressure Losses Due to Elbows, = For HW =4 and RW= 1.5, the dynamic loss constant C = 0.07 = Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x V2 3 = V=2i(0.8x0.2)= 12.5 mis = =. Loss of Pressure = 0.07 x 0.6 x (12.5)? 6.56 Pa > = a a: <= Yu < te v ae W=200 mm.[TIT tre =68 = 60 i aeeeeees < eae Elbow +3 to Sow ofC) 3 z 3 eee Etbows For 90° elbows of circular = Ot = cross-section that consist 5 iN | || of a number of pieces 3 irae (see chart) = 3 ‘ 2 | |_| 1] on toss in 90° elbows of 2 ct SS Round Cross Section can iaade [ele aerage be used to obtain the LID E ¢ : or More Pieces ratio for calculating the 8 t equivalent length g ‘ os 10 20 40 60 60 100 RADIUS RATIO, A/D. Loss in 90° Elbows of Round Cross Section * Example A portion of an air duct is shown in Figure. The duct is 600 mm wide and 150 mm high. m Elbow 1 and 2 have centre line radii of 450 and 225 mm, respectively. ¢ m AB=2m, BC =6m, and CD =1.5m ™ Determine (a) the total equivalent length of the duct, and (b) The pressure loss when the volume of air flow = 1 m/s. a CA ACADEMYif q a F - Ble 3 lezeab. S325. 2 Ry ide a nena tees eh od 3 ye } He : lg) & ; B) ET) " GLE = He " Hy ; ie 4 a iy |e B BE ys By ait Ald pe vauee: pins Taagh Ge Piel eee H tt € ey : aff ae ames vs senay amen] |HE| 3 oe $s =H 5 ae SOzen 2 = £50 . 2 3, sou 8 9 55g e8a8E $954 g ess E088 a | fERs a 2 sse2e = Bec 22eak fosge eral fee 5CSSXE OO} erase 3S Sus ose PE a Pests BHA Beoaessaes 2 Ees" 26 Bl SSE sl suse Ss 5S za aun Eps osTes i = )¢ = ui a < v =< BCA CA ACADEMY Duct Design Solution: Referring to Table on Allowable Velocities, the velocity in the main duct is assumed to be 10 m/s and that in each branch duct to be 8 m/s, Area of main duct = 4/10 = 0.4 m= Diameter D of the main duct is obtained from n/4 x (0/1000) = 0.4 Hence, D= 714mm FromfTable on Circular Equivalents of, fectan ie sides of the square duct are 650 mm X 650 mm. Area of branch duct = 2/8 =0-25 m? Diameter D of each branch duct is obtained from 1/4 x (D/1000)* = 0,25 Hence, D = 564 mm From Table on Circular Equivalents of Rectangular Ducts, as 1 side should be 650 mm, the other side is 450 mm. From the Friction Chart, for volume rate of 4 m? /s and duct diameter 714 mm, the friction loss per m length is 1.3 Pa. Loss of pressure/4 m duct =13x4=5.2Pa Referring to Figure on Radius Ration of Elbows, Radius ratio of elbow = 600/450 = 1-333 H/MW ratio of elbow = 650/450 = 1.444 From Table on Total Pressure Losses Due to Elbow + LW=7.12 (double interpolation required) + Hence, L = 7.12 x 0.45 = 3.2 mand + Total Equivalent Length of Branch Duct = 3+ 3.2 = 6.2m From Friction Chart + @ Volume Flowrate = 2 m%/s & Duct Diameter = 564 mm + Friction Loss per metre length = 1.15 Pa + Loss of Pressure of the Branch Duct = 6.2 x 1.15 =7.13 Pa + Therefore, Total Pressure For Fan = Losses Due To Main Duct + Losses Due To Branch Duct + Total Pressure For Fan = 5.2 + 7.13 = 12.33 Pa"Source: HVE Guide 197%, nai of Hesting & Ventating Exginaers, London. Duct Design = iw 7 a ara ‘ > = uu a < v. < < v c=) (icertenaaanneannal Allowable vetocitag in duets for diferent aaplications Applicaton rolling tor Friction lose Branch ducis> = ly a < uv <= < ve r-) Volume Control Damper = Common Types of VCD = Opposed Blade Dampers (e.g. in AHU) 5 iy " = Parallel Blade Dampers La C oa ca 4 a . = Butterfly Dampers (e.g. in PS | z VAV box) ‘4 m Linear Air Valves (e.g. in Scene eeeseaeas ES fume hood) : Specialty Dampers = an - = [Source: Shadpour, F, 2001. The Fundamentals of HVAC Direct Digital Control] Volume Control Damper LY paourmpoush Soreniociosea Parallel Blade Damper Opposed Blade Damper © Rema Hanamwell 1997 Fnaineerina Manual of Automatic Control: for Commercial Buildinas? 