Lecture Notes

Space Science and Technology (IPH-04)

Sumanta Sarkhel
Department of Physics
IIT Roorkee
Ionospheric Plasma
and Solar Wind
Geomagnetic Latitude Boundaries

This maps shows lines of

constant geomagnetic latitude
(350 km apex coordinates) for
various latitudes for ionospheric
effects. The heavy black dashed
line indicates the geomagnetic
equator, and the red dashed lines
to the immediate north and south
indicate nominal locations of the
crests of the equatorial
anomalies, regions of potentially
enhanced ionization during the
afternoon and early evening
hours.

Courtesy: NorthWest Research Associates (NWRA)

 Earth’s Ionosphere
➢ Earth’s ionosphere is a natural
laboratory for Plasma.
➢ An interesting layer contains ions,
electrons and neutrals overlaps in
the altitude region of 50-1000 km.

X-rays and EUV radiations from the

Sun during daytime are responsible for
the production.

D-region: Positive ions, negative ions and

ion clusters present.
𝜗𝑖𝑛 > Ωi 𝜗𝑒𝑛 > Ωe (D region)

E-region: The main ions are O2+ and NO+.

𝜗𝑖𝑛 > Ωi 𝜗𝑒𝑛 < Ωe (E region)

F-region: O+ dominates and H+ starts to (Courtesy: Hargreaves, 1995)

increase rapidly above 300 km.

𝜗𝑖𝑛 < Ωi 𝜗𝑒n < Ωe (F region)
 Radio Wave Propagation through
Ionosphere

Figure 2
Figure 1

The displacement of an electron along this path can be modelled in an equivalent situation
where the original electron remained stationary and an equivalent electric dipole is added,
as shown in the right half of the figure 2. The dipole moment of this dipole is then equal to
-er. If there are N electrons per unit volume, each displaced by r on average, then the
volume polarization is
Radio Wave Propagation through
Ionosphere
Radio Wave Propagation through
Ionosphere
Radio Wave Propagation through
Ionosphere
Radio Wave Propagation through
Ionosphere

Courtesy: Prof. Sean Victor, Hum Radio and Microwave Wireless Systems
 Equatorial Electrojet
➢ In the dayside ionosphere, the neutral winds set up a polarization
electric field which usually points into the eastward direction.

➢ At the magnetic dip equator, where the magnetic field is exactly

horizontal, this electric field has an interesting effect:

➢ The resulting upward E x B drift of the electrons generates a negative

charge at the top and a positive charge at the bottom of the
ionospheric E-region (about 90 to 130 km altitude).

➢ The resulting electric field prevents the further upward drift of

electrons. Instead, they are now propelled westward by the eastward
electric field.

➢ This westward movement of the electrons constitutes an eastward

electric current which is called the Equatorial Electrojet.
Courtesy: http://geomag.org
Equatorial Electrojet

Electrojet current densities inferred the CHAMP satellite

Courtesy: http://geomag.org
Equatorial Anomaly

Courtesy: https://directory.eoportal.org
Equatorial Anomaly

Courtesy: http://www.sws.bom.gov.au
Solar Wind
 The Sun
• Sunspots and Cycles
• Sunspots
• Areas of intense magnetic activity on the
surface (photosphere) of the Sun
 The Sun
• Sunspots and Cycles
• Sunspots
• Up to 50,000 miles in
diameter
• Emit UV and X-ray
radiation which
ionizes Earth's
atmosphere
• Earliest observation
dates from 354 BC
 The Sun
• Sunspots and Cycles
• Sunspots
• Cooler in temperature
(2700°C to 4200°C) than
surrounding surface
(5800°C) so they appear
darker
 The Sun
• Sunspots and Cycles
• Sunspots
• Life span from less than a day to a few weeks
• Stationary on Sun’s surface
• Appear to move because of Sun’s rotation
• Sunspots rotate back into view every 28 days
• Solar Cycles
• Number of Sunspots varies in 11-year cycles
 The Sun
• Sunspots and Cycles
• Solar Cycles.
• At beginning of cycle, Sunspots appear at mid latitudes and appear closer
to equator as cycles progresses
• Strong seasonal and daily variations in propagation
• Seasonal variations due to different levels of ionization between summer and
winter
• Seasonal variations on lower bands due to lower atmospheric noise during
winter months
• Daily variations due to different levels of ionization between day and night
 The Sun
• Solar Disturbances
• Solar flare
• A large eruption of energy and particles from surface of the Sun
• Caused by disruptions of the Sun’s magnetic field
• Takes about 8 minutes for energy to reach earth
 The Sun
• Solar Disturbances
• Coronal hole
• A weak area in the
corona through which
plasma can escape the
Sun’s magnetic field
and stream through
space at high velocity
 The Sun

