PHYSICAL SCIENCE MAJORSHIP

PHYSICS
I. INTRODUCTION – Nature of Science
a. Apply a scheme for classification
b. Identify the hypothesis that underlies an experimental design
c. Select appropriate tools and procedures in conducting investigation and/or solving problems
d. Identify variables involved in an investigation
e. Interpret data accurately in an appropriate table, chart, or graph
f. Draw conclusions based on the available data
g. Make predictions based on conclusions from scientific experimentation
h. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative observations on objects or phenomena
i. Evaluate the social implications of controversial science and technology issues

II. CHEMISTRY
1. Matter: Its Composition and Properties
a. Classify matter according to characteristic properties
b. Give uses of materials based on their properties
2. Atomic and Molecular
a. Identify properties of sub-atomic particles
b. Perform calculations involving mass number, atomic number, number of protons, electrons and
neutrons
c. Identify the group and period where each element belongs
d. Select which model represents atoms, ions and molecules
e. Apply the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory in predicting molecular geometry
3. Chemical Bonds
a. Differentiate the three types of chemical bonding
b. Use the periodic table to predict the types of bonding that will occur between specific elements
c. Compare the different types of intermolecular forces and relate these to their physical properties
4. Conservation of Matter and Stoichiometry
a. Identify which law of chemical combination applies to a particular situation
b. Determine the type of chemical reaction shown in a given situation
c. Balance a chemical equation that represents reactions relevant to daily life
d. Solve stoichiometric problems based on the mass relationships in chemical reactions
5. Gases, Liquids and Solids
a. Compare the properties of gases, liquids and solids in terms of the kinetic molecular theory
b. Solve quantitative problems based on the combined and ideal gas laws
c. Apply the gas laws in everyday activities
6. Acids and Bases
a. Compare properties of acids and bases
b. Relate pH values to everyday phenomena
7. Solutions
a. Identify factors that affect the degree of solubility and rate of solubility
b. Give the importance of electrolytes in living systems
c. Express solution concentration in percent by mass, mole fraction, molarity and normality
d. Give some uses of colloids in food preparation, industry and in pharmaceutical products
8. Chemical Thermodynamics
a. Differentiate heat from temperature
b. Identify the methods of heat transfer in various systems
c. Differentiate exothermic and endothermic reactions
d. Distinguish specific heat, heat of vaporization, heat of fusion, heat capacity, heat of reaction and
combustion
e. Identify environmental phenomena which use the concepts of entropy and enthalpy
9. Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
a. Identify the factors affecting effective collision
b. Determine which factor affects the rate of a given reaction
c. Apply Le Chatelier’s principle to predict how equilibrium conditions change when a system is
disturbed resistance
10. Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry
a. Classify simple organic compounds based on their formulas and properties
b. Compare the properties of organic compounds and inorganic compounds
c. Give the importance of each of the biomolecules
 11. Nuclear Processes
a. Apply the principles of radioactive decay in the synthesis of new elements
b. Balance nuclear equations
c. Give applications of radioactive decay in the synthesis of new elements
III. PHYSICS
1. Physical Quantities and Vectors
a. Differentiate vectors and scalar quantities
b. Analyze resultant vector quantities
2. Mechanics
a. Analyze quantitatively the motion of objects and the forces acting on them
b. Infer how force and energy affect the motion of objects
c. Relate work, power and energy
d. Use Newton’s Laws of Motion to explain everyday phenomena
e. Apply conservation of energy on physical problems involving moving objects
3. Electricity, Magnetism, and Electronics
a. Differentiate parallel and series circuits
b. Determine the current, potential difference and resistance in series and parallel circuits
c. Relate current, voltage and resistance
d. Analyze energy transformations and transfer that occur in a system in terms of the Law of
Conservation of Energy
e. Identify the properties of electromagnetic waves and how they are used in communication
technology
f. Solve problems involving electricity and magnetism
g. Apply the different laws on electricity and magnetism to real life situations
h. Characterize the electronic tools and components used in common household appliances
4. Thermodynamics
a. Characterize how heat is transferred in solids, liquids and gases by conduction, convection and
radiation
b. Solve for heat required/released for a system to change from one state to another
c. Apply thermodynamic principles in refrigeration, air conditioning, and environmental phenomena
5. Modern Physics
a. Compare fusion and fission as processes of energy production
b. Select situations where Einstein’s Theory of Relativity is applied
c. Given a physical situation involving relativistic motion, apply Lorentz velocity transformations
d. Identify situations that exhibit photoelectric effect
6. Light and Geometric Optics
a. Apply the properties of wave interference, refraction, reflection and diffraction in light
b. Use Snell’s law to calculate incident and refracted angles of a light ray at the interface between
media of varying densities
c. Predict the direction of the reflected light using the law of reflection
d. Relate dispersion to the color separation of white light as it travels through the prism at non-
normal incidence
e. Identify the different types of polarization and the different methods of polarizing light
f. Describe qualitatively the intensity of the scattered light as it varies with wavelength
g. Differentiate a converging lens from a diverging lens
h. Relate focal length to the object/image height and distance in mirrors and lenses
IV. EARTH AND SPACE
1. Geology
a. Characterize the different layers of Earth’s interior and the processes that occur in each layer
b. Describe the different movements of the Earth and its relation to the occurrences of the different
natural phenomena
c. Explain how weathering and erosion shape the surface of the Earth
d. Give ways how volcanism and diastrophism can be helpful and detrimental to people
2. Hydrology
3. Meteorology
a. Identify the processes in the hydrologic cycle and their effects on the environment
b. Differentiate fresh and saltwater in terms of properties and composition
c. Infer how bodies of water are interrelated
d. Differentiate the types of weather disturbances
e. Analyze how the interaction of Earth’s surface, water and air affect weather and climate
f. Characterize the different layers of Earth’s atmosphere and how these affect life on Earth
 4. Astronomy
a. Compare the physical properties of Earth and other planets in the solar system
b. Analyze how Earth is affected by other bodies in space
c. Evaluate the impact of space exploration on humans, animals, plants and the physical
environment
5. Environment
a. Analyze how the quality of the environment and quantity of Earth’s resources are affected by the
growing population
b. Examine how human activities contribute to and help conserve resources for the present and
future generations
c. Identify situations that demonstrate interconnectedness among Earths systems and processes

PHYSICS
Physics is the study of the physical world including motion, energy, light, electricity, magnetism, sound etc.
NOTABLE SCIENTISTS
Aristotle (Greek 4th Century BC)

– Logic
– Studied motion
- Natural and violent motion
- 4 elements:
earth, water, air, fire
– Geocentric view
Democritus

– Greek who devised the first atomic theory.

Galileo Galilei (1564 AD)

– Father of the scientific method (along with the Englishman Francis Bacon 1500’s).
– Studied motion.
– Agreed with the Greek Aristarchos and Polish Copernicus (1473-1543) on heliocentric view point. This led to his
house arrest.
Isaac Newton

– English (1642-1727)
– related force and motion
– studied light.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790),

– experimented with electricity

Michael Faraday (1791-1867), English

– with a grammar school education

– found that a moving magnet induces electric current to flow.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

– Relativity: there is no absolute frame of reference that is at rest.

– Photoelectric effect (Light is quantized) (Nobel Prize)
– Related mass and energy (E = mc2)
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND VECTORS
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
 SCALAR QUANTITIES

– A scalar quantity is any quantity in physics the has magnitude, but not a direction associated with it
Magnitude – a numerical value with units.
Scalar Examples: speed, distance, age, heat
VECTOR QUANTITIES

– A vector quantity is any quantity in physics that has both magnitude and direction.
Vectors are typically illustrated by drawing an arrow above the symbol. The arrow is used to convey direction and
magnitude.

Vector Examples: velocity, acceleration, force

APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS
Vector Addition
- If 2 similar vectors point in the SAME direction, add them

- The size if the arrow conveys magnitude and the way it was drawn conveys direction

Vector Subtraction
- If 2 vectors are going in opposite directions, you subtract

Non-Collinear Vectors
- When 2 vectors are perpendicular, you must use the Pythagorean theorem

EXAMPLE:

KINEMATICS AND MECHANICS

MOTION
 – Change in position in relation to a reference point.
Reference Point
- Non-moving point from which motion is measured

Distance (Scalar)
- How far you travel regardless of direction

Displacement (Vector)
- Change in position, expressed using the Greek letter delta (Δ)
- To find the change you always subtract your FINAL and INITIAL positions
- Expressed as either or

KINEMATICS

– a way of describing the motion of objects without describing the causes.

You can describe an object’s motion:
- in words
- mathematically
- pictorially
- graphically

SPEED (Scalar),

– rate of motion
– rate at which distance changes
– distance traveled per unit time

Instantaneous Speed
- a measure of an object’s distance traveled per unit time at a particular point in time.

Average Speed

VELOCITY (Vector),

– speed in a given direction

– can change even when the speed is constant
– the rate at which displacement changes
MAGNITUDE: the speed of the object
DIRECTION: the direction the object is moving

` UNIFORM LINEAR MOTION

– motion with constant velocity

- straight line
- same direction

ACCELERATION (Vector),

– the rate of change of velocity

– change in speed or direction
 Positive Acceleration
- speeding up
- accelerating

Negative Acceleration
- slowing down
- decelerating

Instantaneous Acceleration
- a measure of an object’s velocity per unit time at a particular point in time.

UNIFORM ACCELERATED MOTION

– motion with constant acceleration

- straight line
- same direction

EQUATIONS OF MOTION:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

is the displacement
Assume that
GRAPHS OF MOTION
1. Position vs Time

slope = speed
steeper slope = faster speed
straight line = constant speed
flat line = no motion
acceleration is indicated by a curve: changing slope = changing velocity

2. Velocity vs Time
 3

slope = acceleration
(+) – speeds up
2 (–) – slows down
straight line = constant acceleration
Speed (m/s)

flat line = no acceleration (constant velocity)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

3. Acceleration vs Time
Uniform accelerated motion:

Area under the line of the acceleration-time graph is the change in velocity
GUIDE TO SOLVING KINEMATICS PROBLEMS
1. Draw a labeled vector diagram showing the positive and negative direction.
2. Make a list of the given (include signs as needed) and unknown.
3. Decide what equation(s) you should use.
4. Write the equation(s) and solve for the unknown. Always include units in your first substitution and in your final
answer.

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY, or

– is a special constant that exists in a VACUUM

– always acts downward
– is always constant near the surface of the Earth

– In the absence of air resistance, all falling objects have the same acceleration
If an object is in FREE FALL, gravity will CHANGE an objects velocity by 9.8 m/s every second.
FREE FALL
- when an object is influenced only by the force of gravity

PROJECTILE MOTION
PROJECTILE

– Any object which projected by some means or thrown into the air that continues to move due to its own inertia
(mass).
– Moves in TWO dimensions
– It has 2 components just like a resultant vector.
- Horizontal and Vertical
HORIZONTAL “VELOCITY” COMPONENT
- Always constant
- Covers equal displacements in equal time periods.
- The initial horizontal velocity equals the final horizontal velocity
- Gravity DOES NOT work horizontally to increase or decrease the velocity.

VERTICAL “VELOCITY” COMPONENT

- Changes due to gravity
- Does NOT cover equal displacements in equal time periods.
- Both the MAGNITUDE and DIRECTION change.
 As the projectile moves up the MAGNITUDE DECREASES and its direction is UPWARD.
 As it moves down the MAGNITUDE INCREASES and the direction is DOWNWARD.
Together, these components produce what is called a TRAJECTORY or path. This path is parabolic in nature.
HORIZONTALLY LAUNCHED PROJECTILES
- Projectiles which have NO upward trajectory and NO initial VERTICAL velocity.

- To analyze a projectile in 2 dimensions we will use this equation:

Example: A plane traveling with a horizontal velocity of 100 m/s is 500 m above the ground. At some point the
pilot decides to drop some supplies to designated target below. (a) How long is the drop in the air? (b) How far
away from point where it was launched will it land?

What do I know? What I want to know?

v =100 m/s t=?

ox

y = 500 m x=?

voy= 0 m/s

g = -9.8 m/s/s
 VERTICALLY LAUNCHED PROJECTILES

Component Magnitude Direction

Horizontal Constant Constant
Vertical Decreases up Changes
Zero (0) at top
Increases down

Since the projectile was launched at an angle, the velocity MUST be broken into components

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
LAW OF INERTIA
- An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will continue moving at a constant velocity
unless acted upon by a net force.
Inertia
- tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion
- increases as mass increases

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

LAW OF ACCELERATION
- The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional
to its mass.

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

LAW OF INTERACTION
- In every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
- Tells that forces come in pairs: action force and reaction force
- Action and reaction force are equal in magnitude, are directed in opposite directions and are acting on
different bodies
- Explains what happens when we walk, how rockets, airplanes and the like are propelled, and a lot more

FORCE

– a push or pull that one body exerts on another

BALANCED FORCES
- forces acting on an object that are opposite in direction and equal in size
 - no change in velocity

NET FORCE
- unbalanced forces that are not opposite and equal
- velocity changes (object accelerates)

FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES

1. Gravitational – attractive force between masses
2. Electromagnetic – caused by to electric and magnetic fields
3. Strong Nuclear Force – holds nuclear particles together
4. Weak Nuclear Force – involved in radioactive decay of nuclei
TYPES OF FORCES
FRICTION
- a force acting when two surfaces rub against each other.
- force that opposes motion between 2 surfaces
- depends on the:
 types of surfaces
 force between the surfaces
- Friction is greater...
 between rough surfaces
 when there’s a greater force between the surfaces
NORMAL FORCE
- a force acting perpendicular to the interface of contact between two objects.

GRAVITY
- force of attraction between any two objects in the universe
- increases as:
 mass increases
 distance decreases
WEIGHT
- the force of gravity on an object

- mass is always the same

- weight is dependent on gravity

AIR RESISTANCE
- “fluid friction” or “drag”
- force that air exerts on a moving object to oppose its motion
- depends on:
 speed
 surface area
 shape
 density of fluid
TERMINAL VELOCITY
- maximum velocity reached by a falling object
- reached when:
 - no net force
 no acceleration
 constant velocity
CIRCULAR MOTION

– motion along a circular path/arc

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
- circular motion with constant speed

NON-UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

- circular motion with changing speed

PERIODIC MOTION
- motion that repeats itself after a fixed time

Period – time of one cycle

For an object moving in a circle with radius r:

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
- Object moves along a circular path.
- The direction of velocity is changing.
- Changing velocity implies that the object accelerates.
- Direction of acceleration is toward the center
- Caused by centripetal force

CENTRIPETAL FORCE
- A force directed towards the center of a circular path

Origin of Centripetal Force:

MOMENTUM

– quantity of motion
– inertia in motion
 IMPULSE
- change in momentum

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Law of Conservation of Momentum
- The total momentum in a group of objects doesn’t change unless outside forces act on the objects.

Elastic Collision
- KE is conserved

Inelastic Collision
- KE is not conserved

FORCES IN FLUIDS
Fluid

– matter that flows

– liquids and gases
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
BUOYANCY
- the ability of a fluid to exert an upward force on an object immersed in it

Buoyant Force
- upward force exerted by a fluid on an immersed object
- the buoyant force on an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object

Buoyant force > Weight

- object rises

Buoyant force < Weight

- object sinks

Buoyant force = weight

- object floats

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
- pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted unchanged throughout the fluid

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
- as the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure exerted by the fluid decreases

Venturi Effect
- fluids flow faster through narrow spaces causing reduced pressure
WORK

– transfer of energy through motion

– force exerted through a distance
Work is done when an object applies a force on another object and this force displaces the other object.

MACHINES

– tools used by man to aid him in doing work

– devices that make work easier
– delivers the same amount of work but expending lesser energy
– changes the size and/or direction of the exerted force
TYPES OF MACHINES
SIMPLE MACHINES

– tools that change the direction or magnitude of a force; it can do work with one movement.
TYPES OF SIMPLE MACHINES
1. Lever – is a board or bar that rests on a turning point. It involves moving a load around a pivot the easier it is to
move.
Classes and Classifications of Lever
In a Type 1 Lever, the pivot (fulcrum) is between the effort and the load. With this kind of lever, the direction
of force is changed. Effort applied downward moves the load up.
Effort applied upward moves the load down.
In a Type 2 Lever, the load is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the effort. With this kind of lever, the direction
of force is not changed. Pushing up on the lever arm pushes up the load.
Pushing down on the lever arm pushes down the load.
In a Type 3 Lever, the effort is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the load. With this kind of lever, the direction
of force is not changed.
The load moves in the same direction as the effort.
2. Inclined Plane – is a flat surface that is higher on one end and can be used to move an object to a lower or
higher place.
It is the simplest machine of all machines.
The longer the distance of the ramp, the easier it is to do the work; however, it will take a much longer time
needed to do the work.
Examples are ramp, slanted road, path up a hill slide.
3. Wedge – a simple machine used to push two objects apart.
It is also made up of two inclined planes which meet to form the sharp edge.
It is the active twin of the inclined plane; it does useful work by moving.
Examples are knives, axes, nails.
4. Wheel and Axle – a simple machine made of a large wheel secured to a smaller wheel which is called an axle.
Examples are cars, roller skates, door knob, and bicycles.
5. Screw – is actually an inclined plane that winds around itself.
A screw has ridges and it is not smooth like a nail.
Some screws are used to lower and raise things.
They are also used to hold objects together.
Examples are bottle caps and light bulbs.
6. Pulley – is made up of a wheel and a rope.
If we had to lift a heavy load, pulley makes our work easier.
It changes the direction of the force making it easier to lift things in a higher area.
Examples are flagpoles, sailboats, and blinds.
COMPOUND MACHINES
– two or more simple machines working together such as car engines and sewing machine.
POWER

– rate at which work is done

– measured in watts (W) or horsepower (HP)

ENERGY

– generally defined as the capacity of an object to do work

– measured in Joules (J)
FORMS OF ENERGY
KINETIC ENERGY
- energy related to the motion of particles
- depends on mass and velocity

1. Thermal Energy: movement of molecules

2. Electrical Energy: movement of charges
3. Mechanical Energy: movement of systems of objects
4. Radiant Energy: accelerated charged particles producing electromagnetic waves.
*All objects at any temperature emit radiant energy
POTENTIAL ENERGY
- stored energy
- depends on position or configuration of an object

1. Gravitational Potential Energy: energy due to vertical position or height

2. Elastic Potential Energy: energy in elastic materials
3. Chemical Energy: bonding of atoms
4. Nuclear Energy: changes in the nucleus
SOURCES OF ENERGY
RENEWABLE SOURCES
- energy source that is not permanently depleted when used
- includes: biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar energy and wind energy

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES
- energy source that is permanently depleted when used.
- Includes: coal, petroleum, natural gas, fossil fuels, and nuclear energy

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

- Energy may change forms, but it cannot be created or destroyed under ordinary conditions.

THERMODYNAMICS

– Derived from the Greek words therme and dynamis meaning “movement of heat”
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
When heat flows in or out of a system, the energy it gains or loses is equal to the amount of heat transferred.
Temperature
- The degree of hotness or coldness of an object
- Temperature represents the average translational kinetic energy of the individual particles in a system.
Temperature Scales
- Fahrenheit – water freezes at 32oF and boils at 212oF
- Celsius – water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC
- Kelvin – based off of Absolute Zero

Absolute Zero
- Total energy of the particles is zero

Temperature Conversions
Celsius to Fahrenheit

Fahrenheit to Celsius

Celsius to Kelvin

Specific Heat Capacity,

- resistance to change in temperature of a substance

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Law of Entropy
- heat flows from an object with a higher temperature to an object with a lower temperature

ENTROPY
- the amount of disorder in a system
- The universe is always moving towards a state of entropy
- It takes work to decrease entropy

TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Conduction
- Heat transfer between materials that are in direct contact with each other

Convection
- Transfer in a fluid by movement of the substance itself

Radiation
- Energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves

LATENT HEAT (L)

Latent Heat of Fusion
- The amount of energy required to change a unit mass of any substance from a solid to a liquid (and vice
versa)
Latent Heat of Vaporization
- The amount of energy required to change a unit mass from liquid to gas (and vice versa)
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND ELECTRONICS
ELECTRICITY
Static Electricity
- the net accumulation of electric charges on an object

Electric Field

- force exerted by an on anything that has an electric charge

- opposite charges attract
- like charges repel

Static Discharge
- movement of electrons to relieve a separation in charge

Ways the Objects can be given a Net Charge

Friction
- electrons have the tendency to be transferred from one material to the other leaving one material with a
positive charge and the other a negative charge
Conduction
- if charged objects touch a conductor, some charge will be transferred between the object and the conductor,
charging the conductor with the same sign as the charge of the object
Induction
- like charging by conduction, a charged object is used. But this time, it is only brought close to the
conductor. A conductor is not made to touch the other object. If the conductor is connected to the ground,
electrons will flow on to it or away from it. When the ground connection is removed, the conductor will
have a charge opposite in sign to that of the charged object.
Conductors
- materials that allow electrons to move through them easily
- are loosely held
- metals

Insulators
- materials that don’t allow electrons to move through them easily
- are tightly held
- plastic, wood rubber, glass

Electroscope
- instrument that detects the presence of electrical charges
- the leaves of the instrument separate when they gain either a + or – charge

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Circuit
- closed path through which electrons can flow

Potential Difference (Voltage)

- difference in electric potential between two places
- large separation of charge creates high voltage
 - the “push” the causes to move from – to +
- measured in volts (V)

Current
- flow of electrons through a conductor
- depends on the number of passing a point in a give time
- measured in amperes (A)

Resistance
- opposes the flow of electrons
- electrical energy is converted to thermal energy and light
- measured in ohms (Ω)
Resistance depends on:
 the conductor
 wire thickness
 less resistance in thicker wires
 wire length
 less resistance in shorter wires
 temperature
 less resistance at low temperatures
OHM’s LAW
- relationship between the potential difference, current, and resistance
- voltage increases when current increases
- resistance decreases when current increases

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
SERIES CIRCUITS
- current travels in a single path
 one break stops the flow of current
- current is the same throughout the circuit

- each device receives a fraction of the total voltage

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
- current travels in multiple paths
 one break doesn’t stop the flow of current
- current varies in different branches
 takes the path of least resistance

- each device receives the total voltage

HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS
 - combination of parallel circuits
 too many devices can cause wires to overheat
Safety Features:
Fuse – metal melts, breaking the circuit
Circuit Breaker – bimetallic strip bends when hot, breaking circuit
ELECTRICAL POWER

– rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form of energy

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

– energy use of an appliance depends on the power required and time used

COULOMB’s LAW
Any two charged objects will create a force on each other. Opposite charges will produce an attractive force while
similar charges will produce a repulsive force. The greater the charges, the greater the force. The greater the distance
between them, the smaller the force.
MAGNETISM

– force of attraction or repulsion between unlike or like poles

– due to the arrangement of electrons
– closely related to electricity
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETS
Law of Poles
- like poles repel
- unlike poles attract
- a broken magnet creates new poles

Magnetic Field
- are around a magnet where magnetic forces act
- field lines show direction of field (N→S)

Magnetic Domain
- groups of atoms with aligned magnetic poles
- in a magnetized object, domains are all aligned

USES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

Electromagnetism
- Magnets exert forces to metallic objects or to other magnetic bodies even without contact (non-contact
forces).
Electromagnet
- Strong, temporary magnet formed when current is passed through a coil of wire surrounding an iron core
- Acts like a bar magnet when current is on

Speakers
 - a device that can convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
- a wire coil moves back & forth as its magnetic field interacts with the field of a fixed magnet
- forced vibration causes the cone to move creating sound

Motor
- an electromagnet rotates between the poles of a fixed magnet converting electrical energy to mechanical
energy
- a commutator reverses the poles of the e’magnet

PRODUCING ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electromagnetic Induction
- producing a current by moving a wire through a magnetic field
 some microphones work like mini-speakers in reverse
 sound waves cause a coil to move creating current
Electric Generator
- a device that can convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
 an armature is rotated between magnet poles
 the magnetic field induces a current in the wire coil
Hydroelectric Dam
- the potential energy of bodies of water is converted to kinetic energy
- mechanical kinetic energy turns the generator shaft which creates electrical energy

AC and DC
Direct Current (DC)
- current flows in one direction
- dry cell batteries

Alternating Current (AC)

- current reverses its direction at regular intervals
- electrical outlets

TRANSFORMERS
- increase or decrease AC voltage
- primary coil AC produces a magnetic field that induces AC in the secondary coil
- voltage ratio = ratio of turns in each coil

Step-up Transformer
- increase the voltage
- more turns
- can be seen in powerplants

Step-down transformer
- decreases the voltage
- fewer turns
- can be seen in household appliances

WAVES

– rhythmic disturbances that carry energy through matter or space

Medium

– material through which a wave transfers energy

– solid, liquid, gas, or combination
– electromagnetic waves don’t need a medium (e.g. visible light)
TWO TYPES OF WAVES
 Transverse Waves
- medium moves perpendicular to the direction of wave motion

Longitudinal Waves (a.k.a. compressional)

- medium moves in the same direction as wave motion

MEASURING WAVES

Frequency ( )
- number of waves passing a point in 1 second
- measured in Hertz (Hz)
Shorter wavelength
 higher frequency
 higher energy
Velocity ( )
- speed of a wave as it moves forward
- depends on wave type and medium

SOUND

– Sound waves are mechanical in nature. They are produced from vibrating sources placed in a material media thus
they need a material medium to propagate.
– The vibrating source of a sound sets the particles of a medium in vibration such that sound travels outward in the
form of longitudinal waves. The vibration of the particles is parallel to the direction of the sound wave.
– Sound cannot travel in vacuum because there are no molecules to pass on the vibration.
– Sound can be transmitted through solids, liquids and gases.
– Sound travels fastest in solids and travels slowest in gases. The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
– The speed of sound waves is also affected by temperature and humidity. Generally, the speed of sound increases
with increasing temperature in air. Sound travels slightly faster when humidity rises.
– Sound waves are audible to the human ears within the frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
– Sound waves of frequency lower than 20 Hz are called infrasound and sound waves of frequency higher than 20 000
Hz are called ultrasound.
HUMAN HEARING
 sound wave → vibrates ear drum → amplified by bones → converted to nerve impulses in cochlea
Pitch

– highness or lowness of a sound

– depends on frequency of sound wave
Intensity

– volume of sound
– depends on energy (amplitude) of sound wave
– measured in decibels (dB)
Doppler Effect

– change in wave frequency

– caused by a moving wave source
– moving toward you – pitch sounds higher
– moving away from you – pitch sounds lower
SEEING WITH SOUND

– Ultrasonic waves - above 20,000 Hz

– Used in Medical Imaging
– SONAR – “Sound Navigation Ranging”
MUSIC
Music

– specific pitches and sound quality

– regular pattern
Noise

– no definite pitch
– no set pattern
RESONANCE
Forced Vibration

– when one vibrating object forces another object to vibrate at the same frequency
– results in a louder sound because a greater surface area is vibrating
– used in guitars, pianos, etc.
Resonance

– special case of forced vibration

– object is induced to vibrate at its natural frequency
HARMONICS
Fundamental

– the lowest natural frequency of an object

Overtones

– multiples of the fundamental frequency

INTERFERENCE

– the ability of 2 or more waves to combine to form a new wave

Beats

– variations in sound intensity produced by 2 slightly different frequencies

– both constructive and destructive interference occur
ACOUSTICS

– the study of sound

REVERBERATION

– echo effect produced by the reflection of sound

Anechoic chamber – designed to eliminate reverberation.
LIGHT
Electromagnetic Radiation

– transverse waves produced by the motion of electrically charged particles

– does not require a medium
– speed in a vacuum = 3×108 m/s
– electric and magnetic components are perpendicular
Photons

– tiny, particle-like bundles of radiation

– absorbed and released by electrons
– energy increases with wave frequency
TYPES OF EM RADIATION
Radiowaves

– lowest energy EM radiation

FM – frequency modulation
AM – amplitude modulation
Microwaves

– penetrate food and vibrate water & fat molecules to produce thermal energy
Infrared Radiation (IR)

– slightly lower energy than visible light

– can raise the thermal energy of objects
thermogram – image made by detecting IR radiation
Visible Light

– small part of the spectrum we can see

– ROY G. BIV – colors in order of increasing energy
– red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)

– slightly higher energy than visible light

Types:
 UVA - tanning, wrinkles
  UVB - sunburn, cancer
 UVC - most harmful, sterilization
Ozone layer depletion = UV exposure!
X rays

– higher energy than UV

– can penetrate soft tissue, but not bones
Gamma rays

– highest energy EM radiation

– emitted by radioactive atoms
– used to kill cancerous cells
LIGHT AND COLOR
Light and Matter
Opaque
 absorbs or reflects all light
Transparent
 allows light to pass through completely
Translucent
 allows some light to pass through
Seeing Colors
Whitelight

– contains all visible colors - ROY G. BIV

In white light, an object…
 reflects the color you see
 absorbs all other colors
White Object – reflects all colors
Black Object – absorbs all colors
Mixing Colors
Primary light colors

– red, green, blue

– additive colors
– combine to form white light
Filter

– transparent material that absorbs all light colors except the filter color
Pigment

– colored material that absorbs and reflects different colors

Primary pigment colors
 cyan, magenta, yellow
 subtractive colors
 combine to form black
When mixing pigments, the color of the mixture is the color of light that both pigments reflect.
OPTICS
MIRRORS AND LENSES
Reflection

– We describe the path of light as straight-line rays

– Reflection off a flat surface follows a simple rule:
 angle in (incidence) equals angle out (reflection)
 angles measured from surface “normal” (perpendicular)

Vocabulary
Real Image

– Image is made from “real” light rays that converge at a real focal point so the image is REAL
– Can be projected onto a screen because light actually passes through the point where the image appears
– Always inverted
Virtual Image

– “Not Real” because it cannot be projected

– Image only seems to be there!
MIRRORS
Virtual Images in Plane Mirrors
Rays seem to come from behind the mirror, but, of course, they don't. It is virtually as if the rays were coming
from behind the mirror.
As far as the eye-brain system is concerned, the effect is the same as would occur if the mirror were absent and
the chess piece were actually located at the spot labeled "virtual image".
If light energy doesn't flow from the image, the image is "virtual".
Curved mirrors
If the mirror isn’t flat light still follows the same rules, with local surface normal
Parabolic mirrors have exact focus

– used in telescopes, backyard satellite dishes, etc.

