Part

1
What is a Sentence ?

 wpfckck ajym&ef? wpfckck ar;&ef? wpfckck apcdkif;&ef toHk;jyKaom

pum;vHk;tkyfpk wpfpkonf 0guswpfck jzpfonf/ Oyrm -
The old man sighed.
tbdk;tdku oufjyif;csvdkufw,f/
I don’t understand what you’re telling me.
rif; ajymwmudk ig em;rvnfbl;/
What shall we do now ?
igwdkY tck bmvkyfMurvJ/
Have you got any change ?
rif;rSm aiGta<u &Sdvm;/
Get out of my way !
vrf;z,fay;/

 0guswpfckonf em;axmifol (odkY) zwfol\ pdwfxJwGif complete

idea wpfck jzpfay:atmif owif;tcsut
f vufukd
vHkvHkavmufavmuf (enough information) ay;&onf/

Unit
1 What is a
Sentence?
1
Unit
1 What is a Sentence ?

1.1 Sentences
 azmfjycsuf (statement) wpfckudk a&;om;&mwGif (odkY) ar;cGef; ar;&mwGif(odkY) trdefYay;&mwGif
(odkY) wpfckckudk awmif;qdk&mwGif toHk;jyKaom pum;vHk;tkyfpk wpfpk (a group of words) udk
0gus[k ac:onf/ 0guswpfckonf em;axmifol (odkY) zwfol\ pdwfxJwGif t"dyÜm,fjynfhpHkaom
tawG;wpfck jzpfay:vmatmif tcsuftvufrsm;udk vHkavmufpGm ay;&onf/

 atmufyg pum;vH;k tkypf rk sm; (groups of words)onf 0gusrsm; jzpfMuonf/

1 My new house is very small.
uRefawmfh tdrftopfu t&rf; ao;w,f/
2 Their son doesn't want to go on holiday with them.
olwdkY&JUom;u tm;vyf&ufc&D;udk olwdkYeJYtwl roGm;csifbl;/
3 Tell me what you think of it.
tJ'geJYywfoufvdkY rif; xifwmudk ighudk ajymjyprf;yg/
4 Are you going into town this afternoon?
'DaeYcif;rSm rif; NrdKUxJudk oGm;rSmvm;/

 jynfhpHkaom tcsuftvuf (a complete message) udk ray;Edkifonfh pum;pkonf 0gus

r[kwyf g/ atmufyg Oyrm pum;vH;k tkypf rk sm;onf 0gusrsm; r[kwMf uyg/
1 we cannot have with us
2 watched the big green insect
3 their new car yesterday

1.2 Types of Sentence

0gus trsdK;tpm; (4)rsdK; &Sdonf/
(a) xkwfazmfajymqdkrIudk aqmif&GufjyKvkyfaom declarative sentences:

1 Lions and tigers belong to the cat family.

jcaoFheJ h usm;awGu aMumifrsdK;&if;xJrSm yg0ifw,f/
2 I have two brothers and one sister.
uRefawmfhrSm nDESpfa,muf? nDrwpfa,muf &Sdw,f/
2
 3 Myanmar and China are neighbours.
jrefrmeJw
Y ½kw[
f m tdref ;D csi;f Edik if aH wG jzpfMuygw,f/
4 These shoes are too tight.
'D½SL;zdeyfu usyfvGef;w,f/

(b) ar;cGef;ar;aom 0gusrsm;jzpfMuonfh interrogative sentences:

1 What are you doing? rif; bmvkyfaewmvJ/

2 Am I too late? uRefawmf t&rf; aemufusoGm;ovm;/
3 Would you like a cup of coffee? rif; aumfzD aomufrvm;/
(c) trdefYay;aom (odkY) apcdkif;aom 0gusrsm;jzpfMuonfh imperative sentences:

1 Come back! jyefvmcJh/

2 Sit up straight! rwfrwf xdkifyg/
3 Come and have a cup of tea. vufbuf&nf vmaomufyg/

(d) xifjrifcsu?f oabmxm;ESihf cHpm;csuw

f u
Ykd kd jyif;jyaom pdwcf pH m;rIjzifh azmfjyonfh exclamatory
sentences:
1 How I hate maths! uRefawmf ocsFmudk t&rf; rkef;w,f/
2 You silly boy! rif;u odyf rdu
k rf w
J hJ aumifav;yJ/
3 What pretty shoes! vSvdkufwJh &SL;zdeyfawG/

Grammar Help

 o'´gynm&Sit f csKd Uu optative sentence udk yÍör 0gus trsKd ;tpm;tjzpf todtrSwjf yKMuonf/
xdk0gusrsdK;udk 0wfjyKqkawmif;jcif;? qE´jyKjcif;wdkYwGif toHk;jyKMuonf/ xdk0gus trsm;pkwGif v1
trsm;udef;udk oHk;Muonf/
1 God save the Queen! bk&ifrBuD;udk bk&m;ocif u,fr ygap/
2 Long live the President! or®wBuD; touf&mausmf &Snfygap/
3 Peace be upon him. Nidrf;csrf;rIudk ol cHpm;&ygap/

EXERCISE 1
A atmufygpmaMumif;rsm;rS t"dyÜg,fjynfhpHkonfh 0gusrsm;udk a&G;cs,fyg/ xdkYaemuf ¤if;0gusrsm;udk
capital letter (pmvHk;BuD;)jzifh pwifa&;om;NyD; full stop jzifh tqHk;owfí a&;om;ajzqdkyg/
1. closed the door
2. the little girls sang beautifully
3. had a pain in her back

3
 4. big grey woolly
5. she went into the garden
6. like cake tomorrow
7. we saw her last week
8. was crying bitterly in her bedroom
9. big and very strong
10. the teacher was very cross
11. the boys laughed
12. laughed out loud
13. for breakfast every day
14. your nice new is
15. he lost his lovely new watch
16. she opened the
17. climbed up the hill
18. the door opened

B atmufyg 0guswpfckpD\ 0gus trsdK;tpm;udk azmfjyyg/

1. He is leaving tomorrow.
2. Are you coming with us?
3. Don't move!
4. God bless this ship and all who sail in her.
5. How much does it cost?
6. There's been a nasty accident in Oxford street.
7. Who were you speaking to just now?
8. The birds flew from the nest.
9. May I go to the party?
10. May the best man win.
11. Peter cut his foot on a sharp stone.
12. I ought to leave now.
13. May I leave now?
14. Don't leave yet?
15. What a silly idea!
16. What is the highest mountain in the world?
17. Shut that door!
18. I was at a meeting all morning.
19. Do have some more wine.
20. Would you like some more wine?
21. How did you get here so soon?
22. How right you are!
4
 Glossary

bitterly ^'bpf.w.vD^ tonf;toef/ cg;cg;oD;oD;/

declarative ^'D '(uf)vJ.&.wpf(Af)^
exclamatory^tpf(uf)(pf).'(uf)vJ.r.BwD^
imperative ^tif(rf).'zJ.&.wpf(Af)^
interrogative^tif(ef).x.'a&mh.*.wpf(Af)^
nasty ^'em;(pf).wD^
optative ^'atmh(yf).w.wpf(Af)^
woolly ^'0k.vD^
xkwfazmfajymqdkrI azmfjyaom/
tHhtm;oifhrI^jyif;jyaompdwfcHpm;rIudk azmfjyaom/
trdef hay;jcif;udk azmfjyaom/
ar;cGef;yHkpHjzpfaom/
jyif;xefaom/
qE´jyKjcif;? qkawmif;ay;jcif;udk azmfjyaom/
odk;arG;ESifh jyKvkyfxm;aom/

 Quick Summary

þ summary onf 0gusrsm;ESifh ywfoufNyD; azmfjycJhonfh t"du tcsufrsm;udk

jyefvnfí tusOf;csKyfazmfjyjcif; jzpfygonf/

1 Sentences are groups of words that are used to make statements, ask
questions, give orders or make requests. They should provide enough
information for a person to get a complete idea of what is being said to them.

2 There are four main types of sentence: declarative, interrogative,

imperative and exclamatory. Some grammarians also distinguish a fifth
type, the optative sentence.

 Declarative sentences make statements.

 Interrogative sentences ask questions.
 Imperative sentences make requests or give orders.
 Exclamatory sentences make statements with strong feeling.
 Optative sentences express wishes.

5
 Part
2 
The Basic Elements of a Sentence

Bud,mu azmfjyxm;onhf action udk jyKvkyfaqmif&Gufaom

ol^t&monf subject jzpfygonf/ Oyrm -
Tom stared at his friend in amazement.
wGef(rf)u oli,fcsif;udk thHMowBuD;eJU pdkufMunhfw,f/
The man spoke with an American accent.
tJ'v
D u
l tar&duefo0H 0J eJ UJ pum;ajymw,f/

 0guswpfcktwGif;wGif subject rS vGJí usefaom tydkif;onf

Unit predicate jzpfonf/
Subjects,
2 Predicates and subject \ jyKjcif;? jzpfjcif;? &Sdjcif;udkazmfjyaom pum;vHk;
Verbs (odkU) pum;pkonf Bud,m (verb) jzpfygonf/
Subject- Verb Bud,mu azmfjyxm;onhf action \ tusKd;oufa&mufrIudk
3 Agreement 
wdkuf½dkuf &&Sdaom ol^t&monf direct object jzpfygonf/
Direct and Indirect
I've got a headache.
Objects; Transitive
4 and Intranstive uRefawmf acgif;udkufaew,f/
Verbs
She was holding a knife in her hand.
Complements, olr "m;udk udkifxm;w,f/
Linking Verbs and
5 Complex Transitive I saw him again yesterday.
Verbs ig olUudk raeYu xyfawGUvdkufw,f/
6 Adverbials  direct object udk vufcH&&Sdaom ol^t&monf indirect

Sentence Structure object jzpfonf/
7 and Grammatical
Correctness She lent the man her bicycle.
olru tJ'Dvludk pufbD; iSm;vdkufw,f/
Sentence Functions
8 and Parts of Give your mother this letter.
Speech rif;&JUtarudk 'Dpm ay;vdkufyg/
9 Vocatives and
Exclamations

6
 0guswpfckwGif subject (odkU) object taMumif;udk azmfjyaom
pum;vHk;^ pum;pkonf complement jzpfygonf/
The trees were bare. [bare = subject complement]
opfyifawGrSm opf&GufawG r&Sdawmhbl;/
They elected him mayor. [mayor = object complement]
olwdk hu olUudk NrdKUawmf0eftjzpf a&G;aumuf wifajr§mufvdkufMuw,f/

 action (odkU) state wpfcku rnfonhftcsdefü^rnfonhfae&mwGif^

rnfonhftwGufaMumihf^rnfodkUrnfyHk jzpfysufaeonf (odkU) wnf&Sdae
onfudk azmfjyaom pum;vHk; (odkU) pum;pkonf adverbial jzpfygonf/
Come quickly ! jrefjrefvm/
I'll tell her tomorrow. reufjzef ig olrudk ajymjyvdkufr,f/

 wpfa,mufa,muf^wpfcck u
k kd wdu
k ½f u
kd f trnfwyfí ac:a0:aom pum;vH;k onf
vocative jzpfygonf/
Do you want to come with us, John?
*Ref(ef) eif igwdkYeJUtwl vdkufcsifvm;/

 thHtm;oihfrI? 0rf;ajrmufrI? emusifrI ponhf strong emotion wdkYudk azmfjyaom

pum;vHk; (odkY) pum;pkudk exclamation [kac:onf/
Gosh, that's a big car! tdk;? tJ'Dum;u tBuD;BuD;ygvm;/
My goodness, this is a heavy box.
bk&m;a& ? 'DyHk;u av;vScsnfvm;/

 pum;vHk; (odkY) pum;pk wpfck\ function qdkonfrSm ¤if;wdkY vkyfaqmif

onhf tvkyfjzpfonf/ subject, predicate, verb, direct object,
indirect object, complement ESihf adverbial [lí
basic sentence function (7)ck &Sdonf/

 o'´genf;t& toHk;jyKyHk wlnDaom word class udk part of speech

(0gp*F) [k ac:onf/ noun, pronoun, verb, adjective,
determiner, adverb, preposition, conjunction ESihf
interjection [lí 0gp*F (9)rsKd; &Sdonf/

7
Unit
2 Subjects, Predicates and Verbs

2.1 Subjects
 Bud,mu azmfjyonfh action udk jyKvkyfaqmif&Gufaom vl (person) odkYr[kwf t&m0w¬Kypönf;
(thing) onf uwåm;(subject) jzpfonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;ü rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;aom
pum;vHk;rsm;onf uwåm;(subject)rsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 She arrived yesterday. olr raeYu a&mufvmw,f/
2 My mother likes gardening. taru O,smOfpukd yf sKd ;wmudk ESpo
f ufw,f/
3 The door suddenly opened. wHcg;u ½kwfw&uf yGifhoGm;w,f/
4 Cats and dogs make good pets.
acG;ESifhaMumifawG[m cspfp&m tdrfarG;wd&pämefawG jzpfMuw,f/
 imperative sentence rsm;wGif
uwåm;(subject) udk razmfjyyJ jr§Kyfxm;avh&Sdonf/ xdkjr§Kyfxm;
aom uwåm;onf (you) jzpfygonf/ atmufyg imperative sentence rsm;udk avhvmyg/
1 Sit down, please. aus;Zl;jyKNyD; xdkifyg/
2 Tell me everything. taMumif;t&mtm;vHk; ighudk ajymjyyg/
3 Don't say that! tJ'gudk rajymygeJ/Y
 question sentence, exclamatory sentence ESifh optative sentence wdkYwGif subject onf
0gus\a&SUqHk;ü rsm;aomtm;jzifh r&Sdyg/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;udk avhvmMunfhyg/
1 Are you coming along? rif;a&m twl vdkufrSmvm;/
2 Where are you going? rif; b,foGm;rvdk hvJ/
3 What an idiot I am! [= I am an idiot] ig[m toHk;ruswJh t½l;yJ/
4 Long live the President! or®wBu;D touf&mausmf &Snyf gap/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

2.2 Predicates
 0gus\ subject udk z,fvdkufí usefaomtydkif;onf predicate jzpf ygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm
0gusrsm;ü atmufrS rsOf;wm;jyxm;aom pum;vHk;rsm;onf subject rsm;jzpfMuNyD; useftydkif;
rsm;onf predicate rsm;jzpfMuonf/
1 Bill is a teacher. bD(vf)u q&mwpfOD; jzpfygw,f/
2 Bill teaches mathematics. bD(vf)u ocsFm oifygw,f/

8
 3 He does t'ai chi every morning. olu reufwdkif; xdkufcsd upm;w,f/
4 I 'll teach him a lesson! ig olYudk ocFef;pm ay;vdkufr,f/

 0guswpfckwGif predicate onf subject udk wpfzufwpfcsufrS cGNyD; ESpfydkif; jzpfaewwfonf/
atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif predicate wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Is your aunt coming tomorrow? rif;ta':u reufjzef vmrSmvm;/
2 Have you ever been to India? rif; tdE,
d´ udk a&mufz;l vm;/
3 Sadly they said good-bye. olwdkYu 0rf;yef;wenf; EIwfqufMuw,f/
4 What a beautiful dress that is! tJ'D*g0efu vSvdkufwm/
 imperative sentencewGif subject udk azmfjy&ef rvdkonfhtwGufaMumifh xdk0guswGif
yg0iforQ t&mtm;vHk;onf predicate omjzpfonf/ Oyrm-
1 Please speak more slowly. aus;Zl;jyKNy;D awmh 'Dx
h ufjznf;jznf; ajymyg/
2 Don't do that! tJ'gudk rvkyfeJY/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

2.3 Verbs
 vl(person)u (okdY) oufrJht&m(thing)u jyKvkyfaomt&mukd azmfjyaom pum;vkH; (okdY)
pum;pkonf Bud,m jzpfygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;ü atmufrS rsOf;wm;í jyxm;aom
pum;vHk; rsm;onf verb rsm;jzpfMuonf/
1 John always sings too loudly. [sings = verb]
*Refu oDcsif;udk tNrJwrf; tus,fBuD; atmfqdkw,f/
2 That dress really suits you.
tJ'D*g0efu eifeJY wu,f vdkufw,f/
3 She shut her eyes tightly.
olru rsufpdudk twif; rSdwfxm;w,f/
 Bu,
d monf person (odkY) thing u wpfckck jyKvkyfcHcJh&aMumif;udkvnf; ajymjyonf/
1 He was scolded. ol tql cHc&hJ w,f/
2 The window was broken. jywif;aygufrSef uGJoGm;w,f/
3 I was given a ticket. uRefawmf vufrSwfwpfapmif &cJhw,f/

 Bud,monf person (odkY) thing wpfpHkwpfck jzpfaeyHkudkvnf; azmfjyonf/

1 The cat is dead. aMumifu aoaewm/
2 I feel sorry. uRefawmf 0rf;enf;rdw,f/
9
 þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 3 udk avhvmyg/

EXERCISE 2

A atmufyg 0gusrsm;\ uwåm;(subject)wdk u

h kd azmfjyyg/
1. You get a lovely view from the top of that hill.
2. Bill stared at her in amazement.
3. I am inclined to agree with you.
4. What shall we do next?
5. My arm hurts.
6. The day started badly and got steadily worse.
7. Perhaps we should leave now.
8. My love for her will last forever.
9. What have you two been doing all day?
10. It was a cold, wet morning.
11. Why does performing in a concert worry you so much?
12. Memories of last year's holiday came flooding back to her.

B atmufazmfjyyg 0guswpfckpDrS subject wpfckpDudk a&G;xkwfNyD; xdk subject onf 0gusxJwGif

yg0ifonfh action udk jyKvkyfaMumif;udk^rjyKvkyfaMumif;udk azmfjyyg/
1. She looked at herself in the mirror.
2. Michael punched James on the nose.
3. James was punched on the nose by Michael.
4. My aunt gave me a watch for my birthday.
5. I got a watch from my aunt for my birthday.
6. This watch was given to me by my aunt.
7. I was given a watch by my aunt for my birthday.
8. Esther told me the latest news.
9. He banged the door behind him.
10. The door banged shut behind him.

C atmufazmfjyyg 0gusrsm;\ predicate wdkYudk a&G;xkwfjyyg/

1. Her books are very popular in Britain.
2. Do you speak Spanish?
3. What an expense children's clothes are nowadays!
4. I just do not understand your reasoning.
5. What harm has she ever done to you?

10
 6. The car had been abandoned by the thieves several miles away.
7. Suddenly, down came the rain.
8. I'll see you home after the meeting.
9. Which room is she in?
10. Traffic moves very slowly along these roads during the rush hour.

D atmufyg0gusrsm;\ subject ESifh verb wdkYudk azmfjyyg/

1. She made him very happy.
2. The old lady chased the dog out of her garden.
3. My uncle's coming for tea.
4. Where are the children?
5. Where are the children going?
6. The rain never stops at this time of the year.
7. What a beautiful dress that is!
8. How on earth did she do that?
9. That isn't a very common mistake.
10. That mistake is very common.
11. That would be awful!
12. Do you know where we're going?

E atmufyg 0gusrsm;rS Bud,mwdkYudk a&G;xkwfjyyg/

1. I wouldn't have done that.
2. Isn't she coming?
3. Shouldn't we be on our way by now?
4. You can't say that to him!
5. Sorry we couldn't be with you.
6. It just won't work!
7. Isn't that a lovely little dog!
8. You shan't stop me!

F uGif;xJwGif ay;xm;aom pum;vHk;rsm;udk toHk;jyKí OyrmwGifjyxm;onfh enf;vrf;twdkif;

0gusrsm;udk yHkpHajymif;í a&;om;yg/
Example Question: Someone must be at home. [there]
Answer: There must be someone at home.

1. No-one was waiting for them. [there]

2. What you think is of no importance. [it]
3. That we were alone in the house came as no surprise. [it]

11
 4. A time may come when racial prejudice no longer exists. [there]
5. Something's wrong. [there]
6. Telling her that would be a waste of time. [it]
7. Two men were standing in the doorway. [there]
8. Was anyone I know at the meeting? [there]

Grammar Help 1

 uwåm;(subject)onf action udk jyKvkyf aqmif&Gufol jzpfonf [lí tjrJwrf; r,lqEdkifyg/
atmufyg 0guswdkYudk EIdif;,SOfí avhvmMunhfyg/
1 Charles gave Caroline a book. [give sb sth]
csm;(vfpf)u u,f&mvdkif;udk pmtkyfwpftkyf ay;cJhw,f/
2 Caroline got a book from Charles. [get sth from sb]
u,f&mvdkif;[m csm;(vfpf)qDu pmtkyfwpftkyf &cJhw,f/
3 Caroline was given a book by Charles. [sb is given sth]
csm;(vfpf)u u,f&mvdkif;udk pmtkyfwpftkyf ay;cJhw,f/
txufyg 0gus(3)ckpvHk;wGif action udk jyKvkyfolonf Charles omvQif jzpfonf/ 0gus 1
wGif Charles onf subject jzpfonf/ 0gus 2 ESifh 3 wGif Caroline twGuf rnfonfh
t&mrsm; jzpfysufaeonfudk azmfjyaeMuaomaMumifh Charles onf action udk jyKvkyfol
jzpfaomfvnf; Caroline onfomvQif subject jzpfygonf/ xdk haMumifh uwåm;(subject)onf
action udk jyKvkyf aqmif&Gufol jzpfonf[lí tjrJwrf; r,lqEdkifyg/

Grammar Help 2

 declarative ESifh interrogative wdkYwGif subject yg½Sd&rnf/ odkYaomf time, day, distance ESifh
weather taMumif;wkdYukd ajymaomtcgü subject tjzpf aqmif½GufEdkifaom vl (person)
(okdY) oufrJht&m(thing) r½Sdyg/ xkdtcgwGif emrfpm; it udk empty subject tjzpf okH;&onf/
xkd it ukd empty subject (okdY) preparatory subject [k ac:Muonf/ it udk empty subject
tjzpf ok;H xm;aom atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;udk avhvmyg/
1 What time is it? b,ftcsed f ½SNd yv
D /J
It is half past five. (5)em&D cGJNyD/
2 What day is it? 'DaeYu bmaeYvJ/
It's Thursday. Mumoyaw;aeYyg/
3 How far is it from Mandalay to Yangon?
&efukef rEÅav; b,favmuf a0;ovJ/
It's 3 miles from here to the airport.
'Duae avqdyftxd (3)rkdif a0;w,f/
12
 4 Is it snowing ? ESif;usaeovm;/
It is raining. rkd;½Gmaew,f/
 xkdenf;wlpGm infinitive, gerund ESifh noun-clause wkdYu subject jzpfaevQif it ukd subject
ae&mwGif xm;NyD; xkd infinitive, gerund ESifh noun-clause wkdYukd 0gus\ aemufykdif;wGif
a&;Muonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;udk avhvmyg/
1 It's impossible to understand her. [It = to understand her]
olrukd em;vnfzkdYqdkwm rjzpfEkdifbl;/
2 It is no good arguing. [It = arguing]
tjiif;yGm;wm raumif;bl;/
3 It doesn't matter what you think. [It = what you think]
rif; xifwmu udpör&Sdbl;/
 uJhodkYyif there ukdvnf; empty subject tjzpf okH;Ekdifonf/ wpfckck wnf½SdaMumif; nTefjy
it
axmufjyvkdaomtcgü there ukd okH;ygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;udk avhvmyg/

1 Something is worrying him. → There is something worrying him.

olu wpfckckukd pdk;&drfaew,f/ → ol pkd;&drfaewJh t&mwpfck ½Sdw,f/
2 Plenty of people believe in astrology. →
There are plenty of people who believe in astrology.
aA'ifukd ,HkwJholawG trsm;BuD; ½Sdw,f/

Grammar Help 3

 ar;cGef;0guswGif Mud,mudk trsm;tm;jzifh (2)ydkif; cGJjcm;xm;avh&Sdonf/

1 Has he arrived yet? [has = helping verb]
ol a&mufNyDvm;/ [arrived = main verb]
2 When are you leaving? rif; b,fawmh oGm;rSmvJ/
3 Why did you kick her? rif; olrudk bmvdYk uefcw hJ mvJ/
4 Will she be coming with us? olru igwdeYk YJ vdu
k rf mS vm;/
 wpfcgwpf&HwGif pum;vHk; wpfvHk;xJü uwåm;ESifh Bud,m\tpdwftydkif;wpfckwdkY yg0ifMuonf/
1 Dad's asleep. [Dad's = Dad is = subj. + verb] taz tdyfaysmfaew,f/
2 The baby's crying. [baby's = baby is] uav; idkaew,f/
3 I've had a terrible dream. [I've = I have] tdyfrufqdk; rufcJhw,f/

13
 tcsdKU0gusrsm;wGif pum;vHk;wpfvHk;xJü Bud,ma&m tjcm;pum;vHk;yg yg0ifEdkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 I don't know. [do = aux. verb]
uRefawmf rodbl;/ [not = adverb]

2 She wasn't sure where she was. [was = verb]

olr b,frSm a&mufaerSef; olr aocsm rodbl;/ [not = adverb]

3 I can't do it at once. [can = aux. verb]

tJ'gudk uRefawmf csufcsif; rvkyfEdkifbl;/ [not = adverb]

 Glossary

abandon ^t.'bef;(ef).'ef(ef)^ pGef hypfonf/

amazement ^t.'arh(Zf).rJh(ef)(wf)^ tHhMojcif;/
awful ^'atm.zl(vf)^ tvGeftrif; qdk;&Gm;aom/
bang ^bJ(if)^ *sHK;ceJjrnfatmif ydwfonf/
chase ^acs h(pf)^ armif;xkwfonf/
expense ^tpf(uf)(pf).'yJh(ef)(pf)^ aiGukefayguf/ aiG,dkayguf/
flood ^(zf)vyf('f)^ jyefvnfowd&onf/ atmufarhonf/
idiot ^'tpf.'D.,uf(wf)^ rdkufrJol/ t&l;tESrf;/ vlt/ vle/
inclined ^tif(ef).'(uf)vdkif;(ef)('f)^ vdkvm;aom/
predicate ^'(yf)&uf.'D.uuf(wf)^ 0gpu/
prejudice ^'(yf)&uf.*sK h.'pf(pf)^ rsufpdrdSwf bufvdkufjcif;/
preparatory ^(yf)&D.'zJ.&.BwD^ tBudKjyKvkyfaom/
punch ^zef h(ef)(csf)^ vufoD;ESifh xdk;onf/
racial ^'a&;.&S,f(vf)^ vlrsdK;a&;ESifhqdkifaom/
reasoning ^'&D;.Z.eif(if)^ taMumif;jycsuf/
rush hour ^'&yf.&Sm.0g^ vrf;oGm;vrf;vm jyHKusaom tvkyfqif;csdef/
stare ^(pf)wJ(,)^ pdkufMunfhonf/
steadily ^'(pf)wJh.'.vD^ wjznf;jznf; ydkí/
terrible ^'xm;.&.b,f(vf)^ aMumufrufzG,faumif;aom/ qdk;&Gm;aom/
traffic ^'(xf)&mh.zpf(cf)^ ,mOftoGm;tvm/

14
Unit
3 Subject - Verb Agreement

3.1 Agreement

 Bud,m ESifh uwåm; wdk honf vlyk*¾dKvf (person) tm;jzifh? udef;*Pef;(number)tm;jzifh? vdif
(gender) tm;jzifh vdkufzuf nDnGwf&onf/ agree jzpf&onf/

 subject u I/we/you/they jzpfvQif verb u trsm;udef; (plural) jzpf&rnf/

1 We were very pleased to be there. [We = subject] [were = plural verb]
tJ'DrSm ae&wm t&rf; oabmusw,f/
2 I am really angry. uRefawmf wu,f pdwfqdk;wm/
3 I love Chinese food. w½kwftpm;tpm t&rf; BudKufw,f/
4 We love Indian food. ukvm;tpm;tpm t&rf; BudKufw,f/
5 You two were late again. rif;wdkYESpfa,muf aemufusjyefNyD/
6 You have no right to say that. rif;rSm tJ'DvdkajymzdkY tcGifh r&Sdbl;/
7 They are Japanese. olwdkYu *syefvlrsdK;awGyg/

 subject u he/she/it jzpfvQif u tenf;udef; (singular) jzpf&rnf/

verb
1 She is my daughter's teacher. olru orD;&JUq&mryg/
2 He is at school. olu ausmif;rSm/
3 Her dog barks a lot. olr&JUacG;u tvGef a[mifwwfw,f/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

3.2 Some Problems with Subject - Verb Agreement

 everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, someone, something, nothing tp&Sa d om every,
some, any ESifh no wdkYjzifh aygif;pyfxm;onfh pum;vHk;wdkY\ aemufwGif singular verb
tenf;udef; Bud,mudkom oHk;&onf/ Oyrm -
1 Everyone has to take the test. vlwdkif; pmar;yGJ ajz&rSm/
[NOT ...... Everyone have to take the test.]
2 Everybody knows that. tJ'gudk vlwdkif;odw,f/
3 No one was home. tdrfrSm wpfa,mufrS r&Sdbl;/
4 Nothing ever happens in this place. 'Dae&mrSm bmrS jzpfavhr&Sdbl;/
5 Nobody in our class speaks Greek. b,folrS *&dpum; rwwfbl;/
6 Someone was waiting at the door. wHcg;0rSmvlwpfOD;apmifhaew,f/

15
 all, some ESifh no wdkYudk uncountable noun/singular noun ESifh wGJvQif singular verb
udk oHk;&onf/ plural noun ESifhwGJvQif plural verb udk oHk;&onf/
1 All the bread is mouldy. [bread = uncount. noun]
aygifrkefYwpfckvHk; rdIwufaew,f/ [is = singular verb]
All the apples are mouldy. [apples = plural noun]
yef;oD;awGtm;vHk; rdIwufaew,f/ [are = plural verb]
2 Some money has been stolen. ydkufqHwcsdKU tcdk;cH&w,f/
Some books have been stolen. pmtkyfwcsdKU tcdk;cH&w,f/
3 No damage has been done. ysufpD;wm xdcdkufwm r&Sdao;bl;/
No losses have been incurred. qHk;½HI;wmawmh r&Sdao;bl;/
 aiG(money)? tcsdef(time)? tuGmta0;(distance)? tav;csdef(weight) paom ta&twGuf?
yrmPudk jyonfh plural noun wdkYtwGuf singular verb udkom oHk;&onf/
1 Thirty dollars seems a reasonable price.
[thirty dollars = a sum of thirty dollars = it]
a':vm(30)u oifhwifhwJh aps;EIef; jzpfyHk&w,f/
2 Five days is a long time to wait.
ig;&ufqdkwm apmifh&r,fqdk&if Mumwmaygh/
3 Ten miles is too far to walk. [ten miles = a distance of ten miles = it]
(10)rdkifqdkwm vrf;avQmufr,fqdk&if tawmf a0;w,f/
4 Three kilos of carrots is far too much.
rHkvmOeD (3)uDvdku rsm;vGef;w,f/
 (2) ck ESifhtxuf noun wdkYudk and ESifh qufxm;aomtcg xdk noun wdkYudk oD;jcm;pD[k ,lqvQif
xdk phrase onf plural jzpfaomaMumifh plural verb udk oHk;&rnf/ Oyrm -
1 Tea and coffee are popular drinks.
2 Carrots and potatoes are vegetables.

 odkYaomf xdk noun wdkYudk wpfckwnf;aomt&mtjzpf ,lqvQif xdk phrase onf singular
jzpfaomaMumifh singular verb udk oHk;&rnf/
1 Gin and tonic is a popular drink. [gin and tonic = singular]
tm;aq;ygwJh *sift&ufu vlBudKufrsm;w,f/
2 Mince and potatoes is my favourite meal.
tmvl;eJYa&mxm;wJh tom;pif;aumu uRefawmf tBudKufqHk; tpm;tpmyJ/
3 Bread and butter was all we had. [bread & butter = bread with butter on it]
aygifrkefYaxmywfokwfyJ uRefawmfwdkYrSm &Sdw,f/
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 wpfcgwpf&HwGif singular verb a&m plural verb yg oHk;Edkifonfh 0gustcsdKU &Sdygonf/
1 5 and 7 makes/make 12.
(5) eJ h (7) aygif;&if (12) &w,f/
2 Two and two is/are four.
(2) eJ h (2) aygif;&if (4) &w,f/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

3.3 Singular Nouns that appear to be Plural

 tcsdKUaom noun rsm;onf -s ESifh tqHk;owfaomfvnf; plural r[kwfyJ uncountable noun
rsm;om jzpfMuojzifh singular verb udkom oHk;&onf/ Oyrm-
1 The news isn't very good, I'm afraid. [news = uncount. noun]
ajym&rSmawmh tm;emw,f? owif;uawmh odyfraumif;bl;/
2 Maths was my best subject at school. [maths = uncount. noun]
ausmif;rSm uRefawmf tawmfqHk; bmom&yfu ocsFmyg/
3 Billiards is a very similar game to snooker.
bdvd,ufu pEkumeJY t&rf; qifw,f/
4 Measles was a common childhood disease.
0ufoufu tjzpfrsm;wJh uav;a&m*g wpfckyg/

3.4 Collective Nouns

 tpkjyemrf (collective noun) onf vltkyfpktzGJU? wd&pämeftkyfpktzGJUwdkYudk &nfñTef;ajymqdkaom
noun jzpfonf/ Oyrm y&dowf (audience)? vltkyf (crowd)? toif;tzGJU (team)? rdom;pk
(family)? aumfrwD(committee) wdkYonf tpkjyemrfrsm; jzpfMuonf/ xdk noun wdkYudk tkyfpk
wpfcktaejzifhvnf;aumif;? xdktkyfpkxJrS wpfOD;wpfa,mufcsif; taejzifhfvnf;aumif; ,lq
ajymqdkEdkifonf/

 xdk noun wdkYudk tkyfpkwpfpktaejzifh ,lqvQif singular noun jzpfojzifh singular verb udk
oHk;&onf/ [rSwfcsuf/ / American English wGif collective noun wdkYudk singular noun
tjzpfom ,lqNyD; singular verb udk tNrJwrf; oHk;ygonf/] Oyrm-
1 The audience was larger than I had expected. [audience = singular]
y&dowfu uRefawmf arQmfvifhxm;wmxuf ydkrsm;aew,f/
2 Our class has been chosen to represent the school. [class = singular]
ausmif;udk udk,fpm;jyKzdkY uRefawmfwdkYtwef; a&G;cs,fcH&w,f/

17
 3 The committee has decided not to accept your resignation.
rif;&JU EIwfxGufrIudk vufrcHzdkY aumfrwDu qHk;jzwfvdkufNyD/
4 The jury finds the defendant not guilty.
w&m;cHrSm tjypfr&Sdbl;vdkY *sL&DtzGJUu qHk;jzwfvdkufw,f/
5 The government has no right to act without consulting parliament.
tpdk;&tzGJU[m ygvDrefeJ h rwdkifyifyJ aqmif&GufcGifh r&Sdbl;/
 odkYaomf tpktzGJU\ wpfOD;wpfa,mufcsif;pDudk ñTef;qdkaomtcg xdk collective noun wdkYudk
plural noun tjzpf,lqNyD; plural verb udk oHk;&onf/
1 Our class have all had flu. [class = plural noun]
uRefawmfwdkY wpfwef;vHk; wkyfauG;rdaew,f/ [have = plural verb]

2 The committee have decided not to accept your resignation.

rif;&JUEIwfxGufpmudk vufrcHzdkY aumfrwDu qHk;jzwfvdkufNyD/
3 The union are delighted with the pay increase.
vcwdk;vdk h or*¾tzGJU0ifawG 0rf;omaeMuw,f/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 3 udk avhvmyg/

EXERCISE 3
A atmufyg0guswpfcpk \
D subject ESihf verb wdu
Yk akd zmfjyNy;D agree rjzpfcv
hJ Qif jzpfatmifjyifay;yg/
1. The dog was chased out of the garden.
2. She were really angry about it.
3. Who were you with last night?
4. Is these two boys your sons?
5. They became increasingly worried.
6. The two of us are going on a trip.
7. What do they want?
8. They was soon friends again.
9. It gives me a lot of pleasure to be here.
10. We doesn't often turn up late for school.

