Temperature

Measurement

Dr. R. P Mudhalwadkar
Definitions:
It is the specific degree of hotness or
coldness as referred to specific scale.

It can also be defined as amount of heat energy in

an object or system.

The heat energy directly relates to amount of

molecular energy (vibration, friction, oscillation of
particles). Higher is the heat energy greater is the
molecular energy.
Types of
Sensing:
Contact: Temperature sensing requires the sensor to be in
direct contact with media or object being sensed. Can be
used to monitor the temp. over large range of solid, liquid
and gases.

Non-‐Contact: Measurement interprets the radiant energy

of a heat source in the form of energy emitted in the infrared
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
This method can be used to monitor non-‐reflective solids
and
liquids but is not effective with gases due to their natural
transparency.
Sensor Types and
Technologies:
Temperature sensors comprise three families:
electro-‐mechanical, electronic, and resistive.

Electro-‐Mechanical: Bimetallic Thermometers,

Liquid-‐in-‐Glass Thermometers

Electronic: Silicon sensors, IC Sensors, Thermocouples,

Infrared (IR) Pyrometers, Fiber optics thermometers.

Resistive: Resistive Thermometers (RTD’s), Thermistors.

Selecting Temperature
Sensors:
General Consideration:
✔✔ Sensor Technology
✔✔ Range
✔✔ Accuracy
✔✔ Resolution
✔✔ Linearity
✔✔ Size
✔✔ Cost
✔✔ Performance/cost
✔✔ Durability
✔✔ Application requirement (Static or Dynamic
Measurement)
✔✔ Active or Passive
Interfacing and Design
Information:
❑❑ The most important consideration with any type of sensing technology is
sensor location.

❑❑ In a control application, where the rate of temperature change is fairly

slow, the sensor should be located as close to the heat source as
possible. In this way, the thermal lag is minimal.

❑❑ The heat source will cycle more frequently; however, it will eliminate
potential undershoot or overshoot of the application.

❑❑ In all circumstances, the distance between the heat source, sensor

and mass to be heated should be as short as possible. This will
minimize thermal lag, workload temperature fluctuations and power usage.
Bimetallic
Thermometers
❑❑ 2 metal strips with different thermal coefficient of
expansion are bonded together.

❑❑ When the temperature of the assembly is changed, in the

absence of external forces, the bimetallic actuator will take
the shape of an arc.

❑❑ They are preferred as circuit breakers, thermal switches,

simple in interfacing and low cost.
Bimetallic
Thermometers

Linear bimetallic
strip
Bimetallic Strip
Switch
Helical Bimetallic
Thermometers
Desig
n:
Let two strips A and B of dissimilar metals are bonded
firmly at temperature 𝑇↓0 .
The strips have thickness 𝑇↓𝐴 and 𝑇↓𝐵
and coefficient of expansion 𝛼↓𝐴 and 𝛼↓𝐵 . As shown in
fig.
If the temperature changes from 𝑇↓0 to 𝑇↓1, because of
unequal expansion in the two strips its free end will form a
curve an arc. The arc of radius 𝜌. The radius 𝜌 is given as

𝜌=(𝑇↓𝐴 +𝑇↓𝐵 )[3(1+𝑇↓𝐵 /𝑇↓𝐴 )↑2 +(1+𝑇↓𝐵 /𝑇↓𝐴 ∗𝐸↓𝐵 /𝐸↓𝐴 ){(𝑇↓𝐵
/𝑇↓𝐴
)↑2 +𝑇↓𝐴 /𝑇↓𝐵 ∗𝐸↓𝐴 /𝐸↓𝐵 }]/6(𝛼↓𝐴 −𝛼↓𝐵 )(𝑇↓1 −𝑇↓0 )(1+𝑇↓𝐵 /𝑇↓𝐴 )↑2

Where, 𝐸↓𝐴 and 𝐸↓𝐵 are the Young's moduli of the strips
A and B. If
𝑇↓𝐴 = 𝑇↓𝐵 = 𝑇 and the materials are chosen such that, 𝐸↓𝐴 =
𝐸↓𝐵 . Above equation can be written in simple form as:
𝜌=4𝑇/3(𝛼↓𝐴 −𝛼↓𝐵 )(𝑇↓1 −𝑇↓0 )
Desig
n: 𝜌=4𝑇/3(𝛼↓𝐴 −𝛼↓𝐵 )(𝑇↓1 −𝑇↓0 )

Generally, 𝜌 is very large and the movement of the free tip of

the member is very small. However with a large (𝛼↓𝐴 −𝛼↓𝐵 ), this
can be increased.