– also forms virtual image
Concave Mirrors

– Curves inward
– May be real or virtual image
For a real object between f and the mirror, a virtual image is formed behind the mirror. The image is upright and
larger than the object.
For a real object between C (center of curvature) and f (focus), a real image is formed outside of C. The image
is inverted and larger than the object.
For a real object at C, the real image is formed at C. The image is inverted and the same size as the object.
For a real object close to the mirror but outside of the center of curvature, the real image is formed between C
and f. The image is inverted and smaller than the object.
For a real object at f, no image is formed. The reflected rays are parallel and never converge.
Convex Mirrors

– Curves outward
– Reduces images
– Virtual images
– Used in rear view mirrors, store security…
 Objects are closer than they appear!
Refraction

– Light also goes through some things

 glass, water, eyeball, air
– The presence of material slows light’s progress
 interactions with electrical properties of atoms
– The “light slowing factor” is called the index of refraction
 glass has n = 1.52, meaning that light travels about 1.5 times slower in glass than in vacuum
 water has n = 1.33
 air has n = 1.00028
 vacuum is n = 1.00000 (speed of light at full capacity)
Refraction at a plane surface

– Light bends at interface between refractive indices

 bends more the larger the difference in refractive index
LENSES
Convex Lenses

– Thicker in the center than edges.

– Lens that converges (brings together) light rays.
– Forms real images and virtual images depending on position of the object
Concave Lenses

– Lenses that are thicker at the edges and thinner in the center.
– Diverges light rays
– All images are erect and reduced.
Diffraction

– bending of waves around a barrier

– longer wavelengths (red) bend more – opposite of refraction
Interference

– constructive → brighter light

– destructive → dimmer light
MODERN PHYSICS
SPECIAL RELATIVITY
I. Speed of light is constant
– Regardless of speed or direction, observers always measure the speed of light to be the same value.
– Speed of light is maximum possible speed.
– The length of an object decreases as its speed increases
– Clocks passing by you run more slowly than do clocks at rest
II. Time dilation
– Clocks run slower as one approaches the speed of light
III. Simultaneity
– Light in center of car flashes, hits front and back simultaneously.
To an observer watching the car move, the car travels while the light is in motion. So the light hits the back
of the car before the front.
IV. Length Contraction
– When an object is moving, its lengths shrinks in the same direction as its velocity
V. Spacetime Diagram
 GENERAL RELATIVITY
I. Equivalence principle
II. Gravitational redshift
III. Geodesics
IV. Gravitational light bending

SCIENCE

– a systematic organized body of knowledge

– comes from the Latin word “scientia” meaning knowledge
– a body of knowledge that uses observations, research and experimentation to describe and explain the natural
phenomena
GOAL OF SCIENCE:

– to understand the world around us and use that understanding to our benefit.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE:
1. FACTS – general truth about nature
2. CONCEPTS – combined facts or observations of regularity in events or objects
3. THEORIES– proven hypotheses that explain observed regularities
4. LAWS – always proven to be true and universal
TYPES OF SCIENCE
1. PURE SCIENCE
– science that focuses on theories of science and predictions that help understand the world better
2. APPLIED SCIENCE
– science that utilizes scientific information to develop practical solutions
– practical application of scientific knowledge
THREE MAJOR BRANCHES OF NATURAL SCIENCE:
1. LIFE SCIENCE – the study of living organisms
2. EARTH SCIENCE – the study of Earth and space
3. PHYSICAL SCIENCE – the study of matter and energy
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE UNDER LIFE SCIENCE
1. BOTANY – the study of plants
2. ZOOLOGY – the science that covers animals and animal life
 3. GENETICS – the study of heredity and variation of organisms as well as the patterns of inheritance of
specific traits
4. MEDICINE – the science of maintaining and/or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis and
treatment with non-surgical techniques
5. AGRICULTURE – the science of cultivating the ground, harvesting the crops and rearing and management of
farming, husbandry and livestock
6. CRANIOLOGY – the study of physical characteristics of the skills of different human races
7. ANATOMY – the study of structure and organization of living things
8. ANGIOLOGY – the study of blood and lymph vessels and their disorders
9. PALEONTOLOGY – the study of prehistoric life, based mainly in fossils of animals and plants
10. BIOTECHNOLOGY – the industrial application of living organisms and/or biological techniques developed
through basic research
11. ECOLOGY – the study of interrelationships between living organisms and their environment
12. PHYSIOLOGY – the study of physical, biochemical and mechanical functions and activities of living
organisms
13. TAXONOMY – the science of classifying all the living things by arranging them in groups according to their
relationships with each other
14. CYTOLOGY – the study of structure, origin, function and pathology of cells
15. MICROBIOLOGY – the study of structure and function of microorganisms, including bacteria, molds and
pathogenic protozoa
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE UNDER EARTH SCIENCE
1. GEOGRAPHY – the study of Earth as well as its features phenomena and inhabitants
2. GEOLOGY – the study of the origin, history, evolution and structure of the Earth’s crust
3. OCEANOGRAPHY – the exploration and study of the ocean
4. PALEONTOLOGY – the science of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic periods
5. METEOROLOGY – the science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and climate
6. CLIMATOLOGY – the study of climatic data, analysis of climatic changes and investigations of its phenomena
and causes
7. MINERALOGY – the study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical properties of minerals
8. HYDROLOGY – the distribution, occurrence, properties, chemistry and circulation of water on the Earth.
9. MINERALOGY – the scientific discipline that includes the study of chemical composition, physical
properties, internal crystal structure, origin, occurrence and distribution in nature of different minerals
10. SEISMOLOGY – the study of earthquakes as well as structure of the Earth, based on the study of seismic waves
11. ASTRONOMY – the study of celestial bodies such as stars, comets, planets and galaxies and phenomena that
originate outside the Earth’s atmosphere.
12. COSMOLOGY – the study of the nature of the universe, its origin and overall structure
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE UNDER PHYSICAL SCIENCE
1. PHYSICS – the study of matter and energy and the interactions between them
2. CHEMISTRY – the science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions and the structure of matter.
PROBLEM SOLVING: Scientific Method
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STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Identifying the Problem
– develop a question or problem that can be solved through experimentation
2. Research / Gather Information
– make observations and research your topic of interest
3. Formulate a Hypothesis
– predict a possible answer to the problem or question
HYPOTHESIS – an educated guess about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
4. Experimentation
– develop and follow a procedure
– include a detailed materials list
– the outcome must be measurable
5. Collect and Analyze Results
– observations and data in experiments are usually written down and presented in tables, graphs or charts
– different types of graphs are appropriate for different experiments depending on the data
– in a table, the independent quantity is usually written in the first column and the dependent variable/s in the
succeeding columns
– modify the procedure if needed
6. Make Conclusions / Generalizations
– include a statement that accepts or rejects the hypothesis
– make recommendations for further study and possible improvements to the procedure
7. Communicating Results
– be prepared to present the project to an audience
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
EXPERIMENT – organized procedure for testing a hypothesis
COMPONENTS OF A GOOD EXPERIMENT
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

– the factor that is intentionally manipulated or changed in an experiment

– valid experiments have only one independent variable
DEPENDENT VARIABLE

– the factor that may change as a result of changes made in the independent variable.
– the dependent variable must be measurable
CONTROL GROUP
 – the control group serves as the standard of comparison in an experiment
– all experiments should have a control group
CONSTANTS

– all the factors that the experimenter attempts to keep the same
MULTIPLE TRIALS

– there must be multiple trials to consider an experiment valid

GRAPHS
A graph

– represents the relationship between two variables.

– contains two perpendicular axes.
 has a horizontal axis, or x axis.
 has a vertical axis, or y axis.
COMMON GRAPHS USED TO REPRESENT DATA

– Bar Graph
– appropriate for comparing different trials or different experimental groups and for presenting
independent variables that are not numerical in nature
– Pie Graph
– used to represent a part to whole relationship
– Line Graph
– used to show the relationship of two variables: the dependent and the independent variables must be
numerical
– the dependent variable must be plotted in the Y axis and the independent variable in the X axis
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES
1. Direct Relationship
– the variables change together.
– when the independent variable increases the dependent variable also increases and vice versa
2. Inverse Relationship
– when the independent variable increases the dependent variable decreases and vice versa.
MEASUREMENT
The measurement of any quantity is made relative to a particular standard or unit that must be specified along with the
numerical value of the quantity.
A scientific measurement requires:
1. the definition of the physical quantity
2. the units
PHYSICAL QUANTITY

– an attribute or property of a substance that can be expressed in a mathematical equation

– is made up of a value and a unit.
A unit of measurement refers to a particular physical quantity
TWO TYPES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
1. Fundamental Quantities
– quantities that do not depend on any other physical quantity

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

QUANTITY DESCRIPTION SI UNIT UNIT
SYMBOL
Mass Amount of substance in a body kilogra kg
m
Length Distance between two points meter m
 Time Duration of two events second s
Temperature Degree of hotness or coldness of a body kelvin K
Electric Current Flow of charges or electrons ampere A
Luminous Intensity Measure of light intensity candela cd
Amount of Amount of particles in a body mole mol
substance

2. Derived Quantities
– products and/or ratios of fundamental quantities

MEASURED NUMBERS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

MEASURED NUMBERS
Measured numbers are the numbers obtained when you measure a quantity such as your height, weight, or temperature.
To write a measured number,

– observe the numerical values of the marked lines.

– estimate the value of the number between the marks.
– The estimated number is the final number in your measured number.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
In a measured number, the significant figures (SFs) are all the digits, including the estimated digit.
Significant figures

– are used to represent the amount of error associated with a measurement.

– are all nonzero digits and zeros between digits.
– are not zeros that act as placeholders before digits.
– are zeros at the end of a decimal number.
– Zeros at the end of large standard numbers without a decimal point are not significant.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND SIGNIFICANT ZEROS
When one or more zeros in a large number are significant,

– they are shown clearly by writing the number in scientific notation.

– scientific notation is used to express very large or very small numbers
– it consists of a number between 1 & 10 followed by ×10 to an exponent
– the exponent can be determined by the number of decimal places you have to move to get only 1 number in
front of the decimal
Large Numbers

– If the number you start with is greater than 1, the exponent will be positive
Small Numbers

– If the number you start with is less than 1, the exponent will be negative
EXACT NUMBERS
Exact numbers are

– not measured and do not have a limited number of significant figures.

– not used to find the number of significant figures in a calculated answer.
– numbers obtained by counting.
– definitions that compare two units.
– definitions in the same measuring system.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS
RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF
 1. If the digit to the immediate right of the last significant digit is less than 5, do not round up the last significant
digit.
2. If the digit to the immediate right of the last significant digit is greater than 5, you round up the last significant
figure
3. If the number to the immediate right of the last significant is a 5, and that 5 is followed by a non-zero digit,
round up
4. If the number to the immediate right of the last significant is a 5, and that 5 is followed by a zero, you look at
the last significant digit and make it even.
OPERATIONS ON SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Multiplication and Division – answer should reflect the least number of significant figures
Addition and Subtraction – answer should reflect the least number of decimal places
ADDING SIGNIFICANT ZEROS
When the calculator display contains fewer SFs than needed, add one or more significant zeros to obtain the correct
number of significant figures.
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
The SI, or metric system of units is the internationally accepted system of units for measurement in all of the sciences,
including physics and chemistry.
The term SI is from “le Système international d'unités”, the International System of Units.
TWO TYPES OF SI UNITS
1. Base Units – a set of units composed of an irreducible set of units for measuring all physical variables (see
fundamental quantities table)
2. Derived Units – can be expressed in terms of the base units

SI DERIVED UNITS (Selected Examples)

QUANTITY NAME SYMBOL
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Speed meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second squared m/s2

Some SI derived units have special names with SI base unit equivalents

SI DERIVED UNITS (Selected Examples)

QUANTITY NAME SYMBOL SI BASE UNIT
EQUIVALENT
Force Newton N m·kg/s2
Pressure Pascal Pa N/m2
Work, Energy Joule J N·m
Power Watt W J/s
Electric Charge Coulomb C A·s
Electric Potential Difference Volt V W/A
Frequency Hertz Hz s−1
Capacity Liter L dm3

UNIT CONVERSIONS
An important feature of the metric system is the use of prefixes to express larger and smaller values of a quantity. For
example, a large number of grams can be expressed in kilograms, and a fraction of a gram could be expressed in
milligrams.
Commonly used prefixes are listed in the table below:

MULTIPLICATION FACTOR
NAME SYMBOL WORD FORM STANDARD FORM POWER OF 10
peta P Quadrillion 1 000 000 000 000 000 1015
tera T Trillion 1 000 000 000 000 1012
giga G Billion 1 000 000 000 109
mega M Million 1 000 000 106
kilo k Thousand 1 000 103
hecto h Hundred 100 102
deca da Ten 10 101
deci d Tenth 0.1 10−1
centi c Hundredth 0.01 10−2
milli m Thousandth 0.001 10−3
micro μ, mc Millionth 0.000 001 10−6
nano n Billionth 0.000 000 001 10−9
pico p Trillionth 0.000 000 000 001 10−12
The use of prefixes containing multiples of 3 are the most commonly used prefixes.

SI PREFIX CONVERSIONS
Using prefixes, conversions between units can be devised.
STEPS IN PREFIX CONVERSION
1. Find the difference between the exponents of the two prefixes
2. Move the decimal that many places
a. Move left if converting from a smaller factor to a bigger factor
b. Move right if converting from a bigger factor to a smaller factor
Examples:

USING CONVERSION FACTORS

CONVERSION FACTORS

– can be used to change from one unit of measure to another, or to find measures of substances or processes
that are equivalent
– a ratio, or fraction, or two measured quantities that are equal or equivalent in a problem
– a fraction that equals one
Multiplying a quantity by a conversion factor changes the units that measure a quantity but does not change the original
amount of the quantity.
Conversion factors equal unity (1) because they are made from equalities. For any fraction in which the top and bottom
are equal, its value is one.
Example:

COMMON CONVERSION FACTORS

1 yd 3 ft 2 cups 1 pt 16 ou 1 lb
1 ft 12 in 1L 1.057 qts 1 kg 2.2 lb
1 in 2.54 cm 3.785 L 1 gal 1 ou 28.35 g
1 mi 5280 ft 1 gal 4 qts 1 day 24 h
 1 mi 1.609 km 1 mL 1 cm3 1h 60 min
1m 3.281 ft 200 lbs 1 ton 1 min

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS (The “Factor-Label” Method)

Units, or “labels” are cancelled out or “factored” out
STEPS IN DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
1. Identify the starting and ending units
2. Line up the conversion factors so units cancel
3. Multiply all top numbers and divide by each bottom number
4. Check units and answer
Example:

1. Identify the starting and ending units

Lbs → g

2. Line up the conversion factors so units cancel

lbs → g
7.7 lbs 1 kg 1000 g
=
2.2 lbs 1 kg

3. Multiply all top numbers and divide by each bottom number

4. Check units and answer
lbs → g
7.7 lbs 1 kg 1000 g
= 3 500 g
2.2 lbs 1 kg

DENSITY
Density compares the mass of an object to its volume.
DENSITY OF SOLIDS
The density of a solid can be determined by dividing the mass of an object by its volume.
DENSITY USING VOLUME DISPLACEMENT
The density of the solid object is calculated by dividing its mass by the displaced volume.
To determine the displaced volume, submerge the solid in water so that it displaces water that is equal to its own
volume.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (sp gr)

– is a relationship between the density of a substance and the density of water.

– is calculated by dividing the density of a sample by the density of water, which is 1.00 g/mL at 4 °C.
– is a unitless quantity.
A substance with a specific gravity of 1.00 has the same numerical value as the density of water (1.00 g/mL).

EARTH SCIENCE – encompasses all sciences that seek to understand Earth and it neighbors in
space
EARTH SCIENCE AREAS OF STUDY:
1. GEOLOGY – the study of Earth
2. OCEANOGRAPHY – the study of the ocean
3. METEROLOGY – the study of the atmosphere and the processes that produce weather
4. ASTRONOMY – the study of the universe
HYPOTHESES FOR THE FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM:
Most researchers conclude that Earth and other planets formed at essentially the same time.
1. ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS – a rogue star passes close to the sun
- gas is tidally removed from both the rogue star and the sun
- the rogue star material is less dense and becomes outer Solar System planets
- the inner Solar System material is more dense and becomes terrestrial planets
2. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS – the solar system evolved from a rotating cloud called the solar nebula
– the nebula was composed mostly of hydrogen and helium
– about five billion years ago, the nebula began to contract
– it assumed a flat, disk shape with the protosun (pre-Sun) at the center
– inner planets begin to form metallic and rocky clumps
– larger outer planets began forming from fragments with a high percentage of ice
3. PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS – a great cloud of gas and dust rotated slowly in space
- the cloud was at least 10 billion kilometers in diameter
- the cloud shrank under the pull of its own gravitation or was made to collapse by
the explosion of a passing star
FORMATION OF EARTH
As the solar system was formed, layers formed on Earth. And as Earth formed, the decay of radioactive elements and heat
from high-velocity impacts caused the temperature to increase.
Lighter rocky components floated outward, toward the surface.
Gaseous material escaped from Earth’s interior to produce the primitive atmosphere.
EARTH’s MAJOR SPHERES
1. HYDROSPHERE
– Ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere
 Nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface
 Holds about 97% of Earth’s water
– Also includes fresh water found in streams, lakes and glaciers, as well as that found underground
2. ATMOSPHERE
– Thin, tenuous blanket of air
– One half lies below 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles)
3. BIOSPHERE
– Includes all life
– Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from the ocean floor upward for several kilometers into
the atmosphere
4. GEOSPHERE
– Based on compositional differences, it consists of the crust, mantle, and core.
Crust – the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth
Mantle – the 2890-kilometer-thick layer of Earth located below the crust.
Core – the innermost layer of Earth, located beneath the mantle.
MINERALS

– Naturally occurring solid substances with an orderly crystalline structure and definite chemical composition
– Generally considered inorganic
HOW MINERALS FORM

– Crystallization from magma

– Precipitation
– Pressure and temperature
– Hydrothermal solutions
MINERAL GROUPS
Minerals can be classified based on their composition
1. SILICATES
 Silicon and oxygen combine to form a structure called the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. This silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron provides the framework of every silicate mineral.
2. CARBONATES
Minerals that contain the elements carbon, oxygen, and one or more other metallic elements
3. OXIDES
Minerals that contain oxygen and one or more other elements, which are usually metals
4. SULFATES AND SULFIDES
Minerals that contain the element sulfur
5. HALIDES
Minerals that contain a halogen ion plus one or more other elements
6. NATIVE ELEMENTS
Minerals that exist in relatively pure form
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. COLOR
Small amounts of different elements can give the same mineral different colors.
2. STREAK
Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form.
3. LUSTER
Luster is used to describe how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral.
4. CRYSTAL FORM
Crystal form is the visible expression of a mineral’s internal arrangement of atoms.
5. HARDNESS
Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to being scratched
a. MOHS SCALE
– Measure of the hardness of a mineral
– Consists of 10 minerals arranged from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest)

MOHS HARDNESS SCALE

Talc 1 Scrapable with fingernails
Gypsum 2 Scratchable with fingernails
Calcite 3 Scratchable with copper coin
Fluorite 4 Easily scratchable with knife
Apatite 5 Still scratchable with knife
Orthoclase 6 Scratchable with steel file
Quartz 7 Scratches window glass
Topaz 8 Scratches quartz
Corundum 9 Scratches topaz
Diamond 10 Scratches corundum
6. CLEAVAGE
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to cleave, or break along flat, even surfaces
7. FRACTURE
Minerals that do not show cleavage when broken are said to fracture
Fracture – the uneven breakage of a mineral
8. DENSITY
Density is the property of all matter that is the ratio of an object’s mass to its volume
9. DISTINCTIVE PROPERTIES
Some minerals can be recognized by other distinctive properties
ROCKS

– Any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter occurring naturally as part of our planet
TYPES OF ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS – formed by the crystallization of molten magma
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – formed from the weathered products of preexisting rocks that have been
transported, deposited, compacted, and cemented
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS – formed by the alteration of pre-existing rock deep within Earth (but still in the
solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluids
THE ROCK CYCLE

– Show the interrelationships among the three rock types

 TERMS:
Magma – molten material that forms deep beneath the Earth’s surface
Lava – magma that reaches the surface
Weathering – a process in which rocks are broken down by water, air, and living things
Sediment – weathered pieces of Earth elements

FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS are formed when magma hardens beneath the Earth’s surface
2. EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS are formed when lava hardens
CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks can be classified based on their composition and texture
1. TEXTURE
– Coarse-grained texture is caused by slow cooling resulting in larger crystals
– Fine-grained texture is caused by rapid cooling resulting in smaller, interconnected mineral grains
– Glassy texture is caused by very rapid cooling
– Porphyritic texture is caused by different rates of cooling resulting in varied sized minerals
2. COMPOSITION
– Granitic composition rocks are made mostly of light-colored quartz and feldspar
– Basaltic composition rocks are made mostly of dark-colored silicate minerals
– Andesitic composition rocks are between granitic light-color minerals and basaltic composition dark-
colored minerals
– Ultramafic composition rocks are made mostly from iron and magnesium rich minerals
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are formed through weathering, erosion and deposition
EROSION involves the weathering and the removal of rock
DEPOSITION occurs when an agent of erosion—water, wind, ice, or gravity—loses energy and drops sediments
COMPACTION is a process that squeezes, or compacts sediments
CEMENTATION takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the tiny spaces among the sediments
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – composed of weathered bits of rocks and minerals
 – Classified by particle size
– Common rocks include
o Shale (most abundant)
o Sandstone
o Conglomerate
2. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – form when dissolved substances precipitate or separate from water
– Common rocks include
o Limestone (most abundant)
o Microcrystalline quartz known as chert, flint, jasper, or agate
o Evaporites such as rock salt or gypsum
o Coal

FORMATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

METAMORPHISM means “to change form”.
Most metamorphic changes occur at elevated temperatures and pressures.
Conditions for formation are found a few kilometers below the Earth’s surface and extend into the upper mantle.
CONTACT METAMORPHISM occurs when magma moves into rock

– Occurs near a body of magma

– Changes are driven by a rise in temperature
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM results in large-scale deformation and high-grade metamorphism

– Directed pressure and high temperature occur during mountain building

– Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock
AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
HEAT – provides the energy needed to drive chemical reactions
PRESSURE – causes a more compact rock with greater density
HYDROTHERMAL SOLUTIONS – hot water-based solution escaping from the mass of magma
– promote recrystallization by dissolving original minerals and then depositing new
ones
CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCK – has a banded or layered appearance
2. NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCK – does not have a banded texture
EARTH’s RESOURCES
ENERGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
1. RENEWABLE AND NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES
a. Renewable resources can be replenished over fairly short spans of time, such as months, years, or decades.
b. Nonrenewable resources take millions of years to form and accumulate.
2. FOSSIL FUELS
a. Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons that may be used as fuel, including coal, oil, and natural gas.
3. TAR SANDS AND OIL SHALE
a. Fuels derived from tar sand and oils shales could become good substitutes for dwindling petroleum
supplies.
FORMATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
Some of the most important mineral deposits form through igneous processes and from hydrothermal solutions.
Ore is a useful metallic mineral that can be mined at a profit.
NONMETALLIC MINERAL RESOURCES
Nonmetallic mineral resources are extracted and processed either for the nonmetallic elements they contain or for their
physical and chemical properties.
ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES
 1. Solar Energy: energy from the sun
a. “fuel” free
b. Non-polluting
2. Nuclear Energy
In nuclear fusion, the nuclei of heavy atoms such as uranium-235 are bombarded with neutrons.
The uranium nuclei split into smaller nuclei and emit neutrons and heat energy.
3. Wind Energy
In the next 50 to 60 years, wind power could meet between 5 to 10 percent of
the country’s demand for electricity.
4. Hydroelectric Power: power generated by falling water
The water held in a reservoir behind a dam is a form of stored energy that can be released through the dam to
produce electric power.
The strong water flow that results drives turbines and electric generators.
5. Geothermal Energy: harnessed by taping natural underground reservoirs of steam and hot water.
Hot water is used directly for heating and to turn turbines that generate electric power.
6. Tidal Power: harnessed by constructing a dam across the mouth of a bay or an estuary in coastal areas.
The strong in-and-out flow of tidal water drives turbines and electric generators.
WATER, AIR AND LAND RESOURCES
THE WATER PLANET
Each day, people use fresh water for drinking, cooking, bathing, and growing food.
Freshwater Pollution

– Point source pollution comes from a known and specific location, such as factory pipes.

– Nonpoint source pollution is pollution that does not have a specific point of origin.

– Runoff is the water that flows over the land rather than seeping into the ground, often carrying nonpoint source
pollution.
EARTH’s ATMOSPHERE
The chemical composition of the atmosphere helps maintain life on Earth.
Pollution in the Air
The increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has altered the carbon cycle and contributed to global warming—the
unnatural warming of the lower atmosphere.
Through a series of chemical reactions, these pollutants in the air are converted into acids that are a major cause of acid
precipitation.
Land Resources
Earth’s land provides soil and forests, as well as mineral and energy resources
Damage to Land Resources
Mines produce many mineral resources, but mines are destroying, soil, vegetation, and Earth’s contours.
PROTECTING RESOURCES
1. Keeping Water Clean and Safe
a. Conservation is the careful use of resources.
b. Pollution prevention means stopping pollution from entering the environment.
c. The Clean Water Act (CWA) required industries to reduce or eliminate point source pollution into surface
waters.
d. The Safe Drinking Water Act helped protect drinking resources.
2. Protecting the Air
a. Clean Air Act, the nation’s most important air pollution law.
b. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) established for six “criteria” pollutants known to cause
health problems – carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates (fine
particles).
3. Caring for Land Resources
a. Protecting land resources involves preventing pollution and managing land resources wisely.
b. Compost is partly decomposed organic material that can be used as fertilizer.
c. Recycling is the collecting and processing of used items so that they can be made into new products.
WEATHERING
MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Mechanical weathering occurs when physical forces break rock into smaller and smaller pieces without changing the rock’s
mineral composition.
In nature three physical process are especially important causes of weathering: frost wedging, unloading, and biological
activity.
1. Frost wedging
– The mechanical breakup of rock caused by the expansion of freezing water in cracks and crevices
– Sections of rock that are wedged loose may tumble into large piles called talus, which typically form at the
base of steep, rocky cliffs.
2. Unloading
– Reduced pressure on igneous rock causes it to expand and allows slabs of outer rock to break off in layers
in a process called exfoliation.
3. Biological activity
– The activity of organisms, including plants, burrowing animals, and humans, can also cause mechanical
weathering.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is the transformation of rock into one or more new compounds.
1. Chemical Weathering of Granite
– Weathering of potassium feldspar produces clay minerals, soluble salt (potassium bicarbonate), and silica in
solution.
– Quartz remains substantially unaltered.
2. Weathering of Silicate Minerals
– Produces insoluble iron oxides and clay minerals
3. Spheroidal Weathering
– Causes the corners and edges of rock to be more rounded
RATE OF WEATHERING
Two other factors affecting the rate of weathering are rock characteristics and climate.
1. Rock characteristics
– Mineral composition and solubility
– Physical features such as joints
2. Climate
– Temperature and moisture are the most crucial factors.
– Chemical weathering is most effective in areas with high temperatures and abundant moisture.
DIFFERENTIAL WEATHERING

– Caused by variations in composition

– Creates unusual and spectacular rock formations and landforms
SOIL
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL
Soil is part of the regolith that supports the growth of plants.