B atmufyg 0guswpfckpDtwGuf subject ESifh udkufnDaom verb udk a&G;cs,fay;yg/

1. She and I _____ close friends. [was, were]
2. Both Jenny and May _____ ice-cream [likes, like]
3. Several bars of chocolate _____ been stolen. [has, have]
4. Tom and his brother _____ like football. [doesn't, don't]
5. You and she _____ very alike. [is, are]

18
 6. One set of exam papers _____ gone missing. [has, have]
7. Tea and coffee_____ popular drinks. [is, are]
8. Gin and tonic _____ a popular drink. [is, are]

C uGif;xJwGif ay;xm;onfh
verb ESpfckteuf rSefaom verb udk a&G;cs,fay;yg/
1. A lot of women _______ their hair. [dyes, dye]
2. Everybody _______ somebody to love. [needs, need]
3. A squadron of fighters _______ been sent to the Middle East. [has, have]
4. Three squadrons of fighters_______ been sent to the Middle East. [has, have]
5. Five pounds _______ a lot of money when I was young. [was, were]
6. No-one _______ you. [believes, believe]
7. A lot of paint _______ been wasted. [has, have]
8. The rest of the players _______ to be chosen tomorrow. [is, are]
9. A thousand of his supporters _______ planning to march through the town in
protest. [is, are]
10. None of the bread _______ mouldy. [was, were]
11. A dozen eggs _______ needed for this recipe. [is, are]
12. A dozen eggs _______ far too much. [seems, seem]
13. A large number of children _______ found to be suffering from malnutrition.
[was, were]
14. There _______ $ 100 in that envelope. [was, were]
15. There _______ a hundred angry women waiting to see him. [was, were]

D real subject ESifh udkufnDaom verb udk a&G;ay;yg/

1. People like her _______ really infuriating. [is, are]
2. Shingles _______ very unpleasant. [is, are]
3. A member of the clergy _______ seen entering the building. [was, were]
4. Snakes _______ me. [terrifies, terrify]
5. His politics _______ very right-wing. [is, are]
6. Physics and chemistry _______ the two science subjects I chose.[was, were]
7. The police _______ called to the scene. [was, were]
8. Our ladders _______ in the garage. [is, are]
9. Draughts _______ played on the same type of board as chess. [is, are]
10. There _______ a plate of biscuits on the table. [was, were]
11. Snakes and ladders _______ a favourite game of ours. [is, are]
12. The draughts in this room _______ dreadful. [is, are]
13. A number of protesters _______ arrested. [was, were]
14. Mathematics _______ merely a tool. [is, are]
15. Some of the plants _______ killed by the frost. [was, were]

19
Grammar Help 1

 tenf;udef; (2)ckudk and jzifh qufxm;vQif plural verb udk oHk;&rnf/

1 She and I are both on holiday. [are = plural verb]
olreJYuRefawmf ESpfOD;pvHk; tm;vyf&uf c&D;xGufvmMuwm/
2 You and he have been chosen for the task. [have = plural verb]
'Dvkyfief;wm0eftwGuf rif;eJYolYudk a&G;vdkufNyD/
3 Gold and silver are precious metals. [are = plural verb]
a&TeJYaiG[m tzdk;wefowåKawGyg/
 verb\a&SUu uyfvsuf&Sdaeonfh noun/pronoun wdkif; real subject rjzpfEdkifyg/ xdkYaMumifh
0gus\ wu,fh subject udk &SmNyD; ¤if;ESifh tenf;trsm; udkufnDaom verb udkom a&;&onf/
1 A box of fireworks was lying on the table. [a box = subject]

rD;&IK;rD;yef;wpfxkyf pm;yGJay:rSm &Sdw,f/

txufyg 0guswGif A box (subject) onf tenf;udef; jzpfojzifh was (verb)
onf tenf;udef; jzpf&onf/ fireworks onf subject r[kwfyg/ of fireworks
onf A box (subject)udk txl;jyKonfh adjectival phrase om jzpfygonf/
2 Ten bags of sugar have gone missing. [two bags = subject]
oMum; (10)tdwf aysmufaew,f/
txufyg 0guswGif Ten bags (real subject) onf trsm;udef; jzpfojzifh are
(verb)onf trsm;udef;jzpf&onf/ sugar onf subject r[kwfyg/ of sugar
(prep. ph.) onf bag (noun) \ complement om jzpfygonf/

 Here is, Here are, There is ESifh There are wdkY\ aemufuvdkufonfh pum;pkonf subject
jzpfygonf/ xdk subject onf tenf;udef;jzpfvQif is udk oHk;yg/ xdk subject u trsm;udef;
jzpfvQif are udk oHk;yg/ Oyrm -
1 Here is the book you lent me. 'DrSm rif; ighudk iSm;vdkufwJhpmtkyf/
Here are the books you lent me. 'DrSm rif; iSm;vdkufwJhpmtkyfawG/
2 There is a black bird in that tree. [a black bird = subject]
[dkopfyifay:rSm iSufrnf;wpfaumif &dSw,f/ [is = verb]

There are two black birds in that tree. [two black birds = subject]
[dkopfyifay:rSm iSufrnf;ESpfaumif &dSw,f/ [are = verb]

 xdkenf;wlpGm who, what wdkYESifh tpjyKxm;aom ar;cGef;0guswdkYwGifvnf; verb \ aemufu

ygonfh pum;vHk;ESifh ¤if; verb wdkYudk tenf;trsm; n§d&onf/

20
 1 Who is that man? [that man = singular noun] [is = singular verb]
Who are those men? [those men = plural] [are = plural]
2 Who is that ?
Who are they?

 arG;cGef;0guswGif who/what onf
1 Who wants coffee?
aumfzD b,fol aomufcsifvJ/
2 What has happened?
bmawG jzpfukefNyDvJ/
subject jzpfaevQif singular verb udkom oHk;&onf/
We all do, please.
uRefawmfwdk htm;vHk; aomufcsifw,f/
Several things have happened.
tjzpftysufwcsdK h jzpfyGg;cJhNyD/

Grammar Help 2

 a lot of, lots of, a number of, majority of, minority of, the rest of wdkY\ aemufrS plural
noun vdkufygaom subject twGuf plural verb udk oHk;onf/ Oyrm -
1 A number of passengers were injured. [passengers = plural noun]
c&D;onf tawmfrsm;rsm; 'Pf&m&cJhw,f/
2 A lot of people have complained. [people = plural noun]
vltrsm;u rauseyfwJhtaMumif;udk ajymMuw,f/
3 There were lots of children playing in the street. [children = plural noun]
vrf;ay:rSm upm;aewJhuav;awG trsm;BuD; &Sdw,f/
4 The majority of our students go on to study at university.
uRefawmfwdkY&JU ausmif;om;trsm;pku wuúodkvf qufwufMuw,f/
5 Only a small minority of students are opposed to the scheme.
ausmif;om;tenf;pkuom tJ'DtpDtpOfudk qefYusifwmyg/
6 The rest of us have to stay here.
igwdkYxJu usefwJholawGu 'DrSmyJ qufaeMu&r,f/
 odkYaomf the number of \aemufwGif plural noun vdkufaomfvnf; singular verb udkom
oHk;&onf/ a lot of, lots of, the rest of wdkY\ aemufrS singular/uncountable noun
vdkufvQif singular verb udk oHk;&onf/
1 The number of letters we receive is increasing. [letters = plural noun]
uRefawmfwdkY&wJh pm ta&twGufu wdk;vmaew,f/ [is = singular]

2 A lot of work has already been done. [work = uncount. noun]
tvkyftrsm;BuD; vkyfNyD;oGm;NyD/ [has = singular]

21
 3 The rest of it is to be finished by tomorrow. [it = singular]
usefwJhtvkyfudk reufjzef aemufqHk;xm;NyD; NyD;atmif vkyf&r,f/
4 There was lots of rubbish lying in the street. [rubbish = uncount. noun]
vrf;ay:rSm usaewJh trdIufo½dkufawG trsm;BuD;yJ/
 none of, neither of, either of, any of wdkY ESifh plural noun wGJoHk;xm;aom subject twGuf
singular verb a&m plural verb yg oHk;Edkifonf/ pma&;&mwGif (2)ckpvHk;udk oHk;aomfvnf;
pum;ajym&mwGif plural verb udkom toHk;rsm;onf/ Oyrm -
1 None of the pupils has/have failed the test. [pupils = plural noun]
ausmif;om;wpfa,mufrS pmar;yGJ rusbl;/
2 None of these pens works/work.
'Dabmyif wpfacsmif;rS a&;vdkY r&bl;/
3 Neither of us speaks/ speak Spanish.
uRefawmfwdkY (2)a,mufpvHk; pydefpum; rajymwwfbl;/
4 I don't know if either of these batteries is/are good.
'Dbufx&D (2)vHk;rSm (1)vHk;u aumif;ovm;qdkwmudk uRefawmf rodbl;/
5 If any of you gets/get into difficulty, just call for help.
rif;wdkYxJu b,folrqdk tcuftcJawG h&iff zkef;qufNyD; tultnDawmif;yg/

 subject udk either A or B (odk )h neither A nor B (odk )h not only A but also B yHp
k H a&;om;xm;
vQif verb onf ¤if;ESifhteD;qHk;jzpfonfh B ESifhom agree jzpf&rnf/ [Unit 16 udk avhvmyg/]
1 Either he or I am mistaken. [I → am]
ol (odk h) uRefawmf wpfa,mufa,mufu txifrSm;aewmyg/
Either you or he is mistaken. [he/she/it → is]
rif; (odk h) ol wpfa,mufa,mufawmh rSm;aeNyD/
2 Neither you nor he is to blame.
cifAsm;udka&m ol hudkyg tjypfwifvdkY r&ygbl;/
Neither my friend nor I am to blame.
uRefawmfholi,fcsif;udka&m uRefawmfhudkyg tjypfwifvdkY r&bl;/
3 Not only Paul but also his friends are buying the horse.
ayg(vf)omru olYoli,fcsif;awGuyg jrif;udk0,fzdkY pDpOfwm/
Not only his friends but also Paul himself has a share in the horse.
olYoli,fcsif;awGomru ayg(vf)udk,fwdkifuyg jrif;0,fwJhtxJrSm
&S,f,mygwm/

22
Grammar Help 3

 0gus\ yxrydkif;wGif collective noun udk singular tjzpfoHk;vQif xdk0gus\ usefonfh tydkif;
wGifvnf; singular tjzpfom oHk;&rnf/ yxrydkif;wGif plural tjzpf toHk;jyKcJhvQif useftydkif;
wGif plural tjzpfom qufvufí oHk;&rnf/
1 The committee has decided that it does not want to accept your resignation.
[it = the committee]

2 The committee have decided that they do not want to accept your resignation.
[they = the committee]

 Glossary

arrest ^t.'&uf(pf)(wf)^ zrf;qD;onf/

collective ^u.'vuf(cf).wpf(Af)^ pkaygif;aom/
draught ^('f)&m;(zf)(wf)^ avpdrf;/
draughts ^('f)&m;(zf)(pf)^ usm;xdk; upm;enf;/
dye ^'dkif;...^ ta&mifqdk;onf/ aq;qdk;onf/
flu ^(zf)vl;...^ wkyfauG;/
infuriating ^tif(ef).'zsL;.&D.,dwf.wif(if)^ a'gojzpfp&maumif;aom/
majority ^r.'a*smh.&.wD^ trsm;pk/
malnutrition ^'rmh(vf).EsL.Mwpf.&Sif(ef)^ tm[m&csdK hwJhjcif;/
minority ^rdkif.'aemh.&.wD^ tenf;pk/
precious ^'(yf)&uf.&Syf(pf)^ tzdk;wefaom/
resignation ^ &uf.Zpf(*f).'ae;.&Sif(ef)^ EkwfxGufpm/
shingle ^''&Sif;(ef).*,f(vf)^ opfom; tkyf<uyfjym;/
squadron ^'(pf)aumh.('f)&if(ef)^ wyf&if;zGJ hxm;aom av,mOftkyf/
terrify ^'xJh.&.zdkif^ ajcmufonf/ aMumufonf/

23
Unit
4 Direct and Indirect Objects ;
Transitive and Intranstive Verbs

4.1 Direct Objects

 0guswpfck\ direct object onf verb u azmfjyxm;onfh action \ oufa&mufrIudk
trsm;qHk;cH&onfh vl (person) odkYr[kwf oufrJht&m (thing) jzpfonf/ xdk htjyif direct
object onf subject u ydkifqdkifaom vlyk*¾dKvf^t&m (odkY) subject u &aomt&m (odkY)
subject u wpfcc k jk yKvyk o
f nfukd cH&aom ol^t&m (od)Yk subject ESit
hf wl wpfcck u
k kd jyKvyk af om
ol^t&m jzpfEdkifonf/ 0guswpfckwGif direct object onf verb \ aemufrS uyfvdkufonf/
1 They have two sons. olwdk hrSm om;(2)a,muf &Sdw,f/
D.O.

2 He got $5 from his uncle. ol hOD;av;qDu (5)a':vm ol &cJhw,f/

3 He was reading a book. olu pmtkyf zwfaewm/
4 I have lost my car keys. uRefawmfh um;aomhawG aysmufoGm;vdk h/
5 I don't smoke cigars. uRefawmf aq;jyif;vdyf raomufbl;/

4.2 Indirect Objects

 direct objectudk vufcH&,laom ol^t&m (odkY) verb \ action u direct object tay:
oufa&mufrIaMumifh jzpfay:vmaom tusdK;&v'fudk vufcH&&Sdaom ol^t&monf indirect
object jzpfygonf/ 0gusyHkpHrSm S + V + I.O. + D.O. jzpfygonf/ Oyrm-

1 I  gave her a book. uReaf wmf olrudk pmtkyw

f pftyk f ay;cJw
h ,f/
S V I.O. D.O.

txufyg 0guswGif direct object jzpfonhf a book udk vufcH&&Sdaom her

onf indirect object jzpfygonf/
2 He bought his nephew a new bicycle. [his nephew = I.O.]
ol hwltwGuf bD;opfwpfpD; 0,fay;cJhw,f/ [buy sb sth]

3 David showed Mary his stamp collection. [Mary = I.O.]

ar&Dudk olpkxm;wJh wHqdyfacgif;awG jycJhw,f/ [show sb sth]

4 Will you keep me a seat? [me = I.O.]

rif; ightwGuf cHkwpfcHk z,fxm;ay;aemf/ [keep sb sth]

5 Can you lend him $10? [him = I.O.]

rif; olYudk (10)a':vm acs;ay;vdkY &rvm;/ [lend sb sth]

24
 þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

4.3. Transitive verbs

 direct object &Sdaom verb onf transitive verb jzpfonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
kicked, saw, held ESifh love wdk honf transitive verb rsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 George kicked the ball angrily.
V D.O.

2 I saw her in town yesterday. [her = D.O.] [see sb/sth]

3 She held the puppy in her arms. [the puppy = D.O.] [hold sb/sth]
4 Do you love her? [her = D.O.] [love sb/sth]

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

4.4 Intransitive Verbs

 direct object r&Sdaom onf intransitive verb jzpfygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gus
verb
wdk hwGif live, nod, sleep ESifh come wdk honf intransitive verb rsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 Helivesin Tokyo. olu wdkusdKrSm aewm/
V adverbial

2 The girl nodded. rdef;uav;u acgif;Nidrfhw,f/

3 The baby was sleeping quietly. uav;u Nird Nf ird af v; tdyaf ew,f/
4 My aunt is coming next week. ta':u aemufwpfywf vmrSm/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 3 udk avhvmyg/

EXERCISE 4
A atmufazmfjyyg 0guswdkYü direct object udk 0dkif;jyNyD; indirect object udk rsOf;wm;jyyg/
1. Janet lent Sarah her pencil.
2. I will give you my answer tomorrow.
3. Tell me a story.
4. Get me some new pens when you're in town, please.
5. Have you given James the money yet?
6. Margaret baked her grandmother a beautiful cake.
7. Mr Lee showed the doctor his spots.
8. There are plans to teach schoolchildren first aid.
9. Don't forget to take your wife some flowers.
10. She promised me that book.

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B atmufyg0guswrYkd S indirect object udk uGi;f xJwiG f ay;xm;onfh 0dbwf (preposition) ESiw
hf NJG y;D
preposition + object yHkpHajymif;í a&;om;yg/
Example: Question : He bought his son a bike. [for]
Answer : He bought a bike for his son.
1. Janet lent Sarah her pencil. [to]
2. Have you given James the money yet? [to]
3. Margaret baked her grandmother a beautiful cake. [for]
4. She promised me that book. [to]
5. He once bought his wife an egg-separator. [for]
6. The police gave the rioters a warning. [to]
7. This proposal offers the government a way out. [to]
8. Could you get me a cup of tea, please? [for]
9. Feel free to ask our experts questions. [of]
10. Apparently you shouldn't feed hedgehogs bread and milk. [to]

C atmufyg0guswdkYrS verb wdkYudk a&G;cs,fNyD; xdk verb wdkYonf transitive jzpfaMumif; (odk h)
intransitive jzpfaMumif;udk azmfjyyg/

1. Are you coming with us?

2. She had learnt her lesson well.
3. Do you speak Japanese?
4. She was speaking to someone on the phone when I saw her.
5. Why are you singing?
6. What are you singing?
7. Mum's working in the garden and Dad is painting a picture of her.
8. Where are they all going?

D atmufyg0guswdkYrS verb wdkYonf monotransitive (odkY) ditransitive jzpfaMumif;udk azmfjyyg/

1. Can you lend me $50?
2. My wife never eats chocolate.
3. Most children like lemonade.
4. Could you do me a favour?
5. I haven't seen anyone there all day.
6. I've to write him a report on this morning's meeting.
7. Can anyone help us?
8. Bring us the menu, please.

E atmufyg0guswdkYrS intransitive verb rsm;udk transitive verb rsm;jzpfap&ef oifhawmfaom

object wpfckpD xnfhay;yg/

26
 Example: Question : Karen ate quickly.
Answer : Karen ate her breakfast quickly.
1. May was reading.
2. Peter watched carefully.
3. I used to teach in a high school.
4. Simon is upstairs writing.
5. We won!
6. Mum's in the kitchen baking.
7. Have you finished yet?
8. Don't play in the street!

Grammar Help 1

 S + V + I.O. + D.O. 0gusyHkpHudk S + V + D.O. + for/to + I.O. tjzpf ajymif;ía&;Edkifonf/

1 He bought his nephew a new bicycle. [buy sb sth]
S V I.O. D.O.

He bought a new bicycle for his nephew. [buy sth for sb]
S V D.O. for + I.O.

2 David showed Mary his stamp collection. [show sb sth]

S V I.O. D.O.

David showed his stamp collection to Mary. [show sth to sb]
S V D.O. to + I.O.

3 Will you keep me a seat?

Will you keep a seat for me?

 odkYaomf txufygtwdkif; 0gusyHkpHajymif;í a&;om;jcif;udk ae&mwdkif;wGif roHk;Edkifyg/

1 I gave Mary my book. I gave my book to Mary. 
2 He gave his bike a clean. He gave a clean to his bike. 
3 Can you give me a push, please? Can you give a push to me, please? 
0gus 1 wGif a book onf object jzpfonf/ xdk haMumifh 0gusyHkpHudk ajymif;í a&;om;
Edkifonf/ 0gus 2 wGif a clean onf activity om jzpfonf/ object r[kwfyg/ xdk h
aMumifh 0gusyHkpHudk ajymif;í ra&;Edkifyg/ 0gus 3 wGif a push onf action om
jzpfygonf/ object r[kwfyg/ xdk haMumifh 0gusyHkpHudk ajymif;í ra&;Edkifyg/

Grammar Help 2

 direct object wpfckvdkufygEdkifaom transitive verb udk monotransitive verb [k ac:onf/

atmufyg 0guswdk hwGif hate ESifh wipe wdk honf monotransitive verb rsm; jzpfMuonf/

27
 1 She really hates injustice. w&m;rQwrI r&Swd mudk olr wu,frek ;f w,f/
2 The waiter wiped the table. pmyGJxdk;u pm;yGJcHkudk okwfvdkufw,f/

 direct object a&m indirect object yg vdkufEdkifonfh verb udk ditransitive verb [kac:onf/
atmufyg 0guswdk hwGif show ESifh bring wdk honf ditransitive verb rsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 Show Jane the photograph. *sdef;(ef)udk "mwfyHk jyvdkufyg/
2 I've brought you some flowers. ig rif;twGuf yef;awG ,lvmw,f/

Grammar Help 3

 rvdkufonf vdkufonftay: rlwnfí tcsdKU verb rsm;udk

direct object intransitive (Vi)
tjzpfa&m transitive (Vt) tjzpfyg toHk;jyKEdkifonf/ Oyrm-
1 John ate quickly. [ate = Vi]
John ate the biscuit. [ate = Vt] [eat sth]

2 The door suddenly opened. [opened = Vi]

Steven opened the door. [opened = Vt] [open sth]

 intransitive verb \ aemufrS direct object rvdkufaomfvnf; preposition + prepositional

object vdkufEdkifygonf/ Oyrm -
1 Are you listening? [listen = Vi]
Areyoulistening to me ? [listen = Vi] [listen to sb]
V prep. + obj.

2 Don't interrupt when I'm talking. [talk = Vi]

Don't interruptwhenIam talkingto someone.
V prep. + obj.

ig ajymaewkef; Mum;jzwf rajymeJY/ [talk = Vi] [talk to sb]

 Glossary

apparently ^t.'zm;.&J h(ef)(wf).vD^ od&oa&G h/

hedgehog ^'[uf(*sf).a[mh(*f)^ jzLi,f/
lemonade ^v,f.r.'edwf('f)^ a&Smufazsmf&nf/
nephew ^'euf.zsL^ wl/
rioter ^'&dkif;.,.xm^ t"du&kPf;wGif yg0ifol/
spot ^(pf)aygh(wf)^ teDzk/

28
Unit

5 Complements, Linking Verbs and

Complex Transitive Verbs

5.1 Complements
 0guswpfck\ subject (odkY) object ESifh ywfoufaom taMumif;t&mudk ajymonfh pum;vHk;
^pum;pkonf tjznfhyk'f (complement) jzpfygonf/ complement wdk honf rsm;aomtm;jzifh
noun (od)Yk adjective (od)Yk noun/ adjective uJo
h Ykd vkyaf qmifaom pum;pkwkd o
h m jzpfMuonf/

5.2 Subject Complements

 subject complementonf subject ESifh ywfoufaom taMumif;t&mudk azmfjyonf/
subject u rnfol^ rnfonfht&mjzpfonf (odkY) rnfodkYrnfyHk jzpfonf pojzifh azmfjyonf/

 subject ESifh subject complement udk csdwfquf (link vkyf) ay;aomBud,mudk linking verb
[kac:onf/ toHk;rsm;aom linking verb tcsdKUrSm be, become, seem, appear, look, feel,
get/grow(=become), keep, make, smell, sound, taste ESifh turn wdkYjzpfMuonf/ linking
verb udk copulas (odkY) copular verb [kvnf; ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;ü linking
verb wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;ygonf/

1 Phillip is depressed. zdvpfu pdwt f m;i,faew,f/

2 This cheese is nice. 'D'defcJu t&om aumif;w,f/
3 Alice is a ballet dancer. tJvpf(pf)[m bJav; uacsonfwpfOD;yg/
4 Alice became a ballet dancer. tJvpf(pf)u bJav;uacsonfjzpfvmw,f/
5 She got angrier and angrier. olr ydkydkNyD; pdwfqdk;vmw,f/
6 She seems very happy. olrudk Munfh&wm odyfaysmfaeyHkyJ/
7 Phillip looks depressed. zdvpfudk Munfh&wm pdwt f m;i,faeyHyk /J
8 He felt sad. ol pdwfraumif; jzpfaew,f/
9 That smells good. tJ'gu teYH arT;w,f/
10 You sound upset. rif; toHu rauseyfaeovdkyJ/
11 That tastes nice. tJ'gu t&om aumif;w,f/
12 Leaves turn brown in summer. aEGrSm opf&GufawG 0goGm;avh&Sdw,f/
13 Keep still (= don't move). NidrfNidrfae/
14 2 and 3 make 5. (2) eJY (3) aygif;&if (5) &w,f/

29
 txufyg0guswdkYwGif noun ESifh adjective wdkYudk subject complement tjzpfoHk;xm;onfudk
awG hEkdifonf/ to-infinitive ESifh gerund wdkYudk noun uJhodkY toHk;jyKEdkifojzifh ¤if;wdkYudkvnf;
subject complement tjzpf toHk;jyKEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrmwdk hudk avhvmyg/

1 His custom is to ride daily. [to ride = subj. cpm.]

olYtusifhuawmh aeYpOf jrif;pD;wmygyJ/
2 Her greatest pleasureisto sing. [to sing = subj. cpm.]
S V S. Cpm.

olr taysmfqHk;u oDcsif;qdkwmyg/

3 Seeingisbelieving. [believing (gerund) = subj. cpm.]
S V S. Cpm.

jrifzl;rS ,Hkw,f/
4 My favourite activity is reading. [reading (gerund) = subj. cpm.]
uRefawmf tESpfoufqHk; 0goemu pmzwfjcif;yg/
0gus 1 ESifh 2 wGif to-infinitive udk subject complement tjzpffoHk;xm;NyD; 0gus
3 ESifh 4 wGif gerund udk subject complement tjzpff oHk;xm;ygonf/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

5.3 Object Complements

 object complement onf 0guswpfck\ direct object ESifh ywfoufaom taMumif;t&mudk
azmfjyonf/ noun/adjective udk object complement tjzpf oHk;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 Theymadehimchairman. [made sb +noun]
S V Obj. Obj. Cpm.

olYudk obmywdtjzpfwifajr§mufMuw,f/
2 He declared himself the leader of the organization.
olu olYudk,fol tzGJUtpnf;&JU acgif;aqmifjzpfaMumif; aMunmcJhw,f/
3 They have painted the walls green. [green (adj.) = obj. cpm]
olwdkYu eH&HawGudk tpdrf;a&mif okwfNyD;NyD/ [paint sth +adj.]

4 I like my coffee black. [black (adj.) = obj. cpm]

uRefawmfu aumfzDqdk&if bvufyJ BudKufw,f/ [like sth +adj.]

5 I don't find this satisfactory. [find sth +adj.]

uRefawmfu 'gudk auseyfzG,faumif;w,fvdkY rxifbl;/
6 The court finds you not guilty. [find sb +adj.]
oifhrSm tjypfr&Sdbl;vdkY w&m;½Hk;u qHk;jzwfvdkufw,f/

30
 noun ESifh adjective wdkYtjyif to-infinitive (to+V1), bare infinitive(V1), present participle
(V4) ESihf past participle (V3) wdkUudkvnf; object complement tjzpf toHk;jyKEdkifonf/
1 Iconsiderherto be a good teacher. [consider sb to be sth]
obj. obj. cpm. (to-infinitive)

olr[m awmfwJhq&mrwpfOD; jzpfw,fvdkY ig xifw,f/

They chose Roy to be the team captain. [choose sb to be sth]
olwdkYu &dGKifudk toif;acgif;aqmiftjzpf a&G;cs,fcJhMuw,f/
2 Iheardhimgo down the stairs. [hear sb do sth]
obj. obj. cpm. (bare infinitive)

ol avSum;u qif;oGm;wmudk ig Mum;w,f/

I saw her cross the road. [see sb do sth]
olr vrf;jzwful;oGm;wm ig jrifvdkufw,f/ (tptqHk; jrifwm/)
3 Iheardhimgoing down the stairs . [hear sb doing sth]
obj. obj. cpm. (V4)

ol avSum;u qif;oGm;wJhtoH ig Mum;vdkufw,f/

I saw her crossing the road. [see sb doing sth]
olr vrf;jzwful;aewm ig vSrf;jrifvdkufw,f/ (ul;aewkef; jrifvdkufwm/)
4 Catherinehadthe roof repaired yesterday.
obj. obj. cpm. (V3)

tdrfacgifrdk;udk jyifzdkY uufo&if;u raeYu cdkif;cJhw,f/

We are having the house painted at the moment. [have sth done]
tckavmavmq,f uRefawmfwdkY tdrfudk aq;okwfcdkif;xm;w,f/
I heard my name repeated several times.
uRefawmfhemrnfudk xyfcgxyfcg ac:wmudk Mum;vdkufw,f/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

5.4. Complex Transitive Verbs

 direct object ESifh object complement wkd h vdkufygEdkifaom verb udk complex transitive
verb [kac:onf/ complex transitive verb rsm;pGm &Sdonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;wGif
complex transitive verb wdk hudk pmvHk;rnf;jzifh jyxm;NyD; object complement wkd hudk
rsOf;wm;í jyxm;ygonf/
1 Someday I will prove you wrong. [prove sb +adj.]
rif; rSm;w,fqdkwm wpfaeYaeYrSm ig oufaojyr,f/

31
 2 She filed her nails smooth. [file sth +adj.]
olru vufonf;awG nDnmacsmarG YoGm;atmif wHpOf;eJY wdkufw,f/
3 Leave the window open, please. [leave sth +adj.]
aus;Zl;jyKNyD;awmh jywif;aygufudk zGifhxm;cJhvdkufyg/
4 I find the whole project absolutely pointless. [find sth +adj.]
'DpDrHudef;wpfckvHk;[m vHk;0 tusdK;r&Sdbl;vdkY uRefawmf xifw,f/
5 She wiped her face dry with a towel. [wipe sth +adj.]
olru rsufESmudk ajcmufaoGUoGm;atmif wbufeJY okwfvdkufw,f/
6 Scrub the floor clean. [scrub sth +adj.]
Murf;jyifudk oefY&Sif;oGm;atmif wdkufcRwf aq;aMumyg/
7 You should count yourself lucky. [count sb +adj.]
rif;udk,frif; uHaumif;w,fvdk h rSwfyg/
8 Make both lines equal. [make sth +adj.]
rsOf;ESpfaMumif;vHk;udk nDatmif qGJyg/
9 We must presume her dead. [presume sb +adj.]
olr aoqHk;oGm;NyDvdkYyJ uRefawmfwdkY ,lq&awmhrSm/
10 Rinse the cardigan free of soap. [rinse sth +adj.]
odk;arT;tusÐudk qyfjympifoGm;atmif a&avQmfyg/
11 Are you calling me a liar? [call sb +noun]
rif;u ighudk vlvdrfvlnmvdkY ac:aewmvm;/
12 They consider him a total liability. [consider sb +noun]
olwdkYu ol hudk 0efxkyf0efydk;wpfcktaeeJ h oabmxm;Muw,f/
13 I would judge this project a failure. [judge sth +noun]
'DpDrHudef; ratmifjrifEdkifbl;vdkYyJ uRefawmf cefYrSef;rdw,f/
EXERCISE 5
A atmufazmfjyyg 0gusrsm;wGif subject-complement wdk hudk rsOf;om;jyyg/
1. The proposals seem sensible.
2. The rumours proved false.
3. You must be crazy!
4. Aren't some people absolutely ridiculous!
5. The price of petrol these days is a disgrace.

32
 6. Everyone thinks she's gone completely mad.
7. What a silly idea!
8. The girl next door is a dedicated follower of all the latest fashions and fads.
9. He remained a soldier for the next twenty years.
10. How much does the packet weigh?

B atmufazmfjyyg 0gusrsm;rS direct object (odkY) subject complement udk azmfjyyg/

1. The fête was a complete disaster.
2. She sniffed the flowers carefully.
3. I felt extremely silly.
4. That jam smells nice.
5. First measure out 500 grams of flour.
6. The mirror measures 40 centimetres by 65 centimetres.
7. Getting a replacement for her has proved extremely difficult.
8. You can prove anything with statistics.
9. You can taste the ginger in the marmalade.
10. The chocolate tasted slightly bitter.

C atmufyg0gusrsm;rS object wdk hudk rsOf;om;jyNyD; object complement wdk hudk rSifjzifh0dkif;jyyg/
1. The president named his own son prime minister.
2. My wife makes me very happy.
3. Rub the plaster smooth before it dries.
4. My daughter wants to dye her hair red.
5. Do you want your hair shorter?
6. Everyone thinks her completely mad.
7. I don't find that very funny!
8. We'll need to build the wall about two metres high.
9. They varnished the hall floor a greeny-blue colour.
10. Go round and wipe all the tables clean, please.

D atmufyg0gusrsm;onf indirect object + direct object yHkpH? object+object-complement

yHkpH ESpfckteuf rnfonfh yHkpHjzpfonfudk azmfjyyg/
1. Tom and Nancy built Nancy's parents a bungalow in their back garden.
2. Are you calling me a liar?
3. I like my curries hot.
4. Kim had to tell her parents the sad news.
5. Do you think they'll offer you a job?
6. Can you lend me a pen?
7. They made Carlos the shop steward.
8. That made Carlos very angry.

33
Grammar Help 1

 wpfcgwpf&HwGif S + V + D.O. yHkpH ESifh S + V + S.Cpm. yHkpHwdk hudk cGJjcm;zdkY cufonf/ odkYaomf
S + V + D.O. onf wpfa,mufa,mufu wpfckck jyKvkyfjcif;udk azmfjyNyD; S + V + S.Cpm.
onf wpfa,mufa,muf^wpfckcku rnfodkY &Sdaeonf^jzpfaeonfudkom azmfjyonf/
1 Shetastedthe wine. olru 0dkifudk jrnf;Munfhw,f/
S V D.O.

The winetastedsweet. 0dkif&JUt&omu csdKw,f/

S V S. Cpm.

2 They weighed the parcel. olwdkYu txkyfudk csdefMunfhw,f/

The parcel weighed five kilos. txkyfu (5) uDvdk av;w,f/

 imperative 0guswdkYwGif subject

rygaomfvnf; adjective/noun pum;pkwdkYonf subject
complement jzpfEdkifonf/ ra&;yJ jr§Kyfxm;aom uwåm;onf (you) jzpfygonf/

1 Don't be silly . rrdkufprf;ygeJY/

V S. Cpm.

2 Pleasestay calm . aus;Zl;jyKNyD;awmh NidrfNidrfav; aeyg/

V S. Cpm.

 exclamatory sentence wdkYwGif subject complement onf subject ESifh verb wdk h\a&SUrS
vmEdkifonf/
1 What a lovely day it is! tvGefom,mwJh aeYwpfaeYyJ/
[= It is a lovely day.]
2 How stupid of us that was! igwdkY odyfrdkufrJwmyJ/
3 How lovely you look in that dress! 'D*g0efav;eJY rif;u odyfvSwmyJ/
4 The angrier she became, the more she stuttered. [the = adv.]
olr ydkNyD; a'gojzpfav pum;xpfavyJ/

 exclamatory sentence wdkYudk subj. cpm. wpfckwnf;ESifhvnf; wnfaqmufEdkifonf/

1 What a lovely day! [what a lovely day = subj. cpm.]
2 How stupid of us!

 exclamatory sentence wdkYudk verb rygbJ subject ESifh subject complement ESpfckwnf;
ESifhvnf; wnfaqmuf Edkifonf/ Oyrm -
You silly boy! [= you are a silly boy!]
[you = subj.] [silly boy = subj. cpm.]

34
Grammar Help 2

S+V+I.O.+D.O. ESifh S+V+D.O.+Cpm. yHkpHESpfckudk cGJjcm;Edkifaom enf;vrf;(3)ck&Sdonf/

1. direct object ESifh object complement wdk honf vlwpfOD;wnf;^t&mwpfckwnf;udkom

ñTef;onf/
1 They elected Stella chairman. [elect sb +noun]
D.O. Obj. Cpm.

2 We've appointed Susan the union rep. [appoint sb +noun]

uRefawmfwdkYu plZefudk or*¾udk,fpm;vS,ftjzpf cefYvdkufNyD/
odkYaomf indirect object ESifh direct object wdk honf rwlaom vl^t&mwdkYudkom ñTef;onf/
1 He lent me his new pen. [me ≠ his new pen] [lend sb sth]
I.O. D.O.

2 I showed him the photos. [him ≠ photos] [show sb sth]

2. indirect object onf direct object \ a&SUrS vmonf/ object complement onf
direct object \ aemufrS vmonf/
1 Theygavehera present. [give sb sth] [sb = I.O.]
S V I.O. D.O.

2 Theyelectedherchairman. [elect sb +noun] [sb = D.O.]

S V D.O. Obj. Cpm.

3. udk to/for + object yHkpHjzifh tpm;xdk;í a&;om;Edkifaomfvnf;

indirect object object
complement udk xdkuJhodkY tpm;xdk;NyD; a&;om;í r&Edkifyg/

1 He lent me his new pen.  He lent his new pen to me.
2 I showed him the photos.  I showed the photos to him.
3 They elected Stella chairman. They elected chairman to Stella.

 oHk;xm;onfh Bud,mwlaomfvnf; 0gusyHkpH rwlonfh atmufyg0guswdkYudkvnf; txufyg

enf;(3)enf;jzifh cGJjcm;MunfhEdkifonf/
1 She called him a taxi. [V + I.O. + D.O.]
olru olYtwGuf wuúpD wpfpif;udk zkef;eJYac:ay;w,f/ [call sb sth]

She called him an idiot. [V + obj. + cpm.]

olru olYudk rdkufrJ½l;oGyfwJholvdkY ac:cJhw,f/ [call sb +noun]

2 He made his children a tree house. [make sb sth]

He made his wife his business partner. [make sb +noun]

35
 wpfcgwpf&HwGif make \aemufrS indirect object ESifh subject complement wdkY twlwGJNyD;
vdkufEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswpfpHkudk avhvmyg/

1 Marywill makehima good wife.

S V I.O. S. Cpm.

Marywill makea good wife for him .

 S V S. Cpm. prep.+ I.O.

r,f&Du olYtwGuf ZeD;aumif;wpfa,muf jzpfrSmyg/

 Glossary

bitter ^'bpf.xm^ cg;aom/

bungalow ^'bef;.*.vdk^ wpfxyftdrf/
complement ^'acgh(rf).y.vd.rJh(ef)(wf)^ tjznfhyk'f/
dedicated ^''uf.'D.udwf.wpf('f)^ rdrdudk,fudk ESpfjrSKyfxm;aom/
disaster ^'pf.'Zm;.(pf)wm^ ratmifjrifrI/
disgrace ^'pf(pf).'(*f)a& h(pf)^ vufoifhrcHEkdifavmufatmif qdk;&Gm;jcif;/
fad ^zJh('f)^ ay:yif/
fête ^zdwf(wf)^ aps;yGJawmf/
gerund ^'*sJ.&J(ef)('f)^ Bud,mrSjzpfay:vmonfh emrf/
ginger ^'*sif;(ef).*sm^ csif;/
liability ^ vdkif.,.'bpf.v.wD^ 0efxkyf0efydk;/
marmalade ^''rm;.r.vdwf('f)^ ,dk/
ridiculous ^&pf.''pf.ul;.vyf(pf)^ &,fzG,f&m/
rumour ^'&l;.rm^ aumvm[v/
sensible ^'pJ(ef).p.b,f(vf)^ oifhwifhavsmufywfaom/
sniff ^(pf)epf(zf)^ erf;Munfhonf/
statistics ^(pf)wuf.'wpf.(pf)wpf(uf)(pf)^ udef;*Pef;/ pm&if;Z,m;/
shop steward ^ a&Smh(yf).'(pf)wsL;.0yf('f)^ vkyfom;udk,fpm;vS,f/
'
stutter ^(pf)wwf.xm^ pum;xpfonf/ = stammer
varnish ^'ASm;.epf(&Sf)^ ta&mifwifqDjzifh ta&mifwifonf/

36
Unit
6 Adverbials

6.1 Adverbials
 0guswpfck\ Bud,mu azmfjyxm;onfh jyKvkyfrI (action) ^ jzpfwnfaerI (state) onf
rnfonfh tcsdefwGif (when)? rnfonfh ae&mü (where)? rnfonfh twGufaMumifh (why)?
rnfodkYrnfy(Hk how) jzpfysufaeonfudk azmfjyaom pum;vHk;^pum;pkonf adverbial jzpfyg
onf/ adjunct, disjunct ESifh conjunct [lí adverbial trsdK;tpm; (3)rsdK; &Sdonf/ atmufyg
0guswdk hwGif adverbial wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;ygonf/
1 I'll see you tomorrow morning. reufjzefreufrS awGUr,f/
2 Run quickly! jrefjrefajy;/
3 I'm not going to apologize. ig awmif;yefrSm r[kwfbl;/
4 The children were sitting on the floor.
uav;awG Murf;jyifay:rSm xdkifaeMuw,f/
5 I've got blisters on both feet.
ighajcaxmufESpfzufpvHk;rSm &nfMunfzkawG xGufaeNyD/
6 She has obviously forgotten to come.
olr vmzdkY arhoGm;NyDqdkwm aocsmw,f/
7 Toby shook the man's hand warmly.
wdkbDu tJ'Dvludk w&if;wESD; vufqGJEIwfqufw,f/
8 To be honest I think you're completely mistaken.
trSeftwdkif;ajym&&if rif; vHk;0 txifrSm;aew,fvdkY ig xifw,f/
9 Frankly, I'm not too happy about this.
yGifhyGifhvif;vif;ajym&&if 'geJYywfoufvdkY uRefawmf odyfNyD; rauseyfzl;/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

6.2 Adjuncts
 0gusxJwGifazmfjyxm;onfh action u rnfonfhae&m(where)? rnfonfhtcsdefwGif(when)?
rnfonfhtwGufaMumifh(why)? rnfodkYrnfyHk(how)? rnfonfht&mESifhtwl(with what)? rnfrQ
rsm;rsm;(how much) jzpfonf^&Sdonfudk azmfjyaom pum;vHk;(odkY) pum;pkrsm; onf adjunct
rsm;jzpfMuonf/ atmufyg 0guswdk hwGif adjunct wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 I'll see you at the match. NydKifyGJrSm qHkMur,f/ [where]
2 Are you coming this evening? 'Dnae rif; vmrSmvm;/ [when]

37
 3 Sue sings beautifully. pl; oDcsif;qdkwm t&rf; aumif;w,f/
4 You'll have to cut it with a knife. tJ'gudk "m;eJY jzwfrS &vdrfhr,f/
5 You did that on purpose! rif; tJ'gudk wrifoufouf vkyfwm/
6 I can't find my coat. ighukwftusÐ &SmvdkY rawGUbl;/
7 You must have left it somewhere.
rif; tJ'gudk wpfae&m&mrSm arhusefcJhwmyJ jzpf&r,f/
8 He bought some chocolates for her.
olu olrtwGuf acsmuvufawG 0,fay;cJhw,f/
9 It's amazing what you can buy on the internet.
tifwmeufuae 0,fvdkY&wJh t&mawGuawmh Mocsavmufw,f/

 0gusrsm;wGif (txl;ojzifh ar;cGef;0guswdk hwGif) adjunct rsm;onf a&SUqHk;rS vmEdkifonf/

atmufyg 0guswdk hwGif adjunct wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Here I am. uRefawmf 'DrSm/
2 Off you go. oGm;ayawmh/
3 When will you be leaving? b,fawmh oGm;rSmvJ/
4 To whom should I give the book? 'Dpmtkyfu b,folY ay;&rSmwkef;/
5 For what possible reason would she leave her children?
olru uav;awGudk bmtaMumif;eJY xm;cJhrSmvJ/

 adjunct rsm;onf 0gusrsm;wGif ESpfydkif;uGJvQuf &SdaeEdkifonf/ Oyrm -

1 Who should I give the book to? b,folYudk pmtkyfay;&rSmwkef;/
2 What should I mend the hole with? tJ'Dtaygufudk bmeJY zm&rSmwkef;/

 0guswpfckwGif adjunct wpfckxufru &SdEdkifonf/ Oyrm -

1 Miki didn't like his attitude at all. [2 adjuncts]
rDuDu olY&JUpdwfaeoabmxm;udk vHk;0 rBudKufbl;/
2 She sometimes wears pyjamas in the office for fun. [3 adjuncts]
olr[m ½Hk;cef;xJrSm n0wfpHkudk taysmfoabmeJY wpfcgwpfav 0wfw,f/
3 We always go to France with friends for our holidays.
uRefawmfwdkYu tm;vyf&ufc&D;xGuf&if oli,fcsif;awGeJYtwl jyifopfEdkifiHudk
tjrJ oGm;w,f/ [4 adjuncts]

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

38
6.3 Disjuncts
 0guswpfck\ disjunct onf xdk0gus\ usefaomtydkif;wGif ajymqdkaeaom taMumif;t&m
ESifh ywfoufí xifjrifcsufay;jcif;? rSwfcsufcsjcif;? a0zefjcif;wdkYudk jyKvkyfonf/
 disjunct onf ajymqdkol (speaker) \ ajymqdkyHk enf;vrf;udk azmfjyEdkifonf/
1 To be frank , that was a mistake. [to be frank = disjunct]
[= I, the speaker, am being frank when I say that that was a mistake]
yGifhyGifhvif;vif;ajym&&if^&Sif;&Sif;ajym&&if tJ'g[m trSm; wpfckygyJ/
2 Confidentially , he's not the right man for the job. [= I am speaking
confidentially when I say that he's not the right man for the job]
twGif;pum;ajym&&if ol[m tvkyftwGuf oifhawmfwJhol r[kwfbl;/
3 Strictly speaking , we shouldn't even be here.
trSeftwdkif;qdk&&if uRefawmfwdkYu 'DrSm &Sdawmifraeoifhbl;/

 ajymqdrk nfh taMumif;t&mESihf ywfoufonfh xifjrif,q

l csuf (opinion) wdk u
h v
kd nf; disjunct
u azmfjyEdkifonf/ xdk disjunct udk comment adverb [kvnf; ac:Muonf/
1 Wisely , John decided not to say anything. [wisely = disjunct]
[= I think it was wise that John decided not to say anything]
*Refu bmrSrajymzdkY qHk;jzwfcJhwm[m pOf;pm;ÓPf&Sd&m a&mufygw,f/
2 Fortunately , she didn't hurt herself badly when she fell.
[= I think it was fortunate that she didn't hurt herself badly when she fell]
vJuswkef;u olrudk,folr qdk;qdk;0g;0g; rxdcdkufrdwm uHaumif;w,f/
3 She'll possibly arrive tomorrow.
[= I think it is possible that she'll arrive tomorrow]
olr reufjzefa&mufr,fqdkwm jzpfaumif;jzpfEdkifw,f/
4 She was, unfortunately , not as good as we had hoped.
uHqdk;csifawmh olru arQmfvifhxm;oavmuf oabmraumif;bl;/
5 It was, admittedly , a very difficult job. [= I admit it was a very difficult job]
trSeftwdkif; 0efcH&&if tJ'Dtvkyf[m tvGefcufcJwJh tvkyfwpfckygyJ/
6 Perhaps she isn't coming at all.
olru vHk;0 vmrSmr[kwfbl;qdkwm jzpfaumif;jzpfEdkifw,f/
7 To my relief , the ambulance was not long in coming.
vlemwif,mOf tjrefa&mufvmcJhvdkY uRefawmf pdwfayghoGm;w,f/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 3 udk avhvmyg/

39
6.4 Conjuncts
 conjunct onf 0gusrsm;udk link ozG,f csdwfqufay;aom adverbial jzpfygonf/ conjunct
udk linking adverb [kvnf; ac:Muonf/ atmufyg 0guswdk hwGif conjunct wdk hudk rsOf;wm;
í jyxm;onf/
1 I don't want to go shopping. Besides , I don't have time to. [besides = conjunct]
ig aps;0,f rxGufcsifbl;/ 'ghtjyif oGm;zdkY tcsdefvnf; r&Sdbl;/
2 I don't want to take you to the pictures. I don't have time to, anyway.
rif;udk ½kyf&Sif vdkufrjycsifbl;/ b,fvdkyJjzpfjzpf vdkufjyzdkYvnf; tcsdef r&Sdbl;/
3 I don't really have time to go with you. However , I will if you want me to.
rif;eJYvdkufzdkY ighrSm tcsdefwu,fr&Sdbl;/ 'gayrJh vdkufapcsif&if vdkufcJhyghr,f/
4 We have sold all the paintings and made record profit. All in all , it has been a
most successful exhibition.
uRefawmfwdkY yef;csDum;tm;vHk; a&mif;cJh&NyD; pHcsdefwif tjrwf&cJhw,f/
tm;vHk;jcHKMunfh&if tJ'g[m tatmifjrifqHk; jyyGJwpfck jzpfcJhygw,f/
5 I'm not buying you a new bike for two reasons. Firstly , we can't affort it.
Secondly , you don't deserve it.
pufbD;topf 0,fray;zdkY taMumif; (2)csuf&Sdw,f/ yxrtaMumif;uawmh
igwdkY rwwfEdkifbl;/ 'kwd,taMumif;uawmh rif;u bD;topfeJ hrxdkufwefbl;/
6 Firstly , you don't deserve a new bike.
yxrqHk;taeeJY ajym&&if rif;u pufbD;topfeJY rxdkufwefbl;/
7 I missed my train. I therefore had to stay another night.
ig &xm; rrDvdkufzl;/ 'ghaMumifh aemufwpfn ig xyfae&OD;r,f/
8 On the one hand , we could go abroad for our holiday. On the other hand , it
might be better to stay in Myanmar.
wpfzufrSmu tm;vyf&ufc&D;pOftwGuf uRefawmfwdkY EdkifiHjcm;udk oGm;vdkY&w,f/
tjcm;wpfzufrSmawmh jrefrmjynfrSmaewmu ydkaumif;&if aumif;vdrfhr,f/

 pma&;om;&mwGif conjunct wdkYudk oHk;vQif tquftpyf rdaomaMumifh pmzwfolrsm; vG,ful

&Sif;vif;pGm em;vnfEdkifonf/ atmufyg toHk;rsm;aom conjunct rsm;udk avhvmyg/

1 yxrtaMumif;t&mtjyif aemufxyftaMumif;t&mwpfckudk azmfjyvdkaomtcgwGif (to add

another idea) xdk htjyif?onfhtjyif? 'Dtjyif? 'ghtjyif (furthermore, also, too, in addition,
moreover, besides, as well) ponfh pum;quf (conjunct) wdk hudk oHk;onf/

40
 2 yxr taMumif;t&mtjyif qef husifbuf aemufxyf taMumif;t&mwpfckudk azmfjyvdkaom
tcgwGif (to add an opposite idea) 'gayrJh? odk hygvQuf? rnfodk hqdkapumrl (however, on
the other hand, nevertheless, instead, nonetheless) ponfh conjunct wdk hudk oHk;onf/

3 taMumif;t&m? tjzpftysufwdk hudk tpdDtpOftwdkif; azmfjyvdkaomtcgwGif (to list idea

in time order/order of importance) yxrOD;pGm? yxrtaejzifh? 'kwd,taejzifh? xdk h
aemuf? aemufqHk;taejzifh (first, second, third, etc., first of all, then, next, after that,
finally)ponfh conjunct wdk hudk oHk;onf/

4 yxr taMumif;t&mtjyif tvm;wlaom aemufxyf taMumif;t&mwpfckudk azmfjyvdkaom

tcgwGif (to add similar idea) xdk th wl? xdek nf;wlpmG ? tvm;wlpmG ? onfjh yifvnf;? aemufNy;D
awmh? (similarly, likewise, also) ponfh conjunct wdk hudk oHk;onf/

5 taMumif;t&mwpfcktwGuf Oyrm ay;vdkaomtcg (to give an example) om"utaejzifh?

om"utm;jzifh? Oyrmtm;jzifh? (for example, for instance) ponfh conjunct wdk hudk oHk;onf/

6 taMumif;t&mwpfck\ tusdK;quf? tusdK;&v'fwdk hudk azmfjyvdkaomtcg (to give an effect/

result) xdk haMumifh? þtaMumif;aMumifh? 'ghaMumifh? odk hjzpfí? tusdK;&v'ftm;jzifh? tusdK;quf
taejzifh? (therefore, thus, consequently, hence, as a result, as a consequence)
ponfh conjunct wdk hudk oHk;onf/

7 azmfjyxm;onfh taMumif;t&mrsm;udk aumufcsufcs ^ ed*Hk;csKyf vdkaomtcg (to add a

conclusion) twdkcsKyftm;jzifh? tm;vHk;jcHKMunfhaomf? trSeftm;jzifh? wpfenf;tm;jzifhqdk&aomf?
wdkwkdajym&aomf? aemufqHk; ed*Hk;csKyftaejzifh? (in brief, all in all, indeed, in other words,
in short, in the end, in conclusion, in summary) ponfh conjunct wdk hudk oHk;onf/

 conjunct onf 0gusEp

S cf u
k kd link ozG,f csw
d q
f ufay;ouJo
h Ydk 0guswpfct
k wGi;f üvnf; clause
wdk hudk link vkyfay;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 The baby was crying, so I picked her up. [so = conjunct]
uav;u idkaevdkY uRefawmf aumufcsDvdkufw,f/
2 The dog was obviously friendly, yet it was afraid of us. [yet = conjunct]
acG;u (uRefawmfwdkYudk) &if;ESD;yHk&ayrJh aMumufaew,f/
3 I'm not buying you a new bike, firstly because we can't affort it and secondly
because you don't deserve it. [firstly= conjunct]

4 If you are ready, then I'll start. rif; tqifoifhjzpf&if pr,f/ [then = conjunct]

41
  and/or tp&Sa
d om conjunction (pum;quf) rsm;ESihf conjunct rsm;udk 0gusrsm;wGif twlwuG
,SOfwGJvQuf awGU&wwfonf/ Oyrm-
1 The dog was obviously friendly, and yet it was afraid of us.
[and = conjunction] [yet = conjunct]
2 We could go to France for our holidays or, on the other hand, we could go to
Spain. [or = conjunction] [on the other hand = conjunct]
tm;vyf&ufc&D;twGuf jyifopf oGm;vdkY&w,f 'grSr[kwf pydefudk oGm;vdkY&w,f/
3 You'd better leave now or else you might miss the bus. [else = conjunct]
rif; tck oGm;rS? roGm;&if um; rrDyJaevdrfhr,f/

EXERCISE 6

A atmufyg0gusrsm;wGif yg0ifaom adjunct rsm;udk rsO;f wm;jyyg/

1. He spoke in a very pompous manner.
2. He carved their names on a tree with a knife.
3. My brother lived in India for several years.
4. You're eating far too quickly.
5. She phones her mother every day.
6. When do you think they'll get here?
7. I love working in the garden on balmy summer evenings.
8. You can hear the noise five miles away.
9. We've been trying to persuade her to change her mind, but so far without
success.
10. What'll carry the food in?