7mwe we we me ewe = Parallel Blade versus Opposed Blade 1 The advantage of opposed-blade dampers compared with parallel blade is opposed blade dampers could regulate and ne control air flow more accurate than parallel blade dampers. Air Flow Instruments ™ Common Instruments used to measure air flow are: Electronic Rotating Vane Anemometer = Air Flow Measuring Hood = Electronic Velometer with a Probe BCA ACADEMYElectronic Rotating Vane Anemometer Operating in Air Grille = Let the instrument touch the face of the grille — avoid entering between the bars >> ™ Operating Without a Grille = m= The anemometer should be held in the plane of the entrance edges of the tu opening QQ: & General Operations Air Grille Face < = Hold device such that airflow through siarbeTisbdtichentet o the instrument is in the same = direction as was used for aceite <=: calibration — from the back toward sue 2 the dial face as searing <= = Follow manufacturer's oe recommendations r=) Electronic Rotating Vane Anemometer = Difference Between Analogue & Digital = Digital readout of the velocity is automatically averaged for a fixed time period depending on the measured velocity and the type of instrument. = Analog instruments are direct readout with a choice of velocity scales CA ACADEMY= Operations = Hood with No Range Provided = Use a solid state digital electronic manometer to read airflow from 25 to 2500 cfm (12 to 1250 I/s) = Hood also read supply or exhaust mode automatically = “sign referred to return or exhaust reading = Attachment = With the correct attachments, some hoods have manometers that can be removed and used with a Pitot Tube = Reading Higher Air flow = Hood will create some static pressure in the system while being used «= This will reduce the airflow coming from the outlet being tested » Acurve is furnished so that a correction can be made = Hoods should not be used where the discharge velocities from the diffusers are excessive. BCA ACADEMY Air Flow Measuring Hood ™ Air Flow Measuring Hood = Main advantages are: = Speed or operation = Accuracy in reading = Operations = The hood is held up to the ceiling around the diffuser for several seconds, and then the airflow can be read and recorded directly in Us (cfm) with no further calculation. ™ Disadvantages = Weight of the device and to having to hold up tight continuously may caused fatigue = Inaccurate readings will result if the hood is not help up in a tight position = Hoods when packed for transport, are large and bulky = Electronic models will need to have their batteries charged or changes frequently. = BCA ACADEMYElectronic Velometer With a Probe @ Purpose a Used to conduct flow measurement of ceiling diffusers = The figure shows how the diffuser’s flow rate > could be measured using electronic = : velometer with a probe oe e eta Aioges.r can 02092708289 bad a: =< a ose Ut 88 ron es (elas eer =r <. ‘none 2 /BS| & te a: ~: =:Duct Design Part 2 Updatod 12 Jul 2013, dawien iad BO ympit 10m tomieyy\ion gaya lecony aes Loss of Pressure Due to Duct Fittings @ Elbows fittings = Allow changes in direction m Cause pressure (dynamic) losses = Surface roughness plays a small part in press loss = Dynamic loss is proportional to velocity pressure ® Velocity Pressure = 0.6 x V? [Pa] a For standard air condition @ Loss of Pressure (Elbow) = C x 0.6 x V? [Pa a V = velocity of air flowing through it [m/s] = C =aconstant for the elbow; depends upon the radius ratio of the elbow — greater the radius ratio, the lower value of C and vice versa CA ACADEMY Jovgic Cher a)@ Circular Elbow Fitting D = Radius ratio is the ratio of the radius (R) i © of the centre line of the elbow to the >: diameter (D) of its cross-section = = = From Diagram 1; ua? = Radius Ratio = R/D ©. @ Rectangular Elbow Fittings Diagram 1 =; = Radius ratio is the ratio of the radius (R) Vv. of the centre line of the elbow to the Pas width (WW) of the elbow 2 = From Diagram 2; = = Elbow 1; Radiu Ratio = Ry/b vw » Elbow 2; Radiu Ratio = R,/a : eas Elbow Fittings Diagram 2 < By Convention oe Width (W) ofthe elbow is measured onthe curved surface Width (W) and Height (H) of ebow can aso be diferent the width and height of duct 5 nm + Due to horizontal & vertical sides of he duct are always taken as wiath and height respectively.Elbow Fittings = Total Pressure Losses Due to Elbow ™ Source: > = ASHRAE Handbook of : Fundamentals 1972 =. att a: <: 2 ve. <=; is ve: eas Elbow Fittings CATA GC AD ERY uct Desi> = tu a oa oe <= <= Vv rs) m Keep Pressure Loss Low = Increase Radius Ration « make as large as possible = Provide Splitters or Vane (Aerofoil design) « streamline the air flow and thus reduce pressure loss Vanes a (i Elbow Fittings = Change of Cross-sectional Area in Duct = Abrupt Duct Expansion or Contraction = Cause excessive pressure loss = Gradual Duct Expansion (Widening) and Contraction (Narrowing) = Cause a