– Regolith is the layer of rock and mineral fragments that covers most of Earth’s land surface.
1. Soil Composition
– Soil has four major components: mineral matter, or broken-down rock; humus, which is the decayed
remains of organisms; water; and air.
Composition by Volume of Good-Quality Soil
 2. Soil Texture
– Texture refers to the proportions of different particle sizes.
 Sand (large size)
 Silt
 Clay (small size)
– Loam (a mixture of all three sizes) is best suited for plant life.
3. Soil Structure
– Soil particles clump together to give a soil its structure.
SOIL FORMATION
The most important factors in soil formation are parent material, time, climate, organisms, and slope.
1. Parent material
– Residual soil—parent material is the bedrock
– Transported soil—parent material has been carried from elsewhere and deposited
2. Time
– Important in all geologic processes
– The longer a soil has been forming, the thicker it becomes.
3. Climate
– Greatest effect on soil formation
4. Organisms
– Organisms influence the soil's physical and chemical properties.
– Furnish organic matter to soil
5. Slope
– Angle
 Steep slopes often have poorly developed soils.
 Optimum slope is a flat-to-undulating upland surface.
– Orientation, or direction the slope is facing, influences soil formation.
 Soil temperature
 Moisture
THE SOIL PROFILE
Soil varies in composition, texture, structure, and color at different depths. Soil horizons are zones or layers of soil. A soil
profile is a vertical section through all the soil horizons.

– The A horizon is commonly known as topsoil.

– The B horizon is subsoil and contains clay particles washed out from the A horizon.
– The C horizon is between B horizon and unaltered parent material.
SOIL TYPES
Three common types of soil are pedalfer, pedocal, and laterite.
 1. Pedalfer
– Best developed under forest vegetation
– Accumulation of iron oxides and aluminum-rich clays in the B horizon
2. Pedocal
– Accumulates calcium carbonate
– Associated with drier grasslands
3. Laterite
– Hot, wet, tropical climates
– Intense chemical weathering
SOIL EROSION

– Water erodes soil.

– Rates of Erosion
– Human activities that remove natural vegetation, such as farming, logging, and construction, have greatly
accelerated erosion.
– Sediment Deposition
– Reservoirs fill with sediment.
– Sediments are contaminated by pesticides and fertilizers.
– Controlling Erosion
– Planting rows of trees called windbreaks
– Terracing hillsides
– Plowing along the contours of hills
– Rotating crops
MASS MOVEMENTS
TRIGGERS OF MASS MOVEMENTS

– The transfer of rock and soil downslope due to gravity is called mass movement.
– Among the factors that commonly trigger mass movements are saturation of surface materials with water,
oversteepening of slopes, removal of vegetation, and earthquakes.
TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENTS
Geologists classify mass movements based on the kind of material that moves, how it moves, and the speed of movement.
1. Rockfalls
– A rockfall occurs when rocks or rocks fragments fall freely through the air.
2. Slides
– In a slide, a block of material moves suddenly along a flat, inclined surface.
– Slides that include segments of bedrock are called rockslides.
3. Slumps
– A slump is the downward movement of a block of material along a curved surface.
– Heavy Rains Can Trigger Slumps
4. Flows
– Flows are mass movements of material containing a large amount of water.
– Mudflows move quickly and carry a mixture of soil, rock, and water that has a consistency of wet concrete.
– Earthflows move relatively slowly and carry clay-rich sediment.
5. Creep
– Creep is the slow, downhill movement of soil and regolith.
RUNNING WATER AND GROUNDWATER
RUNNING WATER
THE WATER CYCLE

– Water constantly moves among the oceans, the atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the biosphere. This unending
circulation of Earth’s water supply is
the water cycle.
Processes involved in the cycle are:

– Precipitation
– Evaporation
 – Infiltration
o The movement of surface water into rock or soil through cracks and pore spaces
– Runoff
– Transpiration
o The release of water into the atmosphere from plants through the ground

Earth’s Water Balance

Balance in the water cycle means the average annual precipitation over Earth equals the amount of water that evaporates.
STREAMFLOW

– The ability of a stream to erode and transport materials depends largely on its velocity.
o Gradient is the slope or steepness of a stream channel.
– Channel Characteristics
o The stream channel is the course the water in a stream follows.
o Shape, size, and roughness
– Discharge of a stream is the volume of water flowing past a certain point in a given unit of time.
CHANGES FROM UPSTREAM TO DOWNSTREAM
While gradient decreases between a stream’s headwaters and mouth, discharge increases.
1. PROFILE
– Cross-sectional view of a stream
– From head (source) to mouth
 Profile is a smooth curve
 Gradient decreases from the head to the mouth
– A tributary is a stream that empties into another stream
Factors that increase downstream:
 Velocity
 Discharge
 Channel size
Factors that decrease downstream:

 Gradient or slope
 Channel roughness
2. BASE LEVEL
– Lowest point to which a stream can erode
– Two general types
 Ultimate—sea level
 Temporary or local
 – A stream in a broad, flat-bottomed valley that is near its base level often develops a course with many bends
called meanders.
THE WORK OF STREAMS
EROSION

– Streams generally erode their channels, lifting loose particles by abrasion, grinding, and by dissolving soluble
material.
DEPOSITION

– A stream’s bedload is solid material too large to carry in suspension.

– The capacity of a stream is the maximum load it can carry.
– Deposition occurs as streamflow drops below the critical settling velocity of a certain particle size. The deposits are
called alluvium.
– Deltas are an accumulation of sediment formed where a stream enters a lake or ocean.
– A natural levee parallels a stream and helps to contain its waters, except during floodstage.
STREAM VALLEYS
1. NARROW VALLEYS
– A narrow V-shaped valley shows that the stream's primary work has been downcutting toward base level
– Features often include
 Rapids
 Waterfalls
2. WIDE VALLEYS
– Stream is near base level
 Downward erosion is less dominant
 Stream energy is directed from side to side
– The floodplain is the flat, low-lying portion of a stream valley subject to periodic flooding
– Features often include:
 Meanders
 Cutoffs
 Oxbow lakes
FLOODS AND FLOOD CONTROL

– A flood occurs when the discharge of a stream becomes so great that it exceeds the capacity of its channel and
overflows its banks.
– Measures to control flooding include artificial levees, flood control dams, and placing limits on floodplain
development.
DRAINAGE BASINS

– A drainage basin is the land area that contributes water to a stream.

– A divide is an imaginary line that separates the drainage basins of one stream from another.
WATER BENEATH THE SURFACE
DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT OF WATER UNDERGROUND

– Much of the water in soil seeps downward until it reaches the zone of saturation.
– The zone of saturation is the area where water fills all of the open spaces in sediment and rock.
o Groundwater is the water within this zone.
o The water table is the upper level of the saturation zone of groundwater.
– Movement
o Groundwater moves by twisting and turning through interconnected small openings.
o The groundwater moves more slowly when the pore spaces are smaller.
– Porosity
o The percentage of pore spaces
o Determines how much groundwater can be stored
– Permeability
o Ability to transmit water through connected pore spaces
o Aquifers are permeable rock layers or sediments that transmit groundwater freely
SPRINGS
A spring forms whenever the water table intersects the ground surface.

– Hot Springs
o Water is 6–9 ºC warmer than the mean air temperature of the locality.
o Water is heated by cooling of igneous rock.
– Geysers
o Intermittent hot springs
o Water turns to steam and erupts.

WELLS
A well is a hole bored into the zone of saturation

– An artesian well is any formation in which groundwater rises on its own under pressure.
– Pumping can cause a drawdown (lowering) of the water table.
– Pumping can form a cone of depression in the water table.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH GROUNDWATER
Overuse and contamination threatens groundwater supplies in some areas.

– Treating it as a nonrenewable resource

– Land subsidence caused by its withdrawal
– Contamination
CAVERNS
A cavern is a naturally formed underground chamber.

– Erosion forms most caverns at or below the water table in the zone of saturation.
– Travertine is a form of limestone that is deposited by hot springs or as a cave deposit.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FEATURES FOUND WITHIN CAVERNS

– Formed in the zone of aeration

– Composed of dripstone
– Formed from calcite deposited as dripping water evaporates
– Common features include stalactites (hanging from the ceiling) and stalagmites (growing upward from the floor)
KARST TOPOGRAPHY

– Formed by dissolving rock at, or near, Earth's surface

– Common features
o Sinkholes—surface depressions
 Sinkholes form when bedrock dissolves and caverns collapse.
o Caves and caverns
– Area lacks good surface drainage.
GLACIERS, DESERT, AND WIND
GLACIERS
A glacier is a thick ice mass that forms above the snowline over hundreds or thousands of years.
The ice age was a period of time when much of the Earth was covered in glaciers.
TYPES OF GLACIERS
1. VALLEY GLACIERS
– Ice masses that slowly advance down mountain valleys originally occupied by streams.
– A stream of ice that flows between steep rock walls from near the top of the mountain valley.
2. Ice Sheets
– Ice sheets are enormous ice masses that flow in all directions from one or more centers and cover
everything but the highest land.
– Ice sheets are sometimes called continental ice sheets because they cover large regions where the climate is
extremely cold.
– They are huge compared to valley glaciers.
– They currently cover Greenland and Antarctica.
HOW GLACIERS MOVE
The movement of glaciers is referred to as flow, and it happens in two ways:
1. Plastic flow – involves movement within the ice
2. Basal slip – slipping and sliding downward due to gravity
Budget of a Glacier
The glacial budget is the balance, or lack of balance, between accumulation at the upper end of a glacier and loss, or
wastage, at the lower end.
GLACIAL EROSION
Many landscapes were changed by the widespread glaciers of the recent ice age
HOW GLACIERS ERODE:
1. Plucking – lifting of rock blocks
2. Abrasion – rock flour (pulverized rock)
– striations (grooves in the bedrock0
LANDFORMS CREATED BY GLACIAL EROSION
Glaciers are responsible for a variety of erosional landscape features, such as glacial troughs, hanging valleys, cirques,
arêtes, and horns.
1. Glaciate Valleys
a. A glacial trough is a U-shaped valley that was once V-shaped but was deepen by a glacier.
2. A cirque is a bowl-shaped depression at the head of a glacial valley.
3. Arêtes and Horns – Snaking, sharp-edged ridges called arêtes and sharp pyramid-like peaks called horns project
above mountain landscapes.
GLACIAL DEPOSITS
TYPES OF GLACIAL DRIFT
Glacial drift applies to all sediments of glacial origin, no matter how, where, or in what form
they were deposited.
There are two types of glacial drift
1. Till is material deposited directly by the glacier.
2. Stratified drift is sediment laid down by glacial meltwater.
MORAINES, OUTWASH PLAINS, AND KETTLES
Glaciers are responsible for a variety of depositional features, including:
1. Moraines – layers of ridges of till
a. Lateral
b. Medial
c. End
d. Terminal End
e. Recessional End
f. Ground
2. Outwash plains – sloping plains consisting of deposits from meltwater streams in front of the margin of an ice
sheet
3. Kettles – depressions created when a block of ice becomes lodged in glacial deposits and
subsequently melts
4. Drumlins – streamlined, asymmetrical hills composed of glacial dirt
5. Eskers – ridges composed largely of sand and gravel deposited by a stream flowing beneath a glacier
near its terminus
GLACIERS OF THE ICE AGE
ICE AGE – Began 2 to 3 million years ago
– Division of geological time is called the Pleistocene epoch
– Ice covered 30% of Earth's land area.
– Greatly affected drainage
DESERTS
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES IN ARID CLIMATES
1. Weathering
 – Much of the weathered debris in deserts results from mechanical weathering.
– Chemical weathering is not completely absent in deserts. Over long time spans, clay and thin soils do form.
– Not as effective as in humid regions
2. The Role of Water
– In the desert, most streams are ephemeral—they only carry water after it rains.
BASIN AND RANGE: A Desert Landscape
Most desert streams dry up long before they ever reach the ocean. The streams are quickly depleted by evaporation and soil
infiltration.
Interior drainage into basins produces

– alluvial fan – a fan-shaped deposit of sediment formed when a stream’s slope is abruptly reduced
– playa lake – a flat area on the floor of an undrained desert basin (playa) that fills and becomes a lake after
heavy rain
Most desert erosion results from running water. Although wind erosion is more significant in deserts than elsewhere, water
does most of the erosional work in deserts.
LANDSCAPES SHAPED BY WIND
WIND EROSION
Wind erodes in the desert in two ways:
1. Deflation is the lifting and removal of loose particles such as clay and silt. It produces
– Blowouts
– Desert pavement – a layer of coarse pebbles and gravel created when wind removed the finer
material
2. Abrasion
WIND DEPOSITS
The wind can create landforms when it deposits its sediments, especially in deserts and along coasts. Both layers of loess
and sand dunes are landscape features deposited by the wind.
1. Loess
– Deposits of windblown silt
– Extensive blanket deposits
– Primary sources are deserts and glacial stratified drift.
2. Sand Dunes
– Unlike deposits of loess, which form blanketlike layers over broad areas, winds commonly deposit sand in
mounds or ridges called dunes.
– Characteristic features
– Slip face is the leeward slope of the dune
– Cross beds are the sloping layers of sand in the dune.
TYPES OF SAND DUNES
What form sand dunes assume depends on the wind direction and speed, how much sand is available, and the amount of
vegetation.

– Barchan dunes
– Transverse dunes
– Barchanoid dunes
– Longitudinal dunes
– Parabolic dunes
– Star dunes
EARTHQUAKES AND EARTH’S INTERIOR
EARTHQUAKES

– An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy

– Focus and Epicenter
o Focus is the point within Earth where the earthquake starts.
 o Epicenter is the location on the surface directly above the focus.
– Faults
o Faults are fractures in Earth where movement has occurred.

CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES
ELASTIC REBOUND HYPOTHESIS

– Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elastic energy stored in rock that has been subjected to great
forces.
– When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly breaks, causing the vibrations of an earthquake.
AFTERSHOCKS AND FORESHOCKS

– An aftershock is a small earthquake that follows the main earthquake

– A foreshock is a small earthquake that often preceded a major earthquake
EARTHQUAKE WAVES
1. Surface waves – seismic waves that travel along Earth’s outer layer.
2. Body Waves – Identified as P waves or S waves
a. P waves
– Are push-pull waves that push (compress) and pull (expand) in the direction that the waves travel
– Travel through solids, liquids, and gases
– Have the greatest velocity of all earthquake waves
b. S waves
– Seismic waves that travel along Earth’s outer layer
– Shake particles at right angles to the direction that they travel
– Travel only through solids
– Slower velocity than P waves
A seismogram shows all three types of seismic waves—surface waves, P waves, and S waves.
LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Earthquake Distance
– The epicenter is located using the difference in the arrival times between P and S wave recordings, which
are related to distance.
2. Earthquake Direction
– Travel-time graphs from three or more seismographs can be used to find the exact location of an earthquake
epicenter.
3. Earthquake Zones
– About 95 percent of the major earthquakes occur in a few narrow zones.
MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
Historically, scientists have used two different types of measurements to describe the size of an earthquake —intensity and
magnitude.

– Seismographs are instruments that record earthquake waves.

– Seismograms are traces of amplified, electronically recorded ground motion made by seismographs.
RICHTER SCALE

– Based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave

– Each unit of Richter magnitude equates to roughly a 32-fold energy increase
– Does not estimate adequately the size of very large earthquakes
MOMENTUM MAGNITUDE

– Derived from the amount of displacement that occurs along the fault zone
– Moment magnitude is the most widely used measurement for earthquakes because it is the only magnitude scale
that estimates the energy released by earthquakes.
– Measures very large earthquakes
DESTRUCTION FROM EARTHQUAKES
The damage to buildings and other structures from earthquake waves depends on several factors. These factors include the
intensity and duration of the vibrations, the nature of the material on which the structure is built, and the design of the
structure.
1. SEISMIC VIBRATIONS
a. Building Design
Factors that determine structural damage
– Intensity of the earthquake
– Unreinforced stone or brick buildings are the most serious safety threats
– Nature of the material upon which the structure rests
– The design of the structure
b. Liquefaction
– Saturated material turns fluid
– Underground objects may float to surface
2. TSUNAMIS
Cause of Tsunamis

– A tsunami triggered by an earthquake occurs where a slab of the ocean floor is displaced vertically along a
fault.
– A tsunami also can occur when the vibration of a quake sets an underwater landslide into motion.
– Tsunami is the Japanese word for “seismic sea wave.”
Tsunami Warning System

– Large earthquakes are reported to Hawaii from Pacific seismic stations.

– Although tsunamis travel quickly, there is sufficient time to evacuate all but the area closest to the
epicenter.

3. OTHER DANGERS
a. Landslides
– With many earthquakes, the greatest damage to structures is from landslides and ground
subsidence, or the sinking of the ground triggered by vibrations.
b. Fire
– In the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, most of the destruction was caused by fires that started
when gas and electrical lines were cut.
PREDICTING EARTHQUAKES
1. Short-Range Predictions
– So far, methods for short-range predictions of earthquakes have not been successful.
2. Long-Range Forecasts
– Scientists don’t yet understand enough about how and where earthquakes will occur to make accurate long-
term predictions.
– A seismic gap is an area along a fault where there has not been any earthquake activity for a long period of
time.
EARTH’S LAYERED STRUCTURE
LAYERS DEFINED BY COMPOSITION
Earth’s interior consists of three major zones defined by their chemical composition—the crust, mantle, and core.
1. Crust
– Thin, rocky outer layer
– Varies in thickness
– Roughly 7 km in oceanic regions
– Continental crust averages 8–40 km
– Exceeds 70 km in mountainous regions
Continental Crust
– Upper crust composed of granitic rocks
– Lower crust is more akin to basalt
– Average density is about 2.7 g/cm3
– Up to 4 billion years old
 Oceanic Crust
– Basaltic composition
– Density about 3.0 g/cm3
– Younger (180 million years or less) than the continental crust
2. Mantle
– Below crust to a depth of 2900 kilometers
– Composition of the uppermost mantle is the igneous rock peridotite (changes at greater depths).
3. Core
– Below mantle
– Sphere with a radius of 3486 kilometers
– Composed of an iron-nickel alloy
– Average density of nearly 11 g/cm3
LAYERS DEFINED BY PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Lithosphere
– Crust and uppermost mantle (about 100 km thick)
– Cool, rigid, solid
2. Asthenosphere
– Beneath the lithosphere
– Upper mantle
– To a depth of about 660 kilometers
– Soft, weak layer that is easily deformed
3. Lower Mantle
– 660–2900 km
– More rigid layer
– Rocks are very hot and capable of gradual flow
4. Inner Core
– Sphere with a radius of 1216 km
– Behaves like a solid
5. Outer Core
– Liquid layer
– 2270 km thick
– Convective flow of metallic iron within generates Earth’s magnetic field
DISCOVERING EARTH’S LAYERS
1. Moho
– Velocity of seismic waves increases abruptly below 50 km of depth
– Separates crust from underlying mantle
2. Shadow Zone
– Absence of P waves from about 105 degrees to 140 degrees around the globe from an earthquake
– Can be explained if Earth contains a core composed of materials unlike the overlying mantle
DISCOVERING EARTH’S COMPOSITION
1. Crust
– Early seismic data and drilling technology indicate that the continental crust is mostly made of lighter,
granitic rocks.
2. Mantle
– Composition is more speculative.
– Some of the lava that reaches Earth’s surface comes from asthenosphere within.
3. Core
– Earth’s core is thought to be mainly dense iron and nickel, similar to metallic meteorites. The surrounding
mantle is believed to be composed
of rocks similar to stony meteorites.
PLATE TECTONICS
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis stated that the continents had once been joined to form a single supercontinent.
Wegener proposed that the supercontinent, Pangaea, began to break apart 200 million years ago and form the present
landmasses.
Evidence

– The Continental Puzzle

– Matching Fossils
o Fossil evidence for continental drift includes several fossil organisms found on different landmasses.
– Rock Types and Structures
o Rock evidence for continental exists in the form of several mountain belts that end at one coastline, only to
reappear on a landmass across the ocean.
– Ancient Climates
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
Wegener could not provide an explanation of exactly what made the continents move. News technology lead to findings
which then lead to a new theory called plate tectonics.
EARTH’S MAJOR ROLES
According to the plate tectonics theory, the uppermost mantle, along with the overlying crust, behaves as a strong, rigid
layer. This layer is known as the lithosphere.

– A plate is one of numerous rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit over the material of the
asthenosphere.
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
1. Divergent boundaries (also called spreading centers) are the place where two plates move apart.
2. Convergent boundaries form where two plates move together.
3. Transform fault boundaries are margins where two plates grind past each other without the production or
destruction of the lithosphere.
ACTIONS AT PLATE BOUNDARIES
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading

– Oceanic ridges are continuous elevated zones on the floor of all major ocean basins. The rifts at the crest of ridges
represent divergent plate boundaries.
– Rift valleys are deep faulted structures found along the axes of divergent plate boundaries. They can develop on the
seafloor or on land.
– Seafloor spreading produces new oceanic lithosphere.
Continental Rifts

– When spreading centers develop within a continent, the landmass may split into two
or more smaller segments, forming a rift.
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES

– A subduction zone occurs when one oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle beneath a second plate.
– Oceanic-Continental
o Denser oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere.
o Pockets of magma develop and rise.
o Continental volcanic arcs form in part by volcanic activity caused by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere
beneath a continent.
o Examples include the Andes, Cascades, and the Sierra Nevadas.
– Oceanic-Oceanic
o Two oceanic slabs converge and one descends beneath the other.
o This kind of boundary often forms volcanoes on the ocean floor.
o Volcanic island arcs form as volcanoes emerge from the sea.
o Examples include the Aleutian, Mariana, and Tonga islands.
– Continental-Continental
o When subducting plates contain continental material, two continents collide.
 o This kind of boundary can produce new mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas.

TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES

At a transform fault boundary, plates grind past each other without destroying the lithosphere.

– Transform faults
o Most join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge.
o At the time of formation, they roughly parallel the direction of plate movement.
o They aid the movement of oceanic crustal material.

TESTING PLATE TECTONICS

EVIDENCE FOR PLATE TECTONICS
Paleomagnetism is the natural remnant magnetism in rock bodies; this permanent magnetization acquired by rock can be
used to determine the location of the magnetic poles at the time the rock became magnetized.

– Normal polarity—when rocks show the same magnetism as the present magnetism field
– Reverse polarity—when rocks show the opposite magnetism as the present magnetism field
EVIDENCE FOR PLATE TECTONICS
The discovery of strips of alternating polarity, which lie as mirror images across the ocean ridges, is among the strongest
evidence of seafloor spreading.
1. Earthquake Patterns
– Scientists found a close link between deep-focus earthquakes and ocean trenches.
– The absence of deep-focus earthquakes along the oceanic ridge system was shown to be consistent with the
new theory.
2. Ocean Drilling
– The data on the ages of seafloor sediment confirmed what the seafloor spreading hypothesis predicted.
– The youngest oceanic crust is at the ridge crest, and the oldest oceanic crust is at the continental margins.
3. Hot Spots
– A hot spot is a concentration of heat in the mantle capable of producing magma, which rises to Earth’s
surface; The Pacific plate moves over a hot spot, producing the Hawaiian Islands.
– Hot spot evidence supports that the plates move over the Earth’s surface.
MECHANISMS OF PLATE MOTION
CAUSES OF PLATE MOTION
Scientists generally agree that convection occurring in the mantle is the basic driving force for plate movement.

– Convective flow is the motion of matter resulting from changes in temperature.

SLAB-PULL AND RIDGE-PUSH

– Slab-pull is a mechanism that contributes to plate motion in which cool, dense oceanic crust sinks into the mantle
and “pulls” the trailing lithosphere along. It is thought to be the primary downward arm of convective flow in the
mantle.
– Ridge-push causes oceanic lithosphere to slide down the sides of the oceanic ridge under the pull of gravity. It may
contribute to plate motion.
MANTLE CONVECTION

– Mantle plumes are masses of hotter-than normal mantle material that ascend toward the surface, where they may
lead to igneous activity.
– The unequal distribution of heat within Earth causes the thermal convection in the mantle that ultimately drives
plate motion.
VOLCANOES AND OTHER IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
FACTORS AFFECTING ERUPTIONS
Factors that determine the violence of an eruption:
1. Composition of the magma
2. Temperature of the magma
 3. Dissolved gases in the magma
VISCOSITY − Viscosity is the measure of a material's resistance to flow.
Factors affecting viscosity
1. Temperature (hotter magmas are less viscous)
2. Composition (silica content)
a. High silica − high viscosity
b. Low silica − more fluid (e.g., basaltic lava)
DISSOLVED GASES

– Mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide

– Gases expand near the surface
– A vent is an opening in the surface of Earth through which molten rock and gases are released.
– Provide the force to extrude lava
– Violence of an eruption is related to how easily gases escape from magma
o Gases escape easily from fluid magma
o Viscous magma produces a more violent eruption.

VOLCANIC MATERIAL
1. Lava Flows
– Basaltic lavas are more fluid
Types of Lava
i. Pahoehoe lava (resembles braid in ropes)
ii. Aa lava (rough, jagged blocks)
2. Gases
– One to 5 percent of magma by weight
– Mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide
3. Pyroclastic Materials
– Pyroclastic materials is the name given to particles produced in volcanic eruptions.
– The fragments ejected during eruptions range in size from very fine duct and volcanic ash (less than 2
millimeters) to pieces that weigh several tons.
Types of Pyroclastic Materials
1. Ash and dust – fine, glassy fragments
2. Pumice − frothy, air-filled lava
3. Lapilli − walnut-sized particles
4. Cinders − pea-sized particles
Particles larger than lapilli
1. Blocks − hardened lava
2. Bombs − ejected as hot lava
ANATOMY OF A VOLCANO

– A volcano is a mountain formed of lava and/or pyroclastic material.

– A crater is the depression at the summit of a volcano or that which is produced by a meteorite impact.
– A conduit, or pipe, carries gas-rich magma to the surface.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
The three main volcanic types are shield volcanoes, cinder cones, and composite cones.
1. Shield Volcanoes
– Shield volcanoes are broad, gently sloping volcanoes built from fluid basaltic lavas.
2. Cinder Cones
– Cinder cones are small volcanoes built primarily of pyroclastic material ejected from a single vent.
– Steep slope angle
– Rather small in size
– Frequently occur in groups
3. Composite Cones
– Composite cones are volcanoes composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material.
– Most are adjacent to the Pacific Ocean
– Large size
 – Interbedded lavas and pyroclastics
– Most violent type of activity
OTHER VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
1. Calderas
– Calderas are large depressions in volcanoes
– Nearly circular
– Formed by collapse
– Size exceeds one kilometer in diameter
2. Lava Plateaus
– Fluid basaltic lava extruded from crustal fractures called fissures.
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
PLUTONS
Plutons are intrusive igneous structures that result from the cooling and hardening of magma beneath the surface of Earth.

– Intrusive igneous bodies, or plutons, are generally classified according to their shape, size, and relationship to the
surrounding rock layers.
SILLS AND LACCOLITHS
Sills and laccoliths are plutons that form when magma is intruded close to the surface.
1. Sills − resemble buried lava flows and may exhibit columnar joints.
2. Laccoliths − lens-shaped masses that arch overlying strata upward.
DIKES
Dikes are tabular-shaped intrusive igneous features that cut across preexisting rock layers.

– Many dikes form when magma from a large magma chamber invades fractures in the surrounding rocks.
BATHOLITHS
Batholiths are large masses of igneous rock that formed when magma intruded at depth, became crystallized, and
subsequently was exposed by erosion.

– An intrusive igneous body must have a surface exposure greater than 100 square kilometers to be considered a
batholith.
ORIGIN OF MAGMA
Geologists conclude that magma originates when essentially solid rock, located in the crust and upper mantle, partially
melts.
The most obvious way to generate magma from solid rock is to raise the temperature above the level at which the rock
begins to melt.
ROLE OF HEAT

– The geothermal gradient—Earth’s natural temperature increases with depth but is not sufficient to melt rock in the
lower crust and upper mantle
– Additional heat is generated by
o friction in subduction zones
o crustal rocks heated during subduction
o rising, hot mantle rocks

ROLE OF WATER

– Causes rock to melt at a lower temperature

– Plays an important role in subducting ocean plates
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
The basic connection between plate tectonics and volcanism is that plate motions provide the mechanisms by which mantle
rocks melt to generate magma.
Ocean-Ocean
 – Rising magma can form volcanic island arcs in an ocean (Aleutian Islands).
Ocean-Continent

– Rising magma can form continental volcanic arcs (Andes Mountains).

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
The greatest volume of volcanic rock is produced along the oceanic ridge system.

– Lithosphere pulls apart

– Less pressure on underlying rocks
– Partial melting occurs
– Large quantities of fluid basaltic magma are produced
INTRAPLATE IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
Intraplate volcanism is igneous activity that occurs within a tectonic plate away from plate boundaries.