• Solar Disturbances
• Coronal mass ejection (CME)
• Ejection of a large amount of material from the
corona
• Narrow beam or wide area
• Often associated with a large solar flare
• Takes about 20-40 hours for particles to reach
earth
 The Sun
• Solar Disturbances
• Sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID)
• UV-rays and X-rays from a solar flare travel to
earth at the speed of light (186,000 mi/sec).
• Reach earth in about 8 minutes
• Greatly increases ionization level of D-region
• Lower frequencies more greatly affected
• Can last from a few seconds to several hours
• Only affects sunlit side of earth
 The Sun
• Solar Disturbances
• Geomagnetic disturbances
• CME’s greatly increase strength of solar wind
• A continuous stream of charged particles
• Reaches earth in about 20-40 hours
• Particles become trapped in the magnetosphere
near both poles increasing ionization of E-region
and creating a geomagnetic storm
 The Sun
• Solar Disturbances

Courtesy: General License Class, Chap 7; Wabash Valley Amateur Radio Association, Inc.
 What is the Solar Wind?
• Collisionless, magnetised plasma
• Continual, but variable, outflow from Sun’s corona
• Blows a cavity in interstellar medium: heliosphere
• At edge of heliosphere, merges with interstellar medium
• Interacts with planets and other bodies

• Supersonic (super-Alfvénic, …)
• Hot: >105 K
• Rarefied: few per cm3 at Earth
• Complex due to solar variability, solar rotation, and in situ
processes
• Variable on all measured scales, from sub-second → centuries
 What does the solar wind look
like?

• Very rarefied
• Can’t usually see it
• Near-Sun solar wind is visible during eclipses
 Origin of the solar wind
• Sun’s upper corona expands
into space
• Accelerates and forms the
solar wind
• Variable speed, density,
temperature
• Carries magnetic field from
corona

SoHO coronagraph (LASCO)

• Also carries waves and Artificial eclipse
turbulence… See http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov
for movies
 The solar corona
• Hot rarefied
atmosphere above
visible surface

• Magnetic field
dominates

• Closed magnetic field:

plasma trapped

• Open magnetic field:

plasma can expand into
interplanetary space
 Expansion of the upper corona
• Corona is very hot
• Pressure is higher than ambient
interstellar medium
• Expands into interplanetary
space (Parker, 1958): solar wind

• Carves a cavity in interstellar

medium: heliosphere

• Nearly radial flow SoHO coronagraph (LASCO) Artificial eclipse

• Accelerates to full speed by ~20
solar radii
The corona and the solar cycle

Solar minimum Solar maximum

Dipolar magnetic field Complex magnetic field
Open fields over poles No latitude dependence

Courtesy: Tim Horbury, Imperial College London

 Parker’s Solar Wind Theory
• Parker (1958) assumed that the outflow from the Sun is steady, spherically symmetric
and isothermal.

• As PSun>>PISM => must drive a flow.

• Chapman (1957) considered corona to be in hydrostatic equilibrium:

dP
= − g
dr
dP GM S 
+ =0 Eqn. 1
dr r2
• If first term >> than second => produces an outflow:

dP GM S  dv
+ 2
+  =0 Eqn. 2
dr r dt
• This is the equation for a steadily expanding solar/stellar wind.
 Parker’s Solutions
• Look at Solutions IV and V in more detail.

• Solution IV: For large r, v→ 0 and Eqn. 8 reduces to:

2 2
v r v r
−ln   4 ln   =  c
 vc   rc  v c  r 

1
v
• Therefore, r2v  rc2vc = const or r2
const const
= = 2 = const
r 2v rc v c
• From Eqn. 5:

• From Ideal Gas Law: P∞ = R  ∞ T /  => P∞ = const

• The solar breeze solution results in high density and pressure at large r =>unphysical
solution.
 Alfven Radius

• Close to the Sun, the solar wind is too weak to modify structure of magnetic field:
B2
1/2 v 
2

8
• Solar magnetic field therefore forces the solar wind to co-rotate with the Sun.
B2
1/2 v 
2
• When the solar wind becomes super-Alfvenic 8

• This typically occurs at ~50 Rsun (0.25 AU). B2

1/2 v = 2

8
• Transition between regimes occurs at the Alfven radius (rA), where
M
B=
r3
• Assuming the Sun’s field to be a dipole,
 M 2 1/ 6
= rA =  2
 4 v 

Courtesy: Dr. Peter T. Gallagher, Trinity College Dublin