Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104110

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Evaluation of mine site reclamation performance using physical models:

Case of Ity mine (Ivory coast)
Abdelkabir Maqsoud *, Sékou Diaby, Mamert Mbonimpa
RIME – Research Institute on Mines and Environment, Université Du Quebec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT), 445 University Blvd, Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec, J9X 5E4,
Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The exploitation of the Ity gold mine in Ivory Coast will generate tailings that can be considered as potential
Mine site reclamation generators of acid mine drainage (AMD). Various materials such as marble and clay are available around the
Volumetric water content mine site that could be used as components of an engineered cover for the reclamation of the reactive tailings
Suction
impoundment. However, it is important to assess the properties of these potential cover materials and test
Hydrochemical behavior
different reclamation scenarios in the laboratory to select the best scenario for mine site reclamation. For this
purpose, physical modeling was performed using experimental instrumented column tests simulating covers with
capillary barrier effects (CCBEs) and monolayer covers. The columns were instrumented with sensors for mea­
surement of volumetric water content (VWC) and suction. Leaching tests were performed over many cycles and
physical and chemical analyses were carried out on the leachates. The observed hydrogeological behavior shows
that either a CCBE or a monolayer cover with clayey silt materials can be used for the Ity mine site reclamation.
However, hydrochemical results allow confirming that the monolayer cover made with clayey silt material can
be considered as the best scenario for the Ity mine site reclamation.

1. Introduction
The Ity Mining Corporation (SMI) has been extracting deposits with
lateritic and clayey minerals in the Ity region of the Ivory Coast for 28
years. The ore is processed by cyanide leaching. Unfortunately, reserves
of this traditional ore body are being depleted and the remaining life­
time of the mine is relatively short. However, recent exploration work
has led to the discovery of other gold deposits associated with sulfidic
ores. The exploitation of these deposits could generate tailings with
appreciable sulfur contents. Under certain conditions, and in the
absence of a significant neutralization potential, the sulfide minerals (e.
g., pyrite and pyrrhotite) contained in the tailings could oxidize and
generate acid mine drainage (AMD). The Ity mine site would then be
confronted with the numerous environmental problems caused by AMD,
and therefore, it is necessary to take appropriate measures to prevent the
production of AMD and plan for the reclamation of the site.
Various management options and reclamation strategies can be used
to limit the production of AMD (Bossé et al., 2013; Kinidri et al., 2017).
In humid climates, techniques that limit oxygen fluxes to reactive tail­
ings are considered to be the most viable reclamation option (SRK 1989;
MEND 2001). Maintaining materials at a high degree of saturation
results in a low effective oxygen diffusion coefficient (De) and creates an
oxygen barrier that reduces the migration of dissolved O2. Conse­
quently, the oxidation rates of sulfide minerals and the generation of
acid mine drainage can be controlled. In order to reduce the availability
of oxygen to the underlying acid-generating mine wastes, it is possible to
use: i) a monolayer cover combined with an elevated water table (EWT –
e.g. SENES 1995; Broda et al., 2020; Dagenais, 2005; Ethier et al., 2013,
2014; Maqsoud et al., 2013, 2015; 2019; Ouangrawa et al., 2006, 2010),
or ii) a cover with capillary barrier effects (CCBE – e.g. Nicholson et al.,
1989; Collin and Rasmusson 1990; Bussière et al., 2003, 2006, 2009;
Maqsoud et al., 2009, 2011, 2017; Maqsoud, 2017).