– Most intraplate volcanism occurs where a mass of hotter than normal mantle material called a mantle plume rises
toward the surface.
– The activity forms localized volcanic regions called hot spots.
– Examples include the Hawaiian Islands and the Columbia Plateau.
MOUNTAIN FORMATION
ROCK DEFORMATION
FACTORS AFFECTING DEFORMATION
Factors that influence the strength of a rock and how it will deform include temperature, confining pressure, rock type, and
time.

– Deformation is a general term that refers to all changes in the original shape and/or size of a rock body.
o Most crustal deformation occurs along plate margins.
– Stress is the force per unit area acting on a solid.
– Strain is the change in shape or volume of a body of rock as a result of stress.

1. Temperature and Pressure

Rocks deform permanently in two ways: brittle deformation and ductile deformation.
– Brittle deformation is the fracturing of an object once its strength is exceeded.
– Ductile deformation is a type of solid state flow that produces a change in the size and shape of an object
without fracturing the object.
2. Rock Type
Mineral composition and texture of a rock also greatly affect how it will deform.
3. Time
Forces that are unable to deform rock when first applied may cause rock to flow if the force is maintained over a long
period of time.
TYPES OF STRESS
The three types of stresses that rocks commonly undergo are tensional stress, compressional stress, and shear stress.
FOLDS
1. Anticlines − most commonly formed by the upfolding, or arching, of rock layers.
2. Synclines − linear downfolds in sedimentary strata.
− often found in association with anticlines.
3. Monoclines − large step-like folds in otherwise horizontal sedimentary strata.
FAULTS
1. Normal Faults
– Normal faults occur when the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall block.
2. Reverse Faults and Thrust Faults
– Reverse faults are faults in which the hanging wall block moves up relative to the footwall block.
– Thrust faults are reverse faults with dips less than 45°.
3. Strike-Slip Fault
 – Strike-slip faults are faults in which the movement is horizontal and parallel to the trend, or strike, of the
fault surface.
4. Joints
– Joints are fractures along which no appreciable movement has occurred.
TYPES OF MOUNTAINS
Mountains are classified by the dominant processes that have formed them.
Orogenesis is the collection of processes that result in the forming of mountains.
1. Folded Mountains
– Mountains that are formed primarily by folding are called folded mountains.
2. Fault-Block Mountains
– Large-scale normal faults are associated with structures called fault-block mountains.
– Fault-block mountains are formed as large blocks of crust are uplifted and tilted along normal faults.
– Grabens are formed by the downward displacement of fault-bounded blocks.
– Horsts are elongated, uplifted blocks of crust bounded by faults.
3. Domes and Basins
– When upwarping produces a circular or elongated structure, the feature is called a dome.
– Uplifted mountains are circular or elongated structures formed by uplifting of the underlying basement
rock.
MOUNTAIN BUILDING AT CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Most mountain building occurs at convergent plate boundaries. Colliding plates provide the compressional forces that fold,
fault, and metamorphose the thick layers of sediments deposited at the edges of landmasses.
1. Ocean-Ocean Convergence
– Ocean-ocean convergence mainly produces volcanic mountains.
2. Ocean-Continental Convergence
– The types of mountains formed by ocean-continental convergence are volcanic mountains and folded
mountains.
– An accretionary wedge is the accumulation of different sedimentary and metamorphic rocks with some
scraps of ocean crust.
3. Continental-Continental Convergence
– At a convergent boundary between two plates carrying continental crust, a collision between the continental
fragments will result and form folded mountains.
MOUNTAIN BUILDING AT DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
The mountains that form along ocean ridges at divergent plate boundaries are fault-block type mountains.
NON-BOUNDARY MOUNTAINS
Not all mountains are formed by plate boundaries. Some are formed by hot spots or regional extension or stretching.
CONTINENTAL ACCRETION
Accretion is a process that occurs when crustal fragments collide with and stay connected to a continental plate.
TERRANES
Terranes are any crustal fragments that have a geologic history distinct from that of the adjoining fragments.
Terranes occur along the Pacific Coast.
PRINCIPLES OF ISOSTASY
Isostatic Adjustment for Mountains
Isostasy is the concept that Earth’s crust is floating in gravitational balance upon the material of the mantle.
Because of isostasy, deformed and thickened crust will undergo regional uplift both during mountain building and for a long
period afterward.
Isostatic adjustment is the process of establishing a new level of gravitational equilibrium.
Geologic Time
DISCOVERING EARTH’S HISTORY
ROCKS RECORD EARTH HISTORY
Rocks record geological events and changing life forms of the past.
We have learned that Earth is much older than anyone had previously imagined and that its surface and interior have been
changed by the same geological processes that continue today.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF GEOLOGY
Uniformitarianism means that the forces and processes that we observe today have been at work for a very long time.
RELATIVE DATING: Key Principles
Relative dating tells us the sequence in which events occurred, not how long ago they occurred.
Law of Superposition
The law of superposition states that in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed is older than the one above it
and younger than the one below it.
Principle of Original Horizontality
The principle of original horizontality means that layers of sediment are generally deposited in a horizontal position.
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that when a fault cuts through rock layers, or when magma intrudes other
rocks and crystallizes, we can assume that the fault or intrusion is younger than the rocks affected.
Inclusions
Inclusions are rocks contained within other rocks.
Rocks containing inclusions are younger than the inclusions they contain.
Unconformities

– An unconformity represents a long period during which deposition stopped, erosion removed previously formed
rocks, and then deposition resumed.
– An angular unconformity indicates that during the pause in deposition, a period of deformation (folding or tilting)
and erosion occurred.
– A nonconformity is when the erosional surface separates older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks from
younger sedimentary rocks.
– A disconformity is when two sedimentary rock layers are separated by an erosional surface
CORRELATION OF ROCK LAYERS
Correlation is establishing the equivalence of rocks of similar age in different areas.
FOSSILS: Evidence of Past Life
Fossil Formation

– Fossils are the remains or traces of prehistoric life. They are important components of sediment and sedimentary
rocks.
– The type of fossil that is formed is determined by the conditions under which an organism died and how it was
buried.

Unaltered Remains
• Some remains of organisms—such as teeth, bones, and shells—may not have been altered, or may have
changed hardly at all over time.
Altered Remains
• The remains of an organism are likely to be changed over time.
• Fossils often become petrified or turned to stone.
• Molds and casts are another common type of fossil.
• Carbonization is particularly effective in preserving leaves and delicate animals. It occurs when an
organism is buried under fine sediment.
Indirect Evidence
• Trace fossils are indirect evidence of prehistoric life
Conditions Favoring Preservation
• Two conditions are important for preservation: rapid burial and the possession of hard parts
FOSSILS AND CORRELATION
The principle of fossil succession states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order.
Therefore, any time period can be recognized by its fossil content.
Index fossils are widespread geographically, are limited to a short span of geologic time, and occur in large numbers.
Interpreting Environments
Fossils can also be used to interpret and describe ancient environments
DATING WITH RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY − spontaneous decay of certain unstable atomic nuclei
HALF-LIFE − the amount of time necessary for one-half of the nuclei in a sample to decay to a stable isotope.
RADIOMETRIC DATING
Each radioactive isotope has been decaying at a constant rate since the formation of the rocks in which it occurs.
Radiometric dating is the procedure of calculating the absolute ages of rocks and minerals that contain radioactive isotopes.
As a radioactive isotope decays, atoms of the daughter product are formed and accumulate.
An accurate radiometric date can be obtained only if the mineral remained in a closed system during the entire period since
its formation.
DATING WITH CARBON-14
Radiocarbon dating is the method for determining age by comparing the amount of carbon-14 to the amount of carbon-12 in
a sample.
When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 it contains gradually decreases as it decays. By comparing the ratio of
carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a sample, radiocarbon dates can be determined.
IMPORTANCE OF RADIOMETRIC DATING
Radiometric dating has supported the ideas of James Hutton, Charles Darwin, and others who inferred that geologic time
must be immense.
THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

STRUCTURE OF THE TIME SCALE

 – Based on their interpretations of the rock record, geologists have divided Earth’s 4.56-billion-year history into units
that represent specific amounts of time. Taken together, these time spans make up the geologic time scale.
– Eons represent the greatest expanses of time. Eons are divided into eras. Each era is subdivided into periods.
Finally, periods are divided into smaller units called epochs.
– There are three eras within the Phanerozoic eon: the Paleozoic, which means “ancient life,” the Mesozoic, which
means “middle life,” and the Cenozoic, which means “recent life.”
– Each period within an era is characterized by somewhat less profound changes in life forms as compared with the
changes that occur during an era.
– The periods of the Cenozoic era are divided into still smaller units called epochs, during which even less profound
changes in life forms occur.
PRECAMBRIAN TIME
During Precambrian time, there were fewer life forms. These life forms are more difficult to identify and the rocks have
been disturbed often.
DIFFICULTIES WITH THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

– A sedimentary rock may contain particles that contain radioactive isotopes, but these particles are not the same age
as the rock in which they occur.
– The age of a particular mineral in a metamorphic rock does not necessarily represent the time when the rock was
first formed. Instead, the date may indicate when the rock was metamorphosed.
EARTH’S HISTORY
PRECAMBRIAN TIME
PRECAMBRIAN HISTORY
The Precambrian encompasses immense geological time, from Earth’s distant beginnings 4.56 billion years ago until the
start of the Cambrian period, over 4 billion years later.
PRECAMBRIAN ROCKS

– Shields are large, relatively flat expanses of ancient metamorphic rock within the stable continental interior.
– Much of what we know about Precambrian rocks comes from ores mined from shields.
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE EVOLVES
Earth’s original atmosphere was made up of gases similar to those released in volcanic eruptions today—water vapor,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and several trace gases, but no oxygen. Later, primary plants evolved that used photosynthesis and
released oxygen.
Oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2.5 billion years ago.
PRECAMBRIAN FOSSILS

– The most common Precambrian fossils are stromatolites.

– Stromatolites are distinctively layered mounds or columns of calcium carbonate. They are not the remains of actual
organisms but are the material deposited by algae.
– Many of these ancient fossils are preserved in chert—a hard dense chemical sedimentary rock.
PALEOZOIC ERA
EARLY PALEOZOIC
Following the long Precambrian, the most recent 540 million years of Earth’s history are divided into three eras: Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
EARLY PALEOZOIC HISTORY
During the Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian periods, the vast southern continent of Gondwana encompassed five
continents (South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and part of Asia).
EARLY PALEOZOIC LIFE
Life in early Paleozoic time was restricted to the seas
LATE PALEOZOIC HISTORY
Laurasia is the continental mass that formed the northern portion of Pangaea, consisting of present-day North America and
Eurasia.
By the end of the Paleozoic, all the continents had fused into the supercontinent of Pangaea.
LATE PALEOZOIC LIFE
Some 400 million years ago, plants that had adapted to survive at the water’s edge began to move inland, becoming land
plants.
The amphibians rapidly diversified because they had minimal competition from other land dwellers.
THE GREAT PALEOZOIC EXTINCTION
The world’s climate became very seasonal, probably causing the dramatic extinction of many species.
The late Paleozoic extinction was the greatest of at least five mass extinctions to occur over the past 500 million years.
MESOZOIC ERA: Age of Reptiles
Dinosaurs were land-dwelling reptiles that thrived during the Mesozoic era.
MESOZOIC HISTORY
A major event of the Mesozoic era was the breakup of Pangaea.
MESOZOIC LIFE
Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants that do not depend on free-standing water for fertilization. The gymnosperms quickly
became the dominant plants of the Mesozoic era.
THE SHELLED EGG
Unlike amphibians, reptiles have shell-covered eggs that can be laid on the land.
The elimination of a water-dwelling stage (like the tadpole stage in frogs) was an important evolutionary step.
REPTILES DOMINATE
With the perfection of the shelled egg, reptiles quickly became the dominant land animals.
At the end of the Mesozoic era, many reptile groups became extinct.
CENOZOIC ERA: Age of Mammals
The Cenozoic era is divided into two periods of very unequal duration, the Tertiary period and the Quaternary period.
Plate interactions during the Cenozoic era caused many events of mountain building, volcanism, and earthquakes in the
West.
CENOZOIC LIFE
MAMMALS—animals that bear live young and maintain a steady body temperature— replaced reptiles as the dominant
land animals in the Cenozoic era.
ANGIOSPERMS—flowering plants with covered seeds—replaced gymnosperms as the dominant land plants.
MAMMALS REPLACE REPTILES
Adaptations like being warm blooded, developing insulating body hair, and having more efficient heart and lungs allow
mammals to lead more active lives than reptiles.
LARGE MAMMALS AND EXTINCTION
In North America, the mastodon and mammoth, both huge relatives of the elephant, became extinct. In addition, saber-
toothed cats, giant beavers, large ground sloths, horses, camels, giant bison, and others died out on the North American
continent.
THE OCEAN FLOOR
Nearly 71 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by the global ocean.
Oceanography is a science that draws on the methods and knowledge of geology, chemistry, physics, and biology to study
all aspects of the world ocean.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
The world ocean can be divided into four main ocean basins—the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and
the Arctic Ocean.

– The Pacific Ocean is the largest and has the greatest depth.
– The Atlantic Ocean is about half the size of the Pacific and not quite as deep.
– The Indian Ocean, largely a southern hemisphere body, is slightly smaller than the Atlantic.
– The Arctic Ocean is about 7 percent of the size of the Pacific.
MAPPING THE OCEAN FLOOR
The topography of the ocean floor is as diverse as that of the continents.
Bathymetry is the measurement of ocean depths and the charting of the shape or topography of the ocean floor.
Today’s technology—particularly sonar, satellites, and submersibles—allows scientists to study the ocean floor in a more
efficient and precise manner than ever before.
SONAR

– Sonar is an acronym for sound navigation and ranging. It is also referred to as echo sounding.
– Sonar works by transmitting sound waves toward the ocean bottom.
SATELLITES

– Satellites are able to measure small differences by bouncing microwaves off the ocean surface.
– Using this new technology, scientists have discovered that the ocean surface is not perfectly flat.
– Differences in the height of the ocean surface are caused by ocean-floor features.
SUBMERSIBLES

– Submersibles are small underwater crafts used for deep-sea research.

– Today, many submersibles are unmanned and operated remotely by computers. These remotely operated vehicles
(ROVs) can remain underwater for long periods.
OCEAN FLOOR FEATURES
The ocean floor regions are the continental margins, the ocean basin floor, and the mid-ocean ridge.
CONTINENTAL MARGINS
A continental margin is the zone of transition between a continent and the adjacent ocean basin floor.

– In the Atlantic Ocean, thick layers of undisturbed sediment cover the continental margin. This region has very little
volcanic or earthquake activity.
– In the Pacific Ocean, oceanic crust plunges beneath continental crust. This force results in a narrow continental
margin that experiences both volcanic activity and earthquakes.
CONTINENTAL SHELF
A continental shelf is the gently sloping submerged surface extending from the shoreline.

– Continental shelves contain important mineral deposits, large reservoirs of oil and natural gas, and huge sand and
gravel deposits.
CONTINENTAL SLOPE
A continental slope is the steep gradient that leads to the deep-ocean floor and marks the seaward edge of the continental
shelf.

– A submarine canyon is the seaward extension of a valley that was cut on the continental shelf during a time when
sea level was lower—a canyon carved into the outer continental shelf, slope, and rise by turbidity currents.
– A turbidity current is the downslope movement of dense, sediment-laden water created when sand and mud on the
continental shelf and slope are dislodged and thrown into suspension.
CONTINENTAL RISE
A continental rise is the gently sloping surface at the base of the continental slope.
OCEAN BASIN FLOOR
The ocean basin floor is the area of the deep-ocean floor between the continental margin and the oceanic ridge.
DEEP-OCEAN TRENCHES
Trenches form at the sites of plate convergence where one moving plate descends beneath another and plunges back into the
mantle.
ABYSSAL PLAINS
An abyssal plain is a very level area of the deep-ocean floor, usually lying at the foot of the continental rise.

– The sediments that make up abyssal plains are carried there by turbidity currents or are deposited as suspended
sediment settles out.
SEAMOUNTS AND GUYOTS
A seamount is an isolated volcanic peak that rises at least 1000 meters above the deep-ocean floor, and a guyot is an eroded,
submerged seamount.
MID-OCEAN RIDGES
A mid-ocean ridge is found near the center of most ocean basins. It is an interconnected system of underwater mountains
that have developed on newly formed ocean crust.
Seafloor Spreading
Seafloor spreading is the process by which plate tectonics produces new oceanic lithosphere at ocean ridges.

– New ocean floor is formed at mid-ocean ridges as magma rises between the diverging plates and cools.
Hydrothermal Vents
Hydrothermal vents form along mid-ocean ridges. These are zones where mineral-rich water, heated by the hot, newly-
formed oceanic crust, escapes through cracks in the oceanic crust into surrounding water.
SEAFLOOR SEDIMENTS
TYPES OF SEAFLOOR SEDIMENTS
Ocean-floor sediments can be classified according to their origin into three broad categories: terrigenous sediment,
biogenous sediment, and hydrogenous sediment.
TERRIGENOUS SEDIMENT
Terrigenous sediments consist primarily of mineral grains that were eroded from continental rocks and transported to the
ocean.
BIOGENOUS SEDIMENT
Biogenous sediments consist of shells and skeletons of marine animals and algae.

– Calcareous ooze is thick, common biogenous sediment produced by dissolving calcium carbonate shells.
– Siliceous ooze is biogenous sediment composed of silica-based shells of single-celled animals and algae.
HYDROGENOUS SEDIMENT
Hydrogenous sediments consist of minerals that crystallize directly from ocean water through various chemical reactions.
RESOURCES FROM THE SEAFLOOR
ENERGY RESOURCES
Oil and natural gas are the main energy products currently being obtained from the ocean floor.
GAS HYDRATES
Gas hydrates are compact chemical structures made of water and natural gas.

– Most oceanic gas hydrates are created when bacteria break down organic matter in ocean floor sediments.
OTHER RESOURCES
Other major resources from the ocean floor include sand and gravel, evaporative salts, and manganese nodules.
Sand and Gravel
The offshore sand-and-gravel industry is second in economic value only to the petroleum industry.
Manganese Nodules
Manganese nodules are hard lumps of manganese and other metals (like cobalt, copper, and iron) that precipitate around a
small object.
Evaporative Salts
When seawater evaporates, the salt increases in concentration until it can no longer remain dissolved. When the
concentration becomes high enough, the salts precipitate out of solution and form salt deposits.
The most economically important salt is halite— common table salt.
OCEAN WATER AND OCEAN LIFE
THE COMPOSITION OF SEAWATER
SALINITY
Salinity is the total amount of solid material dissolved in water.

– Because the proportion of dissolved substances in seawater is such a small number, oceanographers typically
express salinity in parts per thousands.
– Most of the salt in seawater is sodium chloride, common table salt.
Sources of Sea Salt

– Chemical weathering of rocks on the continents is one source of elements found in seawater.
– The second major source of elements found in seawater is from Earth’s interior.

PROCESSES AFFECTING SALINITY

Processes that decrease salinity:

– Precipitation
– Sea ice melting
– Icebergs melting
– Runoff from land
Processes that increase salinity
 – Evaporation
– Formation of sea ice
OCEAN TEMPERATURE VARIATION
The ocean’s surface water temperature varies with the amount of solar radiation received, which is primarily a function of
latitude.
Temperature Variation with Depth

– The thermocline is the layer of ocean water between about 300 meters and 1000 meters where there is a rapid
change of temperature with depth.
– The thermocline is a very important structure because it creates a barrier to marine life.
OCEAN DENSITY VARIATION
Factors Affecting Seawater Density
Seawater density is influenced by two main factors: salinity and temperature.
Density Variation with Depth
The pycnocline is the layer of ocean water between about 300 meters and 1000 meters where there is a rapid change of
density with depth.
OCEAN LAYERING
Oceanographers generally recognize a three-layered structure in most parts of the open ocean: a shallow surface mixed
zone, a transition zone, and a deep zone.
Surface Zone

– Shallow (300 to 450 meters)

– Zone of mixing
– Sun-warmed zone
Transition Zone

– Between surface layer and deep zone

– Thermocline and PYCNOCLINE
Deep Zone

– Sunlight never reaches this zone

– Temperatures are just a few degrees above freezing
– Constant high-density water
THE DIVERSITY OF OCEAN LIFE
CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE ORGANISMS
Marine organisms can be classified according to where they live and how they move.
PLANKTON
Plankton include all organisms—algae, animals, and bacteria—that drift with ocean currents.

– Phytoplankton are algal plankton, which are the most important community of primary producers in the ocean.
– Zooplankton are animal plankton.
NEKTON
Nekton include all animals capable of moving independently of the ocean currents, by swimming or other means of
propulsion.
BENTHOS
Benthos describes organisms living on or in the ocean bottom.
MARINE LIFE ZONES
Three factors are used to divide the ocean into distinct marine life zones: the availability of sunlight, the distance from
shore, and the water depth.
Availability of Sunlight

– The photic zone is the upper part of the ocean into which sunlight penetrates.
Distance from Shore

– The intertidal zone is the strip of land where the land and ocean meet and overlap, or the zone between high and low
tides.
– The neritic zone is the marine-life zone that extends from the low-tide line out to the shelf break.
– The oceanic zone is the marine-life zone beyond the continental shelf.
Water Depth

– The pelagic zone is open zone of any depth. Animals in this zone swim or float freely.
– The benthic zone is the marine-life zone that includes any sea-bottom surface regardless of its distance from shore.
– The abyssal zone is a subdivision of the benthic zone characterized by extremely high pressures, low temperatures,
low oxygen, few nutrients, and no sunlight.
Hydrothermal Vents

– Here seawater seeps into the ocean floor through cracks in the crust.
– At some vents, water temperatures of 100oC or higher support communities of organisms found nowhere else in the
world.
OCEANIC PRODUCTIVITY
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
Primary productivity is the production of organic compounds from inorganic substances through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis.
Productivity in Polar Oceans
The low availability of solar energy limits photosynthetic productivity in polar areas.
Productivity in Tropical Oceans
Productivity in tropical regions is limited by the lack of nutrients.
Productivity in Temperate Oceans
In temperate regions, which are found at mid-latitudes, a combination of these two limiting factors, sunlight and nutrient
supply, controls productivity.
Winter

– Low productivity
– Days are short and sun angle is low
Spring

– Spring bloom of phytoplankton is quickly depleted.

– Productivity is limited
Summer

– Strong thermocline develops so surface nutrients are not replaced from below.
– Phytoplankton population remains relatively low.
OCEANIC FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
Trophic Levels
A trophic level is a nourishment level in a food chain. Plant and algae producers constitute the lowest level, followed by
herbivores and a series of carnivores at progressively higher levels.
Transfer Efficiency
The transfer of energy between trophic levels is very inefficient.
Food Chains and Food Webs
A food chain is a sequence of organisms through which energy is transferred, starting with the primary producer.
A food web is a group of interrelated food chains.
Animals that feed through a food web rather than a food chain are more likely to survive because they have alternative foods
to eat should one of their food sources diminish or disappear.
THE COMPOSITION OF SEAWATER
SURFACE CIRCULATION
Ocean current is the mass of ocean water that flows from one place to another.
Surface Currents

– Surface currents are movements of water that flow horizontally in the upper part of the ocean’s surface.
– Surface currents develop from friction between the ocean and the wind that blows across its surface.
Gyres

– Gyres are huge circular-moving current systems that dominate the surfaces of the oceans.
– The Coriolis effect is the deflection of currents away from their original course as a result of Earth’s rotation.
Ocean Currents and Climate

– When currents from low-latitude regions move into higher latitudes, they transfer heat from warmer to cooler areas
on Earth.
– As cold-water currents travel toward the equator, they help moderate the warm temperatures of adjacent land areas.
Upwelling

– Upwelling is the rise of cold water from deeper layers to replace warmer surface water.
– Upwelling brings greater concentrations of dissolved nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, to the ocean
surface.
DEEP-OCEAN CIRCULATION
Density Currents

– Density currents are vertical currents of ocean water that result from density differences among water masses.
– An increase in seawater density can be caused by a decrease in temperature or an increase in salinity.
High Latitudes

– Most water involved in deep-ocean currents begins in high latitudes at the surface.
Evaporation

– Density currents can also result from increased salinity of ocean water due to evaporation.
A Conveyor Belt

– In a simplified model, ocean circulation is similar to a conveyor belt that travels from the Atlantic Ocean, through
the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and back again.
WAVES AND TIDES
WAVES
Wave Characteristics

– Most ocean waves obtain their energy and motion from the wind.
– The wave height is the vertical distance between the trough and crest.
– The wavelength is the horizontal distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs.
– The wave period is the time it takes one full wave—one wavelength—to pass a fixed position.
– Fetch is the distance that the wind has traveled across open water.
– The height, length, and period that are eventually achieved by a wave depend on three factors: (1) wind speed, (2)
length of time the wind has blown, and (3) fetch.
ANATOMY OF A WAVE
 Wave Motion

– Circular orbital motion allows energy to move forward through the water while the individual water particles that
transmit the wave move around in a circle.
Breaking Waves

– Changes occur as a wave moves onto shore.

– As the waves touch bottom, wave speed decreases. The decrease in wave speed results in a decrease in wavelength
and an increase in wave height.
TIDES
Tides are daily changes in the elevation of the ocean surface.
Ocean tides result from the gravitational attraction exerted upon Earth by the moon and, to a lesser extent, by the sun.
Tide-Causing Forces

– The force that produces tides is gravity.

Tide Cycle

– Tidal range is the difference in height between successive high and low tides.
– Spring tides are tides that have the greatest tidal range due to the alignment of the Earth–moon–sun system.
– Neap tides are tides that have the lowest tidal range, occurring near the times of the first-quarter and third-quarter
phases of the moon.
Tidal Patterns
Three main tidal patterns exist worldwide: diurnal tides, semidiurnal tides, and mixed tides.
SHORELINE PROCESSES AND FEATURES
FORCES ACTING ON THE SHORELINE
A beach is the accumulation of sediment found along the shore of a lake or ocean.
Waves along the shoreline are constantly eroding, transporting, and depositing sediment. Many types of shoreline features
can result from this activity.
Wave Impact

– The impact of large, high-energy waves against the shore can be awesome in its violence. Each breaking wave may
hurl thousands of tons of water against the land, sometimes causing the ground to tremble.
Abrasion

– Abrasion is the sawing and grinding action of rock fragments in the water.
– Abrasion is probably more intense in the surf zone than in any other environment.
Wave Refraction

– Wave refraction is the bending of waves, and it plays an important part in the shoreline process.
– Because of refraction, wave energy is concentrated against the sides and ends of headlands that project into the
water, whereas wave action is weakened in bays.
 Longshore Transport

– A longshore current is a near-shore current that flows parallel to the shore.

– Turbulence allows longshore currents to easily move fine suspended sand and to roll larger sand and gravel particles
along the bottom.
EROSIONAL FEATURES
Shoreline features that originate primarily from the work of erosion are called erosional features. Sediment that is
transported along the shore and deposited in areas where energy is low produces depositional features.
Wave-Cut Cliffs and Platforms

– Wave-cut cliffs result from the cutting action of the surf against the base of coastal land. A flat, bench-like, wave-
cut platform forms in front of the wave-cut cliff.
Sea Arches and Sea Stacks

– When two caves on opposite sides of a headland unite, a sea arch results. Eventually, the arch falls in, leaving an
isolated remnant, or sea stack, on the wave-cut platform.
DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES
Spits, Bars, and Tombolos
Where longshore currents and other surf zone currents are active, several features related to the movement of sediment
along the shore may develop.

– A spit is an elongated ridge of sand that projects from the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay.
– A baymouth bar is a sandbar that completely crosses a bay.
– A tombolo is a ridge of sand that connects an island to the mainland or to another island.
Barrier Islands
Barrier islands are narrow sandbars parallel to, but separate from, the coast at distances from 3 to 30 kilometers
offshore.
STABILIZING THE SHORE
Protective Structures

– Groins, breakwaters, and seawalls are some structures built to protect a coast from erosion or to prevent the
movement of sand along a beach.
Beach Nourishment

– Beach nourishment is the addition of large quantities of sand to the beach system.
THE ATMOSPHERE: Structure and Temperature
ATMOSPHERE CHARACTERISTICS
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Weather is constantly changing, and it refers to the state of the atmosphere at any given time and place.
Climate, however, is based on observations of weather that have been collected over many years. Climate helps describe a
place or region.
Major Components
Air is a mixture of different gases and particles, each with its own physical properties.
Variable Components
Water vapor is the source of all clouds and precipitation. Like carbon dioxide, water vapor absorbs heat given off by Earth.
It also absorbs some solar energy.
Ozone is a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms into each molecule (O 3)
If ozone did not filter most UV radiation and all of the sun’s UV rays reached the surface of Earth, our planet would be
uninhabitable for many living organisms.
Human Influence
Emissions from transportation vehicles account for nearly half the primary pollutants by weight.
Primary Pollutants

HEIGHT AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere rapidly thins as you travel away from Earth until there are too few gas molecules to detect.
Pressure Changes
Atmospheric pressure is simply the weight of the air above.
Temperature Changes
The atmosphere can be divided vertically into four layers based on temperature.