B atmufyg0gusrsm;rS adverbial rsm;udk rsO;f wm;jyNy;D ¤if;wdo

Yk nf adjunct (od)Yk disjunct jzpf
aMumif; azmfjyyg/
1. The children watched her in silence.
2. Naturally, we'll be going by car.
3. Suddenly he began to feel sick.
4. She slapped his face angrily.
5. Briefly, what happened next was that someone started a fight.
6. Can you tell us briefly what happened?
7. I'll definitely be here tomorrow.
8. To be perfectly honest, I don't care if I win the prize.
9. I take my responsibilities very seriously.
10. Seriously, do you expect to be finished by next week?

42
C atmufyg0gusrsm;wGif adjunct onf rnfonfah r;cGe;f pmvH;k (when, where, how ponf) udk
ajzqdkaMumif; azmfjyyg/
1. We could hear footsteps in the other room.
2. We lay awake in bed all night wishing the rain would stop.
3. Answer all the questions to the best of your ability.
4. You have behaved very foolishly.
5. I hope to have finished this by the end of the month.
6. Fragile. Handle with care.
7. I so badly wanted to go to the party.
8. All over town, you see beggars in the street.
9. She does drive rather fast, but very carefully.
10. Normally I travel by bus.

D rsO;f wm; jyxm;onfh adverbial wdo

Yk nf adjunct (od)Yk conjunct jzpfaMumif; azmfjyyg/
1. The thieves divided the money equally between them.
2. Alison sings better than Moira.
3. If you come round to our house tonight, we can talk about the wedding then.
4. If you come to my office, then we can discuss the matter face to face.
5. Equally, I could come to your office.
6. As Doctor Johnson said while kicking a stone, I prove the existence of the
stone thus.
7. He kicked the stone, so he knew the stone existed.
8. That was a good throw, but I think I could throw the stone even further.
9. The government has made several mistakes, and furthermore, it has been
desperately trying to cover them up.
10. Incidentally, who was that man I saw you talking to over there?

Grammar Help 1

 0guswpfckwGif adverbial tjzpf tvkyfvkyfonfh pum;vHk;wpfvHk;om&Sdaom word onf

adverb jzpfygonf/ atmufyg 0guswdk hwGif adverb wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;ygonf/

1 Susan suddenly ran out of the room. [suddenly = adverb]

plZefu tcef;tjyifudk ½kwfw&uf ajy;xGufoGm;w,f/
2 She'll probably come tomorrow. olru reufjzef vmaumif; vmvdrfhr,f/
3 I wasn't thinking clearly. uRefawmfu &Sif;&Sif;av; rawG;rdcJhbl;/
4 Wisely, she refused to talk to the reporters.
owif;axmufawGeJ h pum;ajymzdkY jiif;y,fvdkufwm[m ÓPf&Sd&ma&mufw,f/
[= It was wise for her to refuse to talk to the reporters.]

43
Grammar Help 2

 adjunct ESifh udk rcGJjcm;EdkifaomaMumifh Za0Z0g jzpfwwfonf/ adjunct onf

complement
verb \ action ESifh ywfoufaom information udk ay;onf/ complement onf subject
(odkY) object ESifh ywfoufaom information udk ay;ygonf/ Oyrm -
1 You have behaved foolishly. [adjunct] rif;u rdkufrdkufrJrJ jyKrlcJhw,f/
2 You have been foolish. [subj. cpm.] rif;u rdkufrJ&muscJhNyD/
0gus 1 ü oif rdkufrJpGm jyKrlcJhonfudk foolishly [laom adjunct u azmfjyonf/
0gus 2 ü oif rdkufrJcJhonfudk foolish [laom subj. cpm. u ajymjyonf/
3 Rhona paints beautifully. ½dkem yef;csDqGJwm vSw,f/
4 I find Rhona's painting beautiful. ½dkem&JUyef;csDawGu vSw,fvdkY ig xifw,f/
0gus 3 ü ½dkemu yef;csDudk rnfodkYa&;qGJonfudk beautifully [laom adjunct u
azmfjyonf/ 0gus 4 ü ½dkem\ yef;csDum; vSonfudk beautiful [laom object
complement u azmfjyonf/

 adjunct rvdktyfaom (odkY) adjunct rygaom 0gusrsm;vnf; &Sdygonf/ Oyrm -

1 She wears pyjamas. olru n0wf 0wfpHk 0wfw,f/ [S+V+Obj.]
2 She likes chocolates. olru acsmuvuf BudKufw,f/ [S+V+Obj.]

 odkYaomf a&GUvsm;rI (movement)^wnfae&m(position)^tajctae ajymif;vJrI(a change

of condition) wdkYudk azmfjyaom put (odk h) be yg0ifaom 0guswdkYwGif adjunct yg&onf/

1 He put his bike in the garage. [NOT .... He put his bike.]
olu pufbD;udk um;*dka'gifxJrSm xm;w,f/
2 The boys were in the garden. [NOT .... The boys were.]

Grammar Help 3

 tcsdKU adverbial wdkYonf adjunct a&m disjunct yg jzpfEdkifonf/ Oyrm-

1 She told mefranklywhat she thought. [She was speaking frankly.]
adjunct

olr xifwmudk uRefawmfhudk yGifhyGifhvif;vif; ajymjyw,f/

Frankly , she's out of her mind. [I am speaking frankly.]
disjunct

&Sif;&Sif;ajym&&if olr ½l;aeNyD/

44
 2 You have behaved foolishly. [You were foolish.]
adjunct

rif;u rdkufrdkufrJrJ jyKrlcJhwmyJ/

Foolishly , she left her front door wide open. [I think it was foolish.]
disjunct

olru tdrfa&SUwHcg;udk tus,fBuD;zGifhxm;cJhwm[m rdkufrJ&muswmaygh/

3 He didn't explain things clearly. [He didn't explain things in a clear way.]
olu taMumif;t&mawGudk &Sif;&Sif;vif;vif; &Sif;rjycJhbl;/
Clearly , he didn't explain things. [It is clear that he didn't explain things.]
taMumif;t&mawGudk ol &Sif;rjycJhbl;qdkwm odomygw,f/

 pum;vHk;wpfvHk;u adjunct jzpfonfh^disjunct jzpfonfh tay:wGif rlwnfí txufyg 0gus

wdk h\ t"dyÜm,f ajymif;vJoGm;yHk? pum;vHk; txm;todk ae&majymif;vJoGm;yHkwdkYudk owdjyKyg/

Grammar Help 4

 equally, hence, otherwise, similarly, then ESifh thus tp&Sdaom adverbial tcsdKUonf
adjunct a&m conjunct yg jzpfEdkifonf/
1 I'll be back tomorrow. I'll do the job then. [then = adjunct - saying when]
reufjzef uRefawmf jyefvmr,f/ tJ'DtcgusrS uRefawmf tvkyf vkyfr,f/
2 Are you ready? Then, I'll begin. [Then = conjunct - linking the two statements]
rif; tqifoifhjzpfNyDvm;/ jzpfwJhtcsdefrSm ig pr,f/
0gus 1 wGif then onf tcsdefudk azmfjyaom adjunct jzpfonf/ odk haomf 0gus 2 wGif
then onf statement ESpfckudk qufay;aom conjunct jzpfygonf/

3 You know what this is about. Why pretend otherwise ( = that you do not)?
'g[m bmtaMumif;vJqdkwmudk rif; odw,f/ bmvdkY rod[efaqmif&wmvJ/
[otherwise = adjunct - saying how]

4 I'd better write it down, otherwise I'll forget it. [otherwise = conjunct]
cs a&;xm;rS? ra&;&if arhoGm;vdrfhr,f/
0gus 3 wGif otherwise onf trlt&mudkazmfjyaom adjunct jzpfonf/ odk haomf 0gus
4 wGif otherwise onf statement ESpfckudk qufay;aom conjunct jzpfygonf/

45
  conjunct a&m conjunction yg linking word tjzpf tvkyfvkyfMuonf/ xdkESpfck\ t"du
uGJjym;jcm;em;csufrSm 0guswpfckwGif conjunct ESpfck (odkY) conjunction + conjunct &SdEdkif
aomfvnf; 0guswpfckwGif conjunction wpfckxufydkNyD; rnfonfhtcgrQ r&SdEdkifyg/

1 The dog was obviously friendly, but it was afraid of us. [one conjunction]
2 The dog was obviously friendly, yet it was afraid of us. [one conjunct]
3 The dog was obviously friendly, yet all the same it was afraid of us.
[two conjuncts]
4 The dog was obviously friendly, and yet it was afraid of us.
[BUT NOT ..... The dog was obviously friendly, and but it was afraid of us.]
[conjunction + conjunct]

5 It was getting late, and therefore we were in a hurry. [conjunction + conjunct]
tcsdefu t&rf; aemufusaevdkY uRefawmfwdkY jrefjref vkyf&w,f/
6 The girl was frightened, and so she started to run. [conjunction + conjunct]
olru aMumufvefo
Y mG ;vdk h p ajy;awmhwmyJ/

 Glossary

ambulance ^'tJ(rf).AsL.vJh(ef)(pf)^ vlemwifum;/

balmy ^'bm;.rD^ nHoh uf aEG;axG;aom/
desperately ^''uf(pf).y.&uf(wf).vD^ tonf;toef/
fragile ^'(zf)&J h.*sdKif(vf)^ uGw
J wfaom/
handle ^'[J(ef).',f(vf)^ udik w
f ,
G o
f nf/
incidentally ^ tif(ef).pD.''Jh(ef).w.vD^ pum;rpyf/
'
persuade ^y.'apG (h 'f)^ azsmif;zsonf/
pompous ^'yGef;(rf).ywf(pf)^ [dwf[efrsm;aom/
pyjamas ^y.'*sm;.rwf(pf)^ tdy&f m0if 0wfp/kH [ = pajamas (AmE)]
slap ^(pf)vJh(yf)^ vuf0g;jzifh &ku
d o f nf/

46
Un
U n ii tt

7 Sentence Structure and

Grammatical Correctness
7.1 Functions

 0guswpfckrS pum;vHk;^pum;pk\ function qdkonfrSm xdkpum;vHk;^pum;pk yg0ifonfh

tcef;u@ (odkY) aqmif&Gufonfh tvkyfjzpfonf/ ,ckxdqdkvQif uRefawmfwdkYonf function
(7)ckudk awGUcJhNyD;ygNyD/ ¤if;(7)ckteuf (2)ckrSm subject ESifh predicate wdkY jzpfMuonf/
1 No-one told me anything. uRefawmfhudk b,folurS bmrS ajymrjycJhbl;/
subject

No-one told me anything.

predicate

2 She seemed all right yesterday. olrudk Munfh&wm tqifajyyHk&w,f/

subject

She seemed all right yesterday.

predicate

 predicate twGif;ü verb, direct object, indirect object, complement ESifh adverbial [lí
function (5)ck yg0ifEdkifonf/ Oyrm -

1 No-one told me anything.

predicate

No-one told me anything. [told = verb]

No-one told me anything. [anything = D.O.]
No-one told me anything. [me = I.O.]

2 She seemed all right yesterday.

predicate

She seemed all right yesterday. [all right = subj. cpm.]

She seemed all right yesterday. [yesterday = adv.]

7.2 Structure and Analysis

 0guswpfck\ tpdwftydkif;wpfckpDESifh ¤if;wdkY\ function udk azmfjyjcif;onf xdk0gus\
wnfaqmufyHk (structure) udk azmfjyjcif;yif jzpfygonf/ þuJhodkY structure udk azmfjyjcif;onf
0gusudk cGJjcrf;pdwfjzm avhvmjcif; (analyse vkyfjcif;)yif jzpfonf/

 0gustrsdK;tpm; rwlvQif 0guszGJUyHk (structure) rwlEdkifyg/ declarative sentence wGif

atmufyg structure rsm;vnf; &SdEdkifygonf/
1 The manlaughed. tJ'Dvlu &,fw,f/
S V

47
 2 The boyswere playingin the garden.
S V adverbial

uav;awG O,smOfxJrSm upm;aeMuw,f/

3 I likeice-cream. uRefawmf a&cJrkefY MudKufw,f/
S V D.O.

4 Hekissedheron the cheek. olu olr&JUyg;udk erf;w,f/

S V D.O. adverbial

5 I feel sad . uRefawmf 0rf;enf;w,f/

S V Cpm.

6 Youlookedgreatyesterday.
S V Cpm. adverbial

raeYwkef;u rif;u MunfhvdkYaumif;w,f/

7 Frankly I  never liked him.
adverbial S adverbial V D.O.

&Sif;&Sif;ajym&&if ig olYudk b,fwkef;urS oabmruscJhbl;/

 imperative 0gusrsm;wGif atmufyg structure rsm; &SdEdkifonf/

1 Run! ajy;/
V

2 Stopthat! tJ'gudk qufrvkyfeJY/

V D.O.

3 Bequiet! wdwfwdwfae/

V Cpm.

4 Speakmore slowly. 'Dhxuf aES;aES; ajymyg/

V adverbial

5 Yousit there . rif; tJ'DrSm xdkifyg/

S V adverbial

6 Down ! atmufudkiHkU/

Adverbial

7 Cookthe fishfor half an hourbefore adding the wine.

V D.O. adverbial adverbial

0dkif rxnfhcif ig;udk em&D0ufMumatmif csufjyKwfyg/

8 Givemethat bookat once!
V I.O. D.O. adverbial

tJ'Dpmtkyf ighudk tckcsufcsif; ay;/

 exclamatory sentence wGif atmufyg 0guszGJUyHkwdkY &SdEdkifonf/

1 What a lovely surprisethatwas!
Cpm. S V

tJ'guawmh ESpfoufp&maumif;wJh tHhtm;oifhzG,f wpfckyJ/

2 What a pretty dresssheis wearing!
D.O. S V

olr 0wfxm;wJh tusÐu odyfvSwmyJ/

48
 3 What a lovely surprise! ESpfouf tHhMop&mwpfckygyJ/
Cpm.

4 Youlittle rascal? rif; vl½Iyfuav;/

S Cpm.

txufazmfjyyg structure wdkYonf declarative, imperative ESifh exclamatory 0guswdkY\

0guszGJUyHkpH tcsdKUom jzpfygonf/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

7.3 Function slots

 oD;jcm; function wpfck&Sdonfh pum;vHk;^pum;pk wpfcku jznfhxm;aom 0gus\ tpdwftydkif;

udk function slot [k ac:onf/ Oyrm -
No-onetoldmeanything.
S V I.O. D.O.

No-one onf 0gus\ subject jzpfNyD; subject slot udk jznfhxm;onf/ told onf
verb jzpfNyD; verb slot udk jznfhxm;onf/ xdkenf;wl anything onf direct object
jzpfNyD; direct object slot udkjznfhxm;onf/

 function slot rsm;om yg0ifonfh atmufyg sentence framework rsm;udk avhvmyg/
 declarative sentences
subj. + verb [subj. = subject]
subj. + verb + adv. [adv. = adverbial]
subj. + verb + D.O. [D.O. = direct object]
subj. + verb + D.O. + adv.
subj. + verb + D.O. + obj. cpm. [obj. cpm. = object complement]
subj. + verb + I.O. + D.O. [I.O. = indirect object]
subj. + verb + subj. cpm.
subj. + verb + subj. cpm. + adv.
adv. + subj. + adv. + verb + D.O.

 imperative sentences

verb
verb + D.O.
verb + subj. cpm.
verb + adv.
verb + D.O. + adv. + adv.
subject + verb + adv.
adverbial

49
  exclamatory sentences
complement + subject + verb
direct object + subject + verb
complement
subject + complement

 real sentence rsm;udk &&Sd&ef function slot rsm;udk pum;vHk;^pum;pk trsdK;rsdK; ESifh enf;vrf;
rsm;pGmjzifh jznfhpGuf Edkifonf/ atmufyg sentence framework wGif function slot (4)ckudk
pum;vHk;rsm;jzifh jznfhpGufNyD; 0gusrsm; zGJ hxm;ygonf/

subject verb direct object adverbial

The girl was holding a pen in her right hand.

We needed more help yesterday.
You must drive the car confidently.
Mary made some coffee for us.

 atmufyg sentence framework wGif function slot (3)ck ygonf/ 0guszGJU&ef xdk function
slot rsm;udk pum;vHk;rsm;jzifh jznfhpGufEdkifonf/ Oyrm -

verb direct object adverbial

Drink your tea more slowly.

Treat her kindly.
Read the questions carefully.
Plant rose bushes in the garden.

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

7.4 Grammatical Correctness

 o'´genf;t& rSefuefaom? jynfhpHkaom 0gusrsm; jzpfap&ef 0guswpfckwGif rjzpfrae jznfh&
rnfh function slot rsm;udk oifah wmfaom pum;vH;k wdjYk zifh jznfph u
G x
f m;&rnf/ xdo
k Ykd jznfph u
G rf xm;
aom 0gusrsm;onf rjynfhpHkaom (odkY) o'´genf;t& rrSefaom 0gusrsm; jzpfMuonf/atmuf
yg Oyrm0gusrsm;onf rjynfhpHkaom (odkY) o'´genf;t& rrSefaom 0gusrsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 Stoodin the doorway. [subject slot udk jznfhpGufrxm;yg/]
2 Harryalmostoff his seat. [verb slot udk jznfhpGufrxm;yg/]
3 Maryreached. [direct object slot udk jznfhpGufrxm;yg/]
4 Tomseemed. [complement slot udk jznfhpGufrxm;yg/]
5 Sheputthe books. [adverbial slot udk jznfhpGufrxm;yg/]

50
EXERCISE 7
A atmufyg0guswo Ykd nf rjynfph akH om (od)Yk o'´genf;t& rrSeaf om 0gusrsm;jzpfMuonf/ xd0k gus
k yfaeonfh function slot rsm;udk azmfjyyg/
rsm;twGuf vdt
1. My grandmother to church every Sunday morning.
2. Was in a foul mood.
3. Sue bought yesterday.
4. Sam put his bike.
5. The two girls often by bus.
6. Roberta likes.
7. Rained last night.
8. Tom always a newspaper to read on the bus.
9. Computers very useful.
10. Did the dog catch?
11. The coffee cup was.
12. He often seemed.

B txufyg0gusrsm;\ function slot rsm;udk jznfhpGufNyD; o'´genf;t& rSefuefaom 0gusrsm;

tjzpf jyefvnf a&;om;azmfjyyg/

C atmufazmfjyyg sentence framework wpfcpk t

D wGuf 0gus(2)ckpD a&;om;azmfjyyg/
declarative sentences:
subject + verb
subject + verb + adverbial
subject + verb + direct object
subject + verb + direct object + adverbial
subject + verb + indirect object + direct object
subject + verb + complement
subject + verb + complement + adverbial

imperative sentences:
verb
verb + direct object
verb + complement
verb + adverbial
verb + direct object + adverbial
verb + indirect object + direct object + adverbial

51
Grammar Help 1

 basic sentence function (7)ckrmS subject, predicate, verb, direct object, indirect object,
complement ESifh adverbial wdkYjzpfMuonf/ complement udk subject complement ESifh
object complement [lí (2)ck xyfcGJEdkifonf/ adverbial udkvnf; adjunct, disjunct ESifh
conjunct [lí (3)ck xyfcGJEdkifonf/ sentence structure udk ydkí wdwdusus azmfjyvdkvQif
xdkodkY xyfcGJxm;onfh function wdkYudk toHk;jyKNyD; azmfjyEdkifonf/ atmufyg 0guswdk hü subject
complement (S. cpm.), object complement (obj. cpm.), adjunct ESifh disjunct wdk h tm;
toHk;jyKxm;onfudk awG hEkdifonf/
1 Youlooked great yesterday.
S V S. cpm. adjunct

2 Frankly I  never likedhim.

disjunct S adjunct V D.O.

3 What a lovely surprisethatwas!

S. cpm. S V

4 Theypaintedthe house pink .

S V D.O. obj. cpm.

Grammar Help 2

 0gustcsdKUwGif rjzpfrae jznfhpGuf&rnfh function slot rsm; yg0ifaomfvnf; tcsdKU0guswdkYwGif

xnfhvQifvnf;&? rxnfhvQifvnf;&onfh function slot rsm; yg0ifonf/ Oyrm-declarative
sentence rsm;wGif subject slot udk rjzpfrae jznfh&onf/ odkYaomf imperative sentence
wGif subject slot udk rxnfhvQifvnf; &onf/ Oyrm-
You sit there. rif; [dkrSmxdkif/ 
Sit there. [dkrSmxdkif/ 
 0guswpfck\ verb u transitive verb jzpfaevQif direct object ygudk yg&rnf/ Oyrm-
1 Hepersuadedher. [NOT ... He persuaded.]
S V D.O.

olu olrudk azsmif;zscJhw,f/

2 Haveyougotany money? [NOT ... Have you got?]
Aux S V D.O.

rif;rSm ydkufqH &Sdvm;/

 0guswpfck\ verb u linking verb jzpfaevQif complement yg&rnf/ Oyrm-

1 Her mouth went  dry . [NOT ... Her mouth went.]
linking verb complement

olr yg;pyfawG ajcmufaoGUoGm;w,f/

52
 2 She got very angry. [NOT ..... She got.]
linking verb complement

olr t&rf; pdwfqdk;oGm;w,f/

 0guswpfck\ verb u complex transitive verb jzpfaevQif direct object a&m object
complement yg yg&rnf/ Oyrm-
1 I will provethem wrong . [NOT ..... I will prove them.]
V D.O. obj. cpm.

olwdk h rSm;w,fqdkwmudk uRefawmf oufaojyr,f/

 2 Theyconsiderhimthe best man for the job.
V D.O. obj. cpm.

[NOT ... They consider him. NOR ... They consider the best man for the job.]
ol[m tJ'DtvkyftwGuf toifhawmfqHk;vl jzpfw,fvdkY olwdkYu ,lqMuw,f/

 put uJhodkYaom verb tcsdKU\ aemufwGif adverbial vdkufudk vdkuf&onf/ Oyrm-

1 Putthat boxover there. [NOT ..... Put that box.]
V D.O. adverbial

 Glossary

analysis ^t.'emh.v.ppf(pf)^ ydkif;jcm;pdwfjzm avhvmjcif;/

confidently ^'uGef h(ef).zpf.'Jh(ef)(wf).vD^ pdwc f svufcs ,HMk unfvQu/f
foul ^azmif;(vf)^ qdk;&Gm;aom/
mood ^rk ('f)^ pdwf/
in a foul mood pdwfqdk;aeaom/
rascal ^'&m;(pf).u,f(vf)^ vl&yI uf av;/ vlawuav;/
structure ^'(pf)(xf)&yf(cf).csm^ zGJ ph nf; wnfaqmufy/kH

53
Unit
8 Sentence Functions
and Parts of Speech

8.1 Parts of Speech (0gp*F)

 o'´genf;t& toHk;jyKyHkay:wGif rlwnfí pum;vHk;wdkYudk twef;tpm; (class) trsdK;rsdK; zGJUxm;
onf/ ¤if; word class wdkYudk parts of speech (0gp*F) [k ac:Muonf/ t*FvdyfpmwGif
0gp*F(9)rsdK; &Sdonf/
1 noun Oyrm- book, cat, stone, truth, beauty, Tom, opinion
2 pronoun Oyrm- I, me, you, myself, themselves, this, those
3 verb Oyrm- sit, run, eat, think, laugh, sew, come, add, be
4 adjective Oyrm- green, big, silly, extreme, childish, loud, mere
5 determiner Oyrm- a, an, the, some, any, which, my
6 adverb Oyrm- finally, very, yesterday, sometimes
7 preposition Oyrm- by, with, from, at, to, in
8 conjunction Oyrm- and, but, because, if, when, while, or, although
9 interjection Oyrm- alas, oh, gosh, ouch, hello, good-bye

8.2 Parts of Speech and Sentence Functions

 part of spechESifh sentence function ESpfckudk uGJuGJjym;jym; em;vnf&ef vdktyfygonf/
part of speech wpfckonf 0gustrsdK;rsdK;wGif function trsdK;rsdK;udk vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/

 noun onf 0guswpfck\ subject (odkY) direct object (odkY) indirect object (odkY) complement
tjzpfvkyfaqmifEdkifygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm0guswdk hü noun wdk hudk pmvHk;trnf;jzifh jyxm;NyD;
¤if;wdk h\ function wdk hudk rsOf;\atmufwGif azmfjyxm;onf/

1 KimsawJohnin the park. [Kim (noun) = subj.]

S D.O.

cif(rf)u *Ref(ef)udk yef;jcHxJrSm awGUcJhw,f/ [John (noun) = D.O.]

2 Boysdowoodworkandgirlslearncookery.
S D.O. S D.O.

a,mufsm;av;awGu vuform;twwfudk oif,lNyD; rdef;uav;awGu

tcsuftjyKwf ynmudk avhvmMuw,f/
3 RickybroughtTombooksto read.
S I.O. D.O.

&pfuDu wGef(rf)twGuf zwfp&m pmtkyfawG ,lvmw,f/

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 4 Both of themareteachers.
S. cpm.

olwdkYESpfOD;pvHk;u q&m^q&mr awGyg/

5 Theyelectedhimpresident.
obj. cpm.

olwdkYu olYudk or®wtjzpf a&G;aumuf wifajrmufcJhMuw,f/

 pronoun onfvnf; 0guswpfck\ subject (odkY) direct object (odkY) indirect object (odkY)
complement tjzpf vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/ Oyrm-

1 Whodidthat? tJ'gudk b,fol vkyfwmvJ/

S D.O.

2 Passmethat screwdriver, please. ighudk 0uftlvSnfh ay;OD;/

I.O.

3 Hello,it's me . [,fvdk/ tck ajymaewm ig yg/

S. cpm.

  part of speech wpfckonfoufqdkif&m function trsdK;rsdK;udk vkyfaqmifEdkifouJhokdY function

slot wpfae&mudkvnf; oufqdkif&m part of speech trsdK;rsdK;u jznfhpGufay;Edkifonf/

A subject ae&mudk noun (odkY) pronoun jzifh jznfhpGufEdkifonf/ Oyrm-

1 Sugar is sweet. [Sugar (noun) = subj.]
2 I love dogs. [ I (pronoun) = subj.]

B direct object ae&mudkvnf; noun (odkY) pronoun jzifh jznfhEdkifonf/ Oyrm-

1 We hate maths. [maths (noun) = D.O.]
2 Your mother loves you. [you (pronoun) = D.O.]

 complement slot udk noun (odkY) pronoun (odkY) adjective wdkYjzifh jznfhpGufEdkifonf/ Oyrm-
1 His parents are teachers. [teachers (noun) = subj. cpm]
olYrdbawGu q&m q&mrawGyg/
2 These shoes aren't mine. [mine (pronoun) = subj. cpm]
'D&SL;zdeyfawGu ighOpöm r[kwfbl;/
3 This medicine tastes awful. [awful (adjective) = subj. cpm]
'Daq;&J h t&omu qdk;vdkufwm/

 function slot wpfckudk pum;vHk; (word) wpfckjzifh jznfhpGufEdkifouJhokdY pum;pkrsm; (groups
of words) jzifhvnf; jznfhpGufEdkifygonf/ Oyrm-

55
 1 All dogs chase cats. [All dogs = subj. slot]
acG;awGu aMumifawGudk vdkufudkufavh&Sdw,f/
2 Running away won't solve your problem. [subject slot]
rif; xGufajy;vdkY rif;&J hjyóemu ajyvnfoGm;rSm r[kwfygbl;/
3 She could hear people's voices in the distance. [direct object slot]
cyfvSrf;vSrf;u vlawG&JU pum;ajymoHawGudk olr Mum;&w,f/
4 Would you like some milk in your coffee? [adverbial slot]
aumfzDxJrSm EGm;Ekd h xnfhrvm;/
 pum;wpfvHk;onf 0gustrsdK;rsdK;wGif function trsdK;rsdK;udk vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/ Oyrm-
1 I'll get the job done today. [today = adv.]
Today is your lucky day. [today = subj.]

2 The teacher told the students to be quiet. [the teacher = subj.]

I'm the teacher here. [the teacher = subj. cpm.]
If you want to know the answer, ask the teacher. [the teacher = D.O.]
The children gave the teacher a present. [the teacher = I.O.]

8.3 Sub-categories of the Parts of Speech

sentence function tcsdKUudk trsdK;tpm; xyfcGJEdkifouJhodkY part of speech tcsdKUudkvnf;

trsdK;tpm; xyfcGJEdkifonf/

 noun wdk hudk atmufygtwdkif; trsdK;tpm; cGJEdkifonf/

common noun (trsm;qdkif emrf) : people, animals, things, man, girl, dog, horse,
eagle, stone, house, anxiety, pleasure, etc
proper noun (wpfOD;qdkif emrf) : Tom, Marry, Paris, Japan, etc

concrete noun (j'yfxk&Sdaom emrf) : cat, man, house, ground, stone, wind,
chair, etc
abstract noun (j'yfxk r&Sdaom emrf) : anxiety, danger, fear, truth, beauty, jealousy,
etc
countable noun (a&wGuf &aom emrf) : boy, bird, flower, desk, book, wall, idea,
problem, etc
uncountable noun (a&wGufr&aomemrf) : electricity, music, information, furniture,
calmness, anger, etc

56
8.4 Adverbs
 teuft"dyÜg,fay: rlwnfí adverb (Bud,m0daooe)rsm;udkvnf; trsdK;tpm; cGJjcm;Edkifonf/
adverbs of time (tcsdefjy) Oyrm - now, soon, then, yesterday
adverbs of place (ae&mjy) Oyrm - here,there,somewhere,away
adverbs of manner (trlt&mjy) Oyrm - quickly, carefully, fast, well, badly
adverbs of negation (jiif;y,f) Oyrm - not, -n't
adverbs of degree (twdkif;twmjy) Oyrm - very, extremely, slightly
adverbs of comparison (EIdif;,SOfjy) Oyrm - more, less
adverbs of reason (taMumif;jy) Oyrm - therefore, so

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

8.5 Verbs
 main verb (odk h) lexical verb wdo
Yk nf vIy&f mS ;rI (action), vkyaf qmifr(I activity), tjzpftysuf
(event), cHpm;rI(feeling) ponfwdkYudk azmfjyMuonf/ Oyrm - get, learn, run, talk, ask,
work, buy, clean, fall, move, find, make, become, play, teach

 auxiliary verb (odk h) helping verb wdkYudk jzpfEdkifajc (possibility)? vdktyfrI (necessity)?
cGifhjyKrI (permission) ponfh idea rsm;udk azmfjy&ef (odk h) tense trsdK;rsdK; jyKvkyf&ef toHk;
jyKMuonf/ auxiliary verb rsm;rSm be, have, do, can, could, shall, should, will, would,
may, might, must wdk hjzpfMuonf/

 main verb wdkYudk atmufygtwdkif; trsdK;tpm; xyfcGJEdkifonf/

1 action verb wdo Yk nf vkyaf qmifcsu(f action)? vIy&f mS ;rI (activity)? tjzpftysu(f event)
pdwfydkif;qdkif&m pOf;pm;rI? odrI? vdkcsifqE´(mental process) wdkYudk azmfjyMuonf/ action
verb tcsdK hrSm say, know, come, find, get, give, like, live, need, want, smile,
stare, throw wdk hjzpfMuonf/

2 linking verb onf subject ESifh subject complement udk csdwfqufay;onf/ linking
verb tcsdK hrSm be, become, get, seem, feel, smell, taste wdk hjzpfMuonf/

3 transitive verb \aemufrS direct object vdkufonf/ transitive verb tcsdK hrSm own,
have, say, describe, hit, make, buy, love wdk hjzpfMuonf/

4 complex transitive verb \aemufrS direct object ESifh object complement

ESpfckpvHk; vdkufonf/
5 intransitive verb rSm direct object r&Sdyg/ intransitive verb tcsdK hrSm laugh,
come, kneel, live, sleep wdk hjzpfMuonf/

57
 auxiliary verb wdkYudk ESpfrsdK; xyfcGJEdkifonf/
1 primary auxiliary verb (3)ckudk tense rsm; jyKvkyf&mwGif oHk;onf/ xdk(3)ckrSm be
(am/is/are/was/were), have (have/has/had), do (do/does/did) wdk hjzpfMuonf/
2 modal auxiliary (odkY) modal verb wdkYudk cGifhjyK rjyK? jzpfEdkifajc &Sd r&Sd azmfjy&mwGif
oHk;onf/ modal auxiliary verb rsm;rSm can, could, shall, should, will, would, may,
might, must wdk hjzpfMuonf/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

EXERCISE 8
pmvHk;rnf;ESifh azmfjyxm;aom pum;vHk;onf rnfonfh part of speech jzpfNyD; rnfonfh
function udk vkyfaqmifaMumif; azmfjyyg/
Example: The noise grew louder.
Answer: The word louder is an adjective and is acting as a subject-
complement.
1. Sheila screamed in terror.
2. Her parents are doctors.
3. Can you smell gas?
4. Don't be silly.
5. I still have nightmares about failing my exams.
6. Mrs Wang pinned her granddaughter's pictures on the kitchen wall.
7. That's odd.
8. Otto searched desperately for the key.
9. I never thought of that!
10. It's time to leave.
11. When did she arrive?
12. Open this door now!
13. What are you doing?
14. Breakfast will be ready in a minute.
15. My wife will soon be here.

Grammar Help 1

 adverbial wdkYudkvnf; adverb rsm;uJhodkYyif trsdK;tpm; cGJjcm;Edkifonf/ Oyrm-

A adverbial of time: tcsdefjy Bud,m0daooe :

1 I'm too busy at the moment. tckavmavmq,f ig t&rf; tvky½f yI af ew,f/
adverbial of time

2 I'll do it later on . aemufrS tJ'gudk vkyfvdkufr,f/

adverbial of time

58
 B adverbial of place: ae&mjy Bud,m0daooe :

1 George was in the house. a*smh(*sf)u tdrfxJrSm &Sdw,f/

adverbial of place

2 The boys are at school . uav;awG ausmif;oGm;Muw,f/

adverbial of place

3 I've left my umbrella on the bus . bwfpfum;ay:rSm uRefawmf xD; arhusefcJhNyD/
adverbial of place

C adverbial of manner: enf;vrf;jy^trlt&mjy Bud,m0daooe :

1 She spoke in whisper . olru avoHav;eJY wdk;wdk; ajymw,f/

adverbial of manner

2 I did the whole job on my own . vkyfief;wpfckvHk;udk wpfa,mufwnf;vkyfcJhwm/

adverbial of manner

Grammar Help 2

 verb onf sentence function wpfck jzpfouJhodk h parts of speech wpfckvnf; jzpfonfudk
vnf; owdjyKyg/

 verb wpfckonf verb trsdK;tpm; wpfckru jzpfEdkifonf/ Oyrm-

 be onf primary auxiliary verb jzpfouJhokdY linking verb vnf; jzpfonf/
1 I am coming back. ig jyefvmawmhrSm/ [am = aux. verb]
2 I am Susan's father. igu plZefYtazyg/ [am = linking verb]

 have onf primary auxiliary verb a&m transitive verb yg jzpfonf/

1 I have come back. [have = aux. verb]
2 I have a lovely surprise for you. [have = Vt]

 get onf linking verb a&m transitive verb yg jzpfonf/

1 He got very angry. [got = linking verb]
2 He got a lovely surprise. [got = Vt]

 feel onf linking verb (odkY) transitive verb (odkY) intransitive verb jzpfEdkifonf/
1 He felt sad. [felt = linking verb]
2 He felt a tap on his shoulder. [felt = Vt]
olYycHk;udk wdkYvdkufwm ol odvdkufw,f/
3 He felt in his pocket for his key. [felt = Vi]
tdyfuyfxJu aomhudk ol vufeJ hprf;NyD; &Smw,f/

59
Unit
9 Vocatives and Exclamations

9.1 Vocatives
 vocative qdkonfrSm wpfa,mufa,muf^wpfckckudk wdkuf½dkuf trnfwyfí ac:a0:aom
pum;vHk; jzpfygonf/ vocative udk 0gus\ tpwGifvnf;aumif;? tqHk;wGifvnf;aumif; (odkY)
tv,fwGif vnf;aumif; awGUEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif vocative wdk hudk rsOf;
wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
Ladies and gentlemen , it is a great pleasure to be here today.
It's been a fine day, hasn't it, Mrs Jones?
Look at that, Jim.
You wait there, Jack , and I'll get a ladder.
You, boys , are just not working hard enough.

 uAsma&;om;&mwGif vocative wdk h\a&S hrS tdk(O) udk xnfhavh&Sdonf/

O Mary , go and call the cattle home. [Charles Kingsley]
Break, break, break, on thy cold grey stones, O Sea! [Alfred, Lord Tennyson]
O wild West Wind , thou breath of Autumn's being. [Percy Bysshe Shelley]

thy^odkif^onf your jzpfNyD; thou^aomif^onf you jzpffygonf/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

9.2 Exclamations (tmar!dwf)

 tHhMojcif;? emusifjcif;? MunfEl;0rf;ajrmufjcif;? a'gojzpfjcif; ponfh jyif;xefaom pdwfcHpm;rI
(strong emotion) udk azmfjyaom (od)Yk wpfa,mufa,mufu tjcm;wpfa,muf\ f tm½Hpk u
kd rf u
I kd
&&Sdatmif toHk;jyKaom pum;vHk;^pum;pkonf exclamation(tmar!dwf) jzpfygonf/
jrefrmpum;wGif tr,fav;? tvdkav;awmf? bk&m;a&? [if;? a[m? a[? atmf? tm; ponfh
tmar!dwfwkd h &Sdygonf/
 part of speech wpf c k j zpf o nf h interjection wG i f yg0if a om
pum;vHk;rsm;udk 0gus\
exclamation function slot wGif toHk;jyKEdkifonf/ interjection
\ jrefrmvdk t"dyÜm,frSm
tmar!dwf jzpfygonf/ exclamation \ t"dyÜm,frSmvnf; tmar!dwfyif jzpfygonf/
interjection onf part of speech wpfckjzpfNyD; exclamation onf sentence function
wpfckjzpfygonf/ atmufyg 0guswkd hwGif exclamation wdk hudk pmvHk;rnf;jzifh jyxm;onf/
1 Gosh, that's a big car! [Gosh = exclamation]

60
 2 My goodness, this is a heavy box.
3 Look, I'm not giving you any more money, and that's final.
4 Whoopee! I'm going to the circus tonight!
5 Ouch! That was sore!
6 Good heavens! Who told you that?
7 Damn it! I've left my umbrella on the bus.
8 Hey, you! Come here a minute. ( you onf vocative jzpfygonf/)

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

 goodbye, cheerio, hello, good evening tp&Sdaom y#doE¨m& EIwfcGef;quf pum;rsm;onf
vnf; exclamation rsm;jzpfMuonf/
1 Hello! My name's Eric.
2 I'll have to be going now. Goodbye.
3 How do you do? I'm very pleased to meet you.

 yes, no, ok, please, thanks, thank you wdkYudkvnf; exclamation trsdK;tpm;xJwGif
xnfhoGif;Edkifonf/
1 'Can you all hear me? 'Yes, we can hear you.'
2 'Did you see anything? 'No, I didn't see anything.'
3 Do you need any help? 'Yes, please.'

Grammar Help 1

 atmufyg 0gus (2)ckudk EIdif;,SOf avhvmMunfhyg/

1 You, boys, are not working hard enough.
2 You boys are not working hard enough.

0gus wGif you onf subject jzpfNyD; boys onf vocative jzpffygonf/
1
0gus 2 wGif You boys onf subject jzpffygonf/ ¤if;0guswGif vocative rygyg/
vocative wdk h\aemufwGif aumfrmcHNyD; a&;avh&Sdonfudk owdjyKyg/

Grammar Help 2

 gosh ^a*gh(&Sf)^, whoopee ^0k 'yD;^, ouch ^atmuf(csf)^, phew ^zsL;^, ugh ^tm;^,
wow^a0gif;^, alas ^t'vwf(pf)^ paom exclamation (tmar!dwf)rsm;onf pdwfcHpm;rIudk
azmfjyaom (od)Yk wpfzufof \l tm½Hpk u kd rf u
I kd &&Sad tmif toH;k jyKaom pum;vH;k rsm;om jzpfonf/
¤if;wdkYrSm oD;oef h t"dyÜm,f r&Sdyg/

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 1 Phew! That's a relief! I thought she'd recognize us.
2 Wow! Look at that cake!
3 Ugh! That's disgusting!
4 Hoy! What do you think your're doing?

 my goodness, good heavens, look here, oh dear, dear me, damn it tp&Sdaom
exclamation rsm;wGifvnf; ¤if;wdkY\ rl&if; t"dyÜm,fr&Sdyg/ pdwfcHpm;rIudk azmfjyjcif; (odkY)
wpfzufol tm½Hkpdkufvmatmif qGJaqmifjcif;twGufom oHk;jcif; jzpfygonf/ atmufyg
Oyrmrsm;udk avhvmMunfhyg/
1 Now look here, this won't do at all.
2 Good Lord, is that true?
3 Dear me, we seem to be lost.

 Quick Summary

 þ summary onf 0guswpfck\ basic element rsm;ESifh ywfoufNyD; Unit 2 rS Unit 9 txd
azmfjycJhonfh t"dutcsufrsm;udk jyefvnf tusOf;csKyf azmfjyjcif; jzpfygonf/
1 The subject of a sentence is the word or group of words that names the
person or thing talked about in the sentence. [Unit 2]

2 The predicate of a sentence is everything that is not part of the subject of the
sentence. [Unit 2]

The verb in a sentence is the word or group of words that says something
about what the subject of the sentence is doing, what is happening to the
subject of the sentence, etc. [Unit 2]

The verb in a sentence agrees with its subject. [Unit 3]

A verb that has a direct object is a transitive verb.

A verb that has no direct object is an intransitive verb. [Unit 4]

A verb that has both a direct object and a complement is a complex transitive
verb. [Unit 5]

3 The direct object of a sentence is the person or thing that is most directly
affected by the action or state described by the verb, for example, what the
subject of the sentence has, or gets, or does something to, or does something
with. [Unit 4]

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4 The word or word-group that describes the person or thing that the direct
object is given to or done for, etc is the indirect object of the sentence.[Unit 4]

5 A complement is a word or group of words that says something about the

subject or object of a sentence. [Unit 5]

A complement that says something about the subject of a sentence is a

subject - complement; a complement that says something about the direct
object of a sentence is an object - complement.

6 An adverbial is a word or group of words that provides information about

when, where, why, how, etc the action or state described in a sentence takes
place, or that makes some comment about what is said in the rest of the
sentence. [Unit 6]

The three types of adverbial are adjunct, disjunct and conjunct. [Unit 6]

An adjunct is an adverbial that describes where, when, why, how, for whom,
with what, how much, etc the action described in the sentence is carried out.
A disjunct is an adverbial that makes a comment about what is being said in
the rest of the sentence. A conjunct is an adverbial that serves as a link between
sentences or parts of sentences.

7 A vocative is a word or group of words used to address someone or something

directly. [Unit 9]

8 An exclamation is a word or group of words that expresses strong emotion,

such as surprise or pain or pleasure, or that is used to attract someone's
attention. [Unit 9]

9 The function of a word or word-group in a sentence is the role it plays in that

sentence, e.g. subject, verb, direct object, adverbial, etc. [Unit 7]

A function slot, or simply slot, is any part of a sentence that is, or could be,
filled by a word or word-group that has a particular function. [Unit 7]

10 A part of speech is a class of words that all have the same grammatical
characteristics, e.g. noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, etc. [Unit 8]

Words belonging to one part of speech may have different functions in a

sentence, and on the other hand words belonging to different parts of speech
may fulfil the same function in a sentence.

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 Part
3 Phrases and their Functions

  single word wpfckuhJodkYyif function slot wpfckudk ae&m

,lEdkifaom pum;vHk; 2-vHk; (odkY) 2-vHk;xufydkaom pum;pk
wpfpkudk phrase [k ac:onf/
Mary sings. [sings = word]
Mary is singing. [is singing = phrase]
Michael is here. [Michael = word]
Mary's father is here. [Mary's father = phrase]

  preposition (0dbwf)ESihf tpjyKaom phrase udk

prepositional phrase [k ac:onf/

in the water a&xJrSm [in = prep.]

on the table pm;yGJay:rSm [on = prep.]
Unit

10 What is a Phrase?
single adjective uhJodkY wpfckudk ae&m,lEdkif
function slot
Prepositional aom phrase udk adjective phrase [k ac:onf/
11 Phrases
a big dog [big = adj.]
Adjective Phrases a very big dog [very big = adj. phrase]
12 and Adjectival
Phrases

13 Noun Phrases single noun uhJodkY wpfckudk ae&m,lEdkifaom

function slot
phrase udk noun phrase [k ac:onf/
Adverb Phrases
14 and Adverbial John is here again. [John = noun]
Pharases
That old man is here again.
Verb Phrases and [That old man = noun ph.]
15 Phrasal Verbs

16 Co-ordination

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 adverb yg0ifNyD; adverb uhJodkY function slot
wpfckudk ae&m,lEdkifaom phrase udk adverb phrase [k
ac:onf/
Drive carefully. [carefully = adv.]
Drive very carefully! [very carefully = adv. ph.]

 single verb uhJodkY tvkyfvkyfEdkifaom phrase udk verb phrase [k ac:onf/

She sings beautifully. [sings = verb]
She is singing beautifully. [is singing = verb ph.]

 main verb \ aemufrS preposition (odkU) adverb (odkY) preposition + adverb

vdkufygaom pum;pkudk phrasal verb [k ac:onf/
This belongs to me. [to = prep.]
'gu ig ydkifwm/
She came back. [back = adv.]
olr jyefvmw,f/

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Unit
10 What is a Phrase?

10.1 Phrases
 0guswpfcktwGif;ü function slot wpfckudk ae&m,lxm;onfh pum;vHk;ESpfvHk; (odkY) ESpfvHk;
xufydkaom pum;pkwpfpkudk phrase [kac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrmwdk hudk avhvmyg/
1 Bruce laughed. [Bruce (noun) = subj.]
My grandfather laughed. [My grandfather (noun ph.) = subj.]
The old man laughed. [The old man (noun ph.) = subj.]

2 She kicked John hard. [John (noun) = D.O.]

She kicked John's leg hard. [John's leg (noun ph.) = D.O.]
She kicked John's sore lag hard. [John's sore leg (noun ph.) = D.O.]

3 He bought Kim some flowers. [Kim (noun) = I.O.]

He bought his mother some flowers. [his mother (noun ph.) = I.O.]
He bought his girlfriend's mother some flowers.
[his girlfriend's mother (noun ph.) = I.O.]

4 Sandra laughed. [laughed = verb]

Sandra was laughing. [was laughing = verb]
Sandra will be laughing. [will be laughing = verb]

5 She sings beautifully. [beautifully (adv.) = adverbial]

She sings absolutely beautifully. [absolutely beautifully (adv. ph.) = adverbial]
She sings so very beautifully. [so very beautifully (adv. ph.) = adverbial]

 preposition ESihf tpjyKxm;aom phrase onf prepositional phrase jzpfonf/ prepositional
phrase wdkYonf adverb phrase rsm;uJhodkYyif 0gusrsm;twGif;ü adverbial slot ae&mudk
,lEkdifonf/ atmufyg0guswkd hwGif adverbial slot ae&mudk ,lxm;onfh prepositional
phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;onf/

1 Why aren't you at school today? [at school (prep. ph.) = adverbial]
2 Most owls sleep during the day.
3 Your wife has been in an accident.
4 She stepped back in horror.
5 Under the circumstances , I think we should leave now.

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 þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help udk avhvmyg/

10.2 Heads

 rnfonfh phrase trsdK;tpm;jzpfonfudk t"dyÜm,fzGifhqdkaom pum;vHk;onf xdk phrase \

head jzpfonf/ noun onf noun phrase \ head jzpfonf/ Oyrm -

1 hot water [water (noun) = head]

2 John's new puppy [puppy (noun) = head]
3 a very silly mistake [mistake (noun) = head]

0gus 1 wGif water (noun)udk hot (adj.) u txl;jyKxm;onf/ xdk noun phrase \ head
onf noun jzpfonfh water jzpfygonf/ xdk henf;wl 0gus 2 rS puppy ESifh 0gus 3 rS
mistake wdk honfvnf; head rsm;jzpfMuygonf/

 adjective phrase \ onf xdkphrase twGif;&Sd adjective jzpfygonf/ atmufyg

head
Oyrm0gusrsm;wGif adjective phrase \ head wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
1 very silly [silly (adj.) = head]
2 quite surprisingly big [big (adj.) = head]
3 big enough [big (adj.) = head]

0gus 1 wGif silly (adj.) udk very (adv.) u txl;jyKxm;onf/ xdk adjective phrase \ head
onf adjective jzpfonfh silly jzpfygonf/ xdk henf;wl 0gus 2 ESifh 3 wdk hrS big (adj.)
onf head jzpfygonf/

 adverb phrase \ head onf xdk phrase \ main adverb jzpfygonf/

1 very foolishly [foolishly (main adv.) = head]

2 well enough [well (main adv.) = head]

 verb phrase \ head onf xdk phrase xJrS main verb yif jzpfygonf/
1 should have known [known (main verb) = head]
2 will be coming [coming (main verb) = head]

 prepositional phrase \ head onf xdk phrase udk tpysKd ;aom preposition om jzpfonf/

1 in the garden [in (prep.) = head]

2 with a knife [with (prep.) = head]
3 between you and me [between (prep.) = head]

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EXERCISE 10

A rsOf;om;xm;onfh atmufyg pum;pkwdkYonf phrase jzpfonf (odk h) rjzpfonfudk azmfjyyg/

1. These books are entirely suitable.
2. I've looked everywhere for my hiking boots.
3. Television is dreadful these days.
4. My cousin's wife went on holiday to Peru.
5. Sadly, she died of her injuries.
6. The plumber's bill should have been paid last week.
7. There's a terrible draught in this room.
8. My parents are very keen on sailing.
9. You're making too much noise.
10. A copper bracelet is said to be a cure for rheumatism.
11. She left home at the age of sixteen.
12. They saw various strange objects on the table.
13. A removal van pulled up outside the house.
14. Do you take sugar?
15. He pulled some coins out of his pocket.
16. Their daughter plays the piano and the harp.

B txufyg avhusichf ef;rS phrase rsm;onf rnfonfh function udk vkyaf qmifaMumif; azmfjyyg/

C rsOf;om;jyxm;onfh phrase rsm;\ trsdK;tpm; ( noun phrase, adjective phrase, verb

phrase ponf)udk azmfjyyg/ xdkYaemuf ¤if; phrase \ head word udk rSifjzifh 0dkif;jyyg/

1. We will consider your suggestion carefully.

2. There were some lovely little calves in the field.
3. Her criticisms were totally unjustified.
4. We stared at her in amazement.
5. By evening they had still not reached the farmhouse.
6. The hole needs to be just a little bit bigger.
7. Tim sat down and poured himself a very large whisky.
8. You must take a lot more exercise.
9. I was completely exhausted by the time I got home.
10. There were two small boys standing on the doorstep.
11. The bull's death could have been caused by any of a number of things.
12. That is a very serious allegation.
13. Have you ever been to France?
14. He was leaning against the wall when suddenly it collapsed.

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 15. An even more worrying thought occurred to her.
16. I ran home very quickly indeed after that.
17. There's no point in making yet another unsuccessful attempt.
18. How could you believe such nonsense?
19. The hole isn't quite big enough.
20. Luckily I was wearing my steel-toed boots.

Grammar Help

 atmufyg 0gusudk avhvmyg/

Although he lives in a very small flat, Tom owns quite surprisingly big dogs.
object

wGefrfu wdkufcef;ao;ao;rSm aeayr,fh tawmfhudk tHhMop&maumif;avmuf

atmif BuD;rm;wJh acG;awGudk arG;xm;w,f/
[quite surprisingly big = adj. ph.]
[quite surprisingly big dogs (noun ph.) = object]

txufyg 0guswGif adjective phrase onf noun phrase \ tpdwftydkif;wpfckom jzpfNyD;

function slot wpfckudk ae&m,lxm;jcif; r&Sdyg/ xdk adjective phrase u dogs udk modify
vkyfxm;NyD; noun phrase uom object slot udk ae&m,lxm;onf/

 atmufyg 0gusudk avhvmMunfhyg/

Tom's dogs are quite surprisingly big.
subj. cpm.

quite surprisingly big onf adjective phrase jzpfNy;D subject-complement slot wpfcv
k ;kH udk
ae&m,lxm;onf/

 atmufyg 0gusudkvnf; avhvmyg/

Tom lives in a small flat with quite surprisingly big dogs.
adverbial

[quite surprisingly big = adj. ph.]

[quite surprisingly big dogs = noun ph.]
[with quite surprisingly big dogs = prep. ph.]

txufyg 0guswGif prepositional phrase u adverbial function slot wpfckvHk;udk jznfhxm;

onf/ txufazmfjyyg adjective phrase uvnf;aumif;? noun phrase uvnf;aumif;
adverbial slot \ ae&mudk r,lEdkifyg/ prepositional phrase uom adverbial function
slot wpfckvHk;udk ae&m ,lxm;ygonf/

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 Glossary

allegation ^ tmh.v.'a*;.&Sif;(ef)^ pGyfpGJcsuf/

'
attempt ^t.'xJh(rf)(wf)^ BudK;yrf;rI/
boot ^bk h(wf)^ bGwfzdeyf/
bull ^bl;(vf)^ EGm;xD;/
bracelet ^'(bf)a& h(pf).vuf(wf)^ vufaumuf/
calf ^cg;(zf)^ EGm;i,fav;/ calves EGm;i,fav;rsm;/
collapse ^c.'vuf(yf)(pf)^ NydKvJonf/
cousin ^'cyf.Zif(ef)^ wpf0rf;uGJ nDtudkarmifESr/
criticism ^'(cf)&pf.wD.pD.Zif(rf)^ a0zefcsuf/
dreadful ^'('f)&uf('f).zl(vf)^ raumif;aom/
exhausted ^tpf(*f).'aZmh.(pf).wpf('f)^ ajcukefvufyef;usaom/
hiking ^'[dkuf.uif(if)^ ajcvsifc&D;xGufjcif;/
horror ^'a[mh.&m^ aMumuf&GH hxdwfvef hjcif;/
lean ^vD;...(ef)^ rSDonf/
nonsense ^'aemh(ef).pJh(ef)(pf)^ t"dyÜm,fr&Sdaom pum;/
occur ^t.'cg;^ jzpfyGg;onf/
plumber ^'(yf)vrf;.rm^ a&ydkuform;/ (^'(yf)vrf;.bm^[k toHrxGuf&/)
re'moval van
'
^&.'rl;.A,f(vf). AJ(ef)^ tdrfajymif;&mwGif ypönf;o,fonfh tvHkydwfum;/
rheumatism ^'&l;.r.wpf.Zif(rf' )^ tqpftrsufudkufcJaom a,mufsm;a&m*g/ 'lvm/
suitable ^'pl;.w.b,f(vf)^ oifhavsmfaom/
surprisingly ^p.'(yf)&kduf.Zif;(if).vD^ tHhMop&maumif;avmufatmif/
terrible ^'xm;.&.b,f(vf)^ qdk;0g;aom/
unjustified ^tef(ef).'*syf(pf).wpf.zdkif;('f)^ w&m;enf;vrf;rusaom/
under the circumstances tajctaet&/ ^'qm;.uef(rf).(pf)wef h.ppf(pf)^

70
Unit
11 Prepositional Phrases

11.1 Prepositional Phrases

 preposition aemufrS noun/pronoun/noun-phrase/adverb vdkufygonfh phrase onf
prepositional phrase jzpfonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;wGif prepositional phrase
wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
1 Who's the man talking to George? [to George = prep. ph.]
a*smh(*sf) eJ hpum;ajymaewJh vlu b,folvJ/
2 We saw her in town the other day.
vGefcJhwJh &uftenf;i,fu uRefawmfwdk h olrudk NrdK hxJrSm awG hvdkufw,f/
3 They managed it between them.
tJ'gudk olwdk hESpfa,mufxJeJ hyJ NyD;pD;atmif aqmif&Gufvdkufw,f/
4 Shona was playing with her new puppy.
&Id;emu olr&J hacG;uav;eJ h upm;aew,f/
5 Children have to learn to eat with a knife and fork.
uav;awG[m ZGef;? cuf&if;eJ hpm;wwfatmif oif,lxm;&r,f/
6 In 1965 I was still at school.
1965 ckESpfrSm uRefawmf ausmif;wufaewkef;yg/
7 To whom should I address my remarks?
uRefawmf&J h a0zefcsufudk b,fol hudk wdkuf½kdufajymjy&rvJ/
8 Since when have you been in charge here?
rif; 'DrSm BuD;Muyfaewm b,fESpfuwnf;uvJ/
9 What's in there? [there = adverb]
tJ'DxJrSm bmawG&SdvJ/ [in there = prep. ph.]

 wpfcgwpf&HwGif udk ESpfydkif; cGJxm;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -

prepositional phrase
1 Who did you give it to? tJ'gudk rif; b,fol hudk ay;vdkufwmvJ/
2 What can I cut it with? 'gudk bmeJ h jzwf&rSmvJ/
3 What are we standing here for? 'DrSm uRefawmfwdk h bmvdk h &yfaeMuwmvJ/

 prepositional phrase wGif prepositiononf head jzpfNyD; usefaomtydkif;onf object

(odk h) complement of the preposition jzpfygonf/ Oyrm -

71
 1 in silence [in = prep.] [silence = obj. of prep.]
2 on the bed
3 with difficulty
4 to my room

 prepositional phrase wpfco

k nf olx
Y ufyí
kd &Snv
f sm;aom prepositional phrase wpfc\
k
complement jzpfEkdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 There was a lot of noise coming from behind the door.
wHcg;aemufu xGufvmwJh qlnHoHawGu rsm;vdkufwm/
txufyg0guswiG f behind the door (prep. ph.) onf from (prep.) \ complement
jzpfygonf/
2 Some very odd-looking creatures crawled out from under the stones.
tvGefxl;qef;wJh owå0gtcsdKU ausmufwHk;awGatmufae wa&GUa&GUxGufvmw,f/
txufyg0guswiG f under the stones (prep. ph.) onf from (prep.) \ complement
jzpfygonf/

 preposition \ complement jzpfEkdifonhf tjcm; pum;pk ESifh 0gusu@rsm;vnf; &Sdygonf/

1 In saying that, I don't wish to sound rude.
tJ'gudk ajym&mrSm ½dkif;jywJhavoH rygcsifbl;/
txufyg0guswiG f saying that (gerund) onf in (prep.) \ complement jzpfygonf/
2 From what John said, I don't think he was very pleased.
*Ref(ef)ajymykHt&qkd&if ol odyfNyD; auseyfw,fvkdY uRefawmf rxifbl;/
txufyg 0guswGif what John said (noun clause) onf from (prep.) \
complement jzpfygonf/

 prepositional phrase udk adverb u txl;jyK (modify vkyf) Ekdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 The dog was lying right beside the gate.
*dwf&JU uyf&uf ab;em;rSm acG;wpfaumif 0yfaew,f/
txufyg 0guswGif right (adv.) u beside the gate (prep. ph.) udk txl;jyKonf/
2 The dungeons are directly beneath us.
ajratmuf tusOf;cef;awGu uRefawmfwkdY&JU atmuf wnfhwnfh rSm &Sdw,f/
txufyg 0guswGif directly (adv.) u beneath us (prep. ph.) udk txl;jyKonf/

72
 3 I'm not doing this simply for my benefit.
uRefawmfh tusdK; oufouf twGuf 'gudk uRefawmf vkyfaewmr[kwfbl;/
txufyg0guswGif simply (adv.) u for my benefit (prep. ph.) udk txl;jyKonf/

 wpfcgwpf&HwGif txl;ojzihf idiom wdkYwGif prepositional phrase rsm;onf twGJvdkuf vmEkdif

onf/ Oyrm -
1 The dog was wagging its tail from side to side.
acG;u tNrD;udk eef haew,f/ [from = prep.] [to = prep.]

2 I see him from time to time. [from time to time = sometimes]

uRefawmf olYudk wpfcgwpf&H awGUavh&Sdw,f/
3 We're going to clean this house from top to bottom.
uRefawmfwkdY 'Dtdrfudk wpftdrfvHk;tEHSU oefY&Sif;MurvdkY/
[from top to bottom = completely and thoroughly]

4 Jenny was grinning from ear to ear.

*sJeDu jyHK;NzD;aewmyJ/
[grin from ear to ear = to be smiling a lot]

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

11.2 Functions of Prepositional Phrases

 prepositional phrase wk\ Yd t"du function (tvky)f rsm;rSmadverbial (adjuncts, disjuncts,
ESihf conjuncts) ESihf complement (subject-complement ESihf object-complement) wkdY
jzpfMuonf/
1 prepositional phrase udk when, where, how, with what, for whom ponfwu
Ydk kd ajzqdo
k nhf
adjunct tjzpf oHk;Ekdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 The cat was on the table. [where]
aMumifu pm;yGJay:rSm a&mufaew,f/
2 In Scotland it sometimes snows in summer. [where & when]
paumhwvefEkdifiHrSm aEG&moDrSm wpfcgwpfav ESif;uswwfw,f/
3 I paint with great enthusiasm but with little skill. [how]
uRefawmf yef;csDqGJ&if pdwftm;xufoefrI rsm;ayrJh uRrf;usifrI enf;w,f/
4 I even baked a cake for her. [for whom]
uRefawmfu olrtwGuf udwfrkef hawmif zkwfay;cJhwm/

73
 2 0gus\useaf omtydik ;f udk rSwcf su?f a0zefcsuaf y;onfh disjunct tjzpf prepositional phrase
udk oHk;Edkifonf/
1 To my surprise , there was no-one there. [to my surprise = disjunct]
tJ'DrSm b,folrS r&SdvkdY uRefawmf tHhtm;oihfoGm;w,f/
2 To Mrs Brown's relief , the storm hadn't damaged her fruit bushes.
rkefwdkif;aMumifh olr&JU opfyifoD;yifawGudk rysufpD;cJhvdkY rpöpfba&mif;(ef)
pdwfoufom&m &cJhw,f/ [to Mrs Brown's relief = disjunct]

3 In all fairness , I don't think we can blame her for what happened.
bufrvdkufyJ ajym&&if jzpfysufcJhwmawGtwGuf olrudk igwkdY tjypfwifoifh
w,fvdkY ig rxifbl;/ [in all fairness = disjunct]

3 0gusrsm;udk link vkyfay;onhf conjunct tjzpf prepositional phrase wdk hudk oHk;Edkifonf/
1 In the first place , you don't know how to dive. For another thing , you
can't afford it. [in the first place = conjunct]
yxrOD;qHk;taMumif;&if;uawmh rif;u b,fvdk 'dkufAifxdk;&r,fqdkwm
rodbl;/ aemufwpfcsufu rif;taeeJY rvkyfoihfbl;/
2 You're not going diving. For a start , you can't swim.
rif; 'dkufAifxdk;usifhzdk h roGm;&bl;/ yxrwpfcsufu rif;u a&rul;wwfbl;/
4 prepositional phrase wdk hudk subject-complement tjzpf oHk;Ekdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 Your work is of great value. [of great value = subj. cpm.]
rif;&JUtvkyfu wefzdk;&Sdw,f/
2 His opinion is of little interest to me.
ol&JUtMuHÓPfudk ig odyfNyD; pdwfr0ifpm;bl;/
5 prepositional phrase wdk hudk object-complement tjzpf oHk;Ekdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 We considered the information of little importance. [information = Obj.]
'Dowif;tcsuftvufu odyfta&;rBuD;bl;vdkY igwkYd ,lqw,f/
2 He found the work boring and beneath his dignity. [work = Obj.]
olY&JUtvkyfu ysif;&dNiD;aiGUzG,faumif;w,f? *kPfi,fw,fvdkY olu xifw,f/

 prepositional phrase onf ¤if;\a&SUwGi&

f adS om noun udk adjective uJo
h yYkd if txl;jyKEidk o
f nf/
1 Who is that man with red hair? [= that red-haired man]
qHyifteDa&mifeJYvlu b,folvJ/ [with red hair = adj. phrase]

74
 2 He is a man of honour. [a man of honour = an honourable man]
olu *kPfodu©m&SdwJh vlwpfOD;yg/ [man = noun] [of honour = adj. phrase]

3 They greeted us with screams of delight. [= delighted screams]

olwkdYu uRefawmfwkdYudk 0rf;ajrmufaysmf&TifpGmeJY pDnHoGm;atmif BudKqdk
EIwfqufMuw,f/ [scream = noun] [of delight = adj. ph.]

4 The train at platform 6 is the 10.35 to London Euston.

yvufazmif;(6)rSm&SdwJh &xm;u vef'ef ,lpwefudk 10;35 rSm xGufr,fh
&xm; jzpfygw,f/ [train = noun] [at platform 6 = adj. ph.]

5 The light at the front door suddenly went out.

a&SUwHcg;aygufrSm&SdwJh rD;u ½kwfw&uf ysufoGm;w,f/
6 Who wrote ' The Man in the Iron Mask'?
]]oHrsufESmzkH;eJY vl}} 0w¦Kudk b,fol a&;cJhwmvJ/
0gus 1 wGif with red hair (prep. ph.) onf that man (noun) udk txl;jyKonf/ 0gus
2 wGif of honour (prep. ph.) onf a man (noun) udk txl;jyKonf/ usefaom
0guswdk hwGifvnf; prepositional phrase wdk honf ¤if;\a&SUwGif&Sdaom noun wkd hudk
txl;jyKMuonf/

 prepositional phrase onf ¤if;\aemufu vdkufaom noun udkvnf; txl;jyKEdkifonf/

1 He made a few off-the-cuff remarks and sat down again.
[a few off-the-cuff remarks = a few unprepared remarks, thought up at the
time of speaking] [off-the-cuff = prep. ph.]
olu a0zefcsuftcsdKUudk vufwef; ajymNyD; wzefjyefNyD; xdkifcsvdkufw,f/
2 These offences are subject to on-the-spot fines.
[on-the-spot fines = immediate fines] [on-the-spot = prep. ph.]
'DjypfrIlawGu 'PfaiG csufcsif; wyfvdkY&w,f/
3 I don't like his in-your-face style of speaking.
[in-your-face style of speaking = rather aggressive style of speaking]
olU&JU&efvdkwJh ajymyHkqdkyHkudk uRefawmf rBudKufbl;/
4 We need an in-depth survey of the state of the roads.
vrf;awG&JUtajctaeawGudk aphaphpyfpyf ppfaMumzdkY vdktyfw,f/

 prepositional phrase onf adjective (odkY) not udkvnf; modify vkyfEdkifonf/

1 Your behaviour was foolish in the extreme. [= extremely foolish]
rif;&JUtjyKtrlawG[m tvGefrdkufrJ&m usaeNyD/

75
 2 We weren't worried in the slightest.
uRefawmfwdkYuawmh enf;enf;rS rpdk;&drfbl;/
3 I am not in the least surprised.
uRefawmfu enf;enf;av;awmif rtHhMobl;/
0gus 1 wGif in the extreme (prep. ph.) onf foolish (adj.) udk txl;jyKonf/ 0gus
2 wGif in the slightest (prep. ph.) onf worried (adj.) udk txl;jyKonf/ 0gus 3
wGif in the least (prep. ph.) onf not (adv.) udk txl;jyKonf/

 prepositional phrase onf adjective, verb, noun, adverb wdk \

h complement tjzpfvnf;
vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;wGif adjective, verb, noun, adverb wdk h\
complement tjzpf vkyfaqmiffonfh prepositional phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;onf/

1 My parents are very keen on opera. [keen = adj.]

uRefawmfhrdbawGu atmfy&mjyZmwfudk tvGefpdwf0ifpm;w,f/
0gus 1 wGif on opera (prep. ph.) onf keen (adj.) \ complement jzpfyg
onf/
2 She is very fond of her grandchildren. [fond = adj.]
olru ajr;awGudk tvGefcspfcifw,f/ [of her grandchildren = cpm.]

3 There's no need to be afraid of dogs. [afraid = adj.]

acG;awGudk aMumufp&mrvdkbl;/ [of dogs = cpm.]

4 The dog was very possessive about its puppies.

tJ'aD cG;u olu
Y av;awGukd &iftyk rf uGm xm;w,f/ [possessive = adj.]

5 My daughter is very good with horses. [good = adj.]

uRefawmfhorD;u jrif;awGudk aumif;aumif; udkifwG,fxdef;odrf;Edkifw,f/
6 I've decided on the black dress. [decide = verb]
uRefruawmh teufa&mif *g0efudk a&G;cs,fvdkufNyD/
7 Tom insisted on a vote. [insist = verb]
wGef(rf) u rJcGJzdkY r&t& awmif;qdkcJhw,f/
8 I won't comment on that. [comment = verb]
tJ'geJ hywfoufvdk h uRefawmf rSwfcsufay;rSm r[kwfbl;/
9 At this very moment there are people who are dying of hunger.
tckajymaecsdefrSmyJ iwfrGwfaevdkY aoqHk;&awmhr,fh vlawG &Sdaew,f/
10 There's no point in our being here. [point = noun]
igwdkY 'DrSm a&mufaevdkY tusdK;aus;Zl; r&SdEdkifbl;/

76
 11 What is the purpose of this visit? [purpose = noun]
'Dvdk vmvnfwm&JU &nf&G,fcsufu bmvJ/
12 Could we have a jug of water, please? [jug = noun]
aus;Zl;jyKNyD;awmh a& wpfu&m;avmuf &rvm;/
13 I think I got an unfair share of the blame. [share = noun]
uRefawmfhudk rw&m; ydkNyD; tjypfwifw,fvdkY uRefawmf xifw,f/
14 She shows a remarkable aptitude for mathematics.
olrrSm xl;jcm;wJh ocsFmyg&rD&Sdwm odomw,f/ [aptitude = noun]

15 She quickly moved away from the wall. [away = adverb]

olru eH&Huae a0;&mudk jrefjref a&TUoGm;w,f/

11.3 How to distinguish between similar Prepositional Phrases

 adverbial tjzpf vkyfaqmifaom prepositional phrase ESifh adjective/verb/noun/adverb
wdkY\ complement tjzpf vkyfaqmifaom prepositional phrase wdkYonf wpfcgwpf&HwGif
tvGef qifwlMuonf/ atmufyg 0guswpfpHkpD\ uGJjym;jcm;em;rIudk owdjyKí avhvmyg/
1 Mary was sick on the bus. [adverbial - says where she was sick]
ar&Du bwfpfum;ay:rSm tefcJhw,f/ [on the bus (prep. ph.) = adv.]

2 Mary was sick of waiting. [complement - says what she was sick of]
ar&Du apmifh&wmudk pdwfukefaeNyD/ [of waiting (prep. ph.) = cpm.]

0gus 1 wGif on the bus (prep. ph.) onf rnfonfhae&mwGif tefcJhonfudk

azmfjyaom adverbial jzpfygonf/ 0gus 2 wGif of waiting (prep. ph.) onf
rnfonfhtaMumif; t&mudk pdwfukefaMumif; azmfjyonfh twGufaMumifh ¤if;
onf sick (adj.) \ complement jzpfygonf/
3 She decided on the way home. [adverbial - says when she decided]
tdrfjyefvmcsdefrSm qHk;jzwfcsufcscJhw,f/ [on the way home = adv..]

4 She decided on the black dress. [complement - says what she chose]
olru *g0efteufudk a&G;cs,fcJhw,f/ [on the black dress = cpm.]

0gus 3 wGif on the way home (prep. ph.) onf rnfonfhtcsdefwGif qHk;jzwf
csufcscJhonfudk azmfjyaom adverbial jzpfygonf/ 0gus 4 wGif on the black
dress (prep. ph.) onf rnfonfht&mudk a&G;cs,fcJhaMumif; azmfjyonfh twGuf
aMumifh ¤if;onf decide (verb) \ complement jzpfygonf/
5 She shows great skill for such a young girl. [adverbial - makes a comment]
uav;ru t&G,feJ hrrQ t&rf; uRrf;usifw,f/

77
 6 She shows great skill in tapestry. [complement - says what she is skiful at]
olru a&Tcsnfxdk;&mrSm tvGef uRrf;usifw,f/
0gus 5 wGif for such a young girl (prep. ph.) onf xifjrifcsufudk azmfjyaom
adverbial jzpfygonf/ 0gus 6 wGif in tapestry (prep. ph.) onf olr uRrf;usif
aom t&mudk azmfjyonfh twGuaf Mumifh ¤if;onf skill (noun) \ complement
jzpfygonf/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

 noun udk modify vkyfaom prepositional phrase ESifh noun \ complement jzpfaom
prepositional phrase wdkYudk cGJjcm;&ef cufonf/ atmufyg 0guswpfpHkpD\ uGJjym;jcm;em;rIudk
owdjyKí avhvmyg/
1a The bag on the table is mine. [on the table = adj. ph.]
[modification - identifies which bag]
pm;yGJay:u tdwfu uRefawmfhOpömyg/
1b She was holding a bag of potatoes. [of potatoes = cpm.]
[complement - says what was in the bag]
olru tmvl; wpftdwfudk ayGUudkifxm;w,f/
0gus 1a wGif on the table (prep. ph.) onf the bag (noun) udk txl;jyKonf/
odk haomf 0gus 1b wGif of potatoes (prep. ph.) onf bag (noun) \
complement omjzpfygonf/

2 The answer in the book is wrong. pmtkyfxJu tajzu rSm;w,f/

[modification - identifies where the answer is]

The answer to your problem lies in yourself.

[complement - gives information about what the answer relates to]
rif;&J hjyóemtwGuf tajzu rif;qDrSmyJ &Sdw,f/
3 The problems in the office can easily be sorted out.
[modification - says where the problems are]
½Hk;cef;xJu jyóemawGudk tvG,fwul ukdifwG,fajz&Sif;vdk h &Ekdifygw,f/
The problem with John is that he's too shy.
[complement - gives information about who the problem relates to]
*Ref htwGuf jyóemuawmh t&rf; &SufwwfwmyJ/

78
 0guswpfckwGif prepositional phrase ESpfckonf vkyfaqmifrI function wpfckpDjzifh ab;csif;
,SOfvsuf &SdaeEdkifonf/
1 Her grandmother was sitting in an armchair with her cat.
olr&JUtzGm;u aMumifav;eJYtwl ukvm;xdkifay:rSm xdkifaew,f/
[in an armchair (prep. ph.) / with her cat (prep. ph.) = adverbial ph.]

2 Her grandmother was sitting in an armchair with her cat beside her.
olr&JUtzGm;u ab;u aMumifav;eJYtwl ukvm;xdkifay:rSm xdkifaew,f/
[in an armchair / with her cat / beside her (prep. ph.) = adverbial ph.]

3 Her grandmother was sitting in an armchair with a cup of tea

in her hand.
olr&JUtzGm;u vufxJrSm vufzuf&nfcGufudk udkifNyD; ukvm;xdkifay:rSm
xdkifaew,f/
[in an armchair / with a cup of tea / in her hand (prep. ph.) = adverbial ph.]
[of tea (prep. ph.) onf cup (noun) \ complement jzpfygonf/]
4 Her grandmother was sitting in an armchair with old, frayed cushions.
olr&JUtzGm;u ul&SifawG pkwfzGmaewJh ukvm;xdkifay:rSm xdkifaew,f/
[in an armchair = adverbial ph.] [with old, frayed cushions = adjectival ph.]
[adjectival ph. u armchair (noun) udk txl;jyKonf/]
5 Who lives in that house on the hill?
awmifukef;ay:u tdrfrSm b,fol aewmvJ/
[in that house = adverbial ph.] [on the hill = adjectival ph.]
[on the hill (adjectival ph.) u house (noun) udk txl;jyKonf/]

EXERCISE 11
A atmufyg 0gusrsm;rS prepositional phrase rsm;udk a&G;xkwfjyyg/ xdk prepositional wpfckpD\
head udk rsOf;om;jyNyD; complement udk rSifjzifh 0dkif;jyyg/

1. In the corner, on a blanket, lay a huge black cat.

2. The match was cancelled because of the weather.
3. In Britain such a thing would never have happened.
4. Where are we going to?
5. I waited anxiously for her reply.
6. Amongst other things, I'm a writer.
7. On behalf of my family, I would like to thank you all for your good wishes.
8. We got the car started without much trouble.
9. Apart from the kitchen it's a lovely flat.
10. With increasing alarm, she looked to see if the man was still there.

79
 11. She pulled out a box from under the bed.
12. He pressed a coin into the man's hand.

B atmufyg0gusrsm;rS prepositional phrase rsm;udk a&G;xkwfNyD; ¤if;wdkY\ function wkd hudk

azmfjyyg/
1. The meal was eaten in silence.
2. To their horror, the vase slipped from his grasp and fell to the floor.
3. She studied the picture for a few minutes with great interest.
4. The man in front of me seemed to have lost his wallet.
5. This dress is meant to be worn off the shoulder.
6. She was wearing an off-the-shoulder dress.
7. The Smiths live in the house on the corner of the street.
8. I don't mind in the least.
9. The clothes were lying in a pile on the floor.
10. The clothes in that pile on the floor are mine.
11. In my opinion, we're lost.
12. If you pull and I push at the same time, we should manage to move the car.
13. In that case, I'll let you decide what to do.
14. There's a bird with a broken wing in the garden.

C atmufyg0gusrsm;rS prepositional phrase rsm;onf adjunt, complement ESifh modifying

noun tvkyf(3)ckteuf rnfonfhtvkyf(function)udk vkyfaqmifaMumif; azmfjyyg/

1. He raised the cup to his lips and drank deeply.

2. This is an exception to the general rule.
3. I saw a strange man on the bus.
4. The man on the bus was wearing a tattered old coat.
5. Molly was rather surprised at Tom's behaviour.
6. The boat was heading away at full speed.
7. Mrs Park wasn't pleased at the delay.
8. There's no doubt about it. That's the man I saw.
9. Gradually the noise behind them died away.
10. The house has rather suffered from neglect recently.
11. Put the toys in that box.
12. The little girl was glowing with pride.

80
Grammar Help 1

 pum;vHk;(2)vHk; (odkY) (3)vHk;ygaomfvnf; single preposition wpfcktjzpf vkyfaqmifonfh

complex preposition rsm;vnf; &Sdonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;wGif complex
preposition wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;ygonf/

1 There's no-one here apart from me. [apart from = complex prep.]
uRefawmfuvGJvdkY 'DrSm b,folrS r&Sdbl;/
2 They were standing in front of the shop.
qkdif&JUa&SUrSm olwkdY &yfaeMuw,f/
3 In spite of the rain, we still had a picnic.
rkd;&GmayrJh uRefawmfwdk h aysmfyGJpm;chJMuw,f/
4 The play had to be cancelled due to the illness of the leading lady.
acgif;aqmifrif;orD; aeraumif;vkdY jyZmwfudk tpDtpOfzsufvdkuf&w,f/

 toHk;rsm;aom complex preposition wdk hudk atmufwGif azmfjyxm;ygonf/

according to for the sake of in reference to
along with in accordance with in regard to
apart from in addition to in spite of
away from in/on behalf of in stead of
because of in case of in the event of
by dint of in comparison to on account of
by means of in compliance with owing to
by reason of in consequence of with a view to
by virtue of in course of with an eye to
by way of in favour of with reference to
conformably to in lieu of with respect to
due to in order to with regard to
except for in place of

Grammar Help 2

 adverbial wdkYudk 0gus\ a&SUqHk;odkY a&TUí xm;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -

1 On the bus, Mary was sick. [on the bus = adverbial]
2 On the way home, She decided.
3 For such a young girl, she shows great skill.

81
  odk ah omf complement wdo Yk nf ¤if;wdYk modify vkyo f nfh pum;vH;k rsm;\ aemufrS vdu
k &f ojzifh
¤if;wdkYudk 0gus\a&SUqHk;odkYydkY&ef rjzpfEdkifyg/ Oyrm -
Mary was sick of waiting.  [NOT ......... Of waiting Mary was sick.]
She decided on the black dress. [NOT .....On the black dress she decided.]
She shows great skill in tapestry.  [NOT ... In tapestry she shows great skill.]

 adverbial ESihf complement wd\

Yk aemufxyfjcm;em;csuf wpfcrk mS adverbial tjzpf vkyaf qmif
Edkifaom prepositional phrase wpfckwGif preposition tcsdK hudk ajymif;vJí oHk;Edkifonf/
Oyrm -
Mary was sick on the bus. bwfpfum;ay:rSm (tefcJhw,f/)
Mary was sick in the car. um;xJrSm
at the bus-stop. bwfpfum;rSwfwdkifrSm
Mary was sick over the floor. Murf;jyifay:rSm
Mary was sick beside the telephone. zkef;ab;rSm
 complement tjzpf vkyfaqmifEdkifaom prepositional phrase wGif preposition udk a&G;cs,f
&mü uefYowfcsufrsm; &Sdonf/ Oyrm -
Mary was sick of waiting. 
Mary was sick at waiting. 
Mary was sick on waiting.

 pum;wpfvHk;onf ¤if;\aemufrSvdkufygaom preposition tay: rlwnfí teuft"dyÜg,f

uGJjym;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 She is good at maths. [good at sth = be able to do sth well]
olru ocsFmwGufwm awmfw,f/
She is good with children. [good with sb = able to deal with people well]
olru uav;awGudk xdef;odrf;udkifwG,fwm awmfw,f/
Fruit is good for you. [good for sth = having a helpful effect on sth]
opfoD;pm;wm[m oifh usef;rma&;twGuf aumif;w,f/
2 He was angry at delay. [angry at sth]
aESmifhaES;Muef hMumvdkY ol pdwfqdk;wm/
He was angry with you because you were late. [angry with sb]
rif; aemufusvdkY rif;udk olu pdwfqdk;aewm/

82
 Glossary

anxiously ^'tJh(if).&Syf(pf).vD^ pdk;&drfaMumifhMuvsuf&Sdaom/

aptitude ^'tJh(yf).wD.usK h(wf)^ yifudkpGrf;&nf/ yg&rD/
deeply ^''d(yf).vD^ tvGeftrif;/
delay ^'pf.'av;^ aESmifhaES; Muef hMumrI/
die a'way ^ 'dkif;.,.'a0;^ (toH)wdrfoGm;onf/ (av)NidrfoGm;onf/
' '
dignity ^''pf(*f).e.wD^ *kPfodu©m/ £ajE´/
dungeon ^''ef;(ef).*sif(ef)^ ajratmuf tusOf;wdkuf/
enthusiasm ^tif(ef).'(of),l;.ZD.,mh.Zif(rf)^ pdwftm;xufoefrI/ wuf<urI/
exception ^tpf(cf).'puf(yf).&Sif;(ef)^ >cif;csuf/
frayed ^(zf)a&;('f)^ tem;rsm; zGmaeaom/
glow ^(*f)vdk;^ 0if;yaeonf/
grasp ^(*f)&mh(pf)(yf)^ qkyfudkifjcif;/
grin ^(*f)&if;(ef)^ (oGm;ay:atmif) jyHK;onf/
neglect ^epf.'(*f)vuf(cf)(wf)^ ypfxm;jcif;/
opinion ^t.'zif;(ef).,ef(ef)^ xifjrifcsuf/
pile ^zdkif;(vf)^ tyHk/
slip ^(pf)vpf(yf)^ avQmusonf/
tapestry ^'xJh.ypf.(pf)BwD^ a&Tcsnfxdk; yef;csDum;/ a&Tcsnfxdk; ydwfp/
tattered ^'xm.hxuf(wf)^ pkwfjywfaeaom/

83
Unit
Adjective Phrases
12
and Adjectival Phrases
12.1 Adjective Phrases
 0guswpfckwGif single adjective uJhodkY vkyfaqmifNyD; adjective u head tjzpf yg&Sdonfh
phrase onf adjective phrase jzpfonf/

1 Her behaviour was unbelievable. [adj.]

olr&JU tjyKtrlu r,HkEdkifp&myJ/
2 Her behaviour was absolutely unbelievable. [adj. ph.]
olr&JU tjyKtrlu vHk;0 r,HkEdkifp&myJ/
0gus 1 wGif unbelievable onf subj. cpm tjzpf vkyfaqmifaom adj. jzpfyg
onf/ 0gus 2 wGif absolutely unbelievable onf subj. cpm tjzpf vkyaf qmif
aom adj. phrase jzpfygonf/
3 It was a happy marriage. [adj.]
tJ'g[m om,mwJh tdrfaxmifa&;wpfckygyJ/
4 It was a very happy marriage. [adj. ph.]
tJ'g[m tvGef om,mwJh tdrfaxmifa&;wpfckygyJ/
0gus 3 wGif happy (adj.) onf marriage (noun) udk modify vkyfxm;onf/
0gus 4 wGif very happy (adj. ph.) onf marriage (noun) udk modify vkyx
f m;
ygonf/
5 We considered her behaviour unacceptable. [adj.]
olr&JU tjyKtrlu vufcHEdkifp&mr&Sdbl;vdkY uRefawmfwdkY ,lqw,f/
6 We considered her behaviour completely unacceptable. [adj. ph.]
olr&JU tjyKtrlu vHk;0 vufcHEdkifp&m r&Sdbl;vdkY uRefawmfwdkY ,lqw,f/

 adjective phrase \ head onf xdk phrase xJwGifygonfh adjective yifjzpfygonf/ atmuf
yg Oyrm 0gusrsm;wGif head wdk hudk atmufrS rsOf;wm;í jyxm;ygonf/
absolutely unbelievable ,HkEdkifp&m vHk;0 r&SdwJh
quite good tawmf aumif;wJh
really easy wu,fhudk vG,fwJh

84
 þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help udk avhvmyg/

12.2 Functions of Adjective Phrases

adjective uJhodkYyif adjective phrase wdkYwGifvnf; t"du function (2) ck&Sdonf/
 adjective phrase onf noun udk modify vkyfonf/
1 a very exciting proposal t&rf; pdwfvIyf&Sm;p&m tqdkjyKcsufwpfck
2 a surprisingly easy exam tHhMoavmufatmif vG,fwJh pmar;yGJ
3 a good enough result aumif;w,fvdkY qdkEdkifwJh&v'f
 adjective phrase onf subject-complement (odkY) object-complement tjzpf vkyfaqmif
Edkifonf/ atmufyg 0gusrsm;wGif adjective phrase wdk hudk pmvHk;rnf;jzifh jyxm;ygonf/
1 Her proposal was very exciting. [very exciting = subj. cpm.]
olr&JU tqdkjyKcsufu pdwfvIyf&Sm;p&maumif;w,f/
2 The results were good enough. [good enough = subj. cpm.]
&v'fawGu tawmf aumif;ygw,f/
3 That was awfully silly of you, wasn't it? [awfully silly = subj. cpm.]
tJ'guawmh rif; tvGefqdk;&Gm; rdkufrJwmyJ/
4 You've made us very proud. [very proud = obj. cpm.]
rif;aMumifh igwdkYd *kPfwufcJhNyD/
5 Pat the fruit completely dry with some kitchen paper.
opfoD;awGudk ajcmufaoG hoGm;atmif rD;zdkacsmifoHk; puúLeJY zGzGav; okwfyg/
0gus 1, 2 ESifh 3 wdk hwGif adjective phrase wdk honf subj.-cpm. tjzpf tvkyf vkyf
Muonf/ 0gus 4 ESifh 5 wdk hwGif adjective phrase wdk honf obj.-cpm. tjzpf
vkyfaqmifMuonf/

12.3 Adjective Phrases and Adjectival Phrases

 adjective u head tjzpf &Sdaeonfh phrase onf adjective phrase jzpfonf/ atmufyg
0gusrsm;wGif adjective phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
1 I was absolutely amazed at what I saw. [absolutely amazed = adj. ph.]
ig jrifcJhwJht&mudk ig vHk;0 tHhMow,f/ [absolutely = adv.] [amazed = adj.]

2 The dog was extremely protective of the baby.

acG;u uav;udk tvGefYtvGef tumtuG,fay;vdkfwJh pdwf&Sdw,f/

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 3 She was wearing quite ridiculous shoes.
awmfawmfhudk &,fp&maumif;wJh zdeyfawGudk olru pD;xm;w,f/
4 Can't you find something more sensible to do?
'DxufydkNyD;awmh oifhwifhavsmufywfwJh tvkyfudk rif; r&SmEdkifbl;vm;/
 adjective uJhodkY vkyfaqmifEdkifaom rnfonfh phrase udkrqdk adjectival phrase [kac:onf/
xdkYaMumifh adjective phrase wdkYomru noun phrase, prepositional phrase ESifh tjcm;
phrase wdkYonfvnf; adjective tvkyfudk vkyfaevQif adjectival phrase [k trsdK;tpm;
owfrSwfEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;wGif adjectival phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD;
jyxm;ygonf/
1 We had a five-hour delay at the airport. [NOT ..... five-hours delay]
uRefawmfwdkY avqdyfrSm (5)em&Davmuf Muef hMumoGm;w,f/
2 It was very much a last-minute decision.
tJ'gu teD;uyfrS qHk;jzwfvdkuf&wJh qHk;jzwfcsufwpfckyg/
3 This is a good example of a 15th-century castle.
'gu (15) &mpkESpf &Jwdkuf&JU taumif;qHk; pHerlemwpfck jzpfygw,f/
4 Our company believes in on-the-job training.
vkyfief;cGifxJrSm oifMum; avhusifhay;wm[m aumif;w,fvdkY uRefawmfwdkY
ukrÜPDu ,HkMunfw,f/
5 We've done an in-depth survey.
aphpyfaocsmwJh qef;ppfavhvmcsufawGudk uRefawmfwdkY vkyfNyD;ygNyD/
6 I must have reliable, up-to-date information.
,HkMunf&wJh aemufqHk;& owif;tcsuftvufawG uRefawmfhrSm &Sdae&r,f/
7 I need a fast-acting medicine.
uRefawmhftwGuf jrefqef xda&mufwJhaq; vdktyfaew,f/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Spelling Note udk avhvmyg/

EXERCISE 12
A atmufyg 0gusrsm;wGif yg0ifaom adjective phrase rsm;udk rsOf;wm;jyyg/
1. That wasn't very sensible, was it?
2. Exercise is very good for you.
3. We knew we were totally lost.
4. She's absolutely impervious to criticism.
5. The trees were completely covered in golden leaves.
6. We're very proud of our children.

86
 7. I'm really surprised at your behaviour.
8. How on earth can you be feeling so calm about all this?
9. There is an extremely small risk of contamination.
10. We were utterly exhausted.

B txufyg 0gusrsm;wGif adjective wdkY\aemufrS complement rsm; yg&SdEdkifonf/

xdk complement rsm;udk azmfjyyg/

C atmufyg 0gusrsm;wGif adjectival phrase wdkYudk atmufrS rsOf;om;jyNyD; vdktyfaomae&m

wdkYü hyphen xnfhay;yg/
1. A first past the post voting system means that the candidate who gets the
most votes wins.
2. The most sensible way of going about this would be to borrow the money from
a bank.
3. This is the all in one solution to all your decorating problems.
4. The country has a serious balance of payments problem.
5. She's a totally normal teenager.
6. There was something strangely familiar about the man.
7. Meeting the president was a never to be forgotten experience.
8. She glanced at him with an oh my goodness look on her face.

Grammar Help

 adjective phrase wdk hwGif adjective ESifh trsm;qHk; twlwuG awGU&aom pum;vHk;rsm;rSm
very, slightly, extremely, really, fairly, quite, pretty, so, enough tp&Sdonfh adverb rsm;
jzpfygonf/ adjective phrase wGif adverb u adjective udk modify vkyfonf/ qdkvdkonfrSm
adjective \ t"dyÜm,f oufa&mufrIudk ydkí rsm;oGm;atmif (odkY) ydkí enf;oGm;atmif adverb
u jyKvkyfay;onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;udk avhvmyg/
1 She was really angry. olru wu,f pdwfqdk;oGm;wm/
2 I was very surprised. ig t&rf; tHhMooGm;w,f/
3 She was slightly annoyed. olr enf;enf;awm
awmh pdwfwdkoGm;w,f/
4 I was somewhat surprised. ig awmfawmfav; tHhMooGm;w,f/
Spelling Note

 noun \a&SUrSaeí noun udk txl;jyKaom adjective phrase wdkYwGif hyphen rvdktyfyg/
1 an absolutely incredible idea
tvGefYtvGefaumif;wJh tMuHÓPf

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 2 a strong enough piece of wood
tawmfcdkifwJh opfom;acsmif;
3 a widely held belief
vltrsm;u rSefw,fvdkY xifwJh ,HkMunfcsufwpfck
4 socially unacceptable behaviour
vlrIqufqHa&;rSm vufrcHEdkifp&m tjyKtrl
 noun \a&SUrSaeí txl;jyKaom tjcm; adjective phrase wdkYwGif hyphen xnfh&onf/
1 an up-to-date report aemufqHk;& tpD&ifcHpm
2 a slow-moving vehicle taES;,mOf
 odkYaomfvnf; wpfcgwpf&HwGif single idea jzpfaMumif;odap&ef -ly ESifhqHk;aom adverb ESifh
adjective Mum;wGif hypen xnfhavh&Sdonf/

1 mentally-handicapped children pdwfydkif;qdkif&m csdKU,Gif;aewJh uav;awG

2 a lightly-boiled egg rusufwusuf jyKwfxm;wJh MuufO
 well, better, best, ill, worse, worst, fast, little ponfh -ly rygaom adverb rsm;udk adjective
rsm;ESifh rSm;Edkifojzifh hyphen xnfh&onf/
1 a well-known writer ausmfMum;wJh pma&;q&mwpfOD;
2 an ill-conceived plan cyfnHhnHh pDrHxm;wJh pDrHudef;wpfck
3 a little-known fact vlodenf;wJh tcsufwpfcsuf
 tcsdKUae&mrsm;wGif hyphen rvdktyfyg/
She is well known as a writer. olru pma&;q&mrtjzpf ausmfMum;w,f/

 Glossary

annoyed ^t.'EGdKifh('f)^ pdwfwdkaom/

incredible ^tif(ef).'(cf)&uf.'pf.b,f(vf)^ tvGefYtvGef aumif;aom/
handicapped ^'[Jh(ef).'D.cJh(yf)^ csdK h,Gif;aom/
ill-conceived ^ tif;(vf).cif(ef).'pd(Af)('f)^ nHhzsif;pGm pDrHxm;aom/
'
impervious ^tif(rf).'yg;.AD.,yf(pf)^ cHEdkif&nf&Sdaom/
calm ^cg;(rf)^ pdwfvIyf&Sm;jcif; r&Sdaom/
risk ^&pf(pf)(cf)^ tEÅ&m,f/
contamination ^uif(ef). xmh.r.'ae;.&Sif(ef)^ npfnrf;rIjzpfyGg;jcif;/
'
utterly ^'tyf.x.vD^ vHk;0/
decorate ^''uf.c.&dwf(wf)^ aq;okwfjyKjyif tvSqifonf/
glance ^(*f)vef h(ef)(pf)^ zswfceJ Munfhonf/

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Unit
13 Noun Phrases

13.1 Noun Phrases

 0guswpfckwGif (odkY) &Snfvsm;aom phrase wpfckwGif single noun/ pronoun uJhodkY function
slot wpfckudk ae&m,lEdkifNyD; noun u head jzpfaeonfh phrase udk noun phrase [k ac:
onf/ atmufyg 0guswpfpHkpD\ uGJjym;jcm;em;rIudk owdjyKí avhvmyg/
1a Dogs frighten me. [dogs (noun) = subj.]
acG;qdk&if uRefawmf vefYw,f/
1b Big dogs frighten me. [big dogs (noun ph.) = subj.]
acG;BuD;awGqdk&if uRefawmf vefYw,f/
0gus 1a wGif dogs (noun) onf subject slot ae&mukd,lxm;onf/ 0gus 1b
wGif big dogs (noun phrase) onf subject slot ae&mukd ,lxm;ygonf/ xdk h
aMumifh noun phrase onf noun/ pronoun uJhodkY function slot wpfckudk ae&m
,lEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;udk qufvuf avhvmyg/
2 She ran outside to play. [she (pronoun) = subj.]
olru upm;zdkY tdrftjyifudk ajy;xGufoGm;w,f/
The little girl ran outside to play. [the little girl (noun ph.) = subj.]
uav;ru upm;zdkY tdrftjyifudk ajy;xGufoGm;w,f/
3 Don't touch that. [that (pronoun) = obj.]
tJ'gudk rxdeJY/
Don't touch those books. [those books (noun ph.) = obj.]
tJ'D pmtkyfawGudk rxdeJY/
4 She came with Margaret. [Margaret (noun) = prep. obj.]
olru rm;*&ufeJ htwl vmcJhwm/
She came with her older sister. [her older sister (N ph.)= prep. obj.]
olru olr&J htpfreJYtwl vmcJhwm/
 atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;rS noun phrase wdk hESifh ¤if;wdk h\ function wdk hudk avhvmyg/
1 Shegavehima great big kiss. [a great big kiss = noun ph.]
S V I.O. D.O.

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 2 Theyare both excellent teachers.
S V determiner S.Cpm.

olwdkY ESpfOD;pvHk;u tvGefawmfwJh q&m^q&mrawGyg/

3 There's a tall, good-looking man outside who wants to talk to you.
S

t&yf&Snf&Snf ½kyfacsmacsm vlwpfa,muf tjyifrSm a&mufaew,f/ rif;eJY

pum;ajymcsifvdk hwJh/
4 They're in the back garden.
object of preposition

tdrfaemufaz; O,smOfxJrSm olwdkY &Sdw,f/

5 He had been watching her all evening.
adverbial

olu olrudk wpfnaevHk; apmifhMunfhaecJhwm/

6 He's such a kind man.
S.Cpm.

olu odyfudkMuifemwwfwJh vlwpfa,mufyg/

7 I started this project without very much enthusiasm.
object of preposition

pdwftm;xufoefrI odyfr&SdyJeJY 'DpDrHudef;udk uRefawmf pcJhwm/

8 He picked up the ornately decorated wine-glass and took
object of phrasal verb "picked up"

a small sip.
direct object

olu tvS 'DZkdif;qifxm;wJh 0dkifcGufudk aumuf,lNyD; enf;enf;

pkyfaomufvdkufw,f/
 noun phrase \ t"du tvkyfudk vkyfaqmifonfh pum;vHk; (head) onf xdk phrase
xJwGif azmfjyxm;aom (odkY) ñTef;qdkxm;aom noun jzpfygonf/ Oyrm -
1 her older sister olYtpfr [sister = head]
2 a pleasant day om,mwJh aeYwpfaeY [day = head]

 wpfcgwpf&HwGif pronoun onfvnf; noun phrase \ head jzpfEdkifonf/

1 That's a big one. tJ'gu tBuD;BuD;yJ/ [one = pronoun]
2 I'd like those red ones. [dkteDa&mifawGudk uRefawmf BudKufw,f/
3 They both knew the truth. olwdkYESpfa,mufpvHk; trSefudk odygw,f/
4 Are all these for me? 'D[m tm;vHk;u uRefawmfhtwGufvm;/
5 Have you anything new to tell me?
uRefawmfhudk ajymjyp&m topftqef;rsm; oifhrSm &Sdovm;/

90
 þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

13.2 Word Order in Noun Phrases

noun phrase xJrS noun/pronoun udk a&SUrSaeí txl;jyKonfh pum;vHk;wdkYwGif pum;vHk;
pDpOfyHkpepf (word order) wpfck &Sdygonf/
 predeterminer, determiner, quantifier ESifh numeral wdkYonf noun phrase \
yxrOD;qHk;
ae&mudk ,lMuonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif noun phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;NyD;
¤if; noun phrase xJrS predeterminer/determiner/quantifier/numeral udk pmvHk;rnf;jzifh
jyxm;onf/
1 She was carrying several large black books. [several = determiner]
teufa&mif pmtkyfBuD;wpfcsdKUudk olru udkifrxm;w,f/
2 Who owns those two cars? [those = determiner]
tJ'Dum;ESpfpif;udk b,fol ydkifwmvJ/ [two = number]

3 They own both these big yachts. [both = predeterminer]

'D&GufavSBuD; ESpfpif;vHk;udk olwdkY ydkifwm/ [these = determiner]

 (first, second, third tp&Sdaom) ordinal number wdkYonf (one, two, three tp&Sdaom)
cardinal number wdkY\ a&SUrS vmMuonf/ Oyrm -

1 the first six contestants yxrOD;qHk; 0ifa&muf,SOfNydKifol (6)OD;

2 the last two riders jrif;pD;ol aemufq;kH ESpOf ;D

 txufyg tkyfpk (2) ck\ aemufrS adjective ESifh tjcm; descriptive word rsm; vdkufonf/
noun \a&SUrS adjective tcsdKU yg0ifaomtcg xdk adjective rsm;udk trsdK;tpm;vdkuf pOfNyD;
xnfh&onf/
1 a big green car [NOT..... a green big car]
2 an old Russian car [NOT..... a Russian old car]

 word order twGuf adjective wdkYudk atmufygtwdkif; tpOfvdkuf trsdK;tpm;cGJEdkifonf/

1 opinion : beautiful, nice, wonderful, excellent, awful, etc
2 size : long, large, small, short, tall, etc
3 most other : clear, busy, famous, friendly, soft, quiet, etc
qualities
4 age : new, old
5 shape : round, square, fat, thin, wide, narrow, etc
6 colour : blue, red, white, black, etc

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 7 participle form : running, missing, covered, broken, etc
8 origin : British, Italian, American, Chinese, etc
9 material : sandy, wooden, brick, paper, plastic, etc
10 type : electronic, human, chemical, domestic, urban, etc
11 purpose : alarm (clock), tennis (court), walking (boots) etc

 atmufyg Oyrmrsm;rS adjective wdkY\ word order udk avhvmyg/

an old cardboard box [age + material]
a new improved formula [age + participle form]
a German industrial company [origin + type]
a large black pocket handkerchief [size + colour + type]
a small square room [size + shape]
a nice, friendly person [opinion + quality]
two excellent public tennis courts [opinion + type + purpose]
plastic packaging materials [material + purpose]

 tjcm; adjectival phrase trsdK;tpm;rsm;onfvnf; noun phrase twGif;&Sd noun udk

modify vkyfEdkifonf/
1 toHk;rsm;aom structure wpfckrSm [adjective + noun + - ed] jzpfygonf/ Oyrm -
[four (adj) + leg (noun) + - ed = four-legged = ajc (4)acsmif;&Sdaom]

a four-legged animal ajc (4)acsmif; owå0g

a bad-tempered old man a'goBuD;wJh tzdk;tdkwpfOD;
a good-natured laugh oabmaumif;wJh &,fjcif;
a blonde-haired, blue-eyed little girl
rsufvHk;tjyma&mif? qHyifa&Ta&mifeJY aumifrav;
2 tjcm; trsdK;tpm;wpfckrSm [object + complement + -ing] jzpfygonf/
man-eating sharks vlom;pm;wJh iref;awG
a good-looking boy ½kyfacsmwJh aumifav;wpfa,muf
labour-saving devices tcsdefeJY vkyftm; odyfrukefwJh ud&d,mawG
3 wwd, trsdK;tpm; wpfckrSm [prepositional phrase] jzpfygonf/
an on-top-of-the-world feeling t&rf; t&rf; aysmfwJh cHpm;rI
a rather over-the-top suggestion tawmfhudk vGefwJh tMuHjyKcsuf
4 noun udk modify vkyfEdkifaom tjcm; phrasetrsdK;tpm; rsm;pGm &Sdao;onf/ Oyrm-
a four-page essay av;rsufESm&SdwJh pmpDpmuHk; wpfyk'f
a month-long wait vcsDNyD; apmifh&wm

92
 four-day-old chicks
a human - right activist
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
a one-woman show
an after-dinner speech
a world-famous composer
ten-pin bowling
a hit-and-run accident
a make-or-break situation
an out-of-the-body experience
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh
av;&ufom; Muufaygufpav;rsm;
vlYtcGifhta&; vIyf&Sm;olwpfOD;
yg;pyfcsif;awhNyD; owdvnfatmifjyKpkjcif;
trsdK;orD; wpfudk,fawmf azsmfajzyGJG
npmpm;yGJtNyD;ü ajymonfh rdefYcGef;wpfck
urÇmausmf aw;a&;q&m wpfOD;
yif(10)acsmif;oHk;wJh bdk;vif; upm;enf;
wdkufNyD;ajy;wJh ,mOfwdkufrI
tEdkifeJY t½HI;yJ&SdwJh taetxm;wpfck
ta0;uae udk,fhudkudk,f jyefMunfhwJh cHpm;rI
Handy Hint udk avhvmyg/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Spelling Help udk avhvmyg/

13.3 Extensions of the Noun Phrase

 pum;vHk;wpfvHk;^pum;pkwpfpkonf noun/pronoun udk aemufrSaeí txl;jyKEdkifonf/
 adjective/adjective phrase onf noun/pronoun udk aemufrS vdkufí txl;jyKEdkifonf/
1 I need something even stronger. [something = pronoun]
ydkNyD; cdkifcHhwJht&mwpfck uRefawmf vdktyfaew,f/ [stronger = adj.]

2 The president elect will be addressing the meeting. [elect = adj.]

a&G;cs,fwifajr§mufcH&wJh or®wu tpnf;ta0;rSm rdefYcGef;ajymMum;vdrfhr,f/
3 All the people concerned have been informed of the change of plan.
oufqdkifwJholtm;vHk;udk tpDtpOfajymif;wJhaMumif; taMumif;Mum;NyD;NyD/
4 Those present knew that something important was happening.
ta&;BuD;wJht&mwpfck jzpfysufaeNyDqdkwmudk a&mufaewJholawG odMuw,f/
 prepositional phrase onf noun/pronoun udk aemufrSvdkufí txl;jyKEdkifonf/
1 I see the house on the corner has been sold. [on the corner = prep. ph.]
axmifhutdrfudk a&mif;NyD;NyDqdkwm uRefawmf owdxm;rdw,f/
2 Her husband is a tall man with long black hair.
olr&JU cifyGef;u teufa&mif qHyift&SnfeJY t&yf&Snf&Snf vlwpfa,mufyg/

93
  noun \aemufrS complement vnf; vdkufygEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gusrsm;wGif noun
\ complement wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
1 What a beautiful vase of flowers! [of flowers = cpm.]
vSvdkufwJh yef;tdk;/
2 There was a sudden gust of wind. [of wind = cpm.]
½kwfw&uf avjyif;wpfcsuf wdkufcwfoGm;w,f/
3 Do you realize the absurdity of our position?
igwdkY taetxm;u &,fp&maumif;aew,fqdkwm rif; oabmaygufvm;/
4 I don't understand her enthusiasm for stamp-collecting.
olr&JU wHqdyfacgif;pkwJh 0goemudk ig em;rvnfbl;/
5 A bird's life involves a constant search for food.
iSufwpfaumif&JUb0rSm tpmudk tqufrjywf &Sm&w,f/
6 I had the satisfaction of doing something useful.
tusdK;&SdwJh tvkyfudk vkyfvdkuf&wJh auseyfrIudk uRefawmf &cJhw,f/
7 They had grasped the impossibility of escaping from the island.
uRef;uae xGufajy;vGwfajrmufzdkYqdkwm rjzpfEdkifrSef; olwdkY vHk;0em;vnfcJhNyD/

13.4 Functions of Noun Phrases

 noun phrase onf noun uJhodkYyif 0guswpfckü subject slot udk ae&m,lEdkifonf/ atmufyg
Oyrm wdk hwGif subject slot ae&mudk ,lxm;aom noun phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/
1 More heavy rain is expected later. [more heavy rain (N ph.) = subj.]
aemufydkif;rSm 'DxufykdNyD; rkd;onf;xefr,fvkdY xifw,f/
2 A rather fat, middle-aged man was staring at her.
cyf00 oufvwfykdif; vlwpfa,mufu olrudk pkdufMunfhaew,f/
3 The entire male population of the village was in love with her.
'D&Gm&JU a,musfm;okduf wpfokdufvHk;u olrukd arwåm&SdaeMuw,f/

 noun phrase onf 0guswpfck\ direct object slot ae&mudk ,lEkdifonf/
1 I don't much like modern pop music. [modern pop music = D.O.]
acwfopf aygh(yf)aw;*Dwudk uRefawmf odyfrBudKufbl;/
2 The old lady was wearing a thick woollen coat.
tbGm;BuD;u odk;arT; ukwftusÐtxlukd 0wfxm;w,f/

94
 3 The waiter brought two glasses of beer.
pm;yGJxkd;u bD,m (2)cGuf ,lvmw,f/

 noun phrase onf indirect object tjzpfvnf; vkyfaqmifEkdifonf/

1 Tom took his wife some flowers. [his wife = I.O.]
wGef(rf)u olYrdef;rtwGuf yef;awG ,loGm;w,f/
2 I've lent your brother my car. [your brother = I.O.]
igu rif;&J hnDukd igh&J hum;udk iSm;ay;vkdufNyD/
3 I gave the old beggar money for a cup of tea.
uRefawmfu olawmif;pm; tbkd;tdkukd vÇuf&nfzkd; ay;vkdufw,f/
4 She promised her children a trip to the zoo.
wd&dpämef½kHudkac:oGm;r,fvkdY olru om;orD;awGudk uwday;cJhw,f/

 noun phrase onf subject-complement tjzpfvnf; vkyfaqmifEkdifonf/

1 John is a gifted teacher. [a gifted teacher = subj. cpm.]
*Ref(ef)[m yg&rD&SdwJh ausmif;q&mwpfOD;jzpfw,f/
2 That's a very good idea.
tJ'g[m odyfaumif;wJh tBuHaygh/
3 The rain was a great relief.
rkd;&Gmvkdufawmh t&rf;udk pdwfayghoGm;w,f/
4 She'll make him a good wife.
olru olYtwGuf tdrf&Sifraumif;wpfOD; jzpfvmrSmyg/

 noun phrase onf object-complement vnf; jzpfEkdifonf/

1 They've elected me chairman. [chairman = obj. cpm]
olwdkYu uRefawmfhudk Ouú|tjzpf a&G;aumufwifajr§mufvkdufMuw,f/
2 We consider John a very good teacher.
*Ref(ef)[m tvGefawmfwJh q&mwpfOD;jzpfw,fvkdY uRefawmfwdkY ,lqw,f/
3 He made her his personal assistant.
olu olrudk olY&JUukd,fa&;t&m&Sd (P.A.)tjzpf cefYtyfcJhw,f/
4 We named our daughter Elizabeth.
uRefawmfwdkYu uRefawmfwdkY&JUorD;udk tvpfZbuf(of)vkdY trnfay;cJhw,f/

95
 noun phrase onf adverbial tjzpf rMumcP vkyfaqmifavh&Sdonf/
1 I'll see you tomorrow night. [tomorrow night (noun ph.) = adverbial]
reufjzefnrS rif;eJY awGUawmhr,f/
2 Next year we'll do things differently.
aemufESpfrSm uRefawmfwkdY wpfrsKd;wpfzHk vkyfMur,f/
3 I'll show you how to fix it. You do it this way.
b,fvkd wyfqif&r,fqkdwm rif;ukd ig jyr,f/ 'gudk 'Dvkd vkyfvkduf/

 noun phrase onf prepositional phrase wpfckwGif preposition \ complement (odk h)
object jzpfEdkifonf/

1 You're in great danger. [great danger (noun ph.) = cpm. of prep.]

rif;[m tvGeftEÅ&m,f&SdwJh tajctaerSm a&mufaew,f/
2 They watched the river level rising with growing alarm.
jrpfa&wufwmudk apmifhMunfh&if;eJY pkd;&drfaMumuf&GHUrIawG wkd;vmw,f/
3 Do stop scraping your knife and fork on your plate.
yef;uefjym;udk "m;? cuf&if;awGeJY jcpfaewmudk &yfvkdufyg/

 noun phrase onf adverb uJhodkYyif adjective udk modify vkyfEdkifonf/
1 She is feeling a good deal better today, thank you. [better = adj.]
'DaeY olr trsm;BuD; oufomvmygNyD/ aus;Zl;wifygw,f/
2 It was a lot worse than I had expected. [worse = adj.]
tJ'gu uRefawmf xifxm;wmxuf trsm;BuD; ykdqkd;w,f/
3 I'm not the least bit worried about where she is. [worried = adj.]
olr b,fa&mufaew,fqkdwmeJY ywfoufNyD; wpfpufuav;rS rpkd;&drfygbl;/

EXERCISE 13
A atmufyg noun phrase rsm;\ structure udk azmfjyyg/
Oyrm - the first six people (ar;cGef;)
determiner (the), numeral (first), numeral (six), noun (people) (tajz)
1. three very large pigs
2. doctors' signatures
3. a huge mahogany table
4. their first year

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 5. an old iron dustbin
6. a large rhubarb tart
7. two empty cardboard boxes
8. some good ideas
9. another stupid mistake
10. What a brilliant plan!
11. both those books
12. ten green bottles
13. such a gifted musician

B atmufyg 0gusrsm;wGif adjective phrase tcsKdUrS adjective rsm;\ tpDtpOf (order) rSm;
aeonf/ trSm; jyifay;yg/
1. There's a stone small statue in the garden.
2. Look at those beautiful big brown cows!
3. Come and look at my red new car.
4. She was carrying the eggs in a cardboard brown square box.
5. I've got all their names in my little black book.
6. That's a copy of a Spanish famous old painting.
7. Sue found a green big caterpillar in her salad.
8. You do have some ridiculous political ideas!
9. I bought a Peruvian leather drum when I was on holiday there.
10. I'm very interested in modern Chinese poetry.
11. They want to build a new medical school in the town.

C atmufyg0gusrsm;wGif rsOf;wm;xm;aom pum;vHk;rsm;Mum;ü hyphen vdktyfvQif xnfhay;yg/

1. It seemed to be a well cared for dog.
2. The dog had been well cared for.
3. Many trees had been badly damaged in the storm.
4. The house stands in a well laid out garden.
5. The house stands in a superbly laid out garden.
6. We sheltered in a hastily constructed hut.
7. We were well treated by our captors.
8. Best known for her poetry, she is also an excellent sculptor.

D atmufyg0gusrsm;wGif rsOf;wm;xm;aom pum;vHk;rsm;Mum;ü hyphen vdktyfvQif xnfhay;yg/

1. She answered me in a very matter of fact way.
2. John was wearing his Sunday go to meeting suit.
3. The report was over fifty pages long.

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 4. I can't stand her holier than thou attitude.
5. The Prime Minister proposed that people found drunk should be fined
on the spot.
6. The police said that on the spot fines were not feasible.
7. Let's go over the plan again step by step.
8. Easy to follow step by step instructions.
9. This is a one off never to be repeated offer.
10. His mother had a What are you doing here? look on her face.
11. We're planning a three day protest.
12. My trip to Japan was a once in a lifetime experience.

E 'kwd,0gusudk modifying phrase/complement tjzpfodkYajymif;NyD; yxr0gus\ rsOf;wm;xm;

onfh noun ESifhwGJí 0gusESpfckudk wpfckwnf;jzpfatmif aygif;ay;yg/
Example
Question: The man dropped his wallet. The man was on the bus.
Answer: The man on the bus dropped his wallet.
1. The waiter brought them a jug. The jug was full of water. (of)
2. She was carrying a heavy box. The box had books in it. (of)
3. I'm looking for a girl. The girl has long fair hair and brown eyes. (with)
4. The boys were playing football. The boys were in the garden. (in)
5. My little sister has an allergy. She's allergic to apples and pears. (to)
6. Doctors have been searching for a cure for years. They want to cure cancer.
(for)
7. I need to find a way of expressing my admiration. I admire her work. (for)
8. The police asked for proof. I had to prove who I was. (of)
9. Governments are discussing ways of tackling the threat. The environment is
being threatened. (to)
10. The heavy tax caused a lot of protests. The government was taxing petrol
heavily. (on)
11. Her marriage was not a happy one. She was married to a rich man. (to)
12. She was sacked for disloyalty. She had been disloyal to the company. (to)

F atmufyg 0gusrsm;wGif rsOf;wm;xm;onfh noun ESifh noun phrase wdkY\ function (subject,
direct object, adverbial ponf) udk azmfjyyg/

1. Susan was being watched by a small green lizard.

2. I do like a nice cup of tea.
3. A few seagulls were circling slowly in the sky above.

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 4. With a smile, he checkmated his opponent.
5. Siân gave the elephant a banana.
6. Have you seen our holiday photos?
7. They appointed Lucy deputy managing director.
8. Lucy was appointed deputy managing director.
9. Mr and Mrs Lee went to New Zealand for their summer holiday.
10. What are you giving Kim for Christmas?
11. The bridesmaids were wearing pretty little white lace dresses.
12. We're in for some very unsettled weather.
13. I don't know all the details.
14. He could hear a strange moaning noise outside.

Grammar Help 1

 noun phrase xJwGif noun/pronoun wdk hESifh twlwuG awG hEkdifaom pum;vHk;rsm;rSm -
1 adjectives and participles (V3 / V4):
empty boxes bl;cGHawG
small green apples tpdrf;a&mif yef;oD;av;awG
those silly little boys OD;aESmufr&SdwJh tJ'Daumifav;awG
a tall Spanish woman t&yf&Snf&Snf pydef trsdK;orD;wpfOD;
a broken branch opfudkif;usdK; wpfck
a sudden blinding light ½kwfw&uf tiftm;jyif;wJh tvif;a&mif wpfck
2 descriptive nouns:
paper towels rsufESmokwf puúL
a stone wall ausmufwHwdkif; wpfck
an iron mask oHrsufESmzHk; wpfck
3 determiners (a/an, the, my, his, their, some, this, that ponf)
an orange the president her new car
my job some people these books
every right-minded citizen vuf,mtkyfpk0if jynfoljynfom;wdkif;

4 predeterminers (all, both, half ponf)

All the best seats were taken.
I need both these books.
Half the fruit was bad.
What a good idea!
He is such a nice person.
99
taumif;qHk; cHkae&mawGudk ,loGm;MuNyD/
'Dpmtkyf ESpftkyfvHk; igvdkw,f/
toD;xuf0ufavmufu raumif;awmhb;l /
aumif;vdkufwJh tMuHÓPfpdwful;/
olu odyfoabmaumif;wJh olyg/
 5 quantifiers (many, much, few, little, several, enough ponf)

1 Many people consider him a hero.

vltrsm;u olYudk ol&Jaumif;vdkY ,lqMuw,f/
2 I have read several books on the subject.
'DtaMumif;t&meJYywfoufNyD; uRefawmf pmtkyfawmfawmfrsm;rsm; zwfNyD;NyD/
3 We don't have much food left and we don't have enough money to buy
any more.
'dkYrSm pm;p&m odyfrusefawmhbl;/ 0,f&atmifuvnf; ydkufqH enf;aeNyD/
4 We've had very little news of them lately.
ckaemufydkif; olwdkY &J howif;udk odyfrMum;&bl;/
6 numerals, (two, three, first, second ponf)
1 These four books are all I need.
uRefawmfvdkwJh pmtkyftm;vHk;u 'D(4)tkyfygyJ/
2 The first three correct entries will win a prize.
yxrqHk; tajzrSef&wJh (3)OD; qk&r,f/
7 possessives:
That's John's car. tJ'g *Ref&JUum;yJ/

Handy Hint

 t"dyÜm,f &Sif;vif;ap&ef hypen oHk;jcif;onf ta&;BuD;ygonf/ atmufyg0gusrsm;udk EdIif;,SOf

avhvmMunfhyg/
1 four day-old chicks [= four chicks that are a day old]
&ufom;t&G,f Muufaygufp (4)aumif
four-day-old chicks [= chicks that are four days old]
(4)&ufom;t&G,f Muufaygufpav;awG
2 There were thirty-odd people at the meeting. [= about thirty people]
tpnf;ta0;rSm vl(30)avmuf &Sdw,f/
There were thirty odd people at the meeting. [= thirty strange people]
tpnf;ta0;rSm vlxl;vklqef; (30) &Sdw,f/

100
 Spelling Help
 noun phrase wGif noun udk a&SUrSaeí txl;jyKaom phrase rsm;ü hyphen udk oHk;Muonf/
a bad-tempered old man a'goBuD;wJh tbdk;BuD;wpfa,muf
a three-inch steel pin (3)vufr pwD;acsmif; wpfacsmif;
a never-to-be-forgotten experience b,fawmhrS rarhEikd w
f t
hJ awGUtMuKH
out-of-date equipment acwfrrDawmhwhJ ypön;f ud&,
d mawG
 - ed ESifh - ing ygaom phrase rsm;udk complement tjzpf oHk;aomtcg hyphen udk oHk;onf/
1 He was very bad-tempered this morning. [bad-tempered = cpm.]
'Dreuf olu t&rf; a'goBuD;aewm/
2 He's very good-looking, isn't he?
olu t&rf; acsmw,fav/ racsmbl;vm;/
 tjcm; phrase rsm;udk complement tjzpfoHk;aomtcg hyphen roHk;yg/
1 The equipment was completely out of date. [out of date = cpm.]
'Dypönf;ud&d,mawGu acwfrrDawmhbl;/
2 His suggestions were rather over the top.
olY&JUtMuHjyKcsufawGu tawmfudk vGefw,f/
3 It was an experience that was never to be forgotten.
tJ'g[m b,fawmhrS rarhEdkifwJh tawGUtMuHKwpfckygyJ/
 compound tjzpf vlodrsm;onfh [adj.+ noun + - ed] yHkpHudk hyphen rygbJ a&;vQif
&onf/
1 Sue's so bigheaded! [big + head + -ed]
pl;u t&rf; b0ifjrifhw,f/
2 How could you be so hardhearted? [hard + heart + -ed]
rif;u bmvdkY tMuifem uif;rJh&wmwkef;/

 Glossary
absurdity ^tuf(bf).'Zm;.'.wD^ &,fzG,faumif;rI/
admiration ^ tuf('f).r.'a&;.&Sif(ef)^ oabmusjcif;/
'
allergy ^'tm;.v.*sD^ "mwfrwJhjcif;/
allergic ^t.'vm;.*spf(cf)^ "mwfrwJhaom/
appoint ^t.'yGdKifh(ef)(wf)^ cef htyfonf/
bad-tempered ^ bmh('f).'xJ(rf).yg('f)^ pdwfwdkwwfaom/
'

101
blonde ^(bf)avmh(ef)('f)^ a&Ta&mifazsmhqHyif&Sdaom/ [= blond]
bridesmaid ^'(bf)&kduf(Zf).rdwf('f)^ tysdK&H/
brilliant ^'(bf)&D;.vD.&J h(ef)(wf)^ xl;jcm;ajymifajrmufaom/
captor ^'cJh(yf).wm^ zrf;ol/
caterpillar ^'cJh.x.yD.vm^ claumif/
checkmate ^'csuf(cf).rdwf(wf)^ (ppfwk&ifü) NydKifbufudkEdkifonf/
disloyalty ^'pf(pf).'vGdKif.,,f(vf).wD^ opömrJhrI/
domestic ^'.'ruf(pf).wpf(cf)^ jynfwGif;ESifhqdkifaom/
fair ^zJ...^ a&Ta&mifazsmhazsmh (qHyif)/
feasible ^'zD;.Z.b,f(vf)^ jzpfEdkifaom/
gifted ^'*pf(zf).wpf('f)^ yg&rD&Sdaom/
handkerchief ^'[J(if).u.cspf(zf)^ vufudkify0g/
hastily ^'a[h.(pf)wD.vD^ uysmu,m/ tavmwBuD;/
holier than thou ^'[dk;.vD.,m.oJ(ef).aomif^ igomvQif tjrwfqHk;[k xifaom/
lace ^avh(pf)^ Zm/
lizard ^'vpf.Zwf(wf)^ ykwfoif/
mahogany ^r.'a[mh.*.eD^ ra[mf*eD opf/
moan ^rkef;...(ef)^ nnf;wGm;onf/
Peruvian ^z.'&l;.AD.,ef(ef)^ yD&l;EdkifiHESifhqdkifaom/
poetry ^'zdk;.0uf.BwD^ uAsm/
protest ^'(yf)&kd;.wuf(pf)(wf)^ uef huGufqE´jyyGJ/
resuscitation ^&pf. pyf.ppf.'ax;.&Sif(ef)^ toufjyef&SLatmif jyKpkay;jcif;/
'
rhubarb ^'&l;.bwf(bf)^ csufjyKwfpm;Edkifonfh tyifi,f/
sack ^pJh(cf)^ tvkyfrS xkwfypfonf/
sculptor ^'(pf)uyf(vf)(yf).wm^ yef;ykq&m/
seagull ^'pD;.*g(vf)^ pifa&mf/
suit ^pk(wf)^ 0wfpHk/
superbly ^pl.'zm;.(bf)vD^ vufzsm;cg&avmufatmif/
tackle ^'xuf.u,f(vf)^ udkifwG,fonf/
tart ^xmh(wf)^ Xmyemygonfh opfoD;rkef h/
threat ^(of)&uf(wf)^ tEÅ&m,fusa&mufEdkifaomtvm;tvm/
treat ^Bwd(wf)^ qufqHonf/
unsettled ^tef(ef).'puf.w,f(vf)(wf)^twnfwusr[kwfaom/
urban ^'tm;.bJ(ef)^ NrdK hjy/
woollen ^'0l;.vJ(ef)^ odk;arG;ESifh jyKvkyfxm;aom/
yacht ^a,mh(wf)^ &GufavS/ [= sailboat (AmE)]

102
Unit
14 Adverb Phrases
and Adverbial Phrases
14.1 Adverb Phrases
 adverb u head tjzpf &Sdaeonfh pum;pkonf adverb phrase jzpfygonf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverb phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 She got out of bed very slowly. [very slowly = adv. ph.]
olru ckwifay:uae jznf;jznf;av; qif;w,f/
2 I get along very well with her. [very well = adv. ph.]
uRefawmfu olreJY tvGef oifhjrwfw,f/
3 There's such a demand, we can't make these pens fast enough.
0,fvkdtm;u t&rf;rsm;aew,f/ uRefawmfwdkYu abmyifawGudk 0,fvkdtm;
rDatmif tjref rxkwfEdkifbl;/ [fast enough = adv. ph.]

4 She could so easily have believed what he was telling her.

ol ajymaewmawGudk olru tvG,fwuleJY ,Hkaumif;,HkEkdifw,f/
5 Please walk more quickly.
aus;Zl;jyKNyD;awmh ykdNyD;jrefjref avQmufyg/
 adverb phrase \ head onf xkd phrase \ t"dutusqHk; t"dyÜm,fukd azmfaqmifonhf
adverb jzpfygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm adverb phrase wdk w
h iG f head wdk u
h kd rsO;f wm;jyxm;onf/
very slowly tvGef aES;auG;pGm [slowly = head]
very well tvGef aumif;rGefpGm
fast enough (rDEkdif)avmufatmif jrefjref
so easily tvGef vG,fulpGm
more quickly ykdNyD; jrefjref
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help udk avhvmyg/

14.2 Functions of Adverb Phrases

 adverb phrase rsm;onf trsm;tm;jzihf adverbial tjzpfom vkyfaqmifMuonf/
 adverb phrase onf rnfonfhae&m(where)? rnfonfhtcsdefwGif(when)? rnfonfh twGuf
aMumifh(why)? rnfodkYrnfyHk(how)? rnfrQ rsm;rsm;(how much) jzpfonf^&Sdonfudk azmfjyaom
adjunct jzpfEkdifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adjunct tjzpf vkyfaqmifonfh adverb
phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/

103
 1 You're not thinking very clearly, are you? [very clearly = adjunct]
rif; awG;wmudku r&Sif;bl;? [kwfvm;/
2 I don't think John is behaving entirely rationally.
*Ref(ef)u vHk;0 qiffjcifNyD; aew,fvkdUawmh uRefawmf rxifbl;/
3 She plays well but her brother plays even better.
olr upm;wm aumif;ygw,f/ 'gayr,fh olUarmif upm;wm ykdaumif;w,f/
4 I so often feel that no-one is listening to me.
uRefawmfajymaewmukd b,folrS em;raxmifbl;vkdU uRefawmf rMumcP
cHpm; &w,f/
5 I don't think I have checked this thoroughly enough.
uRefawmfu 'D[mukd aocsmatmif ppfaq;NyD;NyDvkdU rxifbl;/
 adverb phrase rsm;onf a0zefcsuf? rSwfcsufay;onfh disjunct tjzpfvnf; vkyfudkif
aqmif&GufEkdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 She is quite obviously lying. [quite obviously= disjunct]
olr nmaewm tawmfxif&Sm;w,f/
2 Quite frankly , I don't want to know your reasons.
yGifhyGihfvif;vif;ajym&&if rif;taMumif;jycsufawGukd ig rodcsifbl;/
3 Oddly enough , Sue didn't seem to recognize us.
xl;qef;w,fvkdU qkd&avmufatmif pl;u uRefawmfwkdUukd rSwfrdyHkr&bl;/
4 Very sensibly , she didn't give the man her address.
olru tJ'Dvlukd olr&JUvdyfpm ray;vkdufwm[m pOf;pm;csifhcsdefwwfvkdUyJ/
 adverb phrase onf 0gusESpfck (okdU) 0guswpfck\ tykdif;(2)ykdif;ukd qufay;aom conjunct
vnf; jzpfEkdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 I know you only wanted to help. Even so, I don't think you should have
got involved in the argument. [Even so = conjunct]
rif;u ulnDcsifwm oufoufyJ qkdwmukd ig odw,f/ 'gayrJh 'Dtjiif;yGg;wJh
udpörSm rif; 0ifygoihfw,fvkdUawmh ig rxifbl;/
2 She might agree. Then again, she might not.
olru oabmwlaumif; wlEkdifayrJh oabmrwlbl; qkdwmvJ jzpfEkdifw,f/
3 She may not disapprove of what we're doing but even then she may not
actually help us.
uRefawmfwkdUvkyfaewmukd olr oabmusavmufw,f/ 'gayrJh
uRefawmfwkdUukd olr wu,f rulnDavmufbl;/
104
 adverb phrase \aemufxyf function wpfckrSm adverb rsm;uJhokdU adjective, adverb ESihf
tjcm;pum;pkrsm;ukd modify vkyfjcif;yif jzpfygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverb
rsm;udk modify vkyfonfh adverb phrase wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/
1 You're singing far too loudly. [far too u loudly udk modify vkyfonf/]
rif;u oDcsif;udk toHukef atmfqkdaewm/
2 I know only too well how you feel. [only too = very]
rif; b,fvkd cHpm;&w,fqkdwmukd ig aumif;aumif; odw,f/
3 The holiday was over much too soon. [much too = only too]
tm;vyf&uf ukefqHk;oGm;wm t&rf;ukd jrefw,f/
4 I know all too well the consequences of drug abuse.
rl;,pfaq;oHk;wm&JU tusdK;qufawGukd ig odyfodwmaygh/

14.3 Adverb Phrases and Adverbial Phrases

 adverb u head tjzpfwnf&Sdaom phrase onf adverb phrase jzpfygonf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverb phrase \ head wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 You're not thinking very clearly. [very clearly = adv. ph.]
rif;u &Sif;&Sif;vif;vif; awG;wm r[kwfbl;/ [clearly = adv.]

2 Do you come here very often?

rif; 'Dukd cPcP vmwwfovm;/
3 I know her quite well.
uRefawmf olr&JUtaMumif;ukd awmfawmfav; odw,f/
4 The traffic is moving awfully slowly.
,mOfaMuma&GUwmu t&rf; aES;vGef;w,f/
5 I do think we're doing this unnecessarily carefully.
uRefawmfwkdU[m 'gukd rvkdtyfbJeJU *½kwpkduf vkyfaeMuw,fvkdU uRefawmf
wu,f xifw,f/
 0guswpfckwGif adverbial tjzpf vkyfaqmifaom rnfonhf phrase ukdrqkd adverbial phrase
[kac:onf/
A adverbial tjzpf vkyfaqmifaom noun phrase rsm; -
1 She moved out the very next day. [the very next day = adv.]
tJ'Daemuf&ufrSmyJ olr tdrfajymif;oGm;w,f/
2 I'll visit Susan tomorrow morning. [tomorrow morning = adv.]
reufjzefreuf plZefqDukd uRefawmf tvnfoGm;rvkdU/

105
 3 We'll come back next week.
aemufwpfywf uRefawmfwkdU jyefvmr,f/
4 Are you going to sit there all day?
rif;u tJ'DrSmyJ wpfcsdefvHk; oGm;xkdifaeawmhrSmvm;/
5 I feel tired all the time.
uRefawmfu wpfcsdefvHk; yifyef;EGrf;e,faewm/
6 Every night she would go to sleep hoping never to wake up again.
b,fawmhrS wpfzefjyefNyD; rEkd;ygapeJUvkdU arQmfvifh&if;eJU olr nwkdif;
tdyfaysmf oGm;vdrfhr,f/

B adverbial tjzpf vkyfaqmifaom prepositional phrase rsm; -

1 School starts again on Tuesday. [on Tuesday (prep. ph.) = adverbial]
t*FgaeUrSm ausmif;jyefzGihfNyD/
2 Did you meet anyone interesting in town?
NrdKUxJrSm pdwf0ifpm;p&maumif;wJh vlwpfa,mufa,mufukd rif; awGUcJhovm;/
3 They stood watching from a safe distance.
tEÅ&m,fuif;avmufwJh tuGmta0;uae olwkdU &yfMunhfaecJhMuw,f/
4 Joe was sitting under a chestnut tree.
opft,fyifwpfyif&JUatmufrSm *sdK;u xkdifaew,f/
5 I've never felt so awful in my whole life.
ighb0wpfckvHk;rSm tckavmuf qkd;qkd;&Gm;&Gm; b,fwkef;urS rcHpm;cJh&zl;bl;/
6 I thought he behaved with great dignity.
ol[m *kPfodu©m tjynhfeJU jyKrlcJhw,fvkdU ig xifw,f/
 noun phrase ESihf prepositional phrase wkdUu adverbial tvkyfukd vkyfvQif ¤if;wdk hudk
adverbial phrase rsm;[k trsdK;tpm; owfrSwfEkdifonf/

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EXERCISE 14

A atmufyg0gusrsm;wGifyg&Sdonhf adverbial phrasewkdUonf rnfonfh phrase trsdK;tpm;

(noun phrase, prepositional phrase (okdU) adverb phrase) jzpfonfukd azmfjyyg/

1. Last year over 3000 people in Scotland died of flu.

2. I only decided to come at the last minute.
3. Sasha stretched out her arm very slowly.
4. This house was built in 1874.
5. You're talking far too loudly.
6. They stood there in silence.
7. We meet for coffee fairly often.
8. We go there every summer.

B adverb phrase jyKvkyf&ef uGif;xJwGif ay;xm;onfh modifying adverb rsm;ukd toHk;jyKí

atmufygar;cGef;rsm;ukd ajzqkdyg/
Examples
Question: How well do you know her? (quite)
Answer: I know her quite well.

Question: Do you know her well? (quite)

Answer: Yes, I know her quite well.

1. How soon do you think you'll be finished? (fairly)

2. Does she play the piano well? (very)
3. Did your mother recover quickly after her accident? (remarkably)
4. How well is the company doing at the moment? (really)
5. Do we need to finish this soon? (pretty)
6. Did he do the job well? (enough)
7. Does the tide come in quickly round here? (incredibly)
8. Is it raining heavily? (quite)
9. How quickly should I have reacted? (much more)
10. Did the two of them play better the next day? (even)
11. Were her parents waiting anxiously for her to come home? (rather)
12. Was Violet driving fast at the time of the accident? (far too)

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 Grammar Help

 adverb phrase wGif main adverb ESihftwl trsm;qHk;awGU&aom pum;vHk;trsm;pkrSm very,
slightly, extremely, really, fairly, quite, pretty, so, enough tp&Sdonhf adverb rsm;yif
jzpfMuonf/ þ adverb rsm;onf main adverbs (the heads of the phrase) ukd modify
vkyfMuonf/ main adverb \oufa&mufrI (force) ukd ykdí wkd;atmif(okdU) enf;oGm;atmif
jyKvkyfay;Muonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif main adverb rsm;ukd modify vkyfonfh
adverb wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;onf/

1 She was behaving extremely oddly. [extremely = adv.]

olru awmfawmfukd xl;xl;qef;qef; jyKrlaew,f/ [oddly = main adv.]
2 I was walking very slowly. [very = adv.]
uRefawmfu ajz;ajz;av; vrf;avQmufaewm/ [slowly = main adv.]

3 She was laughing slightly uneasily.

olru r&,fcsifh &,fcsifeJ h &,faew,f/
4 His heart was beating rather irregularly.
olr&J hESvHk;ckefaeyHku awmfawmfav;ukd yHkrrSefbl;/

 Glossary

awfully ^'atm.zl.vD^ tvGef/ qdk;&Gm;pGm/

consequence ^'cGef h(ef).ppf.uGJ h(ef)(pf)^ tusdK;quf/
drug abuse ^'('f)&yf.*. AsK h(pf)^ rl;,pfaq;0g; oHk;pGJjcif;/
'
fairly ^'zJ(,m).vD^ tweftoifh/ [= quite]
frankly ^'(zf)&ef h(if).(uf)vD^ yGifhyGifhvif;vif; ajym&&if/
incredibly ^tif(ef).'(cf)&uf.'pf.(bf)vD^ rjzpfpzl;/
irregularly ^tD.'&uf.*l.vm.vD^ yHkrSefr[kwfyJ/
obviously ^'atmh.AD.,yf.(pf)vD^ ododomom/ xifxif&Sm;&Sm;/
oddly ^'atmh('f).vD^ xl;xl;qef;qef;/ aMumifwdaMumifawmif/
rationally ^'&m.h&Sif.e.vD^ EIdif;EIdif;csdefcsdef/
recover ^&pf.'cg;.Am^ emvefxlonf/ jyefaumif;vmonf/
remarkably ^&.'rm;.u.(bf)vD^ tHhMoavmufatmif/ xl;xl;jcm;jcm;/
stretch ^(pf)(xf)&uf(csf)^ qef honf/
thoroughly ^'om;.&.vD^ aphaphpyfpyf/
unnecessarily ^tef(ef).'euf.pm.pJ.&.vD^ rvdktyfbJ/

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Unit
15 Verb Phrases
and Phrasal Verbs
15.1 Verb Phrases

 0guswpfckü single verb uJhokdU vkyfaqmifaom pum;vHk;2vHk;(okdU) 2vHk;xufykdí yg0ifonhf

pum;pkukd verb phrase [kac:onf/
1 We looked for you everywhere. [looked = verb]
igwkdUu rif;ukd ae&mtESHU vdkuf&SmcJhMuw,f/
We have been looking for you everywhere.
[have been looking = verb ph.]
igwkdUu rif;ukd ae&mtESHU vdkuf&SmaeMuwm/
2 I read some very interesting books. [read = verb]
tvGefpdwf0ifpm;p&maumif;wJh pmtkyftcsdKUukd uRefawmf zwfcJhw,f/
I have read some very interesting books. [have read = verb ph.]
tvGefpdwf0ifpm;p&maumif;wJh pmtkyftcsdKUukd uRefawmf zwfzl;w,f/
3 Helga knew what to do. [knew = verb]
bmvkyfoihfw,fqkdwmudk [Jh(vf)*g odcJhw,f/
Helga should have known what to do. [should have known = verb ph.]
bmvkyfoifhw,fqkdwmukd [Jh(vf)*g odcJhoihfwmaygh/
 verb phrase \ head onf xdk phrase \ t"dutusqHk; t"dyÜm,fudk azmfaqmifonfh
main verb (odkY) lexical verb jzpfygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm0gus wdk hwGif main verb wdk hudk
rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/
1 Helga should have known what to do. [known = main verb]
bmvkyfoifhw,fqdkwm [Jh(vf)*g odoihfwmaygh/
2 I have been reading some very interesting books.
tvGefpdwf0ifpm;p&maumif;wJh pmtkyfwcsdKUudk (wpfaeYvHk;) zwfaewm/
3 My aunt might be coming tomorrow.
reufjzef uRefawmfhta': vmcsifvmrSm/
4 My uncle will definitely be here, though.
uRefawmfhOD;av;uawmh 'DrSm aocsmayguf &Sdvdrfhr,f/

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  verb phrase rSpum;vHk;tcsdK honf tulBud,m [auxiliary verb (odkY) helping verb] rsm;
jzpfMuonf/ atmufyg Oyrm0gus wdk hwGif auxiliary verb wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/
1 Helga should have known what to do. [should have = aux. verb]
2 I have been reading some very interesting books.
3 I would tell you if I knew. ig od&if rif;udk ajymjyrSmaygh/
4 I don't know. ig rodbl;/
5 I haven't decided yet. ig ckxd rqHk;jzwf&ao;bl;/

 tcsdefumv (tense) rsm;udk azmfjy&ef auxiliary verb wdk hudk oHk;onf/

1 He is going. [present continuous tense] olu oGm;rSm/
2 We will go. [future tense] uRefawmfwdkY oGm;rSmyg/
3 They have gone. [present perfect tense] olwdkY oGm;MuNyD/
 cGifhjyKcsuf &nfpl;csuf (intention), jzpfEdkifajc (possibility), vdktyfcsuf
(permission),
(necessity), av;av;eufeufajymqdkjcif;(emphasis) ponfwdkYudk azmfjy&ef auxiliary verb
rsm;udk toHk;jyKonf/
He can go. I shall go. We might go.
ol oGm;vdkY&w,f/ uRefawmf oGm;oifhw,f/ uRefawmfwdkY oGm;aumif;oGm;r,f/
You must go. She should go. They did go.
rif; oGm;udkoGm;&r,f/ olr oGm;oifhw,f/ olwdkY wu,f oGm;cJhMuw,f/

 auxiliary verb wdkYudk (2)ydkif; cGJjcm;Edkifonf/

A primary auxiliaries [be, have ESifh do]
B modal auxiliaries [can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might ESifh must]

 `dare, need, ought to ESifh used to wdkYonfvnf; modal auxiliary xJwGif yg0ifMuonf/
I daren't tell her that. [dare = aux. verb]
tJ'DtaMumif; olrudk uRefawmf rajym&Jbl;/ [tell = main verb]

You needn't leave. [need = aux. verb]

rif; xGufay;zdkY rvdkygbl;/ (aevdkY&ygw,f/) [leave = main verb]

We ought to be on our way. [ought to = aux. verb]

'dkY vrf;ay: a&mufaeoifhNyD/ (xGufcGmoifhNyD/) [be = main verb]

They used to live next door to us. [used to = aux. verb]

t&ifwkef;u uRefawmfwdkYab;tdrfrSm olwdkY aewm/ [live = main verb]

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

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15.2 Operators
 verb phrase xJrS wpfckwnf;aom (odkY) yxrOD;qHk;jzpfaom auxiliary verb udk operator
[k ac:onf/
1 She was speaking to Jean. [was = operator]
olru *sD;ef eJY pum;ajymaewm/
2 They have spent all their money. [have = operator]
olwdkYu olwdkY &J hydkufqHtm;vHk;udk oHk;ypfvdkufNyD/
3 John has been wasting his time. [has = operator]
*Refu olYtcsdefawGudk jzKef;wD;ypfaewm/
4 They should have come before breakfast. [should = operator]
reufpm rpm;cif olwdkY ta&muf vmoifhwm/
 operator onf ar;cGef;0gusrsm;ESifh tjiif;0gusrsm; zGJU&mwGif key element jzpfygonf/
ar;cGef;0gus (interrogative sentence) wGif operator udk subject \ a&SUü xm;ygonf/
1 Was she speaking to Jean? [was = operator] [she = subj.]
2 Have they spent all their money?
3 Has John been wasting his time?
4 Should they have come before breakfast?

 tjiif;0gus (negative sentence) wGif not onf operator \ aemufrS vdkufonf/ (odkY)
-n't udk operator ESifh wGJí oHk;ygonf/ Oyrm -

1 She was not speaking to Jean. [was = operator]

2 They haven't spent all their money.
3 John has not been wasting his time.
4 They shouldn't have come before breakfast.

operator taMumif;udk ydkí odvdkvQif Unit 24, 25 ESifh 26 wdk hudk avhvmyg/

15.3 Functions of the Verb Phrase

 verb phrase \ wpfckwnf;aom function rSm 0guswpfckü verb slot udk jznfh&ef jzpfonf/
1 We could wait till tomorrow. [could wait = verb ph.]
reufjzeftxd uRefawmfwdkY apmifhvdkY&w,f/
2 He had often seemed tired and withdrawn. [had seemed = verb ph.]
olYudkMunfh&wm yifyef;NyD; pum;odyfajymcsifyHk r&bl;/
3 Why was she wearing sunglasses on a cloudy day?
rdk;tHkYwJhaeYrS olru bmaMumifh aeumrsufrSef wyfxm;&wmvJ/
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15.4 Phrasal Verbs
 main verb + adv. (od)Yk main verb + prep. (od)Yk main verb+ adv.+ prep. ponfh expression
udk phrasal verb [k ac:onf/ xdk phrasal verb wGif yg0ifaom adverb ESifh preposition
wdkYudk particle [k ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif phrasal verb rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í
jyxm;ygonf/
1 Everybody please stand up. [stand = verb]
aus;Zl;jyKNyD; vlwdkif; rwfwyf&yfay;yg/ [up = adv.]

2 Don't you want to go out and play? [go = verb]

rif; tjyifxGufNyD; rupm;csifbl;vm;/ [out = adv.]

3 The sound of their voices gradually died away. [verb + adv.]

olwdkY&JU pum;oHawGu wjznf;jznf;eJY wdwfoGm;w,f/
4 This calls for immediate action. [verb + prep.]
'gudk csufcsif; ta&;,laqmif&GufzdkY vdktyfw,f/
5 Can we rely on him? [verb + prep.]
olYudk uRefawmfwdkY ,HkMunftm;udk;vdkY&&JUvm;/
6 This book deals with the essentials of English grammar.
'Dpmtkyfu t*Fvdyfo'´g&JU r&SdrjzpfvdktyfwJh tcsufawGudk azmfjyxm;w,f/
7 I get along with her very well. [verb + adv. + prep.]
uRefawmfu olreJY t&rf;udk tqifajy oifhjrwfygw,f/
8 We've all come out in spots! [verb + adv. + prep.]
igwdkYtm;vHk;&J h tom;ta&ay:rSm tpuftaysmufawG ay:vmNyD/
9 I don't know why you put up with this noise every day.
rif;u 'DqlnHoHudk bmhaMumifh aeYwdkif; onf;cHaevJqdkwm ig em;rvnfbl;/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Spelling Help udk avhvmyg/

 zGJUpnf;xm;onfh pum;vHk;rsm;\ t"dyÜm,fudk MunfhNyD; phrasal verb tcsdKU\ t"dyÜm,fudk

BudKwifcefYrSef;Edkifonf/
1 Why don't you just go away?
rif; bmvdkY xGufroGm;wmvJ/
2 Your mother phoned while you were out. She wants you to call her back.
rif; tjyifoGm;aewkef; rif;tar zkef;qufw,f/ olYqD zkef;jyefqufygwJh/
3 Let's swim as far as that rock and then swim back again.
[dkausmufaqmiftxd a&ul;MupdkY/ NyD;&if jyeful;vmMur,f/

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  tjcm; phrasal verb wdkYwGif BudKwifrSef;qí r&Edkifaom t"dyÜm,frsm; &SdMuonf/
1 We're going to have to fork out for a new car. [fork out = spend money]
uRefawmfwdkY um;topfwpfpD; 0,fzdkY ydkufqH oHk;&awmhr,f/
2 Don't bottle up your feelings of anger.
[bottle up = keep them to yourself, not express them]
rif;&J ha'goawGudk NrdKodyfrxm;ygeJY/
3 His speciality is sending up the Prime Minister.
[sending up = making fun of, ridiculing]
oluRrf;wmuawmh 0efBuD;csKyfudk oa&mfwmyJ/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

15.5 Phrasal Verbs and Verbs followed by Adverbials

 intransitive phrasal verb trsm;pkonf verb + adverbial yHkpHESifh qifonf/ Oyrm -
1 The boys ran past. [ran past = phrasal verb]
aumifav;awG jzwfajy;oGm;Muw,f/
The boys ran past my house. [ran past my house = verb + adv.]
aumifav;awG ightdrfa&SUu jzwfajy;oGm;Muw,f/
2 She walked out. [walked out = phrasal verb]
olru oydwfarSmufwJhtaeeJ h tvkyf qufrvkyfawmhbl;/
She walked out of the house. [walked out of the house = verb + adv.]
olru tdrftjyifudk xGufoGm;w,f/
3 They came in and sat down. [came in = phrasal verb]
olwdkY txJudk 0ifvmNyD; xdkifMuw,f/
They came into the house and sat down. [into the house = adverbial]
olwdkY tdrfxJudk 0ifvmNyD; xdkifMuw,f/ [came = verb]

15.6 How to distinguish between [ Verb + Prepositional Phrase ] and

[ Phrasal Verb + Direct Object ]

 (verb+ prep. phrase)ygaom 0gusyHkpHESifh (phrasal verb + object) ygaom yHkpH wdkYonf
rsm;pGm qifwlMuonf/ atmufyg 0gusrsm;udk EIdif;,SOf avhvmMunfhyg/
1 He came to me in a panic. [came = verb] [to me = prep. phrase]
olu uRefawmfhqDudk xdwfxdwfysmysmeJY a&mufvmw,f/

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 That book belongs to me . [belong to = phrasal verb]
tJ'Dpmtkyfu uRefawmf ydkifwm/ [me = D.O.]

2 He said he would stand by the door. [verb + prep. ph.]

olu wHcg;ab;rSm &yfaer,fvdkY ajymw,f/
He said he would stand by his wife. [phrasal verb + D.O.]
olu olYrdef;rbufu &yfwnfr,fvdkY ajymw,f/
3 She looked up the road to see if her husband was coming.
olr&J hcifyGef; vmaeNyDvm;vdkY vrf;&JUtxufydkif;udk olru vSrf;Munfhw,f/
[looked = verb] [up the road = prep. ph.]

She looked up the road in her street atlas of London.

olr&JU vef'efNrdK hajrykHxJrSm tJ'Dvrf;udk olru &SmazGcJhw,f/
[looked up = phrasal verb] [the road = direct object]

 phrasal verb jzpfonf? rjzpfonfudk qHk;jzwf&ef enf;vrf; (4)ck &Sdonf/

A 0guswpfckwGif main verb onf preposition rygyJESifh wpfckwnf; &yfwnfí r&vQif xdk
verb ESifh preposition tpkudk phrasal verb jzpfonf[k ,lqyg/

1 That book belongs to me. [NOT ..... That book belongs.]

2 We can always rely on Pete. [NOT ..... We can always rely.]
3 The king sent for the chancellor. [NOT ..... The king sent.]

0gus 1 wGif belong to onf phrasal verb jzpfygonf/ That book belongs me.[k
vnf;aumif;? That book belongs. [k vnf;aumif; a&;aomf rSm;onf/ þ0guswGif
belong onf to (prep.) rygyJ wpfckwnf; r&yfwnfEkdifyg/ xdk haMumifh belong (verb)
ESifh to (prep.) tpkonf phrasal verb jzpfygonf/ xdkenf;wlpGm 0gus 2 ESifh 0gus
3 wdk h wGifvnf; rely on ESifh sent for wdk honf phrasal verb rsm;jzpfMuonf/

B phrasal verb wGifyg0ifonfh pum;vHk; wpfvHk;csif;pD\ t"dyÜm,fudk,lNyD; xdk phrasal verb

\ t"dyÜm,fudk rsm;aomtm;jzifh rSef;qí r&Edkifyg/
1 He promised to stand by his wife. [stand by = give her his support]
olu olYrdef;rbufu &yfwnfr,fvdkY uwday;w,f/
2 I must brush up on my maths before the exam next week.
[brush up on = improve my knowledge of it, remind myself of the facts]
aemufwpfywf pmar;yGJrwdkifcif ocsFmudk uRefawmf jyefavhusi&fh r,f/
odk haomf &kd;&dk; verb \ aemufrS preposition vdkufaomtcg t"dyÜm,fudk rSef;qEdkifonf/
1 He was standing by the door. olu wHcg;ab;rSm &yfaew,f/
[standing by the door = standing beside the door]

114
C prepositional phrase rsm;udk preposition trsm;pkESifh tpjyKí a&;om;Edkifonf/
1 He was standing by the door. [by = prep.]
 He was standing / at the door.
 He was standing / beside the door.
 He was standing / near the door.
 He was standing / in front of the door.

2 She looked up the road to see if her husband was coming.

down the road
across the road

odk haomf phrasal verb wGif preposition (odk h) adverb onf rsm;aomtm;jzifh wpfckwnf;om
jzpfEdkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 He can rely on John. [NOT .... He can rely with/at John.]
2 She looked up the road in her street atlas.
[NOT .... She looked down/across the road in her street atlas.]

xkd preposition/adverb u ajymif;oGm;vQif phrasal verb \ t"dyÜm,fu ajymif;oGm;onf/

1 He is standing by his wife. [stand by sb = support]
2 These little crosses on the map stand for churches.
[stand for sth = represent]
ajryHkay:u 'DMuufajccwfav;awGu csyfbk&m;ausmif;awGudk udk,fpm;jyKwm/

D verb + adverb yHkpH zGJUpnf;xm;aom transitive phrasal verb \ direct object u noun
(odk h) noun phrase jzpfaevQif xdk noun/noun phrase udk adverb \ a&SUüvnf;aumif;?
aemufüvnf;aumif; xm;Edkifonf/
1 She looked up the road in her street atlas. [look up sth] 
2 She looked the road up in her street atlas. [look sth up]
olru vrf;udk ajryHkpmtkyfxJrSm &SmMunfhw,f/
odkYaomf verb + prepositional phrase yHkpHwGif preposition \ object udk preposition \
a&SUü rxm;&yg/
1 He came to me in a panic. [NOT ..... He came me to in a panic.]

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EXERCISE 15
A uGif;xJwGifay;xm;onfh auxiliary verb ESifh main verb wdkYudk toHk;jyKí atmufyg0gusrsm;\
uGufvyfrsm;udk jznfhyg/
Example: Question: I ____ ______ my umbrella. [have; forget]
Answer: I have forgotten my umbrella.

1. I ____ ____ my mother. [have; visit]

2. She ____ ____ the dishes. [have; do]
3. They ____ ____ to bed. [have: go]
4. The police ____ ____ rioters. [do; arrest]
5. Mrs Jones ____ ____ her keys somewhere. [have; lost]
6. The leaves ____ ____ from the trees. [be; fall]
7. James ____ ____ a much-needed haircut. [have; have]
8. You ____ ____ if you want. [can; go]
9. You ____ ____ off your bike. [might; fall]
10. We ____ ____ the train. [are; catch]
11. Several trees ____ ____ down in the storm. [have; blow]
12. The tiles ____ ____ off the roof. [may; blow]

B atmufyg 0guswpfckpDü rsOf;wm;jyxm;onfh verb onf auxiliary verb ESifh main verb
ESpfckteuf rnfonfhwpfckjzpfaMumif;udk azmfjyyg/
1. Pat was upset at losing her necklace.
2. I know all about that.
3. Lucy has done the washing-up.
4. She's making a good job of it.
5. Jan's puppy wagged its tail and barked happily.
6. I wondered why I didn't get a reply.
7. The problem won't be hard to solve.
8. Is she a good teacher?
9. He said he would come but he didn't.
10. Do you ever listen to what I am saying?

C rsOf;wm;xm;onfh pum;vHk;rsm;udk uGif;xJwGifay;xm;aom t"dyÜm,fwlonfh phrasal verb

wpfckpDjzifh tpm;xdk;yg/ tajzrSef wpfckxufru &SdEdkifonf/
Example:
Question: I don't know how you tolerate all these interruptions.
[fall for, put up with, bring on]

Answer: I don't know how you put up with all these interruptions.

116
 1. That just increases our problems. [add to, gather together, size up]
2. Miniskirts became popular in the 1960s. [carry on, catch on, get on]
3. Why don't you just leave? [shove off, go away, push off]
4. We have a nanny to take care of the children. [rely on, look after, look for]
5. I'm trying to get rid of this cold. [shake off, put down, get out]
6. I'm the one who has to pay for her wedding. [fork out, shell out, get up]
7. We can offer you accommodation for the night. [put up, put up with, get up]
8. She was talking at great length about the environment.[doze off, fall in, rabbit on]
9. It's pollution that has killed the fish. [put down, cut out, wipe out]
10. You'll need to flatter her if you want her to help you. [buy off, butter up, fill up]
11. I'll visit you tomorrow. [drop by, drop in, drop out]
12. I have great sympathy for her. [fall for, feel for, look for]
13. I fell in love with her when I first saw her. [fall for, pick on, send for]
14. That was just some story they invented. [cook up, cover up, mix up]
15. Will you wait for a minute, please? [hang up, hang on, go on]

Grammar Help 1

 be, have ESifh do wdkYonf auxiliary verb rsm;jzpfMuouJhodkY main verb jzpfMuonfudkvnf;
owdjyKyg/ [be = am/is/are/was/were] [have = have/has/had] [do = do/does/did]

1 Maria was in the garden. [was = main verb]

rm&D,mu O,smOfxJrSm &Sdw,f/
Maria was singing. [was = aux. verb]
rm&D,mu oDcsif;qdkaew,f/ [singing = main verb]

2 The Wangs have a new car. [have = main verb]

0rfrdom;pkrSm um;topfwpfpD; &Sdw,f/
The Wangs have crashed their new car. [have = aux. verb]
um;topfeJY ,mOfwdkufrIjzpfcJhvdkY/ [crashed = main verb]

3 We did lots of interesting things on our holiday. [did = main verb]

tm;vyf&ufc&D;pOfrSm pdwf0ifpm;p&mawG trsm;BuD;vkyfcJhMuw,f/
We didn't see anything interesting. [did = aux. verb]
uRefawmfwdkY pdwf0ifpm;p&mwpfckrS rawGUcJhbl;/ [see = main verb]

 0gustwGif;ü adverb wpfck&SdaevQif xdk adverb udk trsm;tm;jzifh auxiliary verb ESifh
main verb Mum;wGif xm;avh&Sdonf/

1 The Wangs have just crashed their new car. [just = adverb]
olwdkYum;topf ckeuyJ ,mOfwdkufrIjzpfcJhwm/

117
 2 People have often told me that it is hard to learn English. [often = adv.]
t*Fvdyfpmoif,l&wmcufw,fvdkY uRefawmfhudk vlawGu cPcPajymw,f/
3 I was only joking. [was = aux. verb] [only = adv.]
uRefawmfu [movkyf½Hk vkyfaewmyg/ [joking = main verb]

Spelling Help

 phrasal verb wGif hyphen roHk;yg/ odkYaomf phrasal verb rS jzpfay:vmonfh noun wGif
hyphen oHk;&ygonf/ Oyrm -

1 The plane will take off soon. [take off = phrasal verb]
av,mOfu rMumrD ysHwufawmhrSm/
Please fasten your seat belts for take-off. [take-off = noun]
av,mOfysHwufawmhrSmrdk h aus;Zl;jyKNyD; xdkifcHkcg;ywf ywfxm;yg/
2 We felt he had rather let down the whole team.
olu wpfoif;vHk;udk pdwfysufvufysufjzpfatmifvkyfcJhw,fvdkY
uRefawmfwdkY xifw,f/ [let down = phrasal verb]

It was rather a let-down. [let-down = noun]

tJ'g[m tawmf pdwfysufzdkYaumif;w,f/
 tcsdKUae&mrsm;wGif noun udk hyphen roHk;yJ single word tjzpf a&;om;Muonf/
1 The computers crashing set the project back a bit.
uGefysLwmawGysufwmu pDrHudef;udk enf;enf; aESmifhaES;apcJhw,f/
2 It was a bit of a setback. [setback = noun]
tJ'gu aESmifhaES;MuefYMumrI wpfckyJ/
Grammar Help 2

 phrasal verb onf tjcm; verb rsm;uJoh yYdk if transitive verb (uHy'k v
f akd om Bu,
d m) jzpfEikd o
f nf/
intransitive verb (uHyk'f rvdkaom Bud,m)vnf; jzpfEdkifonf/

1 Go away! xGufoGm;/ [go away = Vi]

2 Take it away! tJ'gudk ,loGm;/ [take sth away = Vt]
3 Do cheer up. aysmfaysmfaeprf;yg/ [cheer up = Vi]
4 Is there anything we could do to cheer her up? [cheer sb up = Vt]
olr aysmfoGm;atmif igwdk hvkyfvdk h&wm bm&SdvJ/
5 We get along very well. [get along = Vi]
uRefawmfwdkYu tvGefudk oifhjrwfygw,f/

118
 6 I get along with her very well. [get along with sb = Vt]
uRefawmfu olreJY tvGefudk oifhjrwfygw,f/
 transitive phrasal verb \ direct object tm; ae&mcsxm;yHk pnf;rsOf; (rule) rsm;onf
ta&;BuD;ygonf/
A transitive phrasal verb wGif preposition ygvQif direct object udk preposition \
aemufwGif xm;&rnf/
1 They fell in with our suggestion. [fall in with sb/sth]
olwdkYu uRefawmfwdkY&JU tMuHjyKcsufudk vufcHcJhMuw,f/
2 I was just looking at those lovely flowers. [look at sb/sth]
tJ'Dyef;vSvSav;awGudkyJ uRefawmfMunfhaewmyg/
3 You can always rely on Jean. [rely on sb/sth]
rif;taeeJY *sD;(ef)udk tjrJ ,HkMunftm;xm;vdkY&w,f/
B transitive phrasal verbu verb + adverb jzpfaeNyD; direct object u pronoun
jzpfaevQif xdk pronoun udk verb ESifh adverb Mum;wGif xm;&rnf/ Oyrm -

1 Take that off. tJ'gudk cRwyf pfvu kd /f [NOT... Take off that.]
2 Put them back at once! tJ'gawGudk csufcsif; jyefxm;vdkuf/
3 Come in and dry yourself off. ud,
k u
hf ukd ,
kd f ajcmufaoGUatmif okwv f ukd /f
C odkYaomf direct object u noun/noun phrase jzpfaevQif xdk noun/noun phrase
udk adverb \ a&SUüvnf;aumif; ? aemufüvnf;aumif; xm;Edkifonf/
1 Take your coat off. [take sth off]
Take off your coat. rif;&J hukwftuÐsudk cRwfvdkufyg/ [take off sth]

2 They always open the shop up at six o'clock. [open sth up]
They always open up the shop at six o'clock. [open up sth]
olwdkYu qdkifudk (6)em&DrSm tjrJwrf; zGifhw,f/
D indirect object udk adverb (odfk h) direct object \ a&SUwGif xm;&rnf/
1 Give him back his book. [give sb back sth]
2 Give your brother back his book. [sb = I.O.] [sth = D.O.]
3 Give him his book back. [give sb sth back]

119
 Glossary

accommodation ^t. acgh.r.'a';.&Sif(ef)^ wnf;cdk&ef tcef;/

'
add to ^'tuf('f).xm^ yrmP? ta&twGu?f t&G,t f pm;? rsm;vmonf/
bark ^bwf..(cf)^ a[mifonf/
butter up ^'bwf.wm.&yf(yf)^ zm;onf/ rsufESmvkyfonf/
buy off ^'bdkif;.a,mh^ EIwfydwfc ay;onf/
catch on ^'uuf(csf).tGef(ef)^ acwfpm;onf/
chancellor ^'csef;(ef).p.vm^ w&m; 0efBuD;csKyf/
cook up ^'cGwf.uyf(yf)^ vkyfZmwfcif;onf/
cover up ^'cg;.Am.&yf(yf)^ xdrfcsefuG,f0Sufonf/
crash ^(cf)&yf(&Sf)^ ,mOfwdkufrI jzpfonf/ uGefysLwm ysufonf/
cut out ^'cyf(wf).atmuf(wf)^ jzwf,lonf/
doze off ^'dk.'aZmh(zf)^ wpfarS; tdyfonf/
drop by ^('f)a&mh.'bdkif;^ vrf;MuHKcdkuf0ifvnfonf/ = drop in
drop out ^('f)a&mh.'ayguf(wf)^ EkwfxGufonf/
fall for ^'azm(vf).azmf^ cspfBudKufonf/
fall in ^azmf.'vif;(ef)^ wef;pDonf/
fill up ^'zD;(vf).tyf(yf)^ tjynfh jznfhonf/
feel for ^'zD;(vf).azmf^ *&kPmyGg; oem;rdonf/
flatter ^'(zf)vJh.wm^ ajrSmufyifhajymonf/
go away ^'*dk;.t.a0;^ xGufoGm;cdkif;onf/
go on ^'*dk;.tGef^ oGm;ESifhonf/
gradually ^'(*f)&uf.*sL.vD^ wjznf;jznf;/
hang on ^'[J.iGef^ cP apmifhonf/
hang up ^'[J(if).tyf(yf)^ zkef;csonf/
interruption ^ tif(ef).w.'&yf(yf).&Sif(ef)^ taESmifht,Suf/
'
migraine ^'rD;.(*f)&def;(ef)^ acgif;wpfjcrf;udkufonfh OD;,Of;em/
mix up ^'rpf(cf).pyf(yf)^ a&maxG;onf/
necklace ^'euf(uf).vyf(pf)^ vnfqGJ/
offer ^'atmh.zm^ urf;vSrf;onf/ ay;onf/
operator ^'atmh.y.a&.wm^ yxrOD;qHk; tulBud,m/
panic ^'zJh.epf(cf)^ aMumufpdwfrTefjcif;/
pick on ^'zpf.uGef(ef)^ &r,f&Smonf/ rJonf/
push off ^'yGwf(&Sf).atmh(zf)^ xGufoGm;cdkif;onf/
put down ^'yGwf(wf).a'gif;(ef)^ ESdrfESif;onf/
rabbit on ^&uf.bpf(wf).'tGef(ef)^ awmifpOfa&r& wwGwfwGwf ajymonf/
ridicule ^'&pf.'D.(uf),l;(vf)^ oa&mfonf/ avSmifonf/

120
send for ^'phJ(ef)('f).azmf^ ac:onf/
shake off ^&Sdwf.'aumh(zf)^ zsm;emjcif;udk aysmufatmifvkyfonf/
shell out ^'&SJ.avmuf(wf)^ aiGxkwfay;&onf/
shove off ^'&Syf.aAmh(zf)^ xGufoGm;cdkif;onf/
size up ^'qdkuf(Zf).tyf(yf)^ tuJjzwfonf/ oHk;oyfonf/
speciality ^ (pf)y,f.&SD.',Jh.v.wD^ txl;jyKrI/
'
suffer ^'pyf.zm^ a0'em cHpm;&onf/
sympathy ^'pif;(rf).y.oD^ *&kPm/ oem;jcif;/
tile ^xdkif;(vf)^ tkwf<uyfjym;/
tolerate ^'axm.vm.&dwf(wf)^ onf;cHonf/ cHEdkifonf/
upset ^tyf(yf).'puf(wf)^ pdwfraumif;aom/
wag ^0Jh(*f)^ ,rf;onf/ eef honf/
wipe out ^0dkuf.'ayguf(wf)^ aysmufoGm;aponf/
withdrawn ^0pf(of).'('f)a&m(ef)^ txD;wnf;aevdkaom/

121
Unit
16 Co-ordination

16.1 Co-ordination
 function wlnDaom (odkY) ta&;ygrIü wlnDaom pum;vHk;^pum;pkrsm;udk and, but, or
wkdYtm; toHk;jyKí aygif;pnf;NyD; a&;om;jcif;udk co-ordination [k ac:onf/
1 Sue and Richard were painting the kitchen. [co-ordination of subj.]
pl;eJY &pfcswfwdkY rD;zdkacsmifudk aq;okwfaeMuw,f/
2 John or George could do the job. [co-ordination of subj.]
*Ref(ef)eJY a*smh(*sf)wdkY tJ'Dtvkyfudk vkyfEdkifr,fxifw,f/
3 I've brought some books and some magazines. [co-ordination of obj.]
pmtkyftcsdKUeJY r*¾Zif;tcsdKUudk uRefawmf ,lvmcJhNyD/
4 Simon painted his bike blue and purple.
qdkifrif(ef)u pufbD;udk tjyma&mifeJYc&rf;a&mifaq; okwfcJhw,f/
[co-ordination of object-complements]

5 Should I put these tools in the garage or the garden hut?

'Dud&d,mwefqmyvmawGudk um;*kda'gif (odkY) O,smOfxJu wJxJrSm
uRefawmf xnfhxm;vkduf&rvm;/
[co-ordination of objects of preposition]

6 This job needs to be done quickly and accurately.

'Dtvkyfudk jrefjrefqefqefeJY wdwdusus vkyfzkdYvkdw,f/
[co-ordination of adv.]

7 I'll do it this evening or tomorrow morning. [co-ordination of adv.]

'gudk 'Dnae (odkY) reufjzefreufrSm uRefawmf vkyfvkdufr,f/
8 I told him politely but firmly that I didn't want to buy double glazing.
rSefESpfxyfygwJh jywif;aygufawGudk r0,fcsifbl;vkdY uRefawmf olYudk
,Of,Ofaus;aus; eJY jywfjywfom;om;yJ ajymcJhw,f/
[co-ordination of adv.]

9 It had been a long and tiring but enjoyable trip. [co-ordination of adj.]
tJ'Dc&D;u a0;NyD; yifyef;ayr,fh aysmfp&maumif;w,f/

122
 (2) ckxufydkaom pum;vHk;^pum;pkrsm;udk and/but/or wkdYjzifh aygif;NyD; a&;om;aomtcgü
co-ordinating word (and/but/or) wpfckom oHk;NyD; usefaompum;pk^pum;vHk;rsm; twGuf
aumfrm (comma) ukd oHk;ygonf/
1 Would you like tea , coffee or hot chocolate? [co-ordination of D.O.]
bmaomufrvJ? vÇuf&nfvm;? aumfzDvm;? acsmuvuf ylylav;vm;/
2 David went to the shop to buy a melon, bananas, two lemons and
some oranges. [co-ordination of obj.]
z&JoD;wpfvHk;? iSufaysmoD;? a&SmufoD;ESpfvHk;eJY vdar®mfoD;wcsKdU0,fzkdY qkdifudk
a';Apf oGm;cJhw,f/

 both...and, either....or, neither....nor, not only...but also, tp&Sdaom ESpfvHk;wGJ co-

ordinator rsm;vnf; &Sdonf/

1 Either I or my wife will be at the meeting. [either A or B = subj.]

tpnf;ta0;udk uRefawmf (odkY) uRefawmfhZeD; wufrSmyg/
To match the wallpaper, the curtains will have to be either orange or
yellow.
eH&Huyf yef;ajymufpuúL (ta&mif)eJY vkdufzufzdkY cef;qD;awGu vdar®mf(odkY)
t0g jzpfzkdY vkdvdrfhr,f/ [either A or B = subj. cpm]

2 Neither Gordon nor Helen was invited. [neither A nor B = subj.]

a*gh'if(ef)eJY [JhvJ(ef)ESpfa,mufvHk;udk rzdwfwm/
The operation is neither feasible nor desirable. [neither A nor B = Cpm.]
'Dvkyfief;u atmifjrifEkdifwJhtaetxm; r&Sdovkd vkdvm;ESpfoufp&mvnf;
raumif;bl;/
3 Both Sue and Richard were painting the kitchen. [both A and B = subj.]
pl;eJ h&pfcswf ESpfa,mufpvHk; rD;zkdacsmifudk aq;okwfaeMuw,f/
To be successful you need both talent and luck. [both A and B = obj.]
atmifjrifzdkYtwGuf yifudkpGrf;&nfa&m? uHaumif;zdkYyg ESpfckpvHk; vkdtyfw,f/

 (and, but, or) tp&Sdaom

aygif;pnf; csdwfqufay;onfh pum;vHk;wdkYudk co-ordinating
conjunction [k ac:onf/ xkd co-ordinating conjunction jzifh aygif;pnf;csdwfqufí &vm
aom phrase udk co-ordinate phrase [k ac:onf/
1 The collection is both unique and priceless.
[both unique and priceless (co-ordinate ph.) = subj. cpm.]

123
 2 Mary , her husband , and his cousin Alex were all at the wedding.
[Mary, her husband and his cousin Alex (co-ordinate ph.) = subj.]

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

 co-ordinating conjunction rsm;omru tjcm; pum;vHk;tcsKdUukdvnf; co-ordinate vkyf&m

wGif toHk;jyKEkdifonf/
1 It was a rather frightening yet strangely uplifting experience.
tJ'g[m tawmfav;aMumufp&maumif;ayrJh xl;xl;qef;qef; aysmfp&m
aumif;wJh tawGUtBuHKwpfckvnf; jzpfygw,f/ [yet = conj.]

2 Her mother is a kind-hearted if somewhat gullible woman.

olr&JUtar[m tvG,fwuleJY,HkwwfwJh trsKd;orD;wpfOD;jzpfayrJh oem;
Muifem pdwf&Sdw,f/ [if = conj.]

3 The meals were adequate though rather unimaginative. [though = conj.]

'Dtpm;tpmawGu vHkvHkavmufavmuf&SdayrJh awmfawmfav; ½dk;w,f/

16.2 Ambiguity in Co-ordinate Phrases

 wpfcgwpf&HwGif co-ordinate phrase rsm;ü t"dyÜm,fESpfcG(ambiguity) &SdEkdifonf/

1 The old men and women were spared by the raiders.
0ifa&mufpD;eif;olawGu tzkd;BuD;awGeJY tzGm;BuD;awGudk csrf;omay;cJhw,f/
[= old men and old women]

old onf men ESihf women ESpcf pk vH;k udk txl;jyKonf[k ,lqvQif txufygtwdik ;f
t"dyÜm,f&onf/ old onf men udkom txl;jyKonf? women udk txl;rjyK[k
,lqvQif atmuffygtwdkif; t"dyÜm,f &onf/
The old men and women were spared by the raiders.
tzkd;BuD;awGeJY trsKd;orD;tm;vHk;udk csrf;omay;cJhw,f/
[= old men and all women]

2 He has a passion for small cars and motorbikes.

olu um;tao;pm;awGeJY qdkifu,ftao;pm;awGudk rufarmw,f/
[= small cars and small motorbikes] (odkY)

olu um;tao;pm;awGeJY qdkifu,ft&G,frsdK;pHkudk rufarmw,f/

[= small cars and motorbikes of any size]

124
16.3 Subject-Verb Agreement with Co-ordinate Subjects
 0guswpfck\ subject u co-ordinate phrase jzpfaevQif xdk co-ordinate subject ESifh
verb wdkY tenf;trsm; udkufnDrI&Sdap&ef *&kpdkuf&rnf/ Oyrm -

1 John has arrived and Peter has arrived.

John and Peter have arrived. [NOT ..... John and Peter has arrived.]
*Ref(ef)eJY yDwmwdk h a&mufvmMuNyD/
2 Kathy was wrong and Tim was wrong.
Kathy and Tim were wrong. [NOT ..... Kathy and Tim was wrong.]
uufoDeJY wifrfwdkY trSm;vkyfcJhMuw,f/
3 She and I are on holiday. [she and I = We]
olreJY uRefawmfu tm;vyf&uf c&D;xGufvmwm/
4 You and he have been chosen for the task. [you and he = you]
tJ'DtvkyftwGuf oleJYrif;udk a&G;vdkufNyD/
5 Your problem and his are totally different. [his = his problem]
rif;jyóemeJY olYjyóemu vHk;0 rwlbl;/
6 My car and yours are both Fords. [yours = your car]
rif;um;a&m ighum;yg ESpfpD;pvHk;u azgh'fum;awGcsnf;yJ/
7 Her mother and my mother were second cousins.
olYtareJY uRefawmfhtaru ESpf0rf;uGJ nDtpfryg/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

16.4 Either A or B
 co-ordinate element wdkY\ udk,fpm; A ESifh B udk oHk;xm;ygonf/ A ESifh B wdkYu singular
rsm;jzpfvQif verb onf singular jzpf&rnf/ Oyrm -
Either Kathy or Tim was wrong. [Kathy/Tim = singular]

 A ESifh B wdkYu plural rsm;jzpfaevQif verb u plural jzpf&rnf/ Oyrm -

Either the Browns or the Smiths were wrong. [Browns/Smiths = plural]

 A ESifh B wdk h tenf;udef; trsm;udef; rwlMuvQif verb onf ¤if;ESifh teD;qHk; wGif&Sdonfh B
ESifhom agree jzpfvdktyfonf/ Oyrm -
1 Either you or I am wrong. [I → am]
2 Either you or she is wrong. [he/she/it → is]
3 Either I or they are wrong. [we/you/they → are]

125
 txufygtwdkif; a&;om;jcif;xuf atmufygtwdkif; a&;om;jcif;u ydkaumif;ygonf/
1 Either you are wrong or I am.
2 Either you are wrong or she is.
3 Either I am wrong or they are.

16.5 Neither A nor B

 A ESifh B wdkYu singular jzpfaeMuvQif verb uvnf; singular jzpf&rnf/ Oyrm -
Neither Kathy nor Tim was wrong. [was = singular]

 A ESifh B wGif wpfcku singular jzpfNyD; tjcm;wpfcku plural jzpfaevQif plural verb udkom
oHk;&rnf/ Oyrm -
Neither Kathy's parents nor her brother were at her party. ***
Neither Kathy's brother nor her parents were at her party.

 A ESifh B ESpfckvHk;onf singular jzpfaeaomfvnf; first person (I), second person (you),
third person (he/she) ponfjzifh uGJjym;aevQif verb onf ¤if;ESifhteD;qHk;wGif &Sdonfh B ESifh
agree jzpf&ef vdktyfonf/ (odk h) plural verb udk oHk;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 Neither Kathy nor I am going. 
2 Neither I nor Kathy is going. 
3 Neither Kathy nor I are going. 

16.6 Apposition
 apposition onf co-ordination \ special type wpfckjzpfonf/ noun/ noun phrase
ESpfckonf wpfckwnf;aomt&m^vlyk*¾dKvfudk ñTef;qdkaeMuNyD; wpfckESifhwpfck ab;csif;uyfvsuf
wnf&Sdaejcif;udk apposition [kac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswkd w h iG f noun in apposition
wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/
1 My neighbour, Mrs Lee, is flying to the USA next week.
uRefawmfh\ tdrfeD;csif; rpöpfvDu aemufwpfywfrSm tar&dum;udk
av,mOfeJY oGm;awmhrSm/
2 John Milton, the famous poet, was born in this house.
ausmfMum;wJh uAsmq&m *Ref(ef)rD(vf)wef(ef)udk 'DtdrfrSm arG;zGm;cJhwm/
3 He, the cause of all my problems, got off scot-free while I, the victim,
was fined $ 1000.
ighjyóemtm;vHk;udk vkyfwJholuawmh tjypfuae vGwfvGwfuRwfuRwf
vGwfoGm;cJhNyD/ wu,frvkyfyJ cH&wJh igu 'PfaiG (1000) cscH&w,f/

126
  wpfcgwpf&HwGif phrase wdkYonf wpfckESifhwpfck ab;csif;uyfvsuf r&SdyJ ta0;rSaeívnf;
apposition vkyfEdkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 I got a brilliant present from my aunt for my birthday, a new bike.
[a brilliant present = a new bike]
uRefawmfharG;aeYtwGuf uRefawmfhta':qDu tvGefaumif;wJh vufaqmif
wpfckjzpfwJh pufbD;topfwpfpD; uRefawmf &cJhw,f/
2 The boy had a dangerous weapon in his pocket, a large flick-knife.
aumifav;&JU tdwfuyfxJrSm tvGeftEÅ&m,frsm;wJh vufeufwpfckjzpfwJh
armif;jyef"m; wpfacsmif;&Sdw,f/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 3 udk avhvmyg/

 apposition aemufxyfwpfrsdK;rSm preposition (of) ygonfh prepositional phrase udk

oHk;jcif; jzpfonf/
1 the city of New Orleans El'atmvJ(ef)(Zf) NrdKUBuD;
2 the French town of Le Puy vzGD; vdkY ac:wJh jyifopfNrdKUav;
 real subject onf noun clause (odk h) to-infinitive clause jzpfaevQif xkd clause wkdUukd verb
\aemufwGif a&;NyD; uGufvyfjzpfoGm;onfh empty subject slot ukd it jzihf jznhfvkdufonf/
þokdU it ukdoHk;í a&;om;jcif;onfvnf; apposition wpfrsdK;yifjzpfygonf/ þ apposition
rsdK;ukd extraposition [kac:onf/
1 It doesn't matter what you think. [it = what you think]
rif; xifwmu ta&;rBuD;ygbl;/
2 It is our duty to help others. [it = to help others]
tjcm;olawGukd ulnDzkdUu uRefawmfwkdU&JU wm0efyJ/
3 It's news to me that he was invited. [it = that he was invited]
olUukd zdwfMum;xm;w,fqkdwmu uRefawmfhtwGuf owif;wpfyk'fygyJ/

EXERCISE 16
A ay;xm;onhf 0gusESpfaMumif;ukd wpfaMumif;wnf;jzpfatmif uGif;xJwGif ay;xm;onhf
co-ordinating conjunction ukd toHk;jyKí a&;om;yg/
Example Question: You need ambition. You need luck. [and]
Answer: You need ambition and luck.

1. My mother was baking cakes. My mother was baking biscuits. [and]

2. This poison is deadly. This poison is fast-acting. [both ... and]
3. I scanned the horizon desperately. I scanned the horizon in vain. [but]

127
 4. Is he a fair ruler? Is he a just ruler? [and]
5. Would you like tea? Would you like coffee? [or]
6. She does her work quietly. She does her work conscientiously. [but]
7. They stared at her in complete amazement. They stared at her in utter
amazement. [and]
8. The king surrounded himself with men of wisdom. The king surrounded himself
with men of good character. [and]
9. Is she a Buddhist? Is she a Hindu? [or]
10. Are you working in the house? Are you working in the garden? [or]

B ay;xm;onhf 0gusESpfaMumif;ukd wpfaMumif;wnf;jzpfatmif uGif;xJwGif ay;xm;onhf

co-ordinating conjunction ukd toHk;jyKí a&;om;yg/ co-ordinate subject topfESifh verb
ukd tenf;trsm; ukdufnDatmif a&;om;yg/
1. Mum was working in the garden. Dad was working in the garden. [and]
2. My brother speaks French. Your brother speaks French. [and]
3. Her brother speaks French. Her sister speaks French. [either ....... or]
4. Her aunt was in Paris last year. Her parents were in Paris last year.
[either ....... or]
5. Her aunt was in Paris last year. Her parents were in Paris last year.
[neither .... nor]
6. I am going to the concert. You are going to the concert. [neither .... nor]
7. Kate makes the tea. Fred makes the tea. [either ....... or]
8. Kate makes the tea. Fred makes the tea. [neither .... nor]
9. Kate makes the tea. I make the tea. [neither .... nor]
10. You have done very well. She has done very well. [and]

Grammar Help 1

 function wlonfh element rsm;udkom co-ordinate vkyfEdkifonf/

1 Mum was baking cakes and scones. [cakes = obj.]
taru udwfrkefYeJY EdkYaygifrkefYvHk;awG zkwfaew,f/ [scones = obj.]
[BUT NOT ..... Mum was baking cakes and for tea.]

2 Steven washed quickly but thoroughly. [quickly = adv.]

jrefjrefeJY aoaocsmcsm aq;aMumcJhw,f/ [thoroughly = adv.]
[BUT NOT ..... Steven washed quickly and his face.]

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Grammar Help 2

 co-ordinate phrase onf ouf&o

dS ufrt
hJ &m (2)ck?
(3)ckukd rñTe;f yJ single object jzpfaevQif
(odkY) wpfckwnf;aom t&m[k ,lqvQif singular verb udkom oHk;&rnf/
1 'Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde' was written by Robert Louis Stevenson.
['Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde' is a book.]
]]a'gufwm *sufu,fvfeJY rpöwm[dkuf'f}} 0w¬Kudk a&mbwf(wf) vl0pf(pf)
pwDAifpif(ef)u a&;cJhwm/
2 The Hammer and Sickle was flying over the building. [The 'Hammer and
Sickle' is the name given to the flag of the former Soviet Union.]
qdkAD,uftvH ]]wleJY wHpOff}} u taqmufttHkay:rSm wvlvl vGifhaew,f/
3 Bacon and eggs is what I always have for breakfast.
0ufaygifajcmufeJY MuufOuawmh reufpmtwGuf uRefawmf tjrJpm;wJh
t&mawGaygh/

 t*Fvdyfo'´gü singular verb a&m plural verb yg oHk;Edkifonfh 0gustcsKdU &Sdonf/ Oyrm -
Two and Two is four.  (2) eJY (2) aygif;&if (4)&w,f/
Two and Two are four. (2) eJY (2) aygif;&if (4)&w,f/

Grammar Help 3

 0guswpfckwGif apposition jzpfaeonfudk ñTefjyaom tjcm; pum;vHk;^pum;pkrsm;pGm (that

is, that is to say, say, such as, i.e., for example, e.g. ponfjzifh) &Sdygonf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif apposition jzpfaeonfudk ñTefjyaom pum;vHk;wdk hudk rsOf;wm; jyxm;onf/
1 The principal, that is to say Mr Lee, refused to speak to the press.
ausmif;tkyfBuD; rpöwmvDu owif;axmufawGeJY pum;ajymzdkYudk jiif;vdkufw,f/
2 Mr Blair, that is, the British Prime Minister, will be meeting the President
this afternoon. [Mr Blair = the British Prime Minister]
NAdwdoQ0efBuD;csKyf rpöwm(bf)vJu or®wBuD;udk 'DaeYrGef;vGJydkif;rSm awGUvdrfhr,f/
3 He was accused of being in possession of an offensive weapon, namely
a large samurai sword. [an offensive weapon = a large samurai sword]
ol[m wdkufyGJ0ifvufeufwpfckjzpfwJh qmrl½dkif;"m;BuD;wpfvufudk vuf0,fxm;&Sd
w,fvdkY pGyfpGJcH&w,f/

129
 Glossary

adequate ^'tJh.'.uGpf(wf)^ jynfhpHk vHkavmufaom/

bacon ^'ab;.uif(ef)^ 0ufom; qm;e,fajcmuf/
conscientiously ^ uGef(ef).'&SJ.&Syf.p.vD^ wm0efodod/ ausausyGefyGef/
'
deadly ^''uf('f).vD^ aoapEdkifaom/
gullible ^'*wf.v.b,f(vf)^ tvG,fwulESifh ,Hkwwfaom/
horizon ^[.'&kdif;.Zif(ef)^ rdk;ukyfpuf0dkif;/
priceless ^'(yf)&kduf.(pf)vuf(pf)^ wefzdk; rjzwfEdkifaom/
raider ^'a&;.'g^ 0ifa&muf pD;eif; wkdufcdkufol/
scan ^(pf)uJ(ef)^ tESH h Munfhonf/
sickle ^'ppf.u,f(vf)^ wHpOf/
unimaginative ^ tef.eif.'rJh.*sif.euf.wpf(Af)^ &kd;vGef;aom/
'
unique ^,l.'ed(cf)^ twkr&Sdaom/
uplifting ^tyf(yf).'vpf(zf).wif(if)^ aysmfp&maumif;aom/
vain ^Adef;(ef)^ tcsnf;ESD;/

 Quick Summary

þ summary onf phrase rsm;ESifh ywfoufNyD; azmfjycJhonfh t"dutcsufrsm;udk jyefvnf

tusOf;csKyf azmfjyjcif; jzpfygonf/
1 A phrase is any group of two or more words that can occupy the same funciton
slot in a sentence as a single word. [Unit 10] The head of a phrase is the word
in the phrase that defines what sort of phrase it is.

2 A prepositional phrase is a phrase that begins with a preposition. [Unit 11] it

may function as an adverbial or as complement of a noun, verb, adjective or
adverb. It may modify a following noun.

3 An adjective phrase is a phrase that has an adjective as its head. [Unit 12] It
may modify a following noun or it may function as a subject- or object-
complement.

An adjectival phrase is any phrase that can function in the same way as an
adjective. Not only adjective phrases but also noun phrases and prepositional
phrases can be adjectival phrases.

4 A noun phrase is a phrase that can occupy the same position in a sentence
as a noun or pronoun. [Unit 13] The head of a noun phrase is the noun in that
phrase. A noun phrase can have any of the functions that a noun or pronoun
has such as subject, direct object or indirect object.

130
 A noun phrase may include such parts of speech as predeterminers,
determiners, quantifiers, numerals, possessives and adjectives.
Adjectives must come in a particular order in a noun phrase.

There may also be extensions of a noun in a noun phrase, words or phrases

that follow the noun.

5 An adverb phrase is a phrase that has an adverb as its head. [Unit 14] It can
have any of the functions that an adverb has, such as adjunct, disjunct and
conjunct.

An adverbial phrase is any phrase that can function as an adverbial. Not only
adverb phrases but also noun phrases and prepositional phrases can be
adverbial phrases.

6 A verb phrase is a phrase that has a lexical verb as its head. [Unit 15] Verb
phrases function as predicators.

The operator is the first or only auxilliary verb in a verb phrase. Operators
have an important role in the formation of questions and negative sentences.

A phrasal verb is not the same as verb phrase. It is an expression consisting

of a lexical verb followed by an adverb, a preposition, or both an adverb and a
preposition.

7 Co-ordination takes place when two or more words or phrases of equal

importance and having the same funciton are linked by a word such as and or
but. [Unit 16] The linking word may be a co-ordinating conjunction, a
subordinating conjunction or a conjunct.

Apposition is a special type of co-ordination in which the co-rodinated

elements refer to the same person or thing.

131
 Part
4 Clauses and their Functions

 and, but tp&Sdaom pum;vHk;rsm;ESihf qufxm;aom clause

udk co-ordinate clause [k ac:onf/
She looked at him and they both smiled.
olru olUudk Munhfvdkufw,f? NyD;awmh olwdkY
ESpfa,mufvHk; NyHK;Muw,f/
I don't know the answer but I'm going to find out.
tajzudk ig rodbl;? 'gayrJh ig &SmMunhfOD;r,f/

 wpfckwnf; oD;oefYr&yfwnfEdkifyJ tjcm; clause tay:rSDae

&onhf clause udk subordinate clause [k ac:onf/
The house seems very empty when you aren't
here. rif;'DrSm r&SdwhJtcsdefqdk&if tdrfrSm vlr&SdovdkyJ/

You can't go because you're too young.

rif;u odyfi,fvGef;vdkY oGm;cGihfrjyKEdkifbl;/
Unit

Co-ordinate
wpfa,mufa,muf^wpfckckudk txl;jyKaom (odkY) extra
Clauses, Main information udkay;aom subordinate clause udk
17 Clauses and relative clause [k ac:onf/
Subordinate
Clauses This is the house I was telling you about.
rif;udk igajymajymaewhJ tdrfu 'DtdrfyJ/
18 Relative Clauses
Robert, who had been listening to their
19 Adverbial Clauses conversation, suddenly laughed.
20 Noun Clauses olwdkY pum;ajymwmudk em;axmifaewhJ a&mbwfu
½kwfw&uf x &,fw,f/
Non-Finite and
21 Verbless Clauses

22 Ellipsis

132
 adverb uhJodkY vkyfaqmifaom subordinate
clause udk adverbial clause [k ac:onf/
We can talk about that when I get home.
ig tdrfjyefa&mufrS igwdkY tJ'DtaMumif;udk ajymMur,f/
If you don't have any tea, I'll drink coffee.
rif;rSm vufzuf&nf r&Sdbl;qdk&if ig aumfzDyJ aomufr,f/

 noun uhJodkY wpfckudk jznhfEdkifaom

function slot subordinate clause
udk noun clause [k ac:onf/
I know that she can't hear us.
olru igwdkYajymwmudk rMum;Edkifbl;qdkwm ig odw,f/
What you think is of no concern to me.
rif; xifwm ightwGufuawmh ta&;rBuD;bl;/

 infinitive (odkY) participle

(odkU) gerund wdkYjzihf zGJUpnf;xm;aom clause udk
non-finite clause [k ac:onf/

She just stared at the man, saying nothing.

olru bmpum;rSrajymbJ tJ'Dvludk pdkufMunhfvdkufw,f/
To go there on your own would be very foolish.
tJ'Dudk wpfa,mufwnf; oGm;r,fqdk&if t&rf;rdkufrJ&m usvdrfhr,f/

 verb vHk;0rygaom clause udk verbless clause [k ac:onf/

When on holiday, I like to go for long walks.
tm;vyf&uf c&D;oGm;whJtcg uRefawmf c&D;&Snfvrf;avSsmuf&wmudk
BudKufw,f/

 wlnDaom pum;vHk;wdkYudk xyfrajymbJ jr§Kyfxm;jcif;udk ellipsis [k

ac:onf/
I've cleaned the car and polished the car.
uRefawmfum;udk aq;aMumNyD; aygvpfwdkufNyD;NyD/
Are you coming?
rif; vdkufrSmvm;/

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Unit Unit
17 17
Co-ordinate Clauses, Main Clauses
and Subordinate Clauses
17.1 Co-ordinate Clauses

 pum;vHk;rsm; ESihf pum;pkrsm;(phrases) omru 0gusrsm;ukdvnf;

(words) co-ordinating
conjunction (and/but/or) oHk;í aygif;pnf; csdwfqufNyD; a&;om;Ekdifonf/
1 I'm going. You're not going.
I'm going but you're not going. igoGm;rSm/'gayrJh rif;u oGm;rSmr[kwfbl;/
2 Sue is painting the kitchen. Richard is painting the bedroom.
Sue is painting the kitchen and Richard is painting the bedroom.
pl;u rD;zkdacsmifukd aq;okwfaeNyD; &pfcswfu tdyfcef;ukd aq;okwfaew,f/
3 John sings. Mary dances.
John sings and Mary dances. *Refu oDcsif;qkdNyD; ar&Du uw,f/
John sings but Mary dances. *Refu oDcsif;qkdayrJh ar&Du uw,f/
Either John sings or Mary dances.

4 Tom was reading. Julie was writing letters. Fred was playing his guitar.
Tom was reading, Julie was writing letters, and Fred was playing his guitar.
wGef(rf)u pmzwfaew,f/ *sLvDu pma&;aeNyD; z&uf('f)u*pfwmwD;aew,f/

 conjunction ukt
d oH;k jyKNy;D 0gusi,f(2)ckuadk ygif;í a&;vku
d af omtcg 0gusBu;D (1)ckudk &&So
d nf/
xkd0gusi,fwkdUukd clause (0gusu@)[k ac:onf/ xkdUaMumihf clause onf 0gus tBuD;
wpfcktwGif;rS 0gusi,fwpfck[k qdkEdkifonf/
1 John sings but Mary dances. [2 clauses = one sentence]
2 Tom was reading, Julie was writing letters, and Fred was playing his
guitar. [3 clauses = one sentence]

 clause onf 0guswpfcktwGif;rS 0gusi,fwpfck jzpfaomaMumihf ¤if;\ structure onf

sentence structure om jzpfonf/ Oyrm- declarative sentence wpfckwGif yg0ifaom
clause wkdUwGif subject ESihf verb toD;oD; &SdEkdifonf/

1 You look in the garage and I will try the garden hut.
rif;u um;*kda'gifxJrSm &Smyg/ igu O,smOfxJu *dka'gifxJrSm &Smr,f/
2 I have looked everywhere but I just cannot find the spade.
ae&mtESHU&SmNyD;NyD/ a*:jym;u &SmvkdUukd r&bl;/

134
  okdUaomf clause wkdU\ subject u wlaevQif yxr subject rSvGJí usefaom subject rsm;
ukd csefvSyfxm;cJhEkdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 The baby cooed and gurgled. [The baby cooed and the baby gurgled.]
uav;i,fu ckd;ckd;cpfcpf toHjyKNyD; wul;ul; atmfw,f/
2 I bent down, patted the dog, and examined its paw.
uRefawmfu ukd,fukd ukdif;nTwfvkdufw,f/ acG;ukd vufeJU zGzGykwfNyD; olU&JU
z0g;ukd ppfaq; vkdufw,f/
3 The people either hid or ran away.
vlawGu ykef;Muw,f/ 'grSr[kwf xGufajy;Muw,f/
þtaMumif;t&mukd qufvufavhvmvkdvQif Unit 22 rS Ellipsis ukdMunhfyg/

 0guswpfckjzpfatmif tjzpf twlwuG aqmif&GufMuaom clause rsm;ukd

equal partner
co-ordinate clause rsm;[k ac:onf/ co-ordinate clause 2ck (okdU) 2ckxufykdí ygaom
sentence ukd compound sentence [k ac:onf/ atmufyg 0guswdk honf compound
sentence rsm; jzpfMuonf/

1 John sings and Mary dances. [John sings = clause]

*Ref(ef)u oDcsif;qkdNyD; ar&Du uw,f/ [Mary dances = clause]

2 Anne lost her hat but I found it. [but = conj.]

tJ(ef)&J hOD;xkyf aysmufoGm;w,fcJhayrJh tJ'DOD;xkyfukd ig &SmawGUcJhw,f/
3 The lambs were gambolling in the field and the ewes were grazing
contentedly. [and = conj.]
uGif;jyifxJrSm okd;av;awGu ckefaygufajy;vTm; upm;aeNyD;? okd;rawGu
at;at;aq;aq; jrufpm;aeMuw,f/
 0gusBuD;wpfckjzpfatmif tjcm; sentence rsm;ESihf link vkyf rxm;aom 0gusonf simple
sentence jzpfygonf/ atmufyg0gusrsm;onf simple sentence rsm; jzpfMuygonf/

John sings.
Anne has lost her hat.
The lambs were gambolling in the field.

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

 yxr co-ordinate clause \ main verb + D.O. / adv. ESifh 'kwd, co-ordinate clause
\ main verb + D.O. / adv. wdk h wlaeMuvQif wlaeaom tydkif;udk xyfra&;yJ auxiliary
verb udkom azmfjyavh&Sdonf/ wpfcgwpf&HwGif so (adv.) udk auxiliary verb ESifh wGJNyD; oHk;
onf/ atmufyg Oyrmwdk hudk avhvmyg/

135
 1 Either John broke the window or his brother did. [did = aux. verb]
[his brother did = his brother broke the window]
jywif;aygufrSefudk *Ref(ef) cGJwm/ 'grSr[kwf olYnD cGJwm/
2 Sue left early but her sister didn't. [did = aux. verb]
[her sister didn't = her sister didn't leave early] [not = adv.]
pl;u apmapm jyefayrJh olr&J hnDru apmapm rjyefbl;/
3 Sue didn't leave early, nor did her sister. [nor = adv.]
[nor did her sister = and her sister didn't leave early either]
pl;a&m olr&J hnDryg tapmBuD; rjyefMubl;/
4 Marry was reading and so was John. [so = adv.]
[so was John = John was reading too] [was = aux. verb]
ar&Da&m *Refyg pmzwfaeMuwm/
5 Lynn left early and so did her sister. [so = adv.]
[so did her sister = her sister left early too] [did = aux. verb]
vif;(ef)u tapmBuD; jyefovdk olYnDruvJ tapmBuD; jyefwmyJ/

 yxr clause wGif yg0ifaom noun/noun phrase wdu

Yk kd 'kw,
d ^wwd, clause wGif pronoun
jzifh tpm;xdk;Edkifonf/
1 Either Mrs Jones lost her money or she was robbed. [Mrs Jones= she]
rpöpf *sHK;(efpf) &JUydkufqHu aysmufwm r[kwf&if tcdk;cH&wmyJ jzpfrSm/
2 I picked up the baby and kissed it and cuddled it. [the baby = it]
uRefawmfu uav;udk aumufcsDNyD; erf;w,f/ ayG hzufw,f/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

17.2 Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses

 subordinate clause onf jynfhpHkaom 0guswpfcktjzpf wpfckwnf; r&yfwnfEdkifyJ tjcm;
clause wpfckay:wGif rSDcdkae&aom clause jzpfonf/ ¤if;udk dependent clause [kvnf;
ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif subordinate clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Leave the books wherever you like.
pmtkyfawGudk rif;BudKufwJhae&mrSm xm;cJhyg/
2 I knew that she was very worried.
olr t&rf;pdwfylaewmudk uRefawmf odw,f/

136
 3 She screamed when she saw the body.
vlaoaumifudk jrifvdkufcsdefrSm olru i,foHygatmif atmfw,f/
4 What he told me made no sense at all.
ol ighudk ajymjywmawGu vHk;0 ,kwådrwefbl;/
5 Do you ever listen to anything that anyone says to you?
rif;udkajymwJh b,folYpum;udkrqdk rif;u vdkufemwwfwmvm;/
6 I slipped on a patch of ice while I was running for the bus.
uRefawmfu bwfpfum;rDatmif ajy;oGm;csdefrSm a&cJaewJhtdkifudk
wufeif;rdvdkY acsmfvJcJhw,f/
7 I'm more cautious now than I used to be.
t&ifuxufpm&if tck uRefawmf ydkNyD; owdxm;ygw,f/

 subordinate clause u
rSDcdkae&onfh clause udk main clause (odkY) principal clause [k
ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif main clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 I knew that she was very worried. [I knew = main clause]
olr tvGefylyefaewmudk uRefawmf odw,f/
2 She screamed when she saw the body. [she screamed = main clause]
vlaoaumifudk jrifvdkufawmh olr i,foHygatmif atmfw,f/
3 Show me what you're doing.
rif;vkyfaewm ighudk jyyg/
4 This is the house where I was born.
'DtdrfrSm uRefawmfhudk arG;zGm;cJhwm/
5 I wouldn't go to her party unless I was invited.
tzdwfrcH&&if olr&JUygwDudk uRefawmf oGm;cJhrSmr[kwfbl;/

 main clause ESifh subordinate clause wdkYygaom 0gusudk complex sentence [k ac:onf/
main clause ESifh subordinate clause wdk
hudk csdwfqufay;aom pum;vHk;udk subordinating
conjunction [kac:onf/ xdk conjunction tcsdKUrSm although, as, because, before, how,
if, since, that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether
ESifh while wdkYjzpfMuonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif subordinating conjunction wdk h
udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 I knew that she was very worried. [that = subordinating conj.]
olr tvGefylyefaewmudk uRefawmf odw,f/

137
 2 She screamed when she saw the body.
vlaoaumifudk jrifvdkufawmh olr i,foHygatmif atmfw,f/
3 How can I brush your hair if you won't stand still?
eif NidrfNidrfav; &yfrae&if b,fvdkvkyfNyD; eifhqHyifudk NzD;vdkY&rSmvJ/
4 Although she is only two years old, she has a very large vocabulary.
olru touf(2)ESpfom &Sdao;ayr,fh pum;vHk;trsm;BuD; oHk;wwfw,f/
5 You'd better leave before she gets here.
olr 'Dudk ra&mufcif rif; xGufoGm;wm ydkaumif;vdrfhr,f/
6 I'll come whenever I can. vmEdkifwJhtcsdef b,ftcsdefrqdk ig vmyghr,f/

 ( that, what, which, who, whom, whose, whatever, whichever ESifh whoever uJhodkYaom)
relative pronoun rsm;? (who, whom, whose, what ESihf which paom) interrogative pronoun
rsm;ESifh (what, whatever, which, whichever ESifh whose uJhodkYaom) determiner rsm;onf
vnf; linking word rsm; jzpfEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif linking word rsm;udk
rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 She was the one who did most of the talking. [who = linking word]
pum; trsm;qHk;ajymwJholuawmh olrygyJ/
2 Find out which route is quicker. [which = linking word]
b,fvrf;u ydkjrefw,fqdkwm pHkprf;avhvmyg/
3 I don't know who you're talking about.
rif; b,folYtaMumif;udk ajymaew,fqdkwm ig rodbl;/
4 Where have you put the book that was here on the table?
pm;yGJ&JU'Dae&mrSm &SdcJhwJh pmtkyfudk rif;u b,frSm xm;vdkufNyDvJ/
5 That's the man whose son is the local MP. [MP = Member of Parliament]
olYom;u 'Da'o&JU ygvDreftrwfqdkwm tJ'DvlyJ/
6 Take whatever you want. rif; vdkcsifwmrSeforQ ,lyg/
7 Take whichever book you want. rif; vdkcsifwJh b,fpmtkyfrqdk ,lyg/

 wpfcgwpf&HwGif clause udk link vkyfay;onfh conjunction/ relative pronoun wdk hudk csef
vSyfxm;cJhEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif csefvSyfxm;cJhEdkifonhf conjunction/relative
pronoun wdk hudk uGif;cwfí jyxm;onf/

1 I knew (that) she was very worried. [that = conj.]

olr t&rf;pdwfylaewmudk uRefawmf odw,f/

138
 2 Who was that girl (that) you were talking to? [that = relative pronoun]
rif;eJY pum;ajymaewJh rdef;uav;u b,folvJ/
3 Lying is one thing (that) I can't abide. [that = relative pronoun]
vdrfnmajymqdkwm[m ig t&rf;rkef;wJh t&mwpfckyJ/
4 Where have you put the book (that) I left on the table?
pm;yGJay:rSm ig xm;cJhwJh pmtkyfudk rif;u b,frSm xm;vdkufNyDvJ/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 3 udk avhvmyg/

 complex sentence wpfckwGif main clause wpfck ESifh subordinate clause wpfck (odkY)
wpfckxuf ydkí yg0ifEdkifonf/ xdk subordinate clause wdk honf main clause \ a&SUrSvnf;
aumif;? tv,füvnf;aumif; ? aemufrSvnf;aumif; vmEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gus
wdk hwGif subordinate clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 When we arrived , the concert had already started.
uRefawmfwdkY a&mufwJhtcsdefrSm pwdwf&SdK;u paeNyD/
2 Anyone who knows anything about computers knows that.
uGefysLwmeJYywfoufNyD; bmrqdk odw,fqdkwJh vlrSeforQ tJ'gudk odw,f/
3 That would be, as I have said , a grave mistake.
ig ajymcJhwJhtwdkif;yJ tJ'g[m tvGefqdk;&Gm;wJh trSm;wpfck jzpfcJhygvdrfhr,f/
4 I'll send you a postcard when I get there.
uRefawmf tJ'Dudk a&muf&if oifYqDudk ydkYpfu'fwpfck ydkYvdkufr,f/
5 There's something funny going on here, you know.
rif; odvm;/ 'DrSm &,fp&mwpfck jzpfaew,f/
 0guswpfckwGif subordinate clause wpfckxufru &SdEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gus
wdk hwGif subordinate clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 As I was walking home , I noticed (that) there was a queue of people
outside the newsagent's. [2 subordinate clauses]
tdrfudkvrf;avQmufjyefvmwkef; owif;pma&mif;wJhqdkifa&SUrSm vlawG
wef;pDaewmudk uRefawmf owdjyKrdw,f/
2 While we were in town , we bought a new car because we wanted one
with four doors. [2 subordinate clauses]
wHcg;(4)aygufygwJh um; vdkcsifvdkY NrdKUxJa&mufwkef; uRefawmfwdkY um;topf
wpfpD; 0,fcJhw,f/

139
  complex sentence wpfcw k iG f subordinate clause wpfcx
k ufyí
kd ygaomtcg subordinating
conjunction (odk h) relative pronoun wdkYu ¤if; clause rsm;udk link vkyfay;onf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif clause rsm;udk link vkyfay;aom subordinating conjunction (odk h)
relative pronoun wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 My neighbour was looking after our daughter while I was visiting my

husband, who's in hospital at the moment for an operation because he
has injured his back. [who = relative pronoun]
aemufausmrSm 'Pf&m&xm;vdkY cGJpdwfukocHzdkY avmavmq,f
aq;½HkwufaewJh cifyGef;qD uRefr oGm;awGUaewkef; orD;udk uRefr&JU
tdrfeD;csif;u apmifha&Smuf ay;xm;w,f/ [while/because = conj.]

 subordinate clause wdkYudk co-ordinating conjunction wdkYjzifhvnf; csdwfqufEdkifonf/

atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif co-ordinating conjunction wdkYjzifh csdwfqufxm;aom
subordinate clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 I'll go wherever I please and however I please.

ig oabmuswJh b,fae&mudkrqdk ig MudKufwJh enf;eJY iguawmh oGm;rSmyJ/
2 I gave her the money both because she needed it and because she
deserved it. [both ... and ... = co-ordinating conj.]
olru aiG vdktyfaewma&m? olrudk ay;xdkufwma&m ESpfckpvHk;aMumifh
igu olrudk tJ'DaiG ay;vdkufwm/

EXERCISE 17
A atmufyg0gusrsm;udk clause rsm;tjzpf cGJjcm;jyyg/ (conjunction udk clause \ tpdwftydkif;
wpfcktjzpf ,lqyg/)
1. It's one o'clock and we should be on our way by now.
2. I don't like him but I'll give him my support.
3. He put his hand on her arm and said nothing.
4. You go round to the back of the house and take a look and I'll try the front door
again.
5. It's Saturday so I needn't get up so early.
6. I've tried and I've tried but I've never managed it.
7. She both loves him and hates him.
8. The government promised reforms but has done nothing.

140
B uGif;xJwGifay;xm;aom pum;vHk;rsm;udk toHk;jyKí jyKjyifajymif;vJjcif;rsm;udk vdktyfovdk
jyKvkyfNyD; atmufyg0gusrsm;udk aygif;pnf;ay;yg/
Example
Question: The children were playing. The children were watching television.
[either...or]
Answer: Either the children were playing or they were watching television.

1. You are crazy. I am crazy. [either ... or]

2. I don't want to go. I must go. [but]
3. You broke the vase. The dog broke the vase. [either ... or]
4. Fred plays the guitar. I play the guitar. [and so......]
5. My mother is very keen on opera. My father is very keen on opera. [and so ...]
6. I didn't make that mess. She didn't make that mess. [nor]
7. I've been searching for my boots. I can't find my boots. [but]
8. She fell down. She was pushed. [either ... or]
9. John is taller than his brother. I am taller than John. I must be taller than his
brother. [and; so]
10. Cats can climb trees. Dogs can't climb trees. [but]

C atmufyg0gusrsm;rS main clause ESifh subordinate clause rsm;udk a&G;xkwfjyyg/

1. I could see that she was worried.
2. As I drove towards his house, I was hoping that he would be out.
3. I'll come whenever I can.
4. Do you know what she did when I told her what you'd said?
5. Why don't we have a cup of tea while we're waiting?
6. I don't know whether we should be doing this.
7. The children laughed at the antics of the clowns.
8. The children laughed as the clowns poured water over each other.
9. Stay where you are until I come.
10. If you go, I will go too.
11. Whenever I run, my leg hurts.
12. I didn't like what I was doing but I had no choice.

D txufyg0gusrsm;rS subordinate clause rsm;\ (subject, direct object, adverbial tp&Sd

aom) function wdkYudk azmfjyyg/

141
Grammar Help 1

 co-ordinate sentencersm;ukd conjunction rsm; oHk;í wnfaqmufEkdifouJhokdU conjunct

rsm; oHk;ívnf; wnfaqmufEkdifonf/
1 [She was obviously upset. I asked her what was wrong.]
She was obviously upset, so I asked her what was wrong.
olr 0rf;enf;aewmu odomaevdkY bmjyóemrsm;&SdvJvdkY olrudk
uRefawmf ar;cJhw,f/ [so = conjunct]

2 [She wanted to tell me what was wrong.

For some reason she wouldn't tell me.]
She wanted to tell me what was wrong, yet for some reason
she wouldn't tell me. [yet = conjunct]
bmjzpfaewmvJ qdkwmudk olru uRefawmfhudk ajymjycsifayrJh taMumif;
wpfckck aMumifh olru uRefawmfhudk ajymjyawmhrSm r[kwfbl;/

Grammar Help 2

 nor (odk h) so ygaom clause wdkYwGif subject ESifh verb wdkYudk a&SUaemufajymif;jyef a&;onfh
yHkpH (inversion) udk owdjyKyg/
Sue didn't leave early, nor did her sister. [did = verb] [her sister=subj.]
Lynn left early and so did her sister.
Mary was reading and so was John. [was = verb] [John = subj.]

Grammar Help 3

 co-ordinate clause wdkYonf main clause, subordinate clause wdkYESifh rnfodkYuGJjym;
jcm;em;Muoenf;/
 0guswpfcw
k iG f co-ordinate clause wdu
Yk kd csed ;f BuKd ;wpfcrk S uGi;f qufrsm;uJo
h Ykd pD;&D;wpfct
k jzpf
csdwfqufxm;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 I sing and Maria sings and Peter sings but Peter's brother doesn't sing.

2 Either Mary sings or Peter sings but his brother never sings.

co-ordinate clause rsm;udk csdwfqufay;aom conjunction (and, but, or) wdk honf
co-ordinating conjunction rsm;jzpfMuonf/ 0guswpfcktwGif;ü co-ordinate clause rsm;\
ta&;ygrIonf twlwlyif jzpfonf/ co-ordinate clause wpfckonf tjcm;wpfckxuf ydkí
ta&;BuD;jcif;rsdK; r&Sdyg/

142
  odkYaomf subordinate clause onf main clause ESifh csdwfqufxm;onfomru ¤if;onf
0gus\ function wpfckudkvnf; vkyfaqmifonf/ atmufyg simple sentence ESifh complex
sentence wdkYudk EdIif;,SOfMunfhjcif;jzifh xdktcsufudk em;vnf odjrifEdkifonf/
1 You can finish that tomorrow morning. [simple sentence]
adverbial (noun phrase)

rif; tJ'gudk reufjzefreufusrS tNyD;owfvdkY&w,f/

2 You can finish that when we get back . [complex sentence]
adverbial (subordinate clause)

rif; tJ'gudk igwdk hjyefa&mufwJhtcgusrS tNyD;owfvdkY &w,f/

txufyg 0guswGif when onf subordinating conjunction jzpfygonf/ when we get
back onf subordinate clause jzpfonf/ ¤if; subordinate clause onf 0gus\ adverbial
tjzpf vkyfaqmifygonf/ xdk haMumifh subordinate clause onf main clause ESifh csdwfquf
xm;onfomru ¤if;onf 0gus\ function wpfckudkvnf; vkyfaqmifaMumif; odEdkifonf/

 atmufyg simple sentence ESifh complex sentence wdu

Yk v
kd nf; qufvuf EdiI ;f ,SOaf vhvmyg/
1 Leave the books on the table. [simple sentence]
Leave the books where you like . [complex sentence]
adverbial (subordinate clause)

2 Her behaviour surprised me. [simple sentence]

That she came to the party surprised me. [complex sentence]
subject (subordinate clause)

3 I heard that. [simple sentence]

I heard what you said . [complex sentence]
object (subordinate clause)

 subordinate clause onf main clause\ function slot ae&mwpfckudk jznfhay;aomaMumifh

¤if;udk main clause u ydik q
f ikd o
f nf (od)Yk ¤if;onf main clause udk rScD akd e&onf[k qdEk ikd o
f nf/

 wpfcgwpf&HwGif main clause onf jynfhpHkaom 0guswpfcktjzpf wpfckwnf; &yfwnfEdkifonf/

atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif jynfhpHkaom 0guswpfck (a complete sentence) tjzpf
wpfckwnf; &yfwnfEdkifaom main clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 You can come with us if you like. [You can come with us = main clause]
rif; igwdkYeJYvdkufcsif&if vdkufvdkY&w,f/
2 The match was cancelled because it was raining.
rdk;&GmvdkY NydKifyGJudk zsufodrf;vdkufw,f/

143
  wpfcgwpf&HwGif main clause onf subordinate clause rygbJ jynfhpHkaom 0gus wpfcktjzpf
wpfckwnf; r&yfwnfEdkifyg/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif jynfhpHkaom 0guswpfck tjzpf
wpfckwnf; r&yfwnfEdkifaom main clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 What she said amazed me. [what she said (subordinate clause) = subj.]
[main clause jzpfonfh amazed me wGif subject rygaomaMumifh
¤if;onf complete sentence r[kwfyg/]
olr ajymwJh taMumif;t&maMumifh ig t&rf; tHHhtm;oifhoGm;w,f/
2 Did you find what you had lost?
jzpfonfh Did you find wGif
[main clause direct object rygaomaMumifh
¤if;onf complete sentence r[kwfyg/]
rif; aysmufoGm;wJh[m &SmawG hcJhvm;/

 Glossary

antics ^'tef;(ef).wpf(cf)(pf)^ [mo vkyf&yf/

cautious ^'acg.&Syf(pf)^ owd&Sdaom/
clown ^(cf)avmif;(ef)^ (qyfuyf)vljyuf/
contentedly ^cif(ef).'xJ(ef).wpf('f).vD^ a&mifh&Jjcif;/ tm;&auseyfjcif;/
coo ^cl;..^ cdk;cdk;cpfcpf toHjyKonf/
cuddle ^'cyf.',f(vf)^ ayG hzufonf/
determiner ^'pf.'xm;.rif.em^ emrfa&S hüoHk;onfh tnTef;pum;/
gamboll ^'*Jh(rf).abmf(vf)^ ckefaygufajy;vTm; upm;onf/
garage ^'*Jh.&pf(*sf)^ um;*dka'gif/
graze ^(*f)a& h(Zf)^ pm;usufwGif jrufpm;onf/
guitar ^*pf.'xm;^ *Dwm/
gurgle ^'*g;.*,f(vf)^ uav;aygufprsm; wul;ul; atmfonf/
queue ^(cf),l;^ vlwef;/

144
Unit Unit
18 17 R e l a t i v e C l a u s e s

18.1 Relative Clauses

 relative clause (emr0daooe 0gusu@) onf wpfa,mufa,muf^wpfckckudk txl;jyKaom

(od)Yk ¤if;wdEYk iS hf ywfoufonfh information udk ay;aom subordinate clause wpfck jzpfygonf/
relative clause onf adjective uJhodkYyif noun udk txl;jyKojzifh adjectival clause [kvnf;
ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 We were driving along a rough jungle track that was never meant for
cars. [that was never meant for cars = relative clause]
um;awGtwGuf &nf&G,fazmufvkyfxm;wm r[kwfwJh awmvrf;
c&D;Murf; wpfavQmuf uRefawmfwdk hum;armif;aeMuwm/
2 A mole is an animal that lives underground.
ayG;[m ajratmufrSmaewJh owå0gwpfrsdK; jzpfygw,f/
3 Patrons who arrive late may not be admitted to the concert.
*DwazsmfajzyGJrSm aemufusrSa&mufvmwJh y&dowfudk 0ifcGifhjyKrSm r[kwfbl;/
4 A psychiatrist is a doctor who treats disorders of the mind.
pdwfa&m*guk q&m0efqdkwm pdwfazmufjyefwmawGudk ukoay;wJh q&m0efyg/
5 He was a man whose greatest pleasure was looking after his garden.
O,smOf jyKpkysdK;axmif&wmudk oabmtusqHk;vdk hqdkwJhvlu olyJ/
6 She was someone on whom you could always rely.
olr[m rif; tjrJwrf; ,HkMunftm;udk;vdkY&wJh olwpfOD;yg/
7 That is an option which I have always rejected.
tJ'g[m uRefawmf tjrJwrf;y,fcsaecJhwJh tcGifhtvrf;wpfckyg/
8 This is a list of people who were abducted by the terrorists and about
whose fate nothing is yet known.
'g[m tMurf;zuform;awG jyefay;qGJcH&wJh olawG&JUpm&if;yg/ olwdkY&JU
uHMur®meJY ywfoufvdkY tckxd bmrS rod&ao;ygbl;/

145
 relative clause (emr0daooe 0gusu@)u txl;jyKonfh noun/pronoun/phrase wdkYudk
antecedent (a&SUajy;yk'f) [kac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif relative clause u
txl;jyKaeonfh antecedent wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Hands up everyone who would like a drink. [everyone = antecedent]
,rum aomufcsifwJhol vufaxmifyg/
2 A mole is an animal that lives underground. [an animal = antecedent]
ayG;[m ajratmufaewJh owå0gwpfrsdK; jzpfygw,f/
3 Voters whose names begin with the letters M to Z should go to Room 2.
M uae Z tpjyKwJh emrnfeJY rJay;r,fholawGu tcef;(2)udk oGm;&rSmyg/
4 That photo is a reminder of someone who was very important to me.
tJ'D"mwfyHku uRefawmfhtwGuf tvGefta&;ygwJhol&J h trSwfw& "mwfyHkyg/
5 He was accused of being drunk in charge of a vehicle, which is a
serious offence.
t&ufrl;NyD; armif;w,fvdkY ol pGJcsufwifcH&w,f/ tJ'g BuD;av;wJh jypfrIyJ/

 relative clause udk antecedent ESifhvkyfay;aom pum;vHk;onf relative pronoun

link
jzpfygonf/ that, which, who, whom ESifh whose wdkYonf relative pronoun rsm;jzpfMuonf/
atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif relative pronoun rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 A mole is an animal that lives underground. [that = relative pronoun]
ayG;[m ajratmufaewJh owå0gwpfrsdK; jzpfygw,f/
2 I have a friend who once sailed across the Pacific in a small yacht.
wpfcgwkef;u ork'´&mudk &GufavSav;eJY &GufvTifhjzwfoef;cJhzl;wJh
oli,fcsif; wpfa,muf ighrSm&Sdw,f/ [who = relative pronoun]

3 You're starting down a path which can only lead to unhappiness.

pdwfrcsrf;ajrUp&mjzpfr,fh vrf;udk rif; pavQmufaeNyD/
4 You'd be surprised at the number of children in this school whose parents
are divorced. [whose=relative pronoun]
rdbawG w&m;0ifuGm&Sif;xm;wJh? 'Dausmif;rSmaewJh uav;ta&twGufudk
(od&if) rif; tHhMooGm;vdrfhr,f/

 relative pronoun onf tvkyf(2)ckudk wpfNydKifwnf; vkyfonf/ ¤if;onf relative clause
twGif;ü subject (odkY) object tjzpf vkyfaqmifonf/ wpfcsdefwnf;rSmyif noun/pronoun
ESifh relative clause udk csdwfqufay;aom conjunction tjzpfvnf; vkyfaqmifonf/

146
 1 He's got a new girl-friend. She works in a bank.
He's got a new girl-friend who works in a bank. [who = relative pronoun]
[NOT ....He's got a new girl-friend who she works in a bank.]

txufyg 0guswGif who (relative pronoun) onf she (subject pronoun) \

emrfpm;jzpfonf/ ¤if; who onf relative clause \ subject tjzpf vkyfaqmif
onf/ wpfcsdefwnf;rSmyif ¤if;onf a new girl-friend (noun phrase) ESifh
relative clauseudk csw
d q
f ufay;aom conjunction tjzpfvnf; vkyaf qmifonf/
2 This is Mr Rogers. You met him last year.
This is Mr Rogers whom you met last year. [whom = relative pronoun]
[NOT ...This is Mr Rogers whom you met him last year.]

txufyg 0guswGif whom (relative pronoun) onf him (object pronoun)

\ emrfpm; jzpfonf/ ¤if; whom (relative pronoun) onf relative clause \
object tjzpf vkyfaqmifonf/ wpfcsdefwnf;rSmyif ¤if;onf Mr Rogers (noun)
ESifh relative clause udk csdwfqufay;aom conjunction tjzpfvnf; vkyfaqmif
onf/ whom onf relative clause \ object jzpfaomfvnf; conjunction tjzpf
vkyfaqmifaomaMumifh ¤if;udk relative clause \ a&S hqHk;ü xm;í a&;&onf/

 time/place udk ñTef;NyD; noun udk txl;jyKonfh relative clause udk when/ where ESifh tpjyKí
a&;Edkifonf/ xdk when/where udk preposition + which ESifh tpm;xdk;Edkifonf/ xdkenf;wlpGm
why udkvnf; reason udk txl;jyKonfh relative clause wGif oHk;Edkifonf/

1 I often walk past the house where I was born. [where = at/in/to which]
[the house where I was born = the house in which I was born]
ighudk arG;zGm;&m tdrf&JUa&SUuae ig rMumcP jzwfavQmufavh&Sdw,f/
2 Do you remember the day when you fell into the swimming pool?
[= the day on which you fell into the swimming pool]
a&ul;uefxJudk rif; jyKwfuscJhwJhaeYudk rif; rSwfrdvm;/ [when = at/on which]

3 I don't remember the reason why I went there.

[the reason why I went there = the reason for which I went there]
tJ'Dudk bmhaMumifh oGm;cJhw,fqdkwJh taMumif;&if;udk uRefawmf rrSwfrdbl;/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

147
 who/ whom, which ESifh that wdkYu relative clause \ object jzpfaevQif ¤if;wdkYudk csefvSyf
xm;cJhEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif who/ whom, which ESifh that wdkYudk csefvSyf
xm;onfh relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
1 Have you still got the book I gave you? [= the book that I gave you]
ig rif;udk ay;cJhwJhpmtkyf rif;qDrSm &Sdao;vm;/
2 Is that the man you saw? [= the man that you saw]
rif;awGUcJhwJh vlu tJ'Dvlvm;/
3 Is that the man you were speaking to?
[= Is that the man whom you were speaking to?]
rif;eJY pum;ajymaecJhwJh olu tJ'Dvlvm;/
4 Who was the girl I saw you with last night?
raeYnu rif;eJYtwlawGUvdkufwJh rdef;uav;u b,folvJ/
5 She was someone you could always rely on.
rif; tjrJwrf; ,HkMunfEdkifwJholuawmh olryJ/
6 That is an option I have always rejected.
tJ'g[m uRefawmf tjrJwrf; jiif;cJhwJh t&maygh/

 odkYaomf who, whom, which ESifh that wdkYonf relative clause \ subject jzpfaevQif
¤if;wdkYudk csefvSyfxm;cJhí r&yg/ Oyrm -
1 Is that the man who saw you? [who = subj. of clause]
[NOT ..... Is that the man saw you?]
rif;udk awGUwJholu tJ'Dvlvm;/
2 Is that the man who was speaking to James? [who = subj. of clause]
*sdef;(rfpf)eJY pum;ajymaecJhwJh olu tJ'Dvlvm;/
3 Who was the girl who was with you last night? [who = subj. of clause]
raeYnu rif;eJYtwl&SdaewJh rdef;uav;u b,folvJ/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

 relative pronoun onf relative clause \ a&SUqHk;uvmonfh pum;vHk; tjrJwrf; rjzpfEdkifyg/

¤if; pronoun \ a&SUü preposition &SdEdkifygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif relative
clause \ a&SUqHk;uvmonfh preposition wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 the man to whom you were speaking [to = preposition]

cifAsm;eJ hpum;ajymaewJh vl

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 2 a job for which I was paid handsomely [for = prep.]
uRefawmfh&J h vctrsm;BuD;&wJh tvkyf
3 the hammer with which the woman was bludgeoned to death
tJ'DtrsdK;orD;udk aowJhtxd w&pyfxk&mrSm oHk;wJhwl [with = prep.]

 some, several, all, both, most paom pum;vHk;rsm;onfvnf; preposition ESifh twl
relative pronoun \a&hSu vmEdkifonf/ Oyrm -

1 The men, both of whom are lorry-drivers, were charged with theft.
avmf&Dum;armif;olawGjzpfMuwJh olwdkYESpfOD;pvHk; ckd;rIeJY w&m;pGJcH&w,f/
2 She was attacked by a group of boys, most of whom were in their teens.
trsm;pku q,fausmfouft&G,fom &SdMuao;wJh aumifav;wpftkyfpku
olrudk xdk;ESufwdkufcdkufcJhMuw,f/
3 He has a large collection of photographs, some of which are very old.
olYrSm pkxm;wJh "mwfyHkawG trsm;BuD;yJ/ wcsdKUu t&rf; a[mif;aeNyD/
4 I bought half a dozen eggs, four of which were broken when I got home.
uRefawmf MuufO (6)vHk; 0,fcJhwm tdrfjyefa&mufawmh (4)vHk;u uGJaeNyD/

18.2 Nominal Relative Clauses

 noun ESifhwlaom relative clause udk nominal relative clause [k ac:onf/ what ESifh
tpjyKNyD; subject (odk h) object tjzpf vkyfaqmifaom clause rsm;udk nominal relative
clause [kac:onf/ what onf ¤if;\a&SUrS noun udk txl;rjyKyg/ ¤if;onf (noun + relative
pronoun) tjzpfom vkyfaqmifonf/ what onf the thing which/that ESifh wlnDonf/
atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif nominal relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 What he said made me angry. [what he said = the thing which he said]
ol ajymwmudk ig pdwfqdk;wm/
2 I hope you're going to give me what I need. [= the thing that I need]
ig vdktyfwm rif; ay;r,fvdkY ig arQmfvifhw,f/

 what uJo
h aYkd om tjcm; nominal relative pronoun wdrYk mS whatever, whichever ESihf whoever
wdkYjzpfygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif whatever, whichever ESifh whoever wdk hESifh
tpjyKaom nominal relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;ygonf/
1 What I want to know is where she hid the money.
[what I want to know = the thing that I want to know]
uRefawmf odcsifwmu olr b,fae&mrSm ydkufqHudk zGufxm;vJqdkwmudkyg/

149
 2 I'm throwing all these old dresses out. You can keep whatever you want.
[whatever you want = anything that you want]
ig 'D*g0eftuFs Dta[mif;awGudk vTifhypfrvdkY/ eif vdkcsifwJh b,f[mudkrqdk
,lxm;vdkY &w,f/
3 You can have either of these cakes. Take whichever you want.
[whichever you want = the one that you want]
'DudwfrkefYESpfckxJu wpfckudk rif; pm;vdkY&w,f/ rif;BudKufwJh wpfckudk ,lyg/
4 Whoever said that must be crazy!
[whoever said that = the person who said that]
tJ'gudk ajymwJholu ½l;aewmyJ jzpf&r,f/
5 I'm very grateful to whoever found my keys and handed them in to
the police.
[whoever found my keys = the person who found my keys]
uRefawmfhaomhawG awGUNyD; &JqDrSm tyfcJhwJholudk tvGef aus;Zl;wifw,f/

 nominal relative clause wdkYwGif what, whatever ESifh whichever wdkYudk determiner tjzpf
oHk;Edkifonf/ ¤if;wdkY\ aemufrS noun/pronoun vdkufEdkifonf[k qdkvdkonf/ atmufyg Oyrm
0guswdk hwGif what, whatever ESifh whichever wdkYudk determiner tjzpfoHk;xm;onfh nominal
relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 The villagers took what possessions they could carry with them when
they fled into the forest. [= all the possessions that they could carry]
&Gmom;awGu awmxJudk xGufajy;wJhtcgrSm udk,fydkifypönf;awGudk olwdkY
o,fEdkifoavmuf o,foGm;cJhMuw,f/
2 They built shelters in the forest with whatever suitable materials they
could find. [= anything suitable that they could find]
olwdkY &SmvdkY&wJh ypönf;awGeJY awmxJrSm wJav;awG aqmufcJhMuw,f/
3 Take whichever one you like. [= the one that you like]
rif;BudKufwm wpfck ,lyg/

18.3 Defining and Non-defining Relative Clauses

 person/ thing udktxl;jyKaom relative clause udk defining relative clause (odkY) restrictive
relative clause [kac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif defining relative clause (odkY)
restrictive relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 Have you still got the book I gave you?

[This relative clause identifies one particular book.]

150
 ig rif;udk ay;cJhwJh pmtkyf rif;qDrSm &Sdao;vm;/
2 I have a neighbour who comes from Italy.
[This identifies one particular neighbour.]
ighrSm tDwvDEdkifiHom; tdrfeD;csif;wpfOD; &Sdw,f/
3 Who is that man you were talking to?
[This identifies a particular man.]
ckeu rif;eJYpum;ajymaewJh olu b,folvJ/
4 He's engaged to a girl who's the daughter of an MP.
olu ygvDreftrwfwpfOD;&J h orD;jzpfwhJ aumifrav;eJ haphpyfNyD;NyD/

 &nf&G,fcsufu person/thing udk txl;jyK&efr[kwfyJ person/thing wdkYESifh ywfoufonfh extra

information udk ay;&ef oHk;onfh relative clause udk non-defining (odkY) non-restrictive
relative clause [k ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif non-defining relative
clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 My neighbours, who come from Italy , make wonderful pasta dishes.

uRefawmfh&JUtdrfeD;csif; tDwvDEdkifiHom;awG tDwvDacgufqGJ okyfwm
odyfaumif;w,f/
txufyg0guswGif relative clause onf neighbours udk modify vkyfaejcif;
r[kwf/ neighbours ESifh ywfoufonfh extra information ay;jcif; jzpfonf/
2 'The Hobbit', which was written by Tolkien , is the story of the adventures
of Bilbo Baggins.
xdk;cD(ef)a&;wJh 'The Hobbit' [m Bilbo Baggins &JU pGefYpm;cef;rsm;
taMumif; 0w¬Kjzpfygw,f/
3 He's engaged to Daisy Smith, who's the daughter of an MP.
olu ygvDreftrwfwpfOD;&J h orD;jzpfwJh a'pD prpf(of)eJ haphpyfNyD;NyD/
4 The book, which was lying on the table , was something to do with
UFOs.
pm;yGJay:rSm&SdwJh pmtkyfu yefuefjym;ysHawGeJYywfoufwJh pmtkyfyg/

 who ESifh which udk defining relative clause ESifh non-defining relative clause ESpfckvHk;wGif
oHk;Edkifaomfvnf; that udk defining relative clause üom oHk;Edkifonf/ Oyrm-
1 Is this the book that you lent me?
2 These are the plants that I was talking about.

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  defining relative clause üom relative pronoun udk csev
f yS Ef ikd o
f nf/ non-defining relative
clause wdk hwGif relative pronoun udk csefvSyfxm;í r&yg/

18.4 Punctuation of Defining and Non-defining Relative Clauses

 defining relative clause udk ¤if;u txl;jyKonfh noun ESifhvnf;aumif;? 0gus\ usefonfh
tydkif; ESifhvnf;aumif; comma udk toHk;jyKí cGJjcm;rxm;yg/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
defining relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 The book that was on the table was mine.

2 She had lost her diamond ring that I had given her for Christmas.

 odaYk omf non-defining relative clause udrk l comma (aumfrm)jzifh cGjJ cm;xm;ygonf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif non-defining relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 The book, which was on the table , was mine.
pm;yGJay:upmtkyfu uRefawmfhpmtkyfyg/
2 She had lost her diamond ring, which I had given her for Christmas.
c&pörwftwGuf olrudk uRefawmfay;cJhwJhvufpGyf olraMumifh aysmufoGm;NyD/

18.5 That as a Subordinating Conjunction and as a Relative Pronoun

 that onf subordinating conjunction a&m relative pronoun yg jzpfEdkifonf/ xdk(2)rsdK;
teuf rnfonfhtrsdK;jzpfonfudk cGJjcm;&ef enf;vrf;tcsdKU &Sdonf/
1. that u relative pronoun jzpfvQif ¤if;rSm antecedent (a&SUajy;yk'f) &Sd&rnf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif relative clause u txl;jyKonfh antecedent wdk u
h kd rsO;f wm; jyxm;onf/
1 Penguins are birds that swim. [birds = antecedent]
yif*Gif;[m a&ul;wJhiSufyg/ [that = relative pronoun]

2 She had lost the ring that I had given her for Christmas.

that u conjunction jzpfvQif antecedent (a&S hajy;yk'f) r&Sdyg/ atmufyg Oyrm 0gus
wdk hwGif conjunction jzpfonfh that wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/

1 I know that she doesn't like me. [that she doesn't like me = noun clause]
olr uRefawmfhudk rcifrSef; uRefawmf odygw,f/ [that = conj.]

2 I don't believe that she is telling the truth. [that = conj.]

olr trSefawG ajymaewmvdkY uRefawmf rxifbl;/
2. that u relative pronoun jzpfaevQif ¤if;udk which ESihf tpm;xd;k Edi
k o
f nf/ ¤if;u conjunction
jzpfaevQif which ESifh tpm;xdk;í r&yg/ Oyrm -

152
 1 She had lost the ring that I had given her for Christmas. 
She had lost the ring which I had given her for Christmas. 
2 I know that she doesn't like me.
I know which she doesn't like me.

3. that u conjunction jzpfaevQif ¤if;\aemufrv S u

kd o
f nfh pum;pkrsm;onf complete sentence
tjzpf ud,
k yf ikd &f yfwnfEikd o
f nf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswkd wh iG f complete sentence (t"dygÜ ,f
jynfhpHkaom 0gus) wpfcktjzpf &yfwnfEdkifaom pum;pkwdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 I don't think that she is coming with us. [that = conj.]
2 We found out that Ricardo had won the prize.
3 Bart told me that Janet's looking for a new job.

that u relative pronoun jzpfaevQif ¤if;\aemufrS vdkufonfh pum;pkwdkYonf complete

sentence (t"dyÜg,f jynfhpHkaom 0gus) wpfck rjzpfEdkifyg/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
incomplete sentence (t"dyÜg,frjynfhpHkaom 0gus)wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 Where's the book that I left on the table? [that = rel. pronoun]
pm;yGJay:rSm uRefawmfxm;cJhwJh pmtkyfu b,frSmvJ/
[ I left on the table onf complete sentence r[kwfyg/ ]

2 She had lost the ring that she had been given for Christmas.
[She had been given for Christmas onf complete sentence r[kwfyg/]

18.6 Appositive Clauses

 a&SUwGif&Sdonfh noun udk aemufrSuyfNyD; txl;jyKaom noun clause udk appositive clause
[kac:onf/
 appositive clause onf ¤if;\a&SUwGif&Sdaom (belief, thought, saying, possibility, feeling
ponfh ) noun wdkYESifh ywfoufonfh information udk ay;onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
appositive clause rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 The belief that the world was flat was widespread in the Middle Ages.
urÇmBuD; jym;w,fqdkwJh ,HkMunfrIu tv,facwf (at'D 1100-1400)
rSm ysHUESHUaecJhw,f/ [the belief = that the world was flat]

2 The thought that my mother might find out horrified me.

tar odoGm;cJh&ifqdkwJh tawG;u ighudk ajcmufvSefYaew,f/
[the thought = that my mother might find out]

3 The saying that absence makes the heart grow fonder is absolute
nonsense. [the saying = that absence makes the heart ...]
a0;woufouf qdkwJh qdk½dk;pum;[m vHk;0 t"dyÜg,fr&Sdbl;/
153
  appositive clause onf relative clause ESihf qifwa
l omfvnf; uGjJ ym;jcm;em;csut
f csKd U &Syd gonf/
1. appositive clause wGif that onf subordinating conjunction jzpfonf/ ¤if;onf relative
pronoun r[kwfojzifh ¤if;udk which jzifh tpm;rxdk;Edkifyg/ Oyrm -

I have a feeling that something is wrong. 

[BUT NOT ..... I have a feeling which something is wrong.]

2. appositive clause wGif that \aemufrSygaompum;pkwdkYonf complete sentence jzpfonf/

atmufyg Oyrm 0guswGif that \aemufrS ygonfh complete sentence jzpfaom pum;pk
wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
I have a feeling that something is wrong.
jyóemwpfckck &Sdaew,fvdkY ighpdwfxJrSm odaew,f/
3. relative clause wGif that \ aemufrSvdkufaom pum;pkwdkYonf complete sentence tjzpf
udk,fydkif &yfwnfí r&yg/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswGif that \ aemufrS ygonfh complete
sentence rjzpfaom pum;pkwdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/

The feeling that I had for her amounted almost to obsession.

olreJYywfoufNyD; ighrSm&SdwJh cHpm;csufawGu pGJvrf;wJhoabm jzpfaew,f/

18.7 Reduced Relative Clauses

 relative clause \ ESifh full verb wdk h tpm; participle (V3 / V4) udk
relative pronoun
oHk;vdkufvQif reduced relative clause udk &onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif reduced
relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 Who's the girl dancing with your brother? [dancing = V4]

[= Who's the girl who is dancing with your brother?]
rif;&J htpfudkeJY u aewJh rdef;uav;u b,folvJ/
2 Anyone touching that wire will get a shock. [touching = V4]
[= Anyone who touches that wire will get a shock.]
tJ'D0dkif,mudk xdwJhvl "mwfvdkufrSmyJ/
3 Half of the people invited to the party didn't turn up. [invited = V3]
[= Half of the people who were invited to the party didn't turn up.]
ygwDudkvmzdk h zdwfxm;wJh vlawGxJrSm xuf0ufavmufu ay:rvmbl;/
4 I found him sitting at a table covered with papers. [covered = V3]
[= I found him sitting at a table which was covered with papers.]
owif;pmawG zHk;aewJh pm;yGJrSm ol xdkifaewmudk uRefawmf awGUcJhw,f/

154
  adjective rsm;jzpfonfh available ESihf possible wdE
Yk iS hf ywfoufvQiv
f nf; reduced structure
udk oHk;Edkifonf/
1 Please send me all the tickets available. [available = adj.]
[= Please send me all the tickets that are available.]
&Edkifoavmuf vufrSwfawGtm;vHk; uRefawmfhqDudk ydkYay;yg/
2 Tuesday's the only date possible. [possible = adj.]
[= Tuesday's the only date which is possible.]
jzpfEdkifwJh&ufuawmh t*FgaeYwpf&ufyJ &Sdw,f/

EXERCISE 18
A atmufyg0gusrsm;ü that onf subordinating conjuction ESifh relative pronoun ESpfckteuf
rnfonfhwpfckjzpfaMumif;udk azmfjyyg/
1. She prefers dictionaries that have pictures in them.
2. I can hardly believe that you said that.
3. You had better phone the office to say that I'm not well.
4. We walked down the path that led to the lake.
5. We did enjoy the fruit that you sent us.
6. The reason for the delay is that there is no driver for the train.
7. The company that she set up has gone bankrupt.
8. It is very surprising that she didn't come with us.

B relative pronoun udk oHk;í atmufyg 0gusESpfckpDudk wpfckpDjzpfatmif aygif;ay;yg/

Example
Question: Cinderella had a wicked stepmother.
The stepmother was very unkind to her.
Answer: Cinderella had a wicked stepmother, who was very unkind to her.

1. Go and see the nurse. She will check your blood pressure.
2. That is the nurse. That nurse checked my blood pressure.
3. Penguins are birds. Penguins cannot fly.
4. My aunt is coming to visit us. She lives in London.
5. The coat was hanging in the hall. The coat was badly stained.
6. I want the spade. The spade is in the tool shed.
7. I'll catch the number 52 bus. The number 52 will take me right to the theatre
door.
8. The professor of French was a tall thin man. I forget his name.

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 9. We visited the farm. Robert Burns once lived there.
10. The man is my daughter's father-in-law. The man won a prize for the best
chrysanthemums.
11. The man is my daughter's father-in-law. They gave the man the prize for the
best chrysanthemums.
12. People need their cars. People live in rural areas.

Grammar Help 1

 people twGuf who, whom, whose ESifh that wdkYudk relative pronoun tjzpf oHk;onf/
the man who/that spoke pum;ajymcJhwJh ol
the man whom/ that I saw uRefawmf awGUcJhwJh ol
the man whose son is an MP olYom;u MP qdkwJh vl
the man to whom I spoke uRefawmfeJY pum;ajymcJhwJh ol
 animals/ things twGuf which, whose ESifh that wdkYudk relative pronoun tjzpf oHk;ygonf/
the cat which/that was sitting on the mat tcif;zsmay: xdkifaewJh aMumif
the book which/that I mentioned ig ajymwJh pmtkyf
the book whose cover was torn tzHk;pkwfaewJh pmtkyf
the book to which I often refer rSDjirf;avh&SdwJh pmtkyfwpftkyf
 things (oufrJhypönf;) twGufqdkvQif whose tpm; of which udk oHk;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -
the book the cover of which was torn.

Grammar Help 2

 twdtusajym&vQif who onf he uJhokdYyif subject pronoun jzpfygonf/ whom onf him
uJhodkYyif object pronoun jzpfygonf/ odkYaomf ,ckacwfwGif whom udk formal English
wGifom oHk;Muonf/ aeYpOf ajymqdk a&;om;onfh t*FvdyfpmwGif whom tpm; who udkom
oHk;Muonf/ atmufyg Oyrm (2)ckudk avhvmyg/
1 the man whom I saw [formal]
the man who I saw [everyday speech and writing]

2 the man to whom you were speaking [formal]

the man who you were speaking to [everyday speech and writing]

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 Glossary

abduct ^tJh(bf).''yf(cf)(wf)^ jyefay;qGJonf/ [= kidnap]

bankrupt ^'bJh(if).(cf)&yf(yf)(wf)^ ta<u; rqyfEdkifaom/ [= insolvent]
bludgeon ^'(bf)vwf.*sif(ef)^ w&pyf xkESufonf/
chrysanthemum ^(cf)&pf.'pJh(ef).o.rrf(rf)^ *E¨rmyef;/
divorced ^'D.'aAmh(pf)(wf)^ uGm&Sif;xm;aom/
engaged ^tif(ef).'a*h(*sf)('f)^ aphpyfxm;aom/
handsomely ^'[Jh(ef).pef;(rf).vD^ tajrmuftjrm;/
MP ^'tJ(rf).zD^ ygvDreftrwf/ [= Member of Parliament]
obsession ^tuf(bf).'puf.&Sif(ef)^ pGJvrf;jcif;/
option ^'atmh(yf).&Sif(ef)^ a&G;ydkifcGifh/
pasta ^'zyf(pf).wm^ tDwvDacgufqGJ/
penguin ^'yJh(if).*Gif(ef)^ yif*Gif;iSuf/
psychiatrist ^pdkuf.'cdkif;.,m.(xf)&pf(pf)(wf)^ pdwfa&m*gtxl;uk q&m0ef/
reject ^&D.'*suf(cf)(wf)^ y,fcsonf/
rural ^'&l;.&,f(vf)^ aus;vufawme,f/
shed ^&Suf('f)^ ypönf;ypö,xm;onfh &kH/
shelter ^'&SJ(vf).wm^ uGef;cdk&m/ wJ/ tdrf/
spade ^(pf)ydwf('f)^ a*:jym;/
stain ^(pf)wdef;(ef)^ pGef;xif;onf/
terrorist ^'xJ.&m.&pf(pf)(wf)^ tMurf;zuform;/
vehicle ^'AD;.,.u,f(vf)^ ukef;vrf;oGm; ,mOf/
wicked ^'0pf.upf(wf)^ ,kwfrmaom/
widespread ^ 0dkuf('f).'(pf)(yf)&uf('f)^ ysH hESH haeaom/
'

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Unit Unit
19 17 Adverbial Clauses

19.1 Adverbial Clauses

 main clause xJwi
G f adverbial tvkyu
f v
kd yk af om subordinate clause udk adverbial clause
[k ac:onf/ main clause xJwGif azmfjyxm;onfh action u rnfonfh tcsdef (when),
rnfonfh ae