In a monolayer cover with an EWT, the high degree of saturation is
created by maintaining the water table at a depth less than the air entry
value (AEV) of the reactive tailings (Dagenais, 2005; Ouangrawa et al.,
2010). Covers with capillary barrier effects rely on the contrast between
the water retention properties of two superimposed materials (fine-­
grained over coarse-grained materials) in order to create the capillary
barrier effects that limit the vertical flow of water at the interface be­
tween the materials. When placed between two layers of coarse mate­
rial, the fine-grained material, which is called the moisture-retaining
layer, is maintained near saturation.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: abdelkabir.maqsoud@uqat.ca (A. Maqsoud).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2021.104110
Received 8 April 2019; Received in revised form 3 December 2020; Accepted 12 January 2021
Available online 16 January 2021
1464-343X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Maqsoud et al.
The aim of this study is to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of a
CCBE and monolayer cover with an EWT as techniques for the recla­
mation of the Ity mine site. These techniques seek to limit the impact of
mining activities on the surrounding environment (water, air, and soils).
The tested approaches also aim to valorize certain materials from the
mining operations and thus promote the reuse of waste materials.
This paper first presents a brief description of the Ity mine site fol­
lowed by a characterization of the tested materials and the experimental
setup. Results from the hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical behav­
iors of the tested covers are presented and discussed. Conclusions are
drawn regarding the selection of the appropriate mine site reclamation
approach.
2. Ity mine site description
The Ity mine site is located in the Ivory Coast near the Liberian
border, 750 km northwest of Abidjan (Fig. 1). The major geological
formations in the Ity sector are carbonates associated with intrusive
formations and skarn formations associated with rhyolites. Climatic
conditions around the Ity mine site are considered tropical. The seasons
are more typically distinguished by changes in precipitation rather than
by changes in temperature, which remains fairly constant over the year.
In general, there are two seasons: the humid season, which extends from
May to November, and the dry season, which is from December to April.
Fig. 1. The Ity gold mine location.(Adapted from Google earth)
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104110
The average annual rainfall is about 1,500 mm and temperatures are
generally high, with an average of 23–28 ◦ C.
3. Material characterization
In the context of sustainable development, it is strongly recom­
mended to use local, natural geological materials or recycled mined
materials (such as non-reactive tailings) in order to reclaim mine sites
(see Maqsoud et al., 2017, 2011). To evaluate reclamation scenarios that
could be used at the Ity mine site, four materials were taken from this
site: i) marble; ii) a fine-grained, clayey material; iii) sulfide materials;
and iv) oxidized ores leached with cyanide (i.e. tailings). The marble
was crushed and reduced to a maximum particle size of 10 mm in
diameter. The sulfide material and tailings were ground to a maximum
size of 75 μm, and the fine-grained clay material was left intact. The
sampled materials were analyzed with the objective of evaluating their
physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties.
3.1. Physical characterization
The volumetric grain-size distributions (GSD) for the clay, sulfide,
and tailings materials were determined using a Malvern laser particle
size analyzer. The GSD of the crushed marble was determined first by
sieving (diameters from 1.32 to 0.03 cm) according to ASTM standard C-
A. Maqsoud et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104110