– The troposphere is the bottom layer of the atmosphere where temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
– The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere where temperature remains constant to a height of about 20
kilometers. It then begins a gradual increase until the stratopause.
– The mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere and is characterized by
decreasing temperatures with height.
– The thermosphere is the region of the atmosphere immediately above the mesosphere and is characterized by
increasing temperatures due to the absorption of very short-wave solar energy by oxygen.
EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIPS
Earth’s Motions
Earth has two principal motions—rotation and revolution.
Earth’s Orientation
Seasonal changes occur because Earth’s position relative to the sun continually changes as it travels along its orbit.
Solstices and Equinoxes

– The summer solstice is the solstice that occurs on June 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and is the “official”
first day of summer.
– The winter solstice is the solstice that occurs on December 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and is the “official”
first day of winter.
– The autumnal equinox is the equinox that occurs on September 22 or 23 in the Northern Hemisphere.
– The spring equinox is the equinox that occurs on March 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere.
Length of Daylight
The length of daylight compared to the length of darkness also is determined by Earth’s position in orbit.
HEATING THE ATMOSPHERE
What Happens to Solar Radiation?
When radiation strikes an object, there usually are three different results.
1. Some energy is absorbed by the object.
2. Substances such as water and air are transparent to certain wavelengths of radiation.
3. Some radiation may bounce off the object without being absorbed or transmitted.
Reflection and Scattering

– Reflection occurs when light bounces off an object. Reflection radiation has the same intensity as incident radiation.
– Scattering produces a larger number of weaker rays that travel in different directions.
Absorption

– About 50 percent of the solar energy that strikes the top of the atmosphere reaches Earth’s surface and is absorbed.
– The greenhouse effect is the heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere from solar radiation being absorbed and
emitted by the atmosphere, mainly by water vapor and carbon dioxide.
TEMPERATURE CONTROLS
WHY TEMPERATURES VARY
Factors other than latitude that exert a strong influence on temperature include heating of land and water, altitude,
geographic position, cloud cover, and ocean currents.
Land and Water
Land heats more rapidly and to higher temperatures than water. Land also cools more rapidly and to lower temperatures
than water.
Geographic Position
The geographic setting can greatly influence temperatures experienced at a specific location.
Altitude
The altitude can greatly influence temperatures experienced at a specific location.
Cloud Cover and Albedo
Albedo is the fraction of total radiation that is reflected by any surface.

– Many clouds have a high albedo and therefore reflect back to space a significant portion of the sunlight that strikes
them.
– Clouds Reflect and Absorb Radiation
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
Isotherms are lines on a weather map that connect points where the temperature is the same.

– Isotherms generally trend east and west and show a decrease in temperatures from the tropics toward the poles.
MOISTURE, CLOUDS, AND PRECIPITATION
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Precipitation is any form of water that falls from a cloud.
When it comes to understanding atmospheric processes, water vapor is the most important gas in the atmosphere.
HUMIDITY
Humidity is a general term for the amount of water vapor in air.
Saturation

– Air is saturated when it contains the maximum quantity of water vapor that it can hold at any given temperature and
pressure.
– When saturated, warm air contains more water vapor than cold saturated air.
Relative Humidity

– Relative humidity is a ratio of the air’s actual water-vapor content compared with the amount of water vapor air can
hold at that temperature and pressure.
– When the water-vapor content of air remains constant, lowering air temperature causes an increase in relative
humidity, and raising air temperature causes a decrease in relative humidity.
Dew Point

– Dew point is the temperature to which a parcel of air would need to be cooled to reach saturation.
Measuring Humidity

– A hygrometer is an instrument to measure relative humidity.

– A psychrometer is a hygrometer with dry- and wet- bulb thermometers. Evaporation of water from the wet bulb
makes air temperature appear lower than the dry bulb’s measurement. The two temperatures are compared to
determine the relative humidity.
CLOUD FORMATION
AIR COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION
Adiabatic Temperature Changes
When air is allowed to expand, it cools, and when it is compressed, it warms.
Expansion and Cooling

– Dry adiabatic rate is the rate of cooling or heating that applies only to unsaturated air.
– Wet adiabatic rate is the rate of adiabatic temperature change in saturated air.
PROCESSES THAT LIFT AIR
Four mechanisms that can cause air to rise are orographic lifting, frontal wedging, convergence, and localized convective
lifting.
Orographic Lifting

– Orographic lifting occurs when mountains act as barriers to the flow of air, forcing the air to ascend.
– The air cools adiabatically; clouds and precipitation may result.
Frontal Wedging
A front is the boundary between two adjoining air masses having contrasting characteristics.
Convergence
Convergence is when air flows together and rises.
Localized Convective Lifting
 Localized convective lifting occurs where unequal surface heating causes pockets of air to rise because of their
buoyancy.
STABILITY
Density Differences
Stable air tends to remain in its original position, while unstable air tends to rise.
Stability Measurements

– Air stability is determined by measuring the temperature of the atmosphere at various heights.
– The rate of change of air temperature with height is called the environmental lapse rate.
Degrees of Stability
A temperature inversion occurs in a layer of limited depth in the atmosphere where the temperature increases rather than
decreases with height.
Stability and Daily Weather
When stable air is forced above the Earth’s surface, the clouds that form are widespread and have little vertical
thickness compared to their horizontal dimension.
CONDENSATION
For any form of condensation to occur, the air must be saturated.
Types of Surfaces
Generally, there must be a surface for water vapor to condense on.
Condensation nuclei are tiny bits of particulate matter that serve as surfaces on which water vapor condenses when
condensation occurs in the air.
CLOUD TYPES AND PRECIPITATION
TYPES OF CLOUDS
Clouds are classified on the basis of their form and height.

– Cirrus (cirrus = curl of hair) are clouds that are high, white, and thin.
– Cumulus (cumulus = a pile) are clouds that consist of rounded individual cloud masses.
– Stratus (stratus = a layer) are clouds best described as sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky.
High Clouds

– Cirrus clouds are high, white, and thin.

– Cirrostratus clouds are flat layers of clouds.
– Cirrocumulus clouds consist of fluffy masses.
Middle Clouds

– Altocumulus clouds are composed of rounded masses that differ from cirrocumulus clouds in that altocumulus
clouds are larger and denser.
– Altostratus clouds create a uniform white to gray sheet covering the sky with the sun or moon visible as a bright
spot.
Low Clouds

– Stratus clouds are best described as sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky.
– Stratocumulus clouds have a scalloped bottom that appears as long parallel rolls or broken rounded patches.
– Nimbostratus clouds are the main precipitation makers.
Clouds of Vertical Development
Some clouds do not fit into any one of the three height categories mentioned. Such clouds have their bases in the low height
range but often extend upward into the middle or high altitudes.
FOG
Fog is defined as a cloud with its base at or very near the ground.
 Fog Caused by Cooling
As the air cools, it becomes denser and drains into low areas such as river valleys, where thick fog accumulations may
occur.
Fog Caused by Evaporation
When cool air moves over warm water, enough moisture may evaporate from the water surface to produce saturation.
HOW PRECIPITATION FORMS
For precipitation to form, cloud droplets must grow in volume by roughly one million times.
Cold Cloud Precipitation

– The Bergeron process is a theory that relates the formation of precipitation to supercooled clouds, freezing nuclei,
and the different saturation levels of ice and liquid water.
– Supercooled water is the condition of water droplets that remain in the liquid state at temperatures well below 0 °C
– Supersaturated air is the condition of air that is more concentrated than is normally possible under given
temperature and pressure conditions.
Warm Cloud Precipitation

– The collision-coalescence process is a theory of raindrop formation in warm clouds (above 0 °C) in which large
cloud droplets collide and join together with smaller droplets to form a raindrop.
Forms of Precipitation
The type of precipitation that reaches Earth’s surface depends on the temperature profile in the lower few kilometers of the
atmosphere.
Rain and Snow
In meteorology, the term rain means drops of water that fall from a cloud and have a diameter of at least 0.5 mm.

– At very low temperatures (when the moisture content of air is low) light fluffy snow made up of individual six-
sided ice crystals forms.
– Sleet is the fall of clear-to-translucent ice.
– Hail is produced in cumulonimbus clouds.
– Hailstones begin as small ice pellets that grow by collecting supercooled water droplets as they fall through a cloud.
AIR PRESSURE AND WIND
AIR PRESSURE
Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air.

– Air pressure is exerted in all directions—down, up, and sideways. The air pressure pushing down on an object
exactly balances the air pressure pushing up on the object.
MEASURING AIR PRESSURE

– barometer is a device used for measuring air pressure.

– When air pressure increases, the mercury in the tube rises. When air pressure decreases, so does the height of the
mercury column.
Factors Affecting Wind
Wind is the result of horizontal differences in air pressure. Air flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower
pressure.

– The unequal heating of Earth’s surface generates pressure differences. Solar radiation is the ultimate energy source
for most wind.
– Three factors combine to control wind: pressure differences, the Coriolis effect, and friction.
Pressure Differences

– A pressure gradient is the amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance.
– Closely spaced isobars—lines on a map that connect places of equal air pressure—indicate a steep pressure gradient
and high winds. Widely spaced isobars indicate a weak pressure gradient and light winds.
 Coriolis Effect

– The Coriolis effect describes how Earth’s rotation affects moving objects. In the Northern Hemisphere, all free-
moving objects or fluids, including the wind, are deflected to the right of their path of motion. In the Southern
Hemisphere, they are deflected to the left.
Friction

– Friction acts to slow air movement, which changes wind direction.

– Jet streams are fast-moving rivers of air that travel between 120 and 240 kilometers per hour in a west-to-east
direction.
PRESSURE CENTERS AND WINDS
Highs and Lows

– Cyclones are centers of low pressure.

– Anticyclones are centers of high pressure.
– In cyclones, the pressure decreases from the outer isobars toward the center. In anticyclones, just the opposite is the
case—the values of the isobars increase from the outside toward the center.
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Winds
When the pressure gradient and the Coriolis effect are applied to pressure centers in the Northern Hemisphere,
winds blow counterclockwise around a low. Around a high, they blow clockwise.
In either hemisphere, friction causes a net flow of air inward around a cyclone and a net flow of air outward around
an anticyclone.
Weather and Air Pressure
Rising air is associated with cloud formation and precipitation, whereas sinking air produces clear skies.
Weather Forecasting
Weather reports emphasize the locations and possible paths of cyclones and anticyclones.
Low-pressure centers can produce bad weather in any season.
Global Winds
The atmosphere balances these differences by acting as a giant heat-transfer system. This system moves warm air
toward high latitudes and cool air toward the equator.
Non-Rotating Earth Model
On a hypothetical non-rotating planet with a smooth surface of either all land or all water, two large thermally
produced cells would form.
Rotating Earth Model
If the effect of rotation were added to the global circulation model, the two-cell convection system would break
down into smaller cells.
– Trade winds are two belts of winds that blow almost constantly from easterly directions and are located on the
north and south sides of the subtropical highs.
– Westerlies are the dominant west-to-east motion of the atmosphere that characterizes the regions on the
poleward side of the subtropical highs.
– Polar easterlies are winds that blow from the polar high toward the subpolar low. These winds are not constant
like the trade winds.
– A polar front is a stormy frontal zone separating cold air masses of polar origin from warm air masses of
tropical origin.
Influence of Continents
The only truly continuous pressure belt is the subpolar low in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern
Hemisphere, where land masses break up the ocean surface, large seasonal temperature differences disrupt the
pressure pattern.
 Monsoons are the seasonal reversal of wind direction associated with large continents, especially Asia. In winter,
the wind blows from land to sea. In summer, the wind blows from sea to land.
REGIONAL WIND SYSTEMS
LOCAL WINDS
The local winds are caused either by topographic effects or by variations in surface composition (land and water) in the
immediate area.
Land and Sea Breezes
In coastal areas during the warm summer months, the land surface is heated more intensely during the daylight hours than
an adjacent body of water is heated. As a result, the air above the land surface heats, expands, and rises, creating an area of
lower pressure. At night the reverse takes place.
Valley and Mountain Breezes
In mountainous regions during daylight hours, the air along the slopes of the mountains is heated more intensely than the air
at the same elevation over the valley floor. Because this warmer air on the mountain slopes is less dense, it glides up along
the slope and generates a valley breeze. After sunset the pattern may reverse.
HOW WIND IS MEASURED
Wind Direction
The prevailing wind is the wind that blows more often from one direction than from any
other.
Wind Speed
An anemometer is an instrument that resembles a cup and is commonly used to measure wind speed.
EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA
El Niño
El Niño is the name given to the periodic warming of the ocean that occurs in the central and eastern Pacific.

– At irregular intervals of three to seven years, these warm countercurrents become unusually strong and replace
normally cold offshore waters with warm equatorial waters.
– A major El Niño episode can cause extreme weather in many parts of the world.
La Niña
Researchers have come to recognize that when surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific are colder than average, a La Niña
event is triggered that has a distinctive set of weather patterns.
Global Distribution of Precipitation
Global precipitation can be explained if knowledge of global winds and pressure systems are applied.
WEATHER PATTERNS AND SEVERE STORMS
AIR MASSES AND WEATHER
AIR MASSES
An air mass is an immense body of air that is characterized by similar temperatures and amounts of moisture at any given
altitude.
Movement of Air Masses
As it moves, the characteristics of an air mass change and so does the weather in the area over which the air mass moves.
Classifying Air Masses
In addition to their overall temperature, air masses are classified according to the surface over which they form.
Continental Polar Air Masses

– Continental polar air masses are uniformly cold and dry in winter and cool and dry in summer.
 Maritime Tropical Air Masses

– Maritime tropical air masses are warm, loaded with moisture, and usually unstable.
Maritime Polar Air Masses

– Maritime polar air masses begin as cP air masses in Siberia. The cold, dry continental polar air changes into
relatively mild, humid, unstable maritime polar air during its long journey across the North Pacific.
– Maritime polar air masses also originate in the North Atlantic off the coast of eastern Canada.
Continental Tropical Air Masses

– Only occasionally do cT air masses affect the weather outside their source regions. However, when a cT air mass
moves from its source region in the summer, it can cause extremely hot, drought like conditions in the Great Plains.
– Movements of cT air masses in the fall result in mild weather in the Great Lakes region, often called Indian
summer.
FRONTS
FORMATION OF FRONTS
When two air masses meet, they form a front, which is a boundary that separates two air masses.
TYPES OF FRONTS

– Warm Fronts
– A warm front forms when warm air moves into an area formerly covered by cooler air.
– Cold Fronts
– A cold front forms when cold, dense air moves into a region occupied by warmer air.
– Stationary Fronts
– Occasionally, the flow of air on either side of a front is neither toward the cold air mass nor toward the
warm air mass, but almost parallel to the line of the front. In such cases, the surface position of the front
does not move, and a stationary front forms.
– Occluded Fronts
– When an active cold front overtakes a warm front, an occluded front forms.
Middle-Latitude Cyclones
Middle-latitude cyclones are large centers of low pressure that generally travel from west to east and cause stormy weather.
The Role of Airflow Aloft
More often than not, air high up in the atmosphere fuels a middle-latitude cyclone.
SEVERE STORMS
THUNDERSTORMS

– A thunderstorm is a storm that generates lightning and thunder. Thunderstorms frequently produce gusty winds,
heavy rain, and hail.
Occurrence of Thunderstorms

– At any given time, there are an estimated 2000 thunderstorms in progress on Earth. The greatest number occur in
the tropics where warmth, plentiful moisture, and instability are common atmospheric conditions.
Development of Thunderstorms

– Thunderstorms form when warm, humid air rises in an unstable environment.

TORNADOES

– Tornadoes are violent windstorms that take the form of a rotation column of air called a vortex. The vortex extends
downward from a cumulonimbus cloud.
Occurrence and Development of Tornadoes

– Most tornadoes form in association with severe thunderstorms.

– A mesocyclone is a vertical cylinder of rotating air that develops in the updraft of a thunderstorm.
Tornado Intensity
 – Because tornado winds cannot be measured directly, a rating on the Fujita scale is determined by assessing the
worst damage produced by the storm.
Tornado Safety

– Tornado watches alert people to the possibility of tornadoes in a specified area for a particular time.
– A tornado warning is issued when a tornado has actually been sighted in an area or is indicated by weather radar.
TROPICAL CYCLONES

– Whirling tropical cyclones produce winds of at least 119 kilometers per hour are known in the Western Pacific Area
as typhoons, in the Indian Ocean as Cyclones and in the United States as hurricanes.
Occurrence of Tropical Cyclones

– Most tropical cyclones form between about 5 and 20 degrees north and south latitude. The North Pacific has the
greatest number of storms, averaging 20 per year.
Development of Tropical Cyclones

– Tropical cyclones develop most often in the late summer when water temperatures are warm enough to provide the
necessary heat and moisture to the air.
– The eye is a zone of scattered clouds and calm averaging about 20 kilometers in diameter at the center of a tropical
cyclone.
– The eye wall is a doughnut-shaped area of intense cumulonimbus development and very strong winds that
surrounds the eye of a tropical cyclone.
CLIMATE
EARTH’S MAJOR CLIMATE ZONES

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CLIMATE

LATITUDE

– As latitude increases, the intensity of solar energy decreases.

– The tropical zone is between 23.5° north (the tropic of Cancer) and 23.5° south (the tropic of Capricorn) of the
equator. The sun’s rays are most intense and the temperatures are always warm.
– The temperate zones are between 23.5° and 66.5° north and between 23.5° and 66.5° south of the equator. The sun’s
rays strike Earth at a smaller angle than near the equator.
– Polar zones are between 66.5° north and south latitudes and the poles. The sun’s rays strike Earth at a very small
angle in the polar zones.
ELEVATION

– The higher the elevation is, the colder the climate.

TOPOGRAPHY

– Topographic features such as mountains play an important role in the amount of precipitation that falls over an area.
WATER BODIES

– Large bodies of water such as lakes and oceans have an important effect on the temperature of an area because the
temperature of the water body influences the temperature of the air above it.
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
 – Global winds are another factor that influences climate because they distribute heat and moisture around Earth.
VEGETATION

– Vegetation can affect both temperature and the precipitation patterns in an area.
WORLD CLIMATES
The Köppen Climate Classification System
The Köppen climate classification system uses mean monthly and annual values of temperature and precipitation to classify
climates.
HUMID TROPICAL CLIMATES

– Humid tropical climates are without winters. Every month in such a climate has a mean temperature above 18 °C.
The amount of precipitation can exceed 200 cm per year.
Wet Tropical

– Wet tropical climates have high temperatures and much annual precipitation.
Tropical Wet and Dry

– Tropical wet and dry climates are climates that transition between the wet tropics and the subtropical steppes.
HUMID MID-LATITUDE CLIMATES

– Climates with mild winters have an average temperature in the coldest month that is below 18 °C but above -3 °C.
Climates with severe winters have an average temperature in the coldest month that is below -3 °C.
Humid Mid-Latitude with Mild Winters

– A humid subtropical climate is generally located on the eastern side of a continent and is characterized by hot, sultry
summers and cool winters.
– A marine west coast climate is found on windward coasts from latitudes 40° to 65° and is dominated by maritime
air masses. Winters are mild, and summers are cool.
– A dry-summer subtropical climate is a climate located on the west sides of continents between 30° and 45° latitude.
It is the only humid climate with a strong winter precipitation maximum.
Humid Mid-Latitude With Severe Winters

– A subarctic climate is found north of the humid continental climate and south of the polar climate; it is characterized
by bitterly cold winters and short, cool summers. Places within this climate realm experience the highest annual
temperature ranges on Earth.
DRY CLIMATES

– A dry climate is one in which the yearly precipitation is not as great as the potential loss of water by evaporation.
POLAR CLIMATES

– Polar climates are those in which the mean temperature of the warmest month is below 10 °C.
HIGHLAND CLIMATES

– In general, highland climates are cooler and wetter than nearby areas at lower elevations.
CLIMATE CHANGES
NATURAL PROCESSES THAT CHANGE CLIMATES
Volcanic Eruptions

– The presence of volcanic aerosols (ash, dust, and sulfur-based aerosols) in the air increases the amount of solar
radiation that is reflected back into space. This causes Earth’s lower atmosphere to cool.
Ocean Circulation

– Changes in ocean circulation also can result in short-term climate fluctuations.

Solar Activity
 – When the sun is most active, it contains dark blemishes called sunspots. The formation of sunspots appears to
correspond with warm periods in Europe and North America.
Earth Motions

– Geographic changes in Earth’s land and water bodies cause changes in climate.
– Changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit and the tilt of Earth on its axis are other Earth motions that affect global
climates.
HUMAN IMPACT ON CLIMATE CHANGES
The Greenhouse Effect

– The greenhouse effect is a natural warming of both Earth’s lower atmosphere and Earth’s surface from solar
radiation being absorbed and emitted by the atmosphere.
Global Warming

– As a result of increased levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, global temperatures have increased.
This increase is called global warming.
ORIGIN OF MODERN ASTRONOMY
EARLY ASTRONOMY
ANCIENT GREEKS

– Astronomy is the science that studies the universe. It includes the observation and interpretation of celestial bodies
and phenomena.
– The Greeks used philosophical arguments to explain natural phenomena.
– The Greeks also used some observational data.
Geocentric Model (Ptolemy)

– In the ancient Greeks’ geocentric model, the moon, sun, and the known planets—Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter
—orbit Earth.
Heliocentric Model (Copernicus)

– In the heliocentric model, Earth and the other planets orbit the sun.
Ptolemaic System

– Ptolemy created a model of the universe that accounted for the movement of the planets.
– Retrograde motion is the apparent westward motion of the planets with respect to the stars.
THE BIRTH OF MODERN ASTRONOMY
Nicolaus Copernicus

– Copernicus concluded that Earth is a planet. He proposed a model of the solar system with the sun at the center.
Tycho Brahe

– Tycho Brahe designed and built instruments to measure the locations of the heavenly bodies. Brahe’s observations,
especially of Mars, were far more precise than any made previously.
Johannes Kepler
Kepler discovered three laws of planetary motion:
1. Orbits of the planets are elliptical.
2. Planets revolve around the sun at varying speed.
3. There is a proportional relationship between a planet’s orbital period and its distance to the sun.

– An ellipse is an oval-shaped path.

– An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the sun; it is about 150 million kilometers.
Galileo Galilei

– Galileo’s most important contributions were his descriptions of the behavior of moving objects.
 He developed his own telescope and made important discoveries:
– Four satellites, or moons, orbit Jupiter.
– Planets are circular disks, not just points of light.
– Venus has phases just like the moon.
– The moon’s surface is not smooth.
– The sun has sunspots, or dark regions.
Sir Isaac Newton

– Although others had theorized the existence of gravitational force, Newton was the first to formulate and test the
law of universal gravitation.
Universal Gravitation
– Gravitational force decreases with distance.
– The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its gravitational force.
THE EARTH–MOON–SUN SYSTEM
MOTIONS OF EARTH
The two main motions of Earth are rotation and revolution. Precession is a third and very slow motion of Earth’s axis.
Rotation

– Rotation is the turning, or spinning, of a body on its axis.

Two measurements for rotation:
– Mean solar day is the time interval from one noon to the next, about 24 hours.
– Sidereal day is the time it takes for Earth to make one complete rotation (360º) with respect to a star other
than the sun—23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds.
Revolution

– Revolution is the motion of a body, such as a planet or moon, along a path around some point in space.
– Perihelion is the time in January when Earth is closest to the sun.
– Aphelion is the time in July when Earth is farthest from the sun.
Earth’s Axis and Seasons

– The plane of the ecliptic is an imaginary plane that connects Earth’s orbit with the celestial sphere.
– Because of the inclination of Earth’s axis to the plane of the ecliptic, Earth has its yearly cycle of seasons.
Precession

– Precession traces out a cone over a period of 26,000 years.

Earth–Sun Motion

– The solar system speeds in the direction of the star Vega.

– The sun revolves around the galaxy.
– Earth is presently approaching one of its nearest galactic neighbors, the Great Galaxy in Andromeda.
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH–MOON SYSTEM

– Perigee is the point at which the moon is closest to Earth.

– Apogee is the point at which the moon is farthest from Earth.
Phases of the Moon

– The phases of the moon are the progression of changes in the moon’s appearance during the month.
– Lunar phases are a result of the motion of the moon and the sunlight that is reflected from its surface.
Lunar Motions

– The synodic month is based on the cycle of the moon’s phases. It lasts 29 1/2 days.
– The sidereal month is the true period of the moon’s revolution around Earth. It lasts 27 1/3 days.
– The difference of two days between the synodic and sidereal cycles is due to the Earth–moon system also moving in
an orbit around the sun.
– The moon’s period of rotation about its axis and its revolution around Earth are the same, 27 1/3 days. It causes the
same lunar hemisphere to always face Earth.
ECLIPSES

– Solar eclipses occur when the moon moves in a line directly between Earth and the sun, casting a shadow on Earth.
– Lunar eclipses occur when the moon passes through Earth’s shadow.
– During a new-moon or full-moon phase, the moon’s orbit must cross the plane of the ecliptic for an eclipse to take
place.
Solar Eclipse

Lunar Eclipse
EARTH’S MOON
THE LUNAR SURFACE
Craters

– A crater is the depression at the summit of a volcano or a depression produced by a meteorite impact
– Most craters were produced by the impact of rapidly moving debris.
– Rays are any of a system of bright, elongated streaks, sometimes associated with a crater on the moon.
Highlands

– Most of the lunar surface is made up of densely pitted, light-colored areas known as highlands.
Maria

– Maria, ancient beds of basaltic lava, originated when asteroids punctured the lunar surface, letting magma bleed out.
– A rille is a long channel associated with lunar maria. A rille looks similar to a valley or a trench.
Regolith

– The lunar regolith is a thin, gray layer on the surface of the moon, consisting of loosely compacted, fragmented
material believed to have been formed by repeated impacts of meteorites.
LUNAR HISTORY
The most widely accepted model for the origin of the moon is that when the solar system was forming, a body the size
of Mars impacted Earth. The resulting debris was ejected into space, began orbiting around Earth, and eventually united
to form the moon.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
THE PLANETS: An Overview

– Moderately large objects that orbit a star

– The terrestrial planets are planets that are small and rocky—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
– The Jovian planets are the huge gas giants—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
– Size is the most obvious difference between the terrestrial and Jovian planets.
– Density, chemical makeup, and rate of rotation are other ways in which the two groups of planets differ.
Criteria for being a planet

– It is in orbit around the Sun

– It should have sufficient mass for it self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic
equilibrium (nearly round shape).
– It should have a cleared neighborhood around its orbit.
The Interiors of the Planets

– The substances that make up the planets are divided into three groups: gases, rocks, and ices.
 The Atmosphere of the Planets

– The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres of hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia.
– By contrast, the terrestrial planets, including Earth, have meager atmospheres at best.
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Nebular Theory

– A nebula is a cloud of gas and/or dust in space.

– According to the nebular theory, the sun and planets formed from a rotating disk of dust and gases.
Planetesimals

– Planetesimals are small, irregularly shaped bodies formed by colliding matter.

THE TERRESTRIAL PLANETS

– smaller size and mass

– higher density
– made mostly of rock and metal
– solid surface
– few (if any) moons and no rings
MERCURY: The Fastest Revolving Planet

– The closest Planet to the Sun.

– Only a little larger than our moon.
– It is covered by dust, rocks, and craters.
– It takes 59 days for it to rotate once around its axis
– Mercury has almost no atmosphere.
– It is the 8th largest planet in the solar system.
Surface Features

– Mercury has cratered highlands, much like the moon, and vast smooth terrains that resemble maria.
Surface Temperatures

– Mercury has the greatest temperature extremes of any planet.

– Mercury can reach a high of 800 degrees and a low of about 300 degrees Fahrenheit
VENUS: The Hottest Planet
Venus is similar to Earth in size, density, mass, and location in the solar system. Thus, it has been referred to as “Earth’s
twin.”

– It takes longer to rotate once around its axis than to revolve once around the sun
– On Venus a day is slightly more than a year
– The atmosphere completely hides the surface and traps the heat.
– Has no water.
– Life as we know it could not survive here.
– Only rocks can handle the high temperature and crushing pressure
– It is the sixth largest planet in the solar system.
Surface Temperatures

– The surface temperature of Venus reaches 475 °C, and its atmosphere is 97 percent carbon dioxide.
Surface Features

– Has mountains, valleys, and plains.

– Venus is covered in thick clouds that visible light cannot penetrate.
– About 80 percent of Venus’s surface consists of plains covered by volcanic flow.
EARTH: Our Mother Planet

– 70% of its surface is water& the other 30% is land.

– Its tilt causes the seasons on the planet.
 – Earth is the only planet in the universe which is known to support life.
– Earth is almost five billion years old.
– The center of the Earth, its core, is molten
– Earth is the only planet in the Solar System known to be geologically active.
– The 5th largest plane net in the Solar System
– It has one satellite – Moon
MARS: The Red Planet

– The largest volcano in the Solar System is on Mars, called Olympus Mons.
– Mars has seasons like Earth.
– This is caused by the tilt of the planet's axis, at a similar angle to the tilt of Earth's axis
– Rocks from Mars have landed on Earth from meteorite impacts blasting debris through space.
– The average temperature on Mars is about -67 °F.
– Mars is the 7th largest planet.
– It has two small natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos.
The Martian Atmosphere

– The Martian atmosphere has only 1 percent of the density of Earth’s.