smaller loss of pressure ™ Practice Guideline = Angle ot of an expansion or contraction 0 < 16° and not exceed 30°Expansion or Contraction in Duct =} EP Sudden Widening Sudden Narrowing > = ua a < v < < Gradual Widening Gradual Narrowing @ For Contraction = Velocity Pressure (smaller area) = Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x V? [Pa] lynamic loss coefficient and felocity of air (mm/s) in smaller area @ For Expansion = Pressure loss due to faster air stream expanding into slower stream = Abrupt Expansion : = Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x (V, - V2)? [Pal locity in smaller area A; velocity in larger area A, CA ACADEMY@ Using Continuity of Flow Equation mALXV,=AQXV_ Or V2 =(Ay/ A) x Vy >< mt Substituting into the equation for loss of pressure =: = Loss of Pressure = C x [1—AjIA, Fx 0.6 x V;2 ut, =C,x 0.6 x Vi? , = <¢: & Written in terms of V, = Loss of Pressure = C, x 0.6 x V,? [Pa] vw «a = C,= dynamic loss coefficients for the smaller (A1) area et « C, = dynamic loss coefficients for the larger (A2) area me Pt 5 ™ Gradual Expansion m Loss of Pressure = C, x C, x 0.6 x V,? [Pa] u Loss of Pressure = C, x C, x 0.6 x V,? [Pa] = C, = constant for the angle @ Table for Dynamic Loss Constants = For contractions, expansions, orifices and other fittings that involve changes in the area through which the air flows. BCA ACADEMYLoss Coefficient For Area Changes | ™@ Source: = ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals 1972 Example Find the dynamic loss in Pa that could be expected in a 90° rectangular elbow in a sheet- metal duct (800 mm wide and 200 mm high) handling 2 m?/s of standard air. The turn is in the vertical plane and the centre line radius is 300 : mm. © Solution From Table on Total Pressure Losses Due to 4 e Ehows, Ws 200 mm : m= For HIW = 4 and RIW = 1.5, the dynamic loss ‘constant C = 0.07 a Loss of Pressure = C x 0.6 x V2 > = V=2i(0.8 x 0.2) = 12.5 mis a, Loss of Pressure = 0.07 x 0.6 x (12.5)?= 6.56 Pa CA ACADEMY= Equivalent length (Le) a For usage convenient, the loss of pressure is expressed in equivalent length of straight duct = Equivalent length (Le) refers to the straight length of similar duct that offers the same pressure loss as the fitting. ° m Pressure Loss in Ducts (Calculation) a = Equivalent Lengths of Fittings (Le) + Straight Length of Duct ° (Ly v. = L=measured along centre line from one intersection to the <<; next (shown by AB, BC and CD in Diagram Radiu Ratio on 2 Elbow) is wo ‘i " o> Equivalent Length of Duct Fittings = Total Equivalent Length of Duct (TL,) = TLE +l = Pressure Loss in Duct = Pressure Loss per m length (from Friction Chart) x TL, = Table on Total Pressure Losses Due to Elbows = gives the L, /D ratio for circular cross-section elbow and LW ratio for rectangular cross-section elbows, where L, is the equivalent length of the fitting ™ Given the diameter of the circular cross section elbow or the width of the rectangular cross-section elbow = equivalent length of the fitting can be easily calculated. ~~ = uu a < Y. < < ve aITTT i: tie = 65 46 60 | : Ta — 3 ao Elbow te) i | g a e z 3 Piece Enows For 90° elbows of circular z?TTTWN = cross-section that consist 5 NW of a number of pieces 3 4 Piece Elbows (see chart). 2 Beara 3 | [— On loss in 90° elbows of an : Round Cross Section can 5 cat be used to obtain the LD ey ot More Pieces ratio for calculating the 8 equivalent length 9 4 05 16 20 %0 60 60 100 RADIUS RATIO, R/O Loss in 90° Elbows of Round Cross Section ” Example a A portion of an air duct is shown in Figure, The duct is 600 mm wide and 150 mm high. m Elbow 1 and 2 have centre line radii of 450 and 225 mm, respectively. AB = 2m, BC = 6m, and CD = 1.5m Determine (a) the total equivalent length of the duct, and (b) The pressure loss when the volume of air flow = 1 m%s. CA ACADEMYm@ Elbow1 m@ Elbow 2 = H1= 150mm m= H2=600 mm = W1=600 mm = W2= 150mm m= H1M1 = 150/600 m H2/W2 = 600/150 = 0.25 a4 = R1M1 = 450/600 m R2MW2 = 225/150 =0.75 =15 m From Table of Total @ From Table of Total Pressure Loss Table Pressure Loss Table = For Elbow 1 = For Elbow 2 = LIMW1 = 12 = L2W2=6 » L1 = 12x0,6m (W1) » L2=6x0.15m (W2) 7.2m = 0.9m Total Equivalent Length = 2+7.2+6+ 0.9+ 1.5 a =17.6m oe =| A | sormsaimeaaat a Wastes] nin opcoeeyom Pe ecm rat een fet