136, then using a Malvern laser particle size analyzer for the fraction Table 1
smaller than 0.03 cm. Volumetric GSD curves are presented for each Physical characterization of the Ity materials.
material in Fig. 2. D10 (μm) D60 (μm) CU Gs
Grain-size distribution analyses indicated that about 8%, 15.5%, and
Marble 30.5 3400 111.4 2.8
9.8% of the clayey silt, Ity tailings, and sulfide material particles, Clayey silt 2.33 16.8 7.2 2.7
respectively, had a diameter lower than 2 μm. For the same materials, Tailings 1.4 11.3 8.0 2.9
84%, 74.4%, and 80.2% of particles had diameters between 2 and 80 Sulfide material 2.0 14.0 7.1 2.9
μm. Based on the soil classification system of the US Department of
Agriculture (McCarthy, 2007), these three materials can all be consid­
ered as clayey silts. However, in the following sections, the term clayey
silt is used to denote the fine-grained material that was initially
considered as a clay in the local nomenclature.
Fig. 2 highlights the presence of a GSD contrast between the marble
and the other materials. In order to illustrate this contrast, key param­
eters were extracted from the GSD curves and listed in Table 1. D10 and
D60 represent the diameters corresponding to 10% and 60% passing on
the cumulative GSD curve, respectively. The coefficient of uniformity
was calculated as CU = D60/D10. The CU of the clayey silt, tailings, and
sulfide materials were 7.2, 8.0, and 7.1, respectively. According to
Robitaille and Tremblay (1997), these values (between 5 and 20) would
lead to a classification of these materials as having a poorly graded
GSDs. In contrast, the marble would be classified as having a well graded
GSD.
The specific gravity (Gs) was determined using a Micromeritics
Accupyc 1330 helium pycnometer according to ASTM standard D5550-
06 (ASTM 2007c). The clayey silt, marble, tailings, and sulfide material
had Gs values of 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, and 2.9, respectively (Table 1). Fig. 3. Water retention curves for the Ity mine materials as predicted using the
The particle-size parameters (D10, D60, and CU) and the void ratio (e) MK model (Aubertin et al., 2003).
of the different materials were used to predict the water retention curve
(WRC), which represents the relationship between volumetric water
content (VWC) and suction, for each material using the Modified Kovács
(MK) model. The MK model, described here briefly, was discussed more
thoroughly by Aubertin et al. (2003). The predicted WRCs (Fig. 3) were
used to estimate unsaturated hydraulic conductivity functions (Ku) for
the different materials using the Mualem model (1976) as implemented
in the RETC software. Additionally, the saturated hydraulic conductivity
of each material was determined according to the model developed by
Mbonimpa et al. (2002). Fig. 4 shows the predicted permeability func­
tions for each material. The clayey silt had a relatively low ksat, partic­
ularly with respect to the marble (i.e. ksat = 2 orders of magnitude
lower). However, under unsaturated conditions, the clayey silt material
has a higher hydraulic conductivity; this difference in unsaturated hy­
draulic conductivity allows for the creation of capillary barrier effects
when the clayey silt is placed on top of the marble.
Table 2 summarizes the main hydrogeological parameters of the
tested materials. The air entry value, which corresponds to the pressure Fig. 4. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivities for the Ity mine materials as
at which porous materials begin to desaturate, ranged between 1.2 and predicted using the Mualem model (1976).
75 kPa for the marble and clayey silt, respectively. Saturated hydraulic
conductivity values were between 5.5 × 10− 6 and 3.7 × 10− 8 m s− 1 for
Table 2
Main hydrogeological properties of the Ity mine materials.
AEV (kPa) θr θs ksat (m/s)
6
Marble 1.2 0.03 0.31 5.55x10−
8
Clayey silt 75 0.00 0.36 3.70x10−
7
Tailings 46 0.00 0.55 4.79x10−
7
Sulfide materials 45 0.16 0.49 3.06x10−