– Although the atmosphere of Mars is very thin, extensive dust storms occur and may cause the color changes
observed from Earth.
Surface Features

– Most Martian surface features are old by Earth standards. The highly cratered southern hemisphere is probably 3.5
billion to 4.5 billion years old.
Water on Mars

– Some areas of Mars exhibit drainage patterns similar to those created by streams on Earth.
– Images from the Mars Global Surveyor indicate that groundwater has recently migrated to the surface.
THE OUTER (JOVIAN) PLANETS

– large size and mass

– lower density
– made mostly of hydrogen, helium and hydrogen compounds
– no solid surface
– rings and many moons
JUPITER: The Largest Planet

– Earth could fit into Jupiter over 1300 times

– Jupiter is made up almost entirely of gas
– Jupiter's has a famous structure --Red Spot is a great storm that has raged for at least four hundred years.
– Jupiter has a thin set of rings, hardly visible from Earth.
– Jupiter has the strongest pull of gravity in the Solar System.
– If we were able to stand on the surface of Jupiter, we would weigh three times as much as we would on Earth.
– Jupiter does not have a solid surface.
– The planet is a ball of liquid surrounded by gas.
– Jupiter has a mass that is 2 1/2 times greater than the mass of all the other planets and moons combined.
Structure of Jupiter

– Jupiter’s hydrogen-helium atmosphere also contains small amounts of methane, ammonia, water, and sulfur
compounds.
Jupiter’s Moons

– Jupiter’s satellite system, resembles a miniature solar system.

– Jupiter has four large Galilean moons, twelve smaller named moons and twenty-three more recently discovered but
not named moons. The four large Galilean moons were first observed by Galileo in 1610.
IO

– the fifth moon of Jupiter.

 – the third largest of Jupiter’s moons.
– has hundreds of volcanic calderas, some of the volcanoes are active.
EUROPA

– Europa is the sixth of Jupiter’s moons and is the fourth largest.

– It is slightly smaller than the Earth’s moon.
– The surface strongly resembles images of sea ice on Earth.
– There may be a liquid water sea under the crust.
– Europa is one of the five known moons in the solar system to have an atmosphere.

GANYMEDE

– the seventh and largest of Jupiter’s known satellites.

– has extensive cratering and an icy crust.

CALLISTO
– the eighth of Jupiter’s known satellites and the second largest.
– has the oldest, most cratered surface of anybody yet observed in the solar system.
Jupiter’s Rings

– Jupiter’s ring system was one of the most unexpected discoveries made by Voyager 1.
SATURN: The Elegant Planet

– The most prominent feature of Saturn is its system of rings.

– Saturn is the second largest planet.
– The many moons of Saturn are as different as fire and ice.
– A year on Saturn would take almost thirty Earth years.
– Saturn is twice as far away from the Sun as Jupiter is.
– Saturn is made of materials that are lighter than water
– If you could fit Saturn in a lake, it would float.
Features of Saturn

– Saturn’s atmosphere is very active, with winds roaring at up to 1500 kilometers per hour.
– Large cyclonic “storms” similar to Jupiter’s Great Red Spot, although smaller, occur in Saturn’s atmosphere.
Saturn’s Rings

– Until the discovery that Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune have ring systems, this phenomenon was thought to be unique
to Saturn.
– Most rings fall into one of two categories based on particle density.
– Saturn’s rings are not solid; they are composed of small countless particles.
– Saturn's rings are believed to be the particles of an old moon orbiting the planet, smashed apart in a collision about
50 million years ago.
– The rings are very thin.
Though they’re 250,000km or more in diameter, they’re less than one kilometer thick.
Saturn’s Moons

– Saturn’s satellite system consists of at least 31 moons.

– Titan is the largest moon, and it is bigger than Mercury.
URANUS: The Sideways Planet

– Instead of being generally perpendicular to the plane of its orbit like the other planets, Uranus’s axis of rotation lies
nearly parallel with the plane of its orbit.
– It takes just over 84 years on Earth for Uranus to orbit the Sun.
– Uranus is the only planet in our solar system to rotate on its side.
– If we were able to see Uranus' moons orbiting the planet, they would go over and under the planet like lights on a
Ferris wheel.
– Uranus is pale blue/blue-green color.
– It is caused by the methane in its atmosphere which filters out red light.
 – Uranus is the third largest planet in the solar system
NEPTUNE: The Windy Planet

– Winds exceeding 1000 kilometers per hour encircle Neptune, making it one of the windiest places in the solar
system.
– Neptune sometimes orbits the Sun further away than Pluto making it the most distant planet in the Solar System
(1979-1999).
– Since its discovery in 1846, Neptune has not yet completed a full orbit. In fact, it takes 165 years for the planet to go
around the Sun.
– Neptune has the strongest winds in the Solar System, and a dark spot, similar to Jupiter's Great Red Spot
– Neptune is the 4th largest planet.
– Like Uranus, methane gives it color
MINOR MEMBERS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
MOON or SATELLITE

– An object that orbits a planet

ASTEROIDS: Microplanets

– An asteroid is a small, rocky body whose diameter can range from a few hundred kilometers to less than a
kilometer.
– Most asteroids lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in the asteroid belt. They have orbital periods of three to
six years.

CERES
– Largest Known Asteroid
– By far, the largest and most massive body in the asteroid belt.
– Discovered on Jan. 1, 1801 by G. Piazzi
– Named after the Roman Goddess of Harvest.
ASTEROIDS NAMED AFTER FILIPINOS
1. 6282 Edwelda -named in honor of Edwin L. Aguirre and Imelda B. Joson by IAU in 1995. In recognition of
their accomplishments in the field of astronomy including the book they wrote on Halley’s Comet in 1985.They
were also the editors of the Sky and Telescope magazine.
2. 11697 Estrella -Named after Allan Noriel Estrella, a high school student of Manila Science HS who won the
2002 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair. Along with his team mates, they won the First Grand
Award for Physics that year.
3. 12088 Macalintal -Named after Jeric Valles Macalintal, a HS student of MaSci. He is a team mate of Estrella.
Planet Macalintal is found in the main asteroid belt between the planets Mars and Jupiter.
4. 12522 Rara -Named after Prem Vilas Fortran M. Rara of the Integrated Development School, Mindanao State
University-Iligan. Rara won the Second Grand Award category in Microbiology for his research entitled,
“Antibiotic Substance Obtained from the Parotid Gland Secretion of the Toad (Bufo Marinus)”. He also won in
2002.
5. 3241 Biyo - Named after Dr. Josette T. Biyo, a science teacher in Phil. Science HS in Iloilo. The first Asian to
bag the Intel Excellence Award in Teaching in 2002.
6. 4866 Badillo -Named after a Jesuit and former Director of the Manila Observatory, Fr. Victor L. Badillo in
2005. Due to his contribution in popularizing astronomy to the Philippines for more than 3 decades. He served
as the founder and the president of Phil. Astronomical Society from 1972 to 1990.
7. 6636 Kintanar-Named after Dr. Roman L. Kintanar, a 77 year old Filipino scientist and former director of
PAGASA (Phil. Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration) from 1959-1994.
COMETS

– Comets are small bodies made of rocky and metallic pieces held together by frozen gases. Comets generally revolve
about the sun in elongated orbits.
– Commonly found orbiting in the Kuiper Belt
Coma
– A coma is the fuzzy, gaseous component of a comet’s head.
 – A small glowing nucleus with a diameter of only a few kilometers can sometimes be detected within a coma. As
comets approach the sun, some, but not all, develop a tail that extends for millions of kilometers.
Halley’s Comet

– The most famous short-period comet is Halley’s comet. Its orbital period is 76 years.
Oort Cloud

– Comets with long orbital periods appear to be distributed in all directions from the sun, forming a spherical shell
around the solar system called the Oort cloud.
DWARF PLANETS
A celestial body that:

– Is in orbit around the Sun

– Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium
(nearly round) shape.
– The neighborhood around its orbit is not cleared
– Is not a satellite
– Found in the Kuiper Belt
Kuiper Belt

– Like the asteroids in the inner solar system, most Kuiper belt comets move in nearly circular orbits that lie roughly
in the same plane as the planets.
– begins near the orbit of Neptune and continues beyond Pluto. This is also a region where most comets are found.
KNOWN DWARF PLANETS IN THE KUIPER BELT
1. Eris – the largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System. Eris is the most distant member of our solar system
known at this time. It is 3 times farther out than Pluto. One trip around the Sun takes 557 Earth years for Eris.
2. Pluto – The second largest dwarf planet. Its orbit is highly inclined to the ecliptic and highly eccentric. Named after
the God of the Underworld. The name was proposed by Venetia Burney, an eleven-year-old girl from England. The
name was chosen from suggestions all over the world.
Pluto has three known moons:
a. Charon – the largest moon of Pluto
b. Nix
c. Hydra
3. Makemake – Initially known as 2005 FY9 and later given the minor planet number 136472. Discovered on March
31, 2005 by Mike Brown.
4. Haumea - 2003 EL61
Named after Hawaiian Goddess of Childbirth. Discovered on Dec. 28, 2004 by Mike Brown
METEOROIDS

– A meteoroid is a small, solid particle that travels through space.

– A meteor is the luminous phenomenon observed when a meteoroid enters Earth’s atmosphere and burns up,
popularly called a shooting star.
– A meteorite is any portion of a meteoroid that reaches Earth’s surface.
Most meteoroids originate from any one of the following three sources:
(1) interplanetary debris that was not gravitationally swept up by the planets during the formation of the solar system,
(2) material from the asteroid belt, or
(3) the solid remains of comets that once traveled near Earth’s orbit.
THE SUN
TOOLS FOR STUDYING SPACE
REFRACTING TELESCOPES
A refracting telescope is a telescope that uses a lens to bend or refract light.
Focus
 – The most important lens in a refracting telescope, the objective lens, produces an image by bending light from a
distant object so that the light converges at an area called the focus (focus = central point).
Chromatic Aberration

– A chromatic aberration is the property of a lens whereby light of different colors is focused at different places.
REFLECTING TELESCOPES
A reflecting telescope is a telescope that reflects light off a concave mirror, focusing the image in front of the mirror.
Advantages of Reflecting Telescopes

– Most large optical telescopes are reflectors. Light does not pass through a mirror, so the glass for a reflecting
telescope does not have to be of optical quality.
Properties of Optical Telescopes

– Both refracting and reflecting telescopes have three properties that aid astronomers in their work:
1. Light-gathering power
2. Resolving power
3. Magnifying power
RADIO TELESCOPES
A radio telescope is a telescope designed to make observations in radio wavelengths.

– A radio telescope focuses the incoming radio waves on an antenna, which, just like a radio antenna, absorbs and
transmits these waves to an amplifier.
Advantages of Radio Telescopes

– Radio telescopes are much less affected by turbulence in the atmosphere, clouds, and the weather.
– No protective dome is required, which reduces the cost of construction.
– Radio telescopes can “see” through interstellar dust clouds that obscure visible wavelengths.
SPACE TELESCOPES

– Space telescopes orbit above Earth’s atmosphere and thus produce clearer images than Earth-based telescopes.

Hubble Space Telescope

– The first space telescope, built by NASA, was the Hubble Space Telescope. Hubble was put into orbit around
Earth in April 1990.
Other Space Telescopes
– To study X-rays, NASA uses the Chandra X-Ray Observatory. This space telescope was launched in 1999.
– Another space telescope, the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, was used to study both visible light and
gamma rays.
– In 2011, NASA plans to launch the James Webb Space Telescope to study infrared radiation.
STRUCTURE OF THE SUN
Because the sun is made of gas, no sharp boundaries exist between its various layers. Keeping this in mind, we can divide
the sun into four parts: the solar interior; the visible surface, or photosphere; and two atmospheric layers, the chromosphere
and corona.
PHOTOSPHERE

– The photosphere is the region of the sun that radiates energy to space, or the visible surface of the sun.
– It consists of a layer of incandescent gas less than 500 kilometers thick.
– It exhibits a grainy texture made up of many small, bright markings, called granules, produced by convection.
– Most of the elements found on Earth also occur on the sun.
– Its temperature averages approximately 6000 K (10,000ºF).
CHROMOSPHERE

– The chromosphere is the first layer of the solar atmosphere found directly above the photosphere.
 – It is a relatively thin, hot layer of incandescent gases a few thousand kilometers thick.
– Its top contains numerous spicules, which are narrow jets of rising material.
CORONA

– The corona is the outer, weak layer of the solar atmosphere.

– The temperature at the top of the corona exceeds 1 million K.
– Solar wind is a stream of protons and electrons ejected at high speed from the solar corona.
SUNSPOTS

– A sunspot is a dark spot on the sun that is cool in contrast to the surrounding photosphere.
– Sunspots appear dark because of their temperature, which is about 1500 K less than that of the surrounding solar
surface.
PROMINENCES

– Prominences are huge cloudlike structures consisting of chromospheric gases.

– Prominences are ionized gases trapped by magnetic fields that extend from regions of intense solar activity.
SOLAR FLARES

– Solar flares are brief outbursts that normally last about an hour and appear as a sudden brightening of the region
above a sunspot cluster.
– During their existence, solar flares release enormous amounts of energy, much of it in the form of ultraviolet, radio,
and X-ray radiation.
– Auroras, the result of solar flares, are bright displays of ever-changing light caused by solar radiation interacting
with the upper atmosphere in the region of the poles.
THE SOLAR INTERIOR
Nuclear Fusion

– Nuclear fusion is the way that the sun produces energy. This reaction converts four hydrogen nuclei into the nucleus
of a helium atom, releasing a tremendous amount of energy.
– During nuclear fusion, energy is released because some matter is actually converted to energy.
– It is thought that a star the size of the sun can exist in its present stable state for 10 billion years. As the sun is
already 4.5 billion years old, it is “middle-aged.”
BEYOND OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
PROPERTIES OF STARS
CHARACTERISTICS OF STARS

– A constellation is an apparent group of stars originally named for mythical characters. The sky contains 88
constellations.
Star Color and Temperature

– Color is a clue to a star’s temperature.

Binary Stars and Stellar Mass

– A binary star is one of two stars revolving around a common center of mass under their mutual gravitational
attraction.
– Binary stars are used to determine the star property most difficult to calculate—its mass.
MEASURING DISTANCES TO STARS
Parallax

– Parallax is the slight shifting of the apparent position of a star due to the orbital motion of Earth.
– The nearest stars have the largest parallax angles, while those of distant stars are too small to measure.
Light-Year

– A light-year is the distance light travels in a year, about 9.5 trillion kilometers.
STELLAR BRIGHTNESS
 Apparent Magnitude

– Apparent magnitude is the brightness of a star when viewed from Earth.

– Three factors control the apparent brightness of a star as seen from Earth: how big it is, how hot it is, and how far
away it is.
Absolute Magnitude

– Absolute magnitude is the apparent brightness of a star if it were viewed from a distance of 32.6 light-years.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF STARS

– A red giant is a large, cool star of high luminosity;

– A supergiant is a very large, very bright red giant star.
Variable Stars

– A Cepheid variable is a star whose brightness varies periodically because it expands and contracts; it is a type of
pulsating star.
– A nova is a star that explosively increases in brightness.
Interstellar Matter

– A nebula is a cloud of gas and/or dust in space.

– There are two major types of nebulae:
1. Bright nebula
– Emission nebula
– Reflection nebula
2. Dark nebula
STELLAR EVOLUTION
STAR BIRTH
Protostar Stage

– A protostar is a collapsing cloud of gas and dust destined to become a star—a developing star not yet hot enough to
engage in nuclear fusion.
– When the core of a protostar has reached about 10 million K, pressure within is so great that nuclear fusion of
hydrogen begins, and a star is born.
Main-Sequence Stage

– Stars age at different rates.

– Massive stars use fuel faster and exist for only a few million years.
– Small stars use fuel slowly and exist for perhaps hundreds of billions of years.
– A star spends 90 percent of its life in the main-sequence stage.
Red-Giant Stage

– Hydrogen burning migrates outward. The star’s outer envelope expands.

– Its surface cools and becomes red.
– The core collapses as helium is converted to carbon. Eventually all nuclear fuel is used and gravity squeezes the
star.
BURNOUT AND DEATH

– All stars, regardless of their size, eventually run out of fuel and collapse due to gravity.
Death of Low-Mass Stars

– Stars less than one-half the mass of the sun never evolve to the red giant stage but remain in the stable main-
sequence stage until they consume all their hydrogen fuel and collapse into a white dwarf.
Death of Medium-Mass Stars

– Stars with masses similar to the sun evolve in essentially the same way as low-mass stars.
 – During their collapse from red giants to white dwarfs, medium-mass stars are thought to cast off their bloated outer
layer, creating an expanding round cloud of gas called planetary nebula.
Death of Massive Stars

– In contrast to sunlike stars, stars that are over three times the sun’s mass have relatively short life spans, which end
in a supernova event.
– A supernova is an exploding massive star that increases in brightness many thousands of times.
– The massive star’s interior condenses and may produce a hot, dense object that is either a neutron star or a black
hole.
STELLAR REMNANTS
White Dwarfs

– A white dwarf is a star that has exhausted most or all of its nuclear fuel and has collapsed to a very small size,
believed to be near its final stage of evolution.
– The sun begins as a nebula, spends much of its life as a main-sequence star, and then becomes a red giant, a
planetary nebula, a white dwarf, and, finally, a black dwarf.
Neutron Stars

– A neutron star is a star of extremely high density composed entirely of neutrons.

– Neutron stars are thought to be remnants of supernova events.
Supernovae

– A pulsar is a source that radiates short bursts or pulses of radio energy in very regular periods.
– A pulsar found in the Crab Nebula during the 1970s is undoubtedly the remains of the supernova of 1054.
Black Holes

– A black hole is a massive star that has collapsed to such a small volume that its gravity prevents the escape of
everything, including light.
– Scientists think that as matter is pulled into a black hole, it should become very hot and emit a flood of X-rays
before being pulled in.
THE UNIVERSE
The Milky Way Galaxy

– A galaxy is a group of stars, dust, and gases held together by gravity.

Size of the Milky Way

– The Milky Way is a large spiral galaxy whose disk is about 100,000 light-years wide and about 10,000 light-years
thick at the nucleus.
Structure of the Milky Way

– Radio telescopes reveal that the Milky Way has at least three distinct spiral arms, with some splintering.
TYPES OF GALAXIES
Spiral Galaxies

– About 30 percent of all galaxies are spiral galaxies.

– They have large diameters of 20,000 to 125,000 light-years and contain both young and old stars.
Elliptical Galaxies

– About 60 percent of galaxies are classified as elliptical galaxies.

– Elliptical galaxies range in shape from round to oval.
Irregular Galaxies

– Only 10 percent of the known galaxies have irregular shapes and are classified as irregular galaxies.
– In addition to shape and size, one of the major differences among different types of galaxies is the age of their stars.
Irregular galaxies contain young stars.
Galaxy Clusters
 – A galaxy cluster is a system of galaxies containing several to thousands of member galaxies.
THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
Red Shifts

– Red shift, or a Doppler shift toward the red end of the spectrum, occurs because the light waves are “stretched,”
which shows that Earth and the source are moving away from each other.
Hubble’s Law

– Hubble’s law is a law that states that the galaxies are retreating from the Milky Way at a speed that is proportional
to their distance.
– The red shifts of distant galaxies indicate that the universe is expanding.
– To help visualize the nature of the universe, imagine a loaf of raisin bread dough that has been set out to rise for a
few hours. As the dough doubles in size, so does the distance between all the raisins. Those objects located father
apart move away from each other more rapidly.
THE BIG BANG
The big bang theory states that at one time, the entire universe was confined to a dense, hot, supermassive ball. Then,
about 13.7 billion years ago, a violent explosion occurred, hurling this material in all directions.
Supporting Evidence

– The red shift of galaxies supports the big bang and the expanding universe theories.
– Scientists discovered a type of energy called cosmic background radiation. Scientists think that this radiation was
produced during the big bang.
THE BIG CRUNCH?
The future of the universe follows two possible paths:
1. The universe will expand forever.
2. The outward expansion will stop and gravitational contraction will follow.

– The view currently favored by most scientists is an expanding universe with no ending point.
– It should be noted, however, that the methods used to determine the ultimate fate of the universe have substantial
uncertainties.

CHEMISTRY

Science that describes matter – its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that
accompany those processes

MATTER: Its Composition and Properties

MATTER

Anything that has mass and occupies space.

FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF MATTER

There are three fundamental laws of matter

1. Law of conservation of mass (Anton Lavoisier)

In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed, it is transformed into something else
2. Law of constant/definite composition (Joseph Prousz)
 A given compound always contains the same, fixed ratio of elements
3. Law of multiple proportions (Joseph Prousz)
Elements can combine in different ratios to form different compounds

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY (KMT)

Tiny, constantly moving particles make up all matter.

– The kinetic energy (motion) of these particles increases as temperature increases.

FOUR NATURAL STATES OF MATTER

SOLIDS

- low KE - particles vibrate but can’t move around

- definite shape & volume

Crystalline Solids – repeating geometric pattern

Amorphous Solids – no pattern (e.g. glass, wax)

LIQUIDS

- higher KE - particles can move around but are still close together
- indefinite shape
- definite volume

GASES

- high KE - particles can separate and move throughout container

- indefinite shape & volume

PLASMA

- A plasma is a gas that is composed of free-floating ions (atoms stripped of some electrons –
positively charged) and free electrons (negatively charged).
- A plasma conducts electrical currents.
- very high KE - particles collide with enough energy to break into charged particles (+/-)
- gas-like, indefinite shape & volume
- can be found in stars, fluorescent light bulbs, TV tubes
- discovered by William Crookes in 1879.

OTHER STATES OF MATTER

BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE

- consist of particles called bosons which exist at the temperature of 0 K or -273 °C with most
minimum amount of energy a particle can possess.
- It has zero viscosity

FERMIONIC CONDENSATE

- consist of normal fermions (which are the building blocks of normal matter) which are almost
identical to bosons they cannot stick together

Thermal Expansion

Most matter expands when heated & contracts when cooled.

High Temp causes High KE.

Particles collide with more force & spread out.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

- properties that can be measured or observed without changing the chemical nature of the
substance
 - can be perceived by physical senses

Intensive – does not depend on the amount of the substance present.

Extensive – depends on the amount of matter being measured.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

- properties that are only observable when the substance reacts with another substance thereby
causing a change in the chemical composition of the substance

CHANGES OF MATTER

PHYSICAL CHANGE

- changes in the physical properties of matter and takes place without changing the chemical
composition

Change by Physical Means

The Solution Process

- one in which one substance is dissolved in another substance.

Phase Changes

- one in which substances goes from one phase to another, solid, liquid or gas, by the addition or
removal of heat.

CHEMICAL CHANGE

- changes in the chemical properties of matter chemical composition is altered producing a new
substance

Nuclear change

- changes in the nuclear properties of matter

- changes in the atomic properties of an element

Nuclear Fission

- one large nucleus is split into two or more smaller nuclei

Nuclear Fusion
 - two small nuclei combine to make one larger nucleus

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Scientists like to classify things. One way that scientists classify matter is by its composition. Ultimately, all
matter can be classified as mixtures or pure substances.

PURE SUBSTANCES

- Pure type matter which cannot be separated physically

- homogenous

Element

- matter composed of identical atoms

Metals

- Metals are lustrous (shiny), malleable, ductile, and are good conductors of heat and electricity
- Located at the left side of the periodic table
- They are mostly solids at room temp
- Hg is liquid at room temperature

Non-Metals

- They are dull, brittle, nonconductors (insulators).

- Have low densities and melting points
- Located at the right side of the periodic table
- Some are solid, but many are gases
- Bromine is a liquid

Metalloids

- Semimetals: Exhibit characteristics of both metals and nonmetals

- They are shiny but brittle
- Are better conductors than nonmetals but not as good as metals.
- They are semiconductors
 They can conduct charges under specific conditions or by modification
- Located in between the metals and non-metals

Elements Essential to Health

Of all the elements,

- 20 are essential for the well-being and survival of the human body.
- four—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen—make up 96% of our body mass.
- most of our hydrogen and oxygen is found as water, which makes up 55 to 60% of our body
mass.

Macrominerals (Ca, P, K, Cl, S, Na, and Mg)

 are representative elements involved in the formation of bones and teeth.

 maintenance of heart and blood vessels, muscle contraction, nerve impulses, and acid–
base balance of body fluids.
 regulation of cellular metabolism.

Compound

- matter composed of 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio

- properties differ from those of individual elements

Acids

- Ionize to form hydronium ions (H3O+) in water

Properties
  sour taste
 corrosive
 electrolytes
 turn litmus red
 react with metals to form H2 gas

Bases

- Dissociate or ionize to form hydroxide ions (OH -) in water

Properties

 bitter taste
 corrosive
 electrolytes
 turn litmus blue
 slippery feel

Salts

- Products of acids and bases

Neutralization Reaction

- Chemical reaction between an acid and a base.

- Products are a salt (ionic compound) and water.
- ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER
- Neutralization does not always mean pH = 7.

MIXTURES

- Variable combination of 2 or more pure substances.

HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE

- Uniform distribution of components

- The different components of the mixture cannot be seen
- Exhibits one phase
- Particles never settle
- Solutions

HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE

- Uneven distribution of components

- May exhibit more than one phase
- Colloids and suspensions

Colloid

- medium-sized particles
- exhibits the Tyndall effect—particles scatter light (looks cloudy)
- particles never settle

Suspension

- large particles
- particles scatter light or can be opaque
- particles will settle (needs to be shaken)

SEPARATING MIXTURES

- Use of Separatory Funnel

- Filtration
- Sedimentation
- Decantation
 - Centrifugation
- Evaporation
- Use of Magnets

COMPOSITION OF MATTER: Atomic and Molecular

HISTORY OF THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Democritus (400 B.C.)

– Proposed that matter was composed of tiny indivisible particles

– Not based on experimental data
– Greek: atomos

John Dalton (1807)

– British Schoolteacher
– based his theory on others’ experimental data
– Billiard Ball Model
- atom is a uniform, solid sphere

Dalton’s Four Postulates

1. Elements are composed of small indivisible particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are identical. Atoms of different elements are different.
3. Atoms of different elements combine together in simple proportions to create a compound.
4. In a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged, but not changed.

Henri Becquerel (1896)

– Discovered radioactivity
- spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus
Three types:
- alpha (α) – positive
- beta (β) – negative
- gamma (γ) – neutral

J. J. Thomson (1903)

– Cathode Ray Tube Experiments

- cathode rays contain negatively charged particles.
– Discovered Electrons
- negative particles within the atom
- particles (now called electrons) have a much smaller mass than the atom.
– Plum-pudding Model
- positive sphere (pudding) with negative electrons (plums) dispersed throughout

Ernest Rutherford (1911)

– Gold Foil Experiment

In Rutherford’s gold foil experiment, positively charged particles
- were aimed at atoms of gold.
- mostly went straight through the atoms.
- were deflected only occasionally.
– Discovered the nucleus
- dense, positive charge in the center of the atom
– Discovered the protons
– Nuclear Model
- dense, positive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons

Niels Bohr (1913)

– Bright-Line Spectrum
- tried to explain presence of specific colors in hydrogen’s spectrum
– Energy Levels
- electrons can only exist in specific energy states
– Planetary Model
- electrons move in circular orbits within specific energy levels

Erwin Schrödinger (1926)

– Quantum mechanics
- electrons can only exist in specified energy states
– Electron cloud model
- orbital: region around the nucleus where e– are likely to be found
- dots represent probability of finding an e– not actual electrons

James Chadwick (1932)

– Discovered neutrons
- neutral particles in the nucleus of an atom
– Joliot-Curie Experiments
- based his theory on their experimental evidence
– Neutron Model
- revision of Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

THE ATOM

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that element.

Electrical Charges in an Atom

Atoms contain the following subatomic particles:

- protons that have a positive (+) charge

- electrons that have a negative (–) charge
- neutrons that have no charge (neutral)

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Structure of the Atom

An atom consists of

- a nucleus, located in the center of the atom, that contains protons and neutrons and represents
most of the mass of an atom.
- electrons that occupy a large, empty space around the nucleus.

In an atom, the protons and neutrons that make up almost all the mass are packed into the tiny volume
of the nucleus. The rapidly moving electrons (negative charge) surround the nucleus and account for the
large volume of the atom.

Mass of the Atom

Because the mass of subatomic particles is so small,

- chemists use a very small unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu).
- 1 amu has a mass equal to 1/12 of the mass of the carbon-12 atom that contains six protons and
six neutrons.
- 1 amu = 1 Dalton (Da) in biology.
- electrons have such a small mass that they are not included in the mass of an atom.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and the same atomic number.