Generally, metal B is chosen such that which has lower

thermal coefficient of expansion than that of metal A.
Example
1:
A bimetallic thermometer is formed with stainless steel and
invar at 100↑0 𝐹. If it is used to measure temperature change
from 100↑0 𝐹 to 200↑0 𝐹. Each strip has a thickness of 0.014
inch. Calculate the radius of arc (𝜌).

Solution Please visit h+p:

: 35
coep.inpods.com
inch. 𝛼↓𝐴 =1.6∗10↑−5 /𝐶↑0Stainless
Steel
𝛼↓𝐵 =1.7∗10↑−6 /𝐶↑0Invar
Liquid-‐in-‐Glass
Thermometers
Resistance Temperature Detector
• A metal resistance changes with temperature
(RTD)
• The relation between resistance and change in
temperature is given by the equation

𝑅↓𝑡 =𝑅↓0 (1+𝛼∆𝑡+𝛽∆𝑡↑2 +𝛾∆𝑡↑3 +…+𝜔∆𝑡↑𝑛 )

Where, 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are the temperature coefficient of resistance.

For a narrow rage of operation, 𝛽 and higher order

coefficients are negligibly small than that of 𝑅↓𝑡 .
The equation is approximated as
𝑅↓𝑡 =𝑅↓0 (1+𝛼∆𝑡)
RT
D 𝑹↓𝒕 =𝑹↓𝟎 (𝟏+𝜶∆𝒕)

𝛼is positive for metal resistance elements. The

commonly used metals are:
❑❑ Platinum (-‐250 to 700°C), 𝛼=0.00392
❑❑ Copper (- ‐200to
❑❑ Nickel ( -‐50 to 250 °C) 𝛼=0.0043
𝛼=0.0063
350 °C)
Choice of
Metal
The resistance temperature relation for these elements is
shown graphically in fig.
Choice of Metal
The choice of material is governed
by:
✔✔ High temperature coefficient-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐Gives larger
sensitivity
✔✔ High resistivity of the material-‐-‐-‐-‐Ensures small
wire length for high
resistance and increases the
output
✔✔ Linearity relation between resistance and
temperature-‐-‐-‐
-‐-‐-‐This greatly adds to convenience in measurement
✔✔ Stability of the electrical characteristics of the
material and resistance to
contamination-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐Ensures good repeatability
RTDs (Resistance Temperature
Detectors)
• Platinum ogen used since it can be used
for a wide temperature range and has
excellent stability. Nickel or nickel alloys
are used as well, but they aren’t as
accurate
 RTD
geometry

Sheathing: stainless steel or Inconel, glass, alumina,

quartz
Metal sheath can cause contamination at high
temperatures and are best below 250ºC.
At very high temperatures, quartz and high-‐purity
alumina are best to prevent contamination.
 Resistance
Measurement

• Several different bridge circuits are used to determine

the resistance. Bridge circuits help improve the accuracy
of the measurements significantly. Bridge output
voltage is a function of the RTD resistance
Three-‐wire Using this method the two leads to
configuration the sensor are on adjoining arms,
there is a lead resistance in each
arm of the bridge and therefore the
lead resistance is cancelled out.
High quality connection cables
should be used for this type of
configuration because an
assumption is made that the two
lead resistances are the same.
Four-‐wire This configuration allows for up to
configuration 600
In this of
meters diagram
cable. a standard
two terminal RTD is used
with another pair of wires to
form an additional loop that
cancels out the lead
resistance.
Measurement
Errors
• Self Heating Error-‐The current that measures
sensor resistance also heats the sensor. This is known as
𝐼↑2 𝑅↓𝑡 loss.
For a current 𝐼↓1 if indicated temp. is 𝑡↓1 , for 𝐼↓2 it is
𝑡↓2 , the
corrected temperature 𝑡
𝑡=𝑡↓1 −(𝑡↓1 −𝑡↓2 )𝐼↓1 ↑2 /𝐼↓1 ↑2 −𝐼↓2 ↑2
• Thero-‐emf Error-‐The terminal wires of resistance
elements are generally of a material different from that of
the element material. It leads thero-‐emf to develop,
causes error in reading.
Measurement
Errors
• Leakage Current Error-‐The leakage current between the
resistance element and the ground should be avoided.

• Lags Error-‐The RTD’s are almost in all cases, enclosed in

protective sheaths called wells. The speed of response
depends on shape of well and the filled-‐in systems.