all materials.

3.2. Chemical characterization

Total carbon and sulfur were measured under an oxygen atmosphere

with an ELTRA PC-controlled CS2000 carbon/sulfur analyzer. The
detection limit (DL) of the method was 0.05% w/w (percentage by mass)
Fig. 2. Grain-size distributions of the tested materials. for carbon and 0.09% w/w for sulfur. Results of the carbon and sulfur

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A. Maqsoud et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104110

analyses are presented in Table 3. Sulfur contents were 0.015%, 0.037%, Table 4
and 2.237% for the clayey silt, tailings, and sulfide material, respec­ Chemical characterization of the studied materials. DL = detection limit.
tively. Carbon contents were 9.06%, 0.28%, and 0.59% for the marble, Elements (wt. %) Marble Clayey silt Tailings Sulfide material
tailings, and sulfide material, respectively.
Al 0.23 13.83 13.12 7.43
The carbon and sulfur contents were used to evaluate the acid- Ca 22.6 DL 0,78 1,82
generating potential (AP) and the neutralization potential (NP), Cu DL DL 0.03 0.003
respectively. The AP and NP were used to calculate the net neutraliza­ Fe 0.3 1.52 20.26 6,53
tion potential (NNP = NP - AP) and the NP/AP ratio, or neutralization Mg 11.2 DL DL 1.99
Mn 0.01 DL 0.03 0.04
potential ratio (NPR). The Ity sulfide material had an NNP of − 20.76 kg Na DL DL 0.01 1.68
CaCO3/t and was considered as potentially acid-generating (PAG). The K DL 0.05 0.02 1.34
tailings had an NNP of 22.17 kg CaCO3/t and were considered non S 0.50 0.09 0.14 1.96
potentially acid-generating (NPAG). The clayey silt can be described as SO4 0.44 0.01 0.03 0.12
Zn DL DL 0.01 DL
uncertain according to the 1st criterion of Acid-base accounting (ABA –
see Lawrence and Wang, 1997). These results are confirmed by the use
of the 2nd ABA Criterion. The sulfide materials had an NPR of 0.70 and
were classified as PAG; in contrast, the tailings, had an NNP of 20.18 and Table 5
were designated as NPAG. Mineralogical characterization of the studied materials.
The chemical composition of the different materials was analyzed by Mineral (wt. %) Marble Clayey silt Tailings Sulfide material
ICP-AES following a four-acid digestion. Sulfate sulfur (SSO4) was Actinolite 9.0 – – 5.3
determined by ICP-AES after extraction from the solids with a 40% HCl Albite – – – 18.0
solution. Anhydrite – – 0.01 1.0
Table 4 presents the results of the bulk chemical analyses for each Biotite – – – 18.0
Pyrite 3.2
material. The marble was mainly composed of Ca (22.6 wt %) and Mg
– – –
Calcite 34.7 – 3.3 0.5
(11.6 wt %) with minor amounts of S (0.5 wt %), Fe (0.3 wt %), and Al Chlorite 3.7 21.5 – 8.0
(0.3 wt %). The clayey silt was mainly composed of Al (13.8 wt %) with Chromite 0.8 – – –
minor amounts of Fe (1.5 wt %), S (0.5 wt %), and K (0.3 wt %). The Dolomite 51.6 – – 5.0
Hematite 0.1 1.7 53.6
tailings were mainly composed of Fe (20.3 wt %) and Al (13.1 wt %) –
Lithiophorite – – – –
with minor amounts of Ca (0.8 wt %) and S (0.1 wt %). The sulfide Lizardite 0.03 9.4 1.1 1.5
material contained mostly Al (7.4 wt%), Fe (6.5 wt %), Mg (1.99 wt%), S Magnetite – 3.1 10.2 –
(1.96 wt %), Ca (1.82 wt %), and K (1.34 wt %). Quartz – 63.9 31.9 35.0
Siderite – – – 2.0
Titanite – – – 0.5
3.3. Mineralogical characterization Total 100 99.5 100 98.

The mineralogical compositions of the tested materials were deter­

mined by x-ray diffraction with Rietveldt refinement (Taylor and
Hinczak, 2001). The results of these analyses are presented in Table 5.
The marble was mainly composed of dolomite (51.7%) and calcite
(34.7%) with lesser amounts of silicates (actinote and chlorite). The
clayey silt was composed of 63.9% quartz, 21.5% chlorite, and 9.4%
lizardite with minor amounts of oxide phases. The tailings were mainly
composed of hematite (53.6%), quartz (31.9%), and magnetite (10.2%)
with only 3.3% calcite, which represents the material’s main neutral­
izing capacity. The sulfide material was mainly composed of quartz
(35%), biotite (18%), albite (18%), chlorite (8%), dolomite (5%),
actinolite (5.3%), and pyrite (3.2%).

4. Physical models

4.1. Experimental setup

Fig. 5. Experimental columns tests description.
To evaluate different reclamation scenarios for the Ity mine site, four
experimental columns were constructed (Fig. 5). These columns had an two (C2) was comprised of 0.3 m of the sulfide material with a 0.3 m-
inner diameter of 14 cm with heights varying according to the tested thick monolayer cover made of the clayey silt. Column three (C3) also
configuration. The first column (C1) represented the control column and tested a monolayer cover, but had a cover made of 0.2 m of marble.
was filled with the sulfide material (0.3 m) without any cover. Column Column four (C4) simulated a cover with capillary barrier effects (CCBE)
with the following layers from the bottom to top: i) a marble capillary
break layer (CBL) with a thickness of 0.2 m, ii) a clayey silt moisture-
Table 3
Carbon and sulfur contents, and ABA results for the studied materials. retaining layer (MRL) with a thickness of 0.3 m, and iii) a 0.2 m-thick
marble drainage and protective layer (DPL), which provided protection
Ctotal (P/ Stotal (P/ AP NP NNP NP/
P) P) AP
against erosion and evaporation.
A porous ceramic plate was placed at the base of each column in
Marble 9.06 0 754 754
<DL –
order to maintain or adjust the level of the water table. In this case, the
Clayey silt <DL 0.015 0.47 0 − 0.47 0
Tailings 0.28 0.037 1.16 23.32 22.17 20.18 water table was maintained at a depth of 1.5 m below the base of the
Sulfid ore columns, which is similar to the level found at the Ity mine site.
Sulfide 0.59 2.237 69.91 49.15 − 20.76 0.70
material