ATOMIC NUMBER

The atomic number

- is a whole number specific for each element.

 - is the same for all atoms of an element.
- is equal to the number of protons in an atom.
- appears above the symbol of an element in the periodic table.
- Atomic Number = Protons in an Atom

Atoms are Neutral

- For neutral atoms, the net charge is zero.

- number of protons = number of electrons

Ions

- An atom that has a net electric charged is called an ion.

 Cations are positively charged atoms (number of electrons is less than number of
protons).
 Anions are negatively charged atoms (number of electrons is greater than number of
protons).

MASS NUMBER

The mass number

- represents the number of particles in the nucleus.

- is equal to the number of protons + the number of neutrons.
- is always a whole number.
- does not appear in the periodic table.

Study Tips: Protons and Neutrons

- Number of protons = atomic number

- Number of protons + neutrons = mass number
- Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
Note: Mass numbers are given for specific isotopes only.
- Neutral atom: number of protons = number of electrons

ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS

ISOTOPES

- are atoms of the same element.

- have different mass numbers.
- have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
- can be distinguished by their atomic symbols.

ATOMIC MASS

- weighted average of all naturally occurring isotopes of that element.

- number on the periodic table below the chemical symbol.

Calculating Atomic Mass

To calculate atomic mass,

- use the experimental percent abundance of each isotope of the element.

- multiply the percent abundance by the atomic mass of that isotope.
- sum the total mass of all isotopes.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

Dmitri Mendeleev (1869, Russian)

- Organized elements by increasing atomic mass.

- Predicted the existence of undiscovered elements.

Henry Mosely (1913, British)

 - Organized elements by increasing atomic number.
- Fixed problems in Mendeleev’s arrangement.

PERIODIC LAW

When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic pattern in their
physical and chemical properties.

In the periodic table,

- elements are arranged according to properties.

- groups contain elements with similar properties in vertical columns.
- periods are horizontal rows of elements, counted from top to bottom of the table as Periods 1−7.

Group Numbers

Group numbers are written at the top of each vertical column.

- Use the letter A for representative elements (Groups 1A–8A).

- Use the letter B for transition elements (Groups 3B–12B).

An alternative system uses numbers of 1–18 for all of the groups, from left to right, across the periodic
table.

1 Representative Elements
Transition Metals
2 Inner Transition Metals
3
4
5
6
7

Group Names

TRENDS IN PERIODIC PROPERTIES

The atomic size of representative elements is affected by the attractive forces between the protons in the
nucleus and the electrons in the outermost energy level.

Group Numbers: Valence Electrons

- For representative elements in Groups 1A (1)–8A (18), chemical properties are due to the number
of valence electrons.
- Valence electrons are the number of electrons in the outermost energy level.
 - The group number gives the number of valence electrons for the representative elements.

Lewis Symbols

Lewis symbols represent the valence electrons as dots placed on sides of the symbol for an element.

- One to four valence electrons are arranged as single dots.

- Five to eight valence electrons are arranged with at least one pair of electrons around the symbol
for the element.

Example: Lewis Symbols for Magnesium

Atomic Size

- is determined by the atom’s atomic radius, the distance between the nucleus and the outermost
electrons.
- increases for representative elements from top to bottom of the periodic table.
- decreases within a period as a result of increased number of protons in the nucleus.

For representative elements, the atomic size increases going down a group but decreases going from left
to right across a period.

Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the energy required to remove one of the outermost electrons.

- As the distance from the nucleus to the valence electrons increases, the ionization energy
decreases.
- The ionization energy is low for metals and high for the nonmetals.

Ionization energy decreases down a group and increases going across a period from left to right.

Metallic Character

An element with metallic character is one that loses valence electrons easily.

- is more prevalent in metals on the left side of the periodic table.

- is less for nonmetals on the right side of the periodic table that do not lose electrons easily.
- decreases going down a group, as electrons are farther away from the nucleus.

The metallic character of the representative elements increases going down a group and decreases going
from left to right across a period.

ELECTRON ENERGY LEVELS

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

We experience electromagnetic radiation in different forms, such as light, the colors of a rainbow, or X-
rays.

Electromagnetic radiation consists of energy particles that move as waves of energy.

- The distance between the peaks of waves is called the wavelength.

- High-energy radiation has shorter wavelengths.
- Low-energy radiation has longer wavelengths.

ATOMIC SPECTRUM

When light from a heated element passes through a prism, it separates into distinct lines of color
separated by dark areas called an atomic spectrum.
Each element has its own unique atomic spectrum.
In an atomic spectrum, light from a heated element separates into distinct lines.

ELECTRON ENERGY LEVELS

The lines in an atomic spectrum are associated with the changes in energies of the electrons.
In an atom, each electron has a specific energy, known as its energy level, which

- is assigned principal quantum numbers (n) = (n = 1, n = 2, …).

- increases in energy as the value of n increases and electrons are farther away from the nucleus.

The energy of an electron is quantized—electrons can have only specific energy values.

ELECTRONS AND ENERGY LEVELS

- Electrons with the same energy are grouped in the same energy level.
- Energy levels are assigned values called principal quantum numbers (n), (n = 1, n = 2, …).
An electron can have only the energy of one of the energy levels in an atom.

CHANGES IN ELECTRON ENERGY LEVEL

- Electrons move to a higher energy level when they absorb energy.

- When electrons fall back to a lower energy level, light is emitted.
- The energy emitted or absorbed is equal to the differences between the two energy levels.

SUBLEVELS

It is the arrangement of electrons that determines the physical and chemical properties of an element.

- Each energy level consists of one or more sublevels.

- The number of sublevels in an energy level is equal to the principal quantum number n of that
energy level.
- The sublevels are identified as s, p, d, and f.
- The order of sublevels in an energy level is s < p < d < f

s Orbitals

The location of an electron is described in terms of probability.

- Orbitals are a three-dimensional volume in which electrons have the highest probability of being
found.
- The s orbitals are shown as spheres.

p Orbitals

There are three p orbitals, starting with n = 2.

- Each p orbital has two lobes, like a balloon tied in the middle, and can hold a maximum of two
electrons.
- The three p orbitals are arranged perpendicular to each other along the x, y, and z axes around
the nucleus.

A p orbital has two regions of high probability, which gives a “dumbbell” shape.

(a) Each p orbital is aligned along a different axis from the other p orbitals.
(b) All three p orbitals are shown around the nucleus.
 d Orbitals

Each of the d sublevels contains five d orbitals.

- Four of the five d orbitals consist of four lobes that are aligned along or between different axes.
- One d orbital consists of two lobes and a doughnut-shaped ring around its center.

ORBITAL CAPACITY AND ELECTRON SPIN

The Pauli exclusion principle states that

- each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.

- electrons in the same orbital repel each other.
- electrons in the same orbital must have their magnetic spins cancel (they must spin in opposite
directions).

Number of Electrons in Sublevels

There is a maximum number of electrons that can fill each sublevel.

- Each s sublevel has one orbital and can hold a maximum of two electrons.
- Each p sublevel has three orbitals and can hold a maximum of six electrons.
- Each d sublevel has five orbitals and can hold a maximum of 10 electrons.
- Each f sublevel can have 7 orbitals and can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

Orbital Diagrams

Orbital diagrams use boxes to show how electrons

- are arranged in the orbitals of an atom.

- fill the orbitals and energy levels from lowest to highest energy level.
- fill orbitals within the same sublevel one at a time, before pairing the electrons.

Electron Configurations

Chemists use a notation called electron configuration to

- indicate the placement of electrons in an atom.

- show how electrons fill energy levels and sublevels in order of increasing energy.
- write an abbreviated form using a noble gas to represent all electrons preceding it.
Electron configurations follow the order of occupied sublevels on the periodic table. The electron
configurations of elements are related to their positions on the periodic table. Different sections or blocks
correspond to sublevels s, p, d, and f.

Blocks on the Periodic Table

1. The s block contains elements in Groups 1A (1) and 2A (2). This means the final one or two electrons
are in the s sublevel.
2. The p block consists of elements in Group 3A (13) to Group 8A (18). There are six p block elements
in each period, because three p orbitals can hold a maximum of six electrons.
 3. The d block, which contains transition elements, first appears after calcium (atomic number 20).
There are 10 elements in the d block, because five d orbitals can hold a maximum of 10 electrons.
4. The f block, the inner transition elements, is the two rows of elements at the bottom of the periodic
table. There are 14 elements in each f block, because seven f orbitals can hold a maximum of 14
electrons.

Guide to Writing Configurations Using Sublevel Blocks

Steps:

1. Locate the element on the periodic table.

2. Write the filled sublevels in order, going across each period.
3. Complete the configuration by counting the electrons in the last occupied sublevel block.

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity comes from unstable nuclei, which are

– found in elements with atomic numbers 20 and higher.

– defined as nuclei in which the nuclear forces cannot offset the repulsions between the protons.
– radioactive, emitting small particles of energy called radiation to become more stable.

Radiation may take the form of alpha (α) and beta (β) particles, positrons (β+), or pure energy such as
gamma (γ) rays.

RADIOISOTOPE

A radioisotope

– is an isotope of an element that emits radiation.

– can be one or more isotopes of an element.
– includes the mass number in its name.

TYPES OF RADIATION

Radioisotopes emit radiation such as

– alpha (α) particles, identical to a helium nucleus,

– beta (β) particles, high energy electrons,

– positrons (β+),

– pure energy called gamma (γ) rays,

Biological Effects of Radiation

Ionizing radiation strikes molecules in its path and

– knocks away the electrons in molecules, forming unstable ions such as H 2O+
– causes undesirable chemical reactions.
– damages the cells most sensitive to radiation, rapidly dividing cells in bone marrow, skin, and
reproductive organs, thus causing cancer.

Radiation Protection

Radiation protection requires

– paper and clothing for blocking alpha particles.

– a lab coat or gloves for blocking beta particles.
– dense shielding such as lead or concrete to block gamma rays.

For those working in an environment where radioactive materials are present, limit exposure by

– minimizing the amount of time spent near a radioactive source.

– increasing the distance from the source.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS

In the nuclear equation for alpha decay, the mass number of the new nucleus decreases by 4 and its atomic
number decreases by 2.

BALANCING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

In a process called radioactive decay, the nucleus breaks down by emitting radiation. The process is
represented by a nuclear in which

- the mass number and atomic number may change.

- the sum of the mass numbers and the sum of the atomic numbers are equal for the reactants
and the products:

ALPHA DECAY (Alpha Emission)

Alpha decay occurs when a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle, forming a new nucleus with a
mass number that is decreased by 4 and an atomic number that is decreased by 2.

BETA DECAY

In the nuclear equation for beta decay, a beta particle, an electron, is emitted from the nucleus when a
neutron in the nucleus breaks down, forming a proton and a beta particle and increasing the atomic
number by 1.

POSITRON EMISSION

In positron emission,

- a proton is converted to a neutron and a positron.

- the mass number of the new nucleus is the same, but the atomic number decreases by 1.

GAMMA RADIATION

In gamma radiation,

- energy is emitted from an unstable nucleus, indicated by m following the mass number.
- the mass number and the atomic number of the new nucleus are the same.

GUIDE TO COMPLETING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

Steps:

1. Write the incomplete nuclear equation.

2. Determine the missing mass number.
3. Determine the missing atomic number.
4. Determine the symbol of the new nucleus.
5. Complete the nuclear equation.

When the nuclei of alpha, beta, positron, and gamma emitters emit radiation, new and more stable
nuclei are produced.

PRODUCING RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Radioactive isotopes are produced

- when a stable nucleus is converted to a radioactive nucleus by bombarding it with a small

particle.
- in a process called transmutation.
RADIATION MEASUREMENT

GEIGER COUNTER

A Geiger counter is a common instrument that

- detects beta and gamma radiation.

- uses ions produced by radiation to create an electrical current.

UNITS FOR MEASURING RADIATION

Units for measuring radiation activity include the following:

- curie (Ci) – the number of disintegrations that occurs in 1 s for 1 g of radium, equal to 3.7 × 10 10
disintegrations/s
- becquerel (Bq) – the SI unit of radiation activity, which is 1 disintegration/s
- rad (radiation absorbed dose) – measures the amount of radiation absorbed by a gram of
material such as body tissues
- rem (the radiation equivalent in humans) – measures biological effects of different kinds of
radiation

The rem (radiation equivalent in humans) measures

- alpha particles, which do not penetrate the skin; however, if they enter the body, extensive
damage may occur in tissues.
- high-energy radiation, which causes more damage than alpha particles and includes beta
particles, high-energy protons, and neutrons that travel into tissue.
- gamma rays, which are damaging because they travel a long way through body tissue.

MEASURING RADIATION DAMAGE

To determine the equivalent dose or rem dose,

- the absorbed dose (rad) is multiplied by a factor that adjusts for biological damage caused by a
particular form of radiation.

Biological damage (rem) = Absorbed dose (rad) × Factor

- For beta and gamma radiation, the factor is 1.

- For high-energy protons and neutrons, the factor is about 10.
- For alpha particles, the factor is 20.

Dosimeters Measure Radiation Exposure

People who work in radiation laboratories wear dosimeters attached to their clothing.
Dosimeters detect the amount of radiation exposure from the following:

- X-rays
- gamma rays
- beta particles

HALF-LIFE OF A RADIOISOTOPE

HALF-LIFE

The half-life of a radioisotope is the time for the radiation level to decrease (decay) to one-half of the
original value.

GUIDE TO USING HALF-LIVES: Half-Life Calculations

Steps:

1. State the given and needed quantities.

2. Write a plan to calculate unknown quantity.
3. Write the half-life equality and conversion factors.
4. Set up the problem to calculate the needed quantity.
 HALF-LIFE EQUATION

MEDICAL APPLICATIONS USING RADIOACTIVITY

Radioisotopes with short half-lives are used in nuclear medicine because

– the cells in the body do not differentiate between non-radioactive atoms and radioactive atoms.
– once incorporated into cells, the radioactive atoms are detected because they emit radiation, giving an
image of an organ.

Scans with Radioisotopes

After a radioisotope is ingested by the patient,

- the scanner moves slowly over the organ where the radioisotope is absorbed.
- the radiologist determines the level and location of the radioactivity emitted by the radioisotope.
- the gamma rays emitted from the radioisotope can be used to expose a photographic plate,
producing a scan of the organ.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Positron emitters with short half-lives

- can be used to study brain function, metabolism, and blood flow.

- might be carbon-11, oxygen-15, nitrogen-13, or fluorine-18.
- combine with electrons after emission to produce gamma rays, which are then detected by
computers, creating a 3-D image of the organ.

Computed Tomography (CT)

Another imaging method used to scan organs such as the brain, lungs, and heart is called computed
tomography (CT).

- A computer monitors the absorption of 30 000 X-ray beams directed at the brain in successive
layers.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging

- is an imaging technique that does not involve X-ray radiation.

- is the least invasive imaging method available.
- is based on the absorption of energy when protons in hydrogen atoms are excited by a strong
magnetic field.
- works because the energy absorbed is converted to color images of the body.

IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

IONS: Transfer of Electrons

– Atoms form positively charged ions when they lose electrons and negatively charged ions when they gain
electrons.
– Ionic bonds are formed by the strong attractive forces between positive and negative ions.

IONIC AND COVALENT BONDS

Chemical bonds are formed when atoms lose, gain, or share valence electrons to acquire an octet of eight
valence electrons (octet rule).

– Ionic bonds occur when valence electrons of a metal atom are transferred to the atom of a nonmetal.
– Covalent bonds occur when nonmetal atoms share electrons to attain a noble gas arrangement.

POSITIVE IONS: Metals Lose Electrons

In ionic bonding, ions form when atoms gain or lose their valence electrons to form a stable electron
configuration. Metals, Group 1A (1), Group 2A (2), and Group 3A (13)

- have low ionization energies.

- readily lose one or more of their valence electrons to form ions with a positive charge.
- lose electrons until they have the same number of valence electrons as the nearest noble gas,
usually eight valence electrons.

NEGATIVE IONS: Nonmetals Gain Electrons

Nonmetals, Group 5A (15), Group 6A (16), and Group 7A (17)

- have high ionization energies.

- readily gain one or more valence electrons to form ions with a negative charge.
- gain electrons until they have the same number of valence electrons as the nearest noble gas,
usually eight valence electrons.

Ionic Charges, Group Numbers

We can use the group numbers in the periodic table to determine the charges for the ions of the
representative elements.

IONIC COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds consist of positive and negative charges held together by the strong electrical attractions
between oppositely charged ions.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds

- consist of positive and negative ions.

- have attractions called ionic bonds between positively and negatively charged ions.
- have high melting points.
- are solids at room temperature.

FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

In a chemical formula,

- the symbols and subscripts are written in the lowest whole-number ratio of the atoms or ions.
- the sum of ion charges equals zero.
- the total positive charge = total negative charge.

NAMING AND WRITING IONIC COMPOUNDS

When naming an ionic compound,

- the name of the metal is written first and is the same as the name of the element.
- the name of the nonmetal is the first syllable of the nonmetal name + ide ending and is written
second.
- a space is placed between the name of the metal and nonmetal ion.

Guide to Naming Ionic Compounds

Steps:

1. Identify the cation and anion.

2. Name the cation by its element name.
3. Name the anion by using the first syllable of its element name followed by ide.
4. Write the name for the cation first and the name for the anion second.

METALS WITH VARIABLE CHARGE

 Transition metals except for Zn2+, Cd2+, and Ag+ form two or more positive ions (cations).
A Roman numeral equal to the ion charge is placed in parentheses immediately after the metal name.

Cu2+ copper(II) Pb2+ lead(II)

Cu+ copper(I) Pb4+ lead(IV)
Fe2+ iron(II) Cr2+ chromium(II)
Fe3+ iron(III) Cr3+ chromium(III)

Guide to Naming Ionic Compounds with Variable Charge Metals

Steps:

1. Determine the charge of the cation from the anion.

2. Name the cation by its element name, and use a Roman numeral in parentheses for the charge.
iron(II)
3. Name the anion by using the first syllable of its element name followed by ide. Chloride
4. Write the name for the cation first and the anion second. iron(II) chloride

POLYATOMIC IONS

Polyatomic ions

- are a group of atoms with an overall charge.

- often consist of a nonmetal such as phosphorus, sulfur, carbon, or nitrogen and oxygen.
- usually have a 1−, 2−, or 3− charge.
- have a negative charge, except for NH4+ ammonium, which has a positive charge

Some Polyatomic Ions, their Names, and Formulas

Writing Formulas for Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions

When writing formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions, we use the same rules of charge
balance as those for simple ionic compounds.

MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS: Sharing Electrons

The names of molecular compounds need prefixes because several different compounds can be formed from
the same two nonmetals.

Molecular compounds form when

– atoms of two or more nonmetals share electrons and form a covalent bond.
– valence electrons are shared by nonmetal atoms to achieve stability.

A molecule forms when two or more atoms share electrons.

 NAMES AND FORMULAS, MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

When naming a molecular compound, the

- first nonmetal in the formula is named by its element name.

- second nonmetal is named using the first syllable of the name followed by ide.

When a subscript indicates two or more atoms of an element, a prefix is shown in front of its name.

Several compounds may be formed from the same two nonmetals:

CO2 → carbon dioxide

CO → carbon monoxide

- The number of oxygen atoms present is indicated by the prefix.

- When the vowels o and o or a and o appear together, the first vowel is omitted.

Guide to Naming Molecular Compounds

Steps:

1. Name the first nonmetal by its element name.

2. Name the second nonmetal by using the first syllable of the element name followed by ide.
3. Add prefixes to indicate the number of atoms (subscripts).

Guide to Writing Formulas from the Names of Molecular Compounds

1. Write the symbols in the order of the elements in the name.

2. Write any prefixes as subscripts.

COMPOUNDS, IONIC OR COVALENT?

A compound is usually

– ionic if the first element in the formula or the name is a metal or the polyatomic ion NH 4+
– covalent if the first element in the formula is a nonmetal.

FLOWCHART, NAMING COMPOUNDS

LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR MOLECULES AND POLYATOMIC IONS

A molecule is represented by a Lewis structure in which the valence electrons of all the atoms are arranged
to give octets.
– The shared electrons, or bonding pairs, are shown as two dots or a single line between atoms.
– The nonbonding pairs, or lone pairs, are placed on the outside of the atoms.

Elements, Diatomic Molecules

The elements hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine exist as diatomic
molecules.

Guide to Drawing Electron-Dot Formulas

1. Determine the arrangement of atoms.

2. Determine the total number of valence electrons.
– Use the group number to determine the number of valence electrons for each element.
3. Attach each bonded atom to the central atom with a pair of electrons.
– Each bonding pair can be represented with a single line.
4. Place the remaining electrons using single or multiple bonds to complete octets (two for H).

DOUBLE AND TRIPLE BONDS

A double bond

- occurs when atoms share two pairs of electrons.

- forms when there are not enough electrons to complete octets.

A triple bond

- occurs when atoms share three pairs of electrons.

- forms when there are not enough electrons to complete octets.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE

While the octet rule is useful, there are exceptions.

- Hydrogen requires just 2 electrons to form a noble gas arrangement.

- Nonmetals P, S, Cl, Br, and I can form compounds with 10 or 12 valence electrons.
- The S atom has an octet in many compounds, but in SF 6 , there are 12 valence electrons or 6
bonds to the sulfur atom.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND BOND POLARITY

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

The electronegativity of an atom is its ability to attract the shared electrons in a bond. It

- increases from left to right going across a period on the periodic table.
- increases from the bottom to the top of the periodic table.
- is high for the nonmetals, with fluorine as the highest.
- is low for the metals.

POLARITY OF BONDS

The difference in electronegativity of bonding atoms can be used to predict the polarity of the bond.

NONPOLAR COVALENT BONDS

A nonpolar covalent bond occurs between nonmetals. It

- is an equal or almost equal sharing of electrons by the two bonding atoms.

- has a very small electronegativity difference between atoms.

POLAR COVALENT BONDS

 A polar covalent bond occurs between nonmetal atoms. It

- is an unequal sharing of electrons.

- has a moderate electronegativity difference.

DIPOLES AND BOND POLARITY

A polar covalent bond becomes more polar as the difference in electronegativity increases. The
separation of charges in a polar bond is called a dipole.
The positive and negative ends of the dipole are located by using

- the lowercase Greek letter delta with a positive or negative charge.

- an arrow that points from the positive to the negative end of the dipole.

IONIC BONDS

An ionic bond

- occurs between metal and nonmetal ions.

- is a result of electron transfer.
- has a large electronegativity difference (1.8 or more).

SHAPES AND POLARITY OF MOLECULES

VSEPR Theory

Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)

- describes the orientation of electron groups around the central atom.

- states that electron groups are arranged as far apart as possible around the central atom.
- states that the specific shape of a molecule is determined by the number of atoms attached to
the central atom.

Molecular Shapes, Electron-Groups

Guide to Predicting Molecular Shape

1. Draw the Lewis structure.

2. Arrange electron groups around the central atom to minimize repulsion.
 3. Use the atoms bonded to the central atom to determine the shape.

POLARITY OF MOLECULES

Nonpolar molecules

- such as H2, Cl2, and O2 are nonpolar because they contain nonpolar bonds.
- with polar bonds can be nonpolar if the polar bonds (dipoles) cancel in a symmetrical
arrangement2

Polar molecules are polar because

- one end of the molecule is more negatively charged than the other.
- the polar bonds in the molecule do not cancel each other.
- the electrons are shared unequally in the polar covalent bond.

Guide to Determining the Polarity of a Molecule

1. Determine if the bonds are polar covalent or nonpolar covalent.

2. If the bonds are polar covalent, draw the Lewis structure and determine if the dipoles cancel.

ATTRACTIVE FORCES IN COMPOUNDS

DIPOLE-DIPOLE, HYDROGEN BONDS

In covalent compounds, polar molecules

- exert attractive forces called dipole-dipole attractions.

- form strong dipole attractions called hydrogen bonds between hydrogen atoms bonded to F, O, or
N, and a lone pair on F, O, or N.

Hydrogen bonds are the strongest force between molecules and play a major role in the shape of DNA.

DISPERSION FORCES

Dispersion forces are

- weak attractions between nonpolar molecules.

- caused by temporary dipoles that develop when molecules bump into each other.
- weak but make it possible for nonpolar molecules to form liquids and solids.

MELTING POINTS AND ATTRACTIVE FORCES

Melting points of compounds

- are related to the strength of attractive forces between molecules or compounds.

- are lower due to weak forces such as dispersion forces.
- are higher due to stronger attractive forces such as hydrogen bonding.
- are highest in ionic compounds due to the strong attractive forces between ions in the compound.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND QUANTITIES

WRITING A CHEMICAL EQUATION

To write a chemical equation,

– an arrow separates reactants from the products.

– reactants are written on the left side of the arrow; products are written on the right side of the arrow.
– multiple reactants or products are separated by a + sign.
– the delta (Δ) sign indicates heat is used to start the reaction.
– physical states of compounds are denoted in parentheses following the compound: solid (s), liquid (l),
gas (g), and aqueous (aq) or dissolved in water.

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

In a balanced chemical equation,

– no atoms are lost or gained.

– the number of atoms on the reactant side is equal to the number of atoms on the product side for each
element

Guide to Balancing a Chemical Equation

1. Write an equation using the correct formulas of the reactants and products.
2. Count the atoms of each element in the reactants and products.
3. Use coefficients to balance each element. Starting with the most complex formula, change coefficients to
balance the equation.
4. Check the final equation to confirm it is balanced.

Make sure coefficients are the lowest ratio.

TYPES OF REACTIONS

Chemical reactions can be classified as

Synthesis A + B → AB
Decomposition AB → A + B
Single Replacement AB + C → AC + B
Double Replacement AB + CD → AC + BD
Combustion fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Oxidation e– are transferred from one substance to another
Some reactions may fit into more than one reaction type.

Oxidation−Reduction Reactions

The particular definition of oxidation and reduction depends on the process that occurs in the reaction.

Oxidation

- always involves a loss of electrons.

- may also be seen as an addition of oxygen.
- may also be seen as the loss of hydrogen atoms.

Reduction

- always involves a gain of electrons.

- may also be seen as the loss of oxygen.
- may also be seen as the gain of hydrogen.

THE MOLE

AVOGADRO'S NUMBER

Small particles such as atoms, molecules, and ions are counted using the mole, a unit called Avogadro’s
number that contains 6.022 × 1023 items.

1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 items

Avogadro’s number is named for Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), an Italian physicist.

Mole of Atoms

1 mole of an element = 6.022 × 1023 atoms of that element

MOLES OF ELEMENTS IN A FORMULA

The subscripts in a formula show

- the relationship of atoms in the formula.

- the moles of each element in 1 mole of compound.
- subscripts are used to write conversion factors for moles of each element in 1 mole of a
compound.

MOLAR MASS AND CALCULATIONS

MOLAR MASS
 The molar mass is

- the mass of 1 mole of an element.

- the atomic mass expressed in grams.

Guide to Calculating Molar Mass of a Compound

To calculate the molar mass of a compound, we multiply the molar mass of each element by its subscript
in the formula and add the results.

Steps:

1. Obtain the molar mass of each element.

2. Multiply each molar mass by the number of moles (subscript) in the formula.
3. Calculate the molar mass by adding the masses of the elements.

CALCULATIONS USING MOLAR MASS

Molar mass conversion factors

- are fractions (ratios) written from the molar mass.

- relate grams and moles of an element or compound.

Guide to Calculating Moles from Mass or Mass from Moles

1. Obtain the molar mass of each element. State the given and needed quantities.
2. Write a plan to convert moles to grams or grams to moles.
3. Determine the molar mass and write conversion factors.
4. Set up the problem to convert grams to moles.

MAP: MASS–MOLES–PARTICLES

MOLE RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

The law of conservation of mass indicates that in an ordinary chemical reaction,

- matter cannot be created or destroyed.

- no change in total mass occurs.
- the mass of products is equal to the mass of reactants.

Mole–Mole Factors from an Equation

A mole–mole factor is a ratio of the moles for any two substances in an equation.

Guide to Calculating Quantities of Reactants and Products

Steps:

1. State the given and needed quantities (moles).

2. Write a plan to convert the given to the needed quantity (moles or grams).
3. Use coefficients to write relationships and mole–mole factors.
 4. Set up the problem to give the needed quantity (moles or grams).

MASS CALCULATIONS FOR REACTIONS

Equations, Mass of A−Mass of B

Given a balanced equation, convert the mass of substance A to substance B by

- first, converting the mass of substance A to moles using the molar mass of A;
- second, converting moles of substance A to moles of substance B using the mole–mole ratio of B
to A in the balanced equation; and
- third, converting moles of substance B to grams using the molar mass of B.

LIMITING REACTANTS, PERCENT YIELD

LIMITING REACTANT

A limiting reactant in a chemical reaction

- is the substance that is used up first.

- limits the amount of product that can form.

The reactant that does not completely react and is left over at the end of the reaction is called the
excess reactant.

In many reactions, there is a limiting reactant that determines the amount of product that can be
formed.
Given a chemical reaction, from each reactant we can

- calculate the amount of product possible when it is completely consumed.