The effect of protective sheaths is significant on speed of

response
decides dynamic inputs
Advantag
es
1. High Accuracy

2. Good Reproducibility

3. Stable and accurate over long

period

4. Fast Response

5. Low cost
Limitatio
ns

1. Self heating
2. Mechanically less strong
3. Bulkier than
thermocouple
Thermisto
r
 Thermistor
Thermometers
• Thermistor—a thermally sensitive resistor
whose primary function is to exhibit a
change in electric resistance with a change
in body temperature.
• It is a ceramic semiconductor.
Depending on the type of material used, a
thermistor can either be positive
temperature
coefficient (PTC) device or negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) device.
• NTC thermistors decrease in electric
resistance with an increase in
temperature.
Thermistor
Thermometers
Thermocoupl
e
 Thermocoupl
e
• Seebeck Effect
• Peltier Effect
• Thompson Effect
• Laws of Thermoelectricity
– Law of Homogeneous metals
– Law of Intermediate Metals
– Law of Intermediate
Temperatures
 Thermocoupl
es
• Seebeck effect
– If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at
both ends and one end is heated, current will
flow.
– If the circuit is broken, there will be an
open circuit voltage across the wires.
– Voltage is a function of temperature and
metal types.
 Thermocoupl
es

The basic thermocouple circuit with a single temperature reference

junction, ie. The Seebeck voltage measured in open-‐circuit mode at
terminals a and f is proportional to the temperature difference
between thermocouple measuring junction b and the necessary
temperature reference junction e. For convenience, Tr is usually
made to be 0 oC.
 Thermocoupl
es
Principle

Seebeck Effect : An EMF is generated when the junctions of two

dissimilar metals are at different temperatures
Thermocoupl
es
This compensating voltage source (Vrjc in the above schematic) uses
some other temperature sensing device such as a thermistor or RTD to
sense the local temperature at the terminal block where junction J2 is
formed, and produce a counter-‐voltage that is precisely equal and
opposite to J2’s voltage (Vrjc = VJ2).
Having canceled the effect of the reference junction, the voltmeter now
only registers the voltage produced by the measurement junction J1:
Vmeter = VJ1 − VJ2 +
Vrjc Vmeter = VJ1 + 0
Vmeter = VJ1
Cold Junction
Compensation
Reference Junction
compensation
Measuring Junction
design
Thermocouple
Assembly
 Thermocouple type Overall range °C

Type B (Platinum / Rhodium) 20 to 1820

Type E (Chromel / Constantan) -270 to 910

Type J (Iron / Constantan) -210 to 1200

Type K (Chromel / Alumel) -270 to 1370
Type N (Nicrosil / Nisil) -270 to 1300
Type R (Platinum / Rhodium) -50 to 1760

Type S (Platinum / Rhodium) -50 to 1760

 Thermocoupl
e
Advantages

Compact and hence easy mounting

Wide variety of designs for various applications
Electrical output and hence adaptable to variety of other
devices
Good response time
Low cost
Good Accuracy
Easy Calibration
Long distance signal transmission
Good reproducibility
 Thermocoupl
e
Limitations

Non linear relationship

Susceptible to noise

Requires good and sensitive secondary electronic

circuit

Driging of hot junction due to ageing

 General Guidelines for selection and application of RTD
and T/C

1. Temperature indicating gauges shall be bimetallic with rigid stem

2. Common thermocouple shall be chromel-‐alumel for 800-‐2000 deg. F
3. Electric resistance thermometers shall be used where
better accuracy is required
4. The thermocouple hot junction tip shall be firmly bottomed in the thermowell
5.Thermocouple installation shall be protected from heat radiation by extending
the thermocouple head wherever required

6. Thermocouple and RTD head shall be weatherproof

7. Thermocouple extension wires shall not be mixed with other wires
 Pyroelectric
Effecteffect is very closely
• The pyroelectric
related to the piezoelectric effect.
• The materials belong to a class of
ferroelectrics.
• The pyroelectric materials are crystalline
substances capable of generating an
electric charge in response to heat flow.
 Pyroelectric
• To make Sensors
sensors, the pyroelectric materials are
used in the form of thin slices or films with
electrodes deposited on the opposite sides to
collect the thermally induced charges.

• The pyroelectric detector is essentially a capacitor

that can be charged by an influx of heat.

• In the figure, the pyroelectric detector connected

to a resistor Rb that represents either the
internal leakage resistance or a combined input
resistance of the interface circuit connected to
the sensor.
Pyroelectric
Sensors

Pyroelectric sensor and its equivalent

circuit.
Pyroelectric
Sensors
Infrared
Thermometer
Infrared
Thermometer
Fiber Optic
Thermometer
 Basis for Sensor
Selection
• Parameter
• Need
• Sensor: Principle of operation, Physics,
Maths behind the sensor, construction,
advantages, limitations, Typical
applications, case studies
• Classification