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A. Maqsoud et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104110

4.2. Column instrumentation

In order to evaluate the hydrogeological behavior of the different

reclamation scenarios, monitoring stations were installed in the middle
of each different layer. Each station was equipped with a 5TM sensor for
measuring VWC and a Watermark probe for measuring suction (Decagon
Devices Inc.). Sensors were connected to data loggers for continuous
measurements. Monitoring stations are labeled in Fig. 5 as Cx-y, where x
and y represent the column number and the station number,
respectively.

4.3. Testing approach

Each column was submitted to ten wetting and drying cycles. The
materials were wetted every four weeks using deionized water; the
volume of deionized water was adjusted for each column configuration
Fig. 7. Evolution of the volumetric water content measured in column C2 -
with the objective of saturating the materials. Four hours of contact time
clayey silt monolayer cover.
were allowed at the beginning of each wetting event prior to opening the
base of the columns to allow for the collection of leachates. The leach­
ates collected at the base of each column were then analyzed for various
physicochemical parameters, including pH, electrical conductivity, Ca,
Mg, Mn, Al, Fe, Ni, S, and Zn.

5. Results

5.1. Hydrogeological behavior

5.1.1. C1 – control column

Fig. 6 shows the evolution of the VWC and suction measured at
station C1-1 (Fig. 5) in the sulfide material (porosity = 0.36). Following
the first wetting cycle, the VWC decreased to 0.20. Subsequently, VWC
values varied between 0.24 (typically at the end of drying) and 0.36 (at
the end of wetting).
Suction values decreased to below 10 kPa during the wetting cycles.
However, during drying cycles, there was a marked increase in suction,
which sometimes reached values greater than 150 kPa at the end of the
Fig. 8. Evolution of the suction measured in column C2 - clayey silt mono­
drying cycle (Fig. 6). This exceeds the AEV of the reactive tailings (45 layer cover.
kPa). These suction values correlate well with the VWC measurements
and indicate that the material desaturates, allowing for the entry of at­
above 0.3 after the first two wetting/drying cycles; higher values were
mospheric oxygen and probable oxidization of sulfide minerals. There­
measured in the sulfide material. Suction values in the clayey silt were
fore, the possibility of AMD production is very likely.
higher than those measured in the sulfide material; however, these
suction values were lower than those measured in column C1, which
5.1.2. C2 – clayey silt monolayer cover
lacked a cover. Based on suction measurements, it appears that the
Fig. 7 shows the evolution of the VWC and Fig. 8 shows the evolution
monolayer cover limits the desaturation of the tailings. Suctions
of suction in column C2 for the sulfide material (C2-1) and for the clayey
measured in each layer showed gradual increases during each drying
silt (C2-2). Volumetric water contents in the clayey silt cover remained
cycle; however, suctions measured in the clayey silt did not reach the
AEV (evaluated using the predicted WRC), suggesting that the materials
remain at a high degree of saturation.

5.1.3. C3 – marble monolayer cover

Fig. 9 shows the evolution of the VWC and Fig. 10 shows the evo­
lution of suction in column C3 for the sulfide material (C3-1) and for the
marble (C3-2). Volumetric water contents measured in the monolayer
cover (C3-2) were lower than those observed in the sulfide material (C3-
1). In C3, VWC values in the marble monolayer cover decreased rapidly
after each wetting event, reaching values as low as ~0.16. For the sul­
fide material, VWC values were generally consistently around 0.30.
Suctions measured in the marble were generally greater than those
measured in the clayey silt monolayer cover (C2-2). The suction values
in the tailings are greater than the AEV value of this material (46 kPa)
and allow concluding that these materials are desaturated. Thus, the
marble used as a monolayer cover does not allow maintaining tailings
material at higher VWCs.
Fig. 6. Volumetric water content and suction measurements in the control
column (C1).

5
A. Maqsoud et al.
Fig. 9. Evolution of the volumetric water content measured in column C3 –
marble monolayer cover.
Fig. 10. Evolution of the suction measured in column C3 – marble mono­
layer cover.
5.1.4. C4 – cover with capillary barrier effects
Fig. 11 shows the evolution of the VWC and Fig. 12 shows the evo­
lution of suction in column C4 for the sulfide material (C4-1), marble
CBL (C4-2), clayey silt (C4-3), and marble PL (C4-4). Low VWC values
were measured in the CBL and PL, which were made of marble, while
higher VWC values were measured in the MRL, which was made of the
clayey silt. The observed differences in VWC confirm the creation of the
desired capillary barrier effects. These results also suggest that the
marble, when crushed to a specific grain-size distribution can be used as
a CBL and/or PL in the construction of CCBEs. In the MRL, the VWC
Fig. 11. Evolution of the volumetric water content measured in column C4 –
cover with capillary barrier effects.
6
Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104110
Fig. 12. Evolution of the suction measured in column C4 – cover with capillary
barrier effects.
remained permanently around 0.32, which corresponds to an Sr of about
89%. The capillary barrier effects allow maintaining the moisture-
retaining layer at a high water content.
Suction values consistently remained below 20 kPa, which is lower
than the AEV of the clayey silt (Fig. 12). This suggests that the clayey silt
material should remain close to saturation.
A decreasing trend in suction values was observed after flush 5 (June
07). This behavior is likely related to the residual VWC, which tends to
increase from one cycle to another:
• from 0.12 to 0.14 in the PL,
• from 0.28 to 0.33 in the MRL,
• from 0.04 to 0.07 in the CBL,
• from 0.32 to 0.33 in the sulfide material
This increase in VWC is included between 0.01 and 0.05 in the sul­
fide material and in the MRL, respectively. If this trend continues in the
long term, water saturation will increase in the different CCBE layers
leading to the dissipation of capillary barrier effects and the mainte­
nance of the tailings saturation. As a result the cover will no longer act as
a CCBE but as a cover with an elevated water table.
5.2. Water quality
Fig. 13 shows the evolution of pH, Eh, acidity, alkalinity, and elec­
trical conductivity (EC) in leachates collected from all columns
throughout the duration of the tests. In all columns, except for the
control, pH values ranged between 7 and 8. In the control column, pH
values decreased from 7 to around 5.4 in flush cycles 7 to 10. All col­
umns showed Eh values that varied relatively little, with values
consistently between 480 and 640 mV. An increasing trend in Eh was
observed after the 7th flush for columns C1, C2, and C3, which could
indicate more rapid oxidation. Electrical conductivity values were be­
tween 516 and 7050 μS/cm in all columns. The lowest EC values were
measured in C3 (marble monolayer cover) and the highest values were
measured in C4 (CCBE). A decreasing trend in EC values was observed in
C2 and C4. Acidity and alkalinity showed increasing and decreasing
trends, respectively, in C1 and C4. These results are consistent with
those of the EC and Eh.
Fig. 14 shows the instantaneous concentrations (mg/L) of elements
primarily associated with neutralization in mine wastes (Ca, Mg, Mn,
and Al). While Ca, Mg, and Mn tend to be sourced from carbonates, Al is
primarily derived from aluminosilicate dissolution. The highest Ca
concentrations were measured in leachates from C4, while the lowest
concentrations were measured in leachates from C3. Similar behaviors
were observed for Mg and Mn. A decreasing trend was observed for Mg
and Mn concentrations, which was likely associated with the progressive
A. Maqsoud et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104110

Fig. 13. Evolution of the pH, Eh, acidity, alkalinity, and electrical conductivity of the leachates from each column.

Fig. 14. Evolution of the Ca, Mg, Mn, and Al in leachates from all columns.

7
A. Maqsoud et al.
depletion of dolomite. Aluminum appeared at low concentrations
(0.01–0.1 mg/L) in leachates from all columns. This is likely due to
hydrolysis and subsequent precipitation as Al(OH)3 or as other Al-
bearing secondary phases, which can occur at pH values above
5.5–6.0. Since pH values in most columns remained circumneutral
throughout the experiments, Al values remained very low in the leach­
ates (Baird and Cann, 2016).
Concentrations of Zn, Ni, and Fe are presented in Fig. 15 and all
showed low values in the four experimental columns. However, an
increasing trend was observed for Ni and Zn in the leachates from C1,
likely due to the progressive oxidation of the sulfides in the material.
For S concentrations, the highest values were measured in C4, which
displayed a decreasing trend from the first to the fifth flush, followed by
relative stability. For C1, an increasing trend was observed, which is in
accordance with the evolution of the pH, Eh, and alkalinity. This
geochemical behavior is typical of the development of acid drainage in
mine wastes. These results are also in good agreement with the NNP of
the sulfide material.
6. Discussion
The performance of three different reclamation scenarios was eval­
uated in terms of their hydrogeological and geochemical behaviors. The
hydrogeological behavior of each scenario was evaluated using volu­
metric water content and suction measurements. Performances were
roughly determined by comparing measured suction values to predicted
air entry values of the cover materials to evaluate if the cover materials
would desaturate or not. Air entry values (AEV) were determined from
water retention curves predicted using grain-size parameters and the MK
model. Despite precautions taken during the columns’ construction, one
limitation of this method is that the porosity values used in the MK
model could differ from the in situ porosity of the materials in the col­
umns. In order to evaluate the saturation of the materials, the in situ
WRC was built using measured VWC and suction data in columns 2 and 4
(not shown here). This in situ WRC corresponds only to the section of the
WRC where the material is saturated and has not yet reached suctions at
which the material will desaturate. The saturation of the moisture-
retaining layer in the CCBE column is favored by the creation of the
capillary barrier effects between the MRL and the CBL. For the
Fig. 15. Evolution of the Fe, Ni, S, and Zn of leachates from all columns.
8
Journal of African Earth Sciences 176 (2021) 104110
monolayer cover made of clayey silt, the cover’s saturation is favored by
the location of the elevated water table. These results confirm that the
CCBE and monolayer cover with clayey silt materials can be used as
reclamation techniques for the Ity mine site. However, the monolayer
cover made with marble material cannot be used for the Ity mine site
reclamation due to the material desaturation and the possibility of
oxidation of sulfide materials.
Results obtained during these laboratory tests are preliminary. It is
necessary to perform additional work with the objective to design the
appropriate mine site reclamation for the Ity mine site. These tasks can
be summarized as:
• testing the configurations selected from the laboratory study in the
field under real climatic conditions by using instrumented experi­
mental cells and performing the monitoring for a few years.
• calibrating a numerical model (various codes are available for that
purpose) using results from the field pilot-scale study;
• predicting the long-term evaluation of the full-scale cover perfor­
mance using the calibrated numerical model.
7. Conclusion
For the geochemical behavior, results show that for column 1, an
increasing trend was observed for different elements and particularly for
sulfide minerals. This behavior can be interpreted as a possible gener­
ation of acid mine drainage.
At the beginning of the experimental tests, leachates from C4 (CCBE)
showed higher mineralization (due to the impact of the used materials).
However, a decreasing trend was observed which confirming the role
played by this cover to limit oxidation of reactive materials and gener­
ation of acid mine drainage. This leachate mineralization was higher
than that from the monolayer cover made of clayey silt, however, after
the 8th flush, the leachates were similar. Consequently, these results
confirm that both the monolayer cover made of clayey silt and a CCBE
can be considered as viable options for reclaiming the Ity mine site.
Ultimately, the selection of a reclamation option will be based on ma­
terial availability, the capacity to maintain the water table at a high
level, and the impact of vegetation cover and climate change.
In conclusion, a monolayer cover made with clayey silt (if the
A. Maqsoud et al.
location of the water table can be controlled) or a CCBE can be used as a
cover for the Ity mine site reclamation. However, it necessary to test
these configurations with experimental cells under realistic climatic
conditions and to perform numerical modeling to explore different
scenarios (e.g. location of the water table, cover thickness, climatic
conditions, geometry of the site) and to optimize the cover design. Re­
sults obtained from this study will be useful to calibrate numerical
models and plan for reclamation of the site.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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