- determine the limiting reactant, the one that runs out first and produces the smaller amount of
product.

Guide to Calculating Moles of Product from a Limiting Reactant

1. State the given and needed moles.

2. Write a plan to convert the moles of each reactant to moles of product.
3. Write the mole–mole factors from the equation.
4. Calculate the number of moles of product from each reactant, and select the smaller number of
moles as the amount of product from the limiting reactant.

ACTUAL, THEORETICAL, AND PERCENT YIELD

When the reaction does not go to completion, or some of the reactant or product is lost, the amount of
product produced may be less.

- Theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product, which is calculated using the balanced
equation.
- Actual yield is the amount of product actually obtained.
- Percent yield is the ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield.

ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

HEAT OF REACTION

The heat of reaction is the amount of heat absorbed or released during a reaction that takes place at
constant pressure. The change in energy occurs when

- reactants interact.
- bonds break apart.
 - products are formed.

The heat of reaction or enthalpy change, symbol ΔH, is the difference between the enthalpy of the
products and enthalpy of the reactants.

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS

In an exothermic reaction,

- heat is released.
- the energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants.
- heat is a product.

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

In an endothermic reaction,

- heat is absorbed.
- the energy of the products
- is greater than the energy of the reactants.
- heat is a reactant (added).

GASES

PROPERTIES OF GASES

Generally, molecules with fewer than five atoms from the first two periods in the periodic table are gases at
room temperature. In addition, the following are also gases:

– H2, N2, O2, F2, and Cl2

– oxides of the nonmetals on the upper-right corner of the periodic table: CO, CO 2, NO, NO2, SO2, and SO3
– noble gases

A gas consists of small particles that

1. move randomly with high velocities.

2. have very small attractive (or repulsive) forces between molecules.
3. occupy a much larger volume than the volume of the molecules alone.
4. are in constant motion, moving rapidly in straight lines.
5. have a Kelvin temperature proportionate to the average kinetic energy of the molecules

Gas particles which move in straight lines within a container, exert pressure when they collide with the walls
of the container.

Gases are described in terms of four properties: pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T), and amount (n).

1. Pressure – the force exerted by a gas against the walls of the container
2. Volume – the space occupied by a gas
3. Temperature – the determining factor of the kinetic energy and rate of motion of gas particles
4. Amount – the quantity of gas present in a container

VOLUME

The volume of a gas

- is the same as the volume of the container it occupies.

- is usually measured in liters or milliliters.
- increases with an increase in temperature at a constant pressure.

TEMPERATURE

The temperature of a gas relates to the average kinetic energy of the molecules and is measured in the
Kelvin (K) temperature scale.

When the temperature of a gas is

 - decreased, the molecules have fewer collisions.
- increased, the molecules have more collisions.

PRESSURE

Pressure is a measure of the gas particle collisions with sides of a container and is measured in units of

- millimeters of mercury, mmHg or torr.

- atmospheres, atm.
- pascals, Pa, or kilopascals, kPa.
- pounds per square inch, psi.

Gas particles in the air exert pressure on us called atmospheric pressure.

Measuring Pressure

A barometer

- measures the pressure exerted by the gases in the atmosphere.

- indicates atmospheric pressure as the height in mm of the mercury column.

760 mmHg = 1 atm = 760 Torr

The barometer was invented by Evangelista Torricelli, at exactly 1 atm the barometer tube measures
exactly 760 mm high.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure

- is the pressure exerted by a column of air from the top of the atmosphere to the surface of Earth.
- decreases as altitude increases.
- about 1 atm at sea level.

Altitude and Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure changes with variations in weather and altitude.

- On a hot, sunny day, the mercury column rises, indicating a higher atmospheric pressure.
- On a rainy day, the atmosphere exerts less pressure, which causes the mercury column to fall.

GAS LAWS

PRESSURE AND VOLUME, (Boyle’s Law)

The inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas is known as Boyle’s law.

Changes occur in opposite directions. When volume increases, the pressure decreases, provided the
temperature and moles of the gas remains constant.

BOYLE’S LAW

Boyle’s law states that

- the pressure of a gas is inversely related to its volume when T is constant.

- the product P × V is constant when temperature and amount of a gas is held constant
- if volume decreases, the pressure increases.

TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME (Charles’s Law)

If we increase the temperature of a gas sample, kinetic molecular theory states that the motion (kinetic
energy) of the gas particles will also increase.
If the amount and pressure of the gas is held constant, the volume of the container will increase.

CHARLES’S LAW

In Charles’s law,
 - the Kelvin temperature (K)of a gas is directly related to its volume.
- pressure and moles of gas are constant.
- when the temperature of a sample of gas increases, its volume increases at constant pressure.

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (Gay-Lussac’s Law)

GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW

When the Kelvin temperature of a gas doubles at constant volume and amount of gas, the pressure also
doubles.

In Gay-Lussac’s law,

- the pressure exerted by a gas is directly related to the Kelvin temperature of the gas.
- volume and amount of gas are constant.

VAPOR PRESSURE AND BOILING POINT

When liquid molecules with sufficient kinetic energy break away from the surface of a liquid, they
become a vapor.

- In an open container, all the liquid will eventually evaporate.

- In a closed container, the vapor accumulates and creates pressure called vapor pressure.

A liquid

- exerts its own vapor pressure at a given temperature.

- boils when its vapor pressure becomes equal to the external pressure.

ALTITUDE AND BOILING POINT

At high altitudes,

- atmospheric pressure is lower than 1 atm, 760 Torr.

- the boiling point of water is lower than 100 °C.

In a closed container, such as a pressure cooker,

- a pressure greater than 1 atm, 760 Torr, can be obtained.

- water boils at a higher temperature than 100 °C.

THE COMBINED GAS LAW

The combined gas law uses the pressure–volume–temperature relationships from Boyle’s law, Charles’s
law, and Gay-Lussac’s law where n is constant.

VOLUME AND MOLES, Avogadro’s Law

In Avogadro’s law,

- the volume of a gas is directly related to the number of moles (n) of gas.
- T and P are constant.

STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

The volumes of gases can be compared at STP, Standard Temperature and Pressure, when they have
 - the same temperature.
- a standard temperature (T) of 0 °C or 273 K.
- the same pressure.
- a standard pressure (P) of 1 atm (760 mmHg).

Molar Volume, STP

At standard temperature and pressure (STP), 1 mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L, which is
called its molar volume.

IDEAL GAS LAW

The ideal gas law is the combination of the four properties used in the measurement of a gas—pressure
(P), volume (V), temperature (T), and amount of a gas (n)—to give a single expression, which is written
as

PV = nRT

R, Ideal Gas Constant

Rearranging the ideal gas law equation shows that the four gas properties equal a constant, R.

- To calculate the value of R, we substitute the STP conditions (273 K, 1 atm) for molar volume
into the expression: 1 mole of gas = 22.4 L at STP
- Real gases show some deviations in behavior; however, the ideal gas law closely approximates
the behavior of real gases at typical conditions.
- The value for the ideal gas constant, R, is 0.0821 L·atm per mole·K.

GAS LAWS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Gases are involved as reactants and products in many chemical reactions.

Typically, the information given for a gas in a reaction is its pressure (P), volume (V), and temperature
(T).

We can use the ideal gas law equation to determine

- the moles of a gas in a reaction if we are given the number of moles for one of the gases in a
reaction.
- the moles of any other substance using a mole–mole factor.

PARTIAL PRESSURE (Dalton’s Law)

The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure that each gas in a mixture would exert if it were by itself in
the container.

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Dalton’s law of partial pressures indicates that

- pressure depends on the total number of gas particles, not on the types of particles.
- the total pressure exerted by gases in a mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of those gases

The air we breathe

- is a mixture of different gases.

- contains mostly N2 and O2, and contains small amounts of other gases.

What we call the atmospheric pressure is actually the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the air

SOLUTIONS

SOLUTIONS

– are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances.

– form when there is sufficient attraction between the solute and solvent molecules.
– have two components: the solvent, present in a larger amount, and the solute, present in a smaller
amount.

SOLUTES

- may be a liquid, gas, or solid.

- are spread evenly throughout the solution.
- mix with solvents so the solute and solvent have the same physical state.
- cannot be separated by filtration, but they can be separated by evaporation.
- are not visible, but they can give a color to the solution.

TYPES OF SOLUTES AND SOLVENTS

Solutes and solvents may be solids, liquids, or gases.

Water as a Solvent

Water

- is one of the most common solvents in nature.

- is a polar molecule due to polar O–H bonds.
- molecules form hydrogen bonds important in many biological compounds.

FORMATION OF SOLUTIONS

Solutions form when the solute–solvent interactions are large enough to overcome the solute–solute
interactions and the solvent–solvent interactions.

Solutions, Like Dissolves Like

Solutions will form when the solute and solvent have similar polarities: “like dissolves like.”

- Polar solutes require polar solvents for a solution to form.

- Nonpolar solutes require nonpolar solvents for a solution to form.

ELECTROLYTES AND NONELECTROLYTES

STRONG ELECTROLYTES

Strong electrolytes

- dissociate 100% in water, producing positive and negative ions.

- form solutions that conduct an electric current strong enough to light a bulb.

WEAK ELECTROLYTES

A weak electrolyte

- dissociates only slightly in water.

- forms a solution with a few ions and mostly undissociated molecules.
 NONELECTROLYTES

Nonelectrolytes

- dissolve as molecules in water.

- do not produce ions in water.
- do not conduct an electric current.

EQUIVALENTS OF ELECTROLYTES

An equivalent (Eq) is the amount of an electrolyte or an ion that provides 1 mole of electrical charge (+
or −).
In solution,

- the charge of the positive ions is always balanced by the charge of the negative ions.
- the concentrations of electrolytes in intravenous fluids are expressed in milliequivalents per liter
(mEq/L):
1 Eq = 1000 mEq

SOLUBILITY

Solubility is

– the maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a specific amount of solvent.

– temperature sensitive for solutes.
– expressed as grams of solute in 100 grams of solvent, usually water.

UNSATURATED SOLUTION

- contain less than the maximum amount of solute.

- can dissolve more solute.

SATURATED SOLUTION

- contain the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve.

- have undissolved solute at the bottom of the container.
- contain solute that dissolves as well as solute that recrystallizes in an equilibrium process.

More solute can dissolve in an unsaturated solution but not in a saturated solution.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOLUBILITY

Solubility

- depends on temperature.
- of most solids increases as the temperature increases.
- of gases decreases as the temperature increases.

SOLUBILITY AND PRESSURE

Henry’s law states that

- the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly related to the pressure of that gas above the liquid.
- at higher pressures, more gas molecules dissolve in the liquid.

When the pressure of a gas above a solution decreases, the solubility of that gas in the solution also
decreases.

SOLUBLE VS. INSOLUBLE IONIC COMPOUNDS

- Only ionic compounds that contain a soluble cation or anion are soluble in water.
- In an insoluble ionic compound, the ionic bonds are too strong for the polar water molecules to
break. We can use the solubility rules to predict whether an ionic compound would be expected
to dissolve in water.

Mixing certain aqueous solutions produces insoluble ionic compounds.

SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS AND REACTIONS

SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS

- The amount of a solute may be expressed in units of grams, milliliters, or moles.

- The amount of a solution may be expressed in units of grams, milliliters, or liters.

MASS PERCENT (m/m)

- the concentration by mass of solute in mass of solution.

- the grams of solute in 100 grams of solution.

VOLUME PERCENT (v/v)

The volume percent (v/v) is the

- percent volume (mL) of solute (liquid) to volume (mL) of solution.

- volume of solute (mL) in 100 mL of solution

(conversion factor for volume percent)

MASS/VOLUME PERCENT

The mass/volume percent (m/v) is the

- percent mass (g) of solute to volume (mL) of solution.

- mass of solute (g) in 100 mL of solution.

(conversion factor for mass/volume percent)

MOLARITY

Molarity (moles of solute/liter of solution) is defined as the moles of solute per volume (L) of solution.

Chemical Reactions in Solution

When chemical reactions involve aqueous solutions, we use

- the balanced chemical equation,

- the molarity, and
- the volume

to determine the moles or grams of the reactants or products.

MOLALITY
 Molality is a concentration unit based on the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

In dilute aqueous solutions, molarity and molality are nearly equal

NORMALITY

DILUTION OF SOLUTIONS

In a dilution,

- water is added.
- the volume of the solution increases.
- concentration decreases.
- the mass of solute in the solution remains the same.

Solute Concentrations

In the initial and diluted solution,

- the moles of solute are the same.

- the concentrations and volumes are related by the following equation:

This equality is written in terms of the concentration, C, and the volume, V. The concentration, C,
may be percent concentration or molarity.

PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

When a solute is added to water, the physical properties change and the

- vapor pressure above the solution decreases.

- boiling point of the solution increases.
- freezing point of the solution decreases.

These types of properties are called colligative properties; they depend only on the concentration of
solute particles in the solution.

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

Increasing the concentration of solute particles in the solution

- decreases the number of solvent particles at the surface of the solution.

- prevents some of the solvent particles from leaving the solution.

BOILING POINT ELEVATION

Increasing the concentration of nonvolatile solute particles in the solution raises the boiling point of
the solution, and

- more solute particles in the solution lowers the vapor pressure.

- the solution boils at a higher temperature than the normal boiling point.

FREEZING POINT LOWERING

Adding salt to an icy road when temperatures drop below freezing

- allows the particles of salt to mix with the water.

- lowers the freezing point of the ice.

OSMOSIS

In osmosis,

- water (solvent) flows from a lower to a higher solute concentration.

- the level of the solution with the higher solute concentration rises.
- the concentrations of the two solutions become equal with time.

Water flows into the solution with a higher solute concentration until the flow of water becomes
equal in both directions.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE

Osmotic pressure is

- equal to the pressure that would prevent the flow of additional water into the more concentrated
solution.
- greater as the number of dissolved particles in the solution increases.

Reverse Osmosis

In a process called reverse osmosis,

- a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to a solution, forcing it through a
purification membrane.
- the flow of water is reversed because water flows from an area of lower to higher water
concentration, leaving behind the molecules and ions in solution.

ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS

 both sides of the membrane have equal concentrations

 no water flow by osmosis

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION

A hypotonic solution

 has a lower solute concentration than red blood cells.

 means water flows into cells by osmosis.

The increase in fluid causes the cells to swell and burst, a condition called hemolysis.

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION

A hypertonic solution
  has a higher solute concentration than RBCs
 Involves water going out of the cells by osmosis.
 causes crenation: RBCs shrink in size.

(a) In an isotonic solution, a red blood cell retains its normal volume.
(b) Hemolysis: In a hypotonic solution, water flows into a red blood cell, causing it to swell and
burst.
(c) Crenation: In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the red blood cell, causing it to shrink.

EQUILIBRIUM

RATES OF REACTIONS

– Reaction rates vary greatly for everyday processes. A banana ripens in a few days, silver tarnishes in a
few months, while the aging process of humans takes many years.
– Reacting molecules must collide, have a minimum amount of energy, and have the proper orientation to
form products.

ACTIVATION ENERGY

Even when a collision has the proper orientation, there still must be sufficient energy to break the bonds
between the atoms of the reactants.

Three Conditions Required for a Reaction to Occur

1. Collision
– The reactants must collide.
2. Orientation
– The reactants must align properly to break and form bonds.
3. Energy
– The collision must provide the energy of activation.

The activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to break the bonds between atoms of
the reactants.

Rate of Reaction

The rate (or speed) of a reaction is determined by measuring the amount of

- reactant used up in a certain period of time.

- product formed in a certain period of time.

Factors That Affect the Rate of a Reaction

Reactions with low activation energies go faster than reactions with high activation energies.

For any reaction, the rate is affected by

- changes in temperature.
- changes in reaction concentration.
- adding a catalyst.

Temperature

At higher temperatures the increase in kinetic energy of the reactant molecules

 makes them move faster.

 makes them collide more often.
 makes them collide with more energy.

For every 10 °C increase in temperature, most reaction rates approximately double.

Reactant Concentration
 When there are more reacting molecules, more collisions that form products can occur, and the
reaction goes faster.

Catalysts

 Adding a catalyst speeds up the rate of the reaction by providing an alternative pathway
that has a lower activation energy.
 When activation energy is lowered, more collisions provide sufficient energy for reactants
to form product.
 During a reaction, a catalyst is not changed or consumed.

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

In most chemical reactions, the reactants are not completely converted to products because a reverse
reaction takes place in which products collide to form the reactants.

REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

When a reaction proceeds in both a forward and a reverse direction, it is said to be a reversible reaction.

A reversible reaction

- occurs in both the forward and reverse direction at the same time.
- has two rates, a rate for the forward reaction and a rate for the reverse reaction.

Rate of Reversible Reactions

As the reaction progresses, the rate of the forward reaction decreases and that of the reverse reaction
increases. At equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.

Equilibrium

Equilibrium is reached when there are no further changes in the concentrations of reactants and
products.

At equilibrium,

- the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
- the forward and reverse reactions continue at the same rate.

EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS

An equilibrium constant for a reversible chemical reaction

– multiplies the concentrations of the products together and divides by the concentrations of the reactants.
– raises the concentration (moles/liter) of each species to a power that is equal to its coefficient in the
balanced chemical equation.

Guide to Writing an Equilibrium Expression

Steps:

1. Write the balanced chemical equation.

2. Write the concentrations of the products as the numerator and the reactants as the denominator
3. Write any coefficient in the equation as an exponent.

Calculating Equilibrium Constants

The equilibrium constant, Kc, is the numerical value obtained by substituting experimentally measured
molar concentrations at equilibrium into the expression.

Guide to Calculating the Kc

1. State the given and needed quantities.

 2. Write the Kc expression for the equilibrium.
3. Substitute equilibrium (molar) concentrations and calculate Kc.

USING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS

The values of Kc can be large or small, depending on whether equilibrium is reached with

– more products than reactants.

– more reactants than products.

However, the size of the equilibrium constant does not affect how fast equilibrium is reached.

EQUILIBRIUM WITH A LARGE Kc

Reactions with a large Kc have large amounts of products produced from the forward reaction at
equilibrium.

EQUILIBRIUM WITH A SMALL Kc

Reactions with a small Kc have an equilibrium mixture with a low concentration of products and high
concentration of reactants.

EQUILIBRIUM WITH A Kc CLOSE TO 1

A few reactions have equilibrium constants close to 1, which means they have about equal
concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium.

At equilibrium, a reaction with a large Kc contains mostly products, whereas a reaction with a small K c
contains mostly reactants.

LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE

When the conditions of a reaction at equilibrium are changed, the forward and reverse reactions will no
longer be equal.

Le Châtelier’s principle states that when a stress is placed on a reaction at equilibrium, the system responds
by changing the rate of the forward or reverse reaction in the direction that relieves that stress.

EFFECT OF A CATALYST ON EQUILIBRIUM

- Adding a catalyst speeds up a reaction by lowering the activation energy, thus increasing the rate
of the forward and reverse reactions.
- The time to reach equilibrium is shorter; however, the same ratios of reactants and products are
present.
- The addition of a catalyst does not change the equilibrium mixture.

ACIDS AND BASES

ARRHENIUS ACIDS

– produce hydrogen or hydronium ions (H+/H3O+) when they dissolve in water.

– are also electrolytes, because they produce H +/H3O+

– have a sour taste.
– turn blue litmus red.
– corrode some metals.

NAMING ACIDS

- Acids with a hydrogen ion (H+) and a nonmetal (or CN−) ion are named with the prefix hydro
and end with ic acid.
- Acids with a hydrogen ion (H+ ) and a polyatomic ion are named by changing the end of the
name of the polyatomic ion from ate to ic acid or ite to ous acid

ARRHENIUS BASES

– produce hydroxide ions (OH–) in water.

– taste bitter or chalky.
– are also electrolytes, because they produce hydroxide ions (OH −) in water.
– feel soapy and slippery.
– turn litmus indicator paper blue and phenolphthalein indicator pink.

NAMING BASES

- Typical Arrhenius bases are named as hydroxides.

BRØNSTED–LOWRY ACIDS AND BASES

According to the Brønsted–Lowry theory,

– an acid is a substance that donates H+.

– a base is a substance that accepts H+.

CONJUGATE ACID–BASE PAIRS

In any acid–base reaction, there are two conjugate acid–base pairs.

- Each pair is related by the loss and gain of H +.

- One pair occurs in the forward direction.
- One pair occurs in the reverse direction.

AMPHOTERIC SUBSTANCES

Substances that can act as both acids and bases are amphoteric or amphiprotic.
For water, the most common amphoteric substance, the acidic or basic behavior depends on the other
reactant.

- Water donates H+ when it reacts with a stronger base.

- Water accepts H+ when it reacts with a stronger acid.

Guide to Writing Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

1. Identify the reactant that loses H+

2. Identify the reactant that gains H+ as the base.
3. Write the conjugate acid–base pairs.

STRENGTHS OF ACIDS AND BASES

STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS

- A strong acid completely ionizes (100%) in aqueous solutions.

- A weak acid dissociates only slightly in water to form a few ions in aqueous solutions.

STRONG ACIDS

In water, the dissolved molecules of HA, a strong acid,

- dissociate into ions 100%.

- produce large concentrations of H3O+ and the anion (A−).

WEAK ACIDS

In weak acids, only a few molecules dissociate.

- Most of the weak acid remains as the undissociated (molecular) form of the acid.
- The concentrations of H3O+ and the anion (A−) are small.

Relative Strength of Acids and Bases

STRONG AND WEAK ACID DISSOCIATION

- In an HCl solution, the strong acid HCl dissociates 100% to form H + and Cl−.
- A solution of the weak acid HC2H3O2 contains mostly molecules of HC2H3O2 and a few ions of H+
and C2H3O2–

DIPROTIC ACIDS

- Some weak acids are diprotic acids that have two H +, which dissociate one at a time.
- Some strong acids are diprotic acids that have two H+, which dissociate one at a time.

STRONG BASES

Strong bases as strong electrolytes

- are formed from metals of Groups IA and IIA.

- include LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2 , Sr(OH)2 , and Ca(OH)2 .
- dissociate completely in water.
- are found in household products used to remove grease and unclog drains.

WEAK BASES

Weak bases are weak electrolytes

- that are poor acceptors of H+ ions.

- produce very few ions in solution.
- include ammonia.

STRONG AND WEAK BASES

 Direction of Reaction

Strong acids have weak conjugate bases that do not readily accept H +.

- As the strength of the acid decreases, the strength of its conjugate base increases.

In any acid–base reaction, there are two acids and two bases.

- However, one acid is stronger than the other acid, and one base is stronger than the other base.
- By comparing their relative strengths, we can determine the direction of the reaction.

DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS FOR ACIDS AND BASES

DISSOCIATION OF A WEAK ACID

Because the dissociation of strong acids in water is essentially complete, the reaction is not considered to
be an equilibrium process.

- Weak acids partially dissociate in water as the ion products reach equilibrium with the
undissociated weak acid molecules.

WRITING DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS

ACID DISSOCIATION CONSTANT, Ka

As with other dissociation expressions,

- the molar concentration of the products is divided by the molar concentration of the reactants.
- water is a pure liquid with a constant concentration and is omitted.
- the expression is called acid dissociation constant, Ka.

When the value of the Ka

- is small, the equilibrium lies to the left, favoring the reactants.

- is large, the equilibrium lies to the right, favoring the products.

Weak acids have small Ka values, while strong acids have very large K a values.

BASE DISSOCIATION CONSTANT, Kb

When the value of the Kb,

- is small, the equilibrium lies to the left, favoring the reactants.

- is large, the equilibrium lies to the right, favoring the products.

The stronger the base, the larger the Kb value.

The concentration of water is omitted from the base dissociation constant expression.

DISSOCIATION OF WATER
 DISSOCIATION CONSTANT OF WATER, Kw

Water is amphoteric—it can act as an acid or a base.

In water,

- H+ is transferred from one H2O molecule to another.

- one water molecule acts as an acid, while another acts as a base.
- equilibrium is reached between the conjugate acid–base pairs.

THE DISSOCIATION CONSTANT, Kw

In the equation for the dissociation of water, there is both a forward and a reverse reaction.

- In pure water, the concentrations of H3O+ and OH− at 25 °C are each 1.0 × 10−7 M.

The ion product constant for water, Kw, is defined as

- the product of the concentrations of H O+ and OH−.

- equal to 1.0  10−14 at 25 °C (the concentration units are omitted).

When

- [H3O+] and [OH−] are equal, the solution is neutral.

- [H3O+] is greater than the [OH−], the solution is acidic.
- [OH−] is greater than the [H3O+], the solution is basic

PURE WATER IS NEUTRAL

In pure water, the ionization of water molecules produces small but equal quantities of H 3O+ and OH−
ions.

Guide to Calculating [H3O+] and [OH–] in Aqueous Solutions

1. State the given and needed quantities.

2. Write the Kw for water and solve for the unknown [H3O+] or [OH–]
3. Substitute in the known [H3O+] or [OH–] into the equation and calculate

THE PH SCALE

The pH of a solution

– is used to indicate the acidity of a solution.

– has values that usually range from 0 to 14.
– is acidic when the values are less than 7.
– is neutral at a pH of 7.
– is basic when the values are greater than 7.
 pH MEASUREMENT

The pH of a solution is commonly measured using

- a pH meter in the laboratory.

- pH paper, an indicator that turns specific colors at a specific pH value.

The pH of a solution is found by comparing the colors of indicator paper to a chart.

CALCULATING THE pH OF SOLUTIONS

The pH scale

- is a logarithmic scale that corresponds to the [H 3O+] of aqueous solutions.

- is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the [H3O+]

To calculate the pH, the negative powers of 10 in the molar concentrations are converted to positive
numbers. If [H3O+] is 1.0 × 10−2 M,

- pH decreases as the [H3O+] increases

CALCULATING [H3O+] FROM pH

Given the pH of a solution, we can reverse the calculation to obtain the [H 3O+]

- For whole number pH values, the negative pH value is the power of 10 in the [H 3O+]
concentration.

- For pH values that are not whole numbers, the calculation requires the use of the 10 x key, which
is usually a 2nd function key.

REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES

REACTIONS OF ACIDS

Acids react with

- metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.

- bases to produce a salt and water.
- bicarbonate and carbonate ions to produce carbon dioxide gas.

A salt is an ionic compound that does not have H+ as the cation or OH– as the anion.

ACID–BASE TITRATION

The titration of an acid. A known volume of an acid is placed in a flask with an indicator and titrated with a
measured volume of a base solution, such as NaOH, to the neutralization endpoint.

TITRATION

- is a laboratory procedure used to determine the molarity of an acid.

- uses a base such as NaOH to neutralize a measured volume of an acid.
- requires a few drops of an indicator such as phenolphthalein to identify the endpoint.

ENDPOINT OF TITRATION

At the endpoint of the titration,

- the moles of base are equal to the moles of acid in the solution.
- the concentration of the base is known.
- the volume of the base used to reach the endpoint is measured.
- the molarity of the acid is calculated using the neutralization equation for the reaction.
 BUFFERS

A buffer solution maintains the pH by neutralizing small amounts of added acid or base.
An acid must be present to react with any OH− added, and a base must be present to react with any H 3O+
added.

When an acid or a base is added to water, the pH changes drastically.

In a buffer solution, the pH is maintained; pH does not change when acids or bases are added.

HOW BUFFERS WORK

Buffers work because

- they resist changes in pH from the addition of an acid or a base.

- in the body, they absorb H3O+ or OH− from foods and cellular processes to maintain pH.
- they are important in the proper functioning of cells and blood.
- they maintain a pH close to 7.4 in blood.

A change in the pH of the blood affects the uptake of oxygen and cellular processes.

COMPONENTS OF A BUFFER

A buffer solution

- contains a combination of acid–base conjugate pairs, a weak acid and a salt of its conjugate base
- has equal concentrations of a weak acid and its salt.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds

The field of organic chemistry is very important for a wide variety of reasons.

– A huge number of carbon-containing compounds are known.

– Most of the advances in the pharmaceutical industry are based on a knowledge of organic chemistry.
– Life as we know it is based on organic chemistry.

Most organic compounds have a “skeleton” that is composed of C-C bonds.

– The C—C bonds may be single bonds, double bonds, or triple bonds.
– Carbon forms a total of 4 bonds.

The “skeleton” of an organic compound has Hs attached to it.

– other “heteroatoms” like O, halogens, N, S, and P may be present as well

Organic compounds are commonly classified and named based on the type of functional group present.

– An atom or group of atoms that influences the way the molecule functions, reacts or behaves.
– The center of reactivity in an organic compound

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Class of Functional Class of Functional

Compound Group Compound Group
O
Alkane None Aldehyde
C H
O
Cycloalkane None Ketone
C C C
O
Alkyl halide C—X Carboxylic Acid
C OH
O
Alkene C=C Ester
C O C
 R
Alkyne C≡C Amine C N
R'

Alcohol C—OH Nitrile C N

Ether C—O—C Aromatic Ring

O
R
Amide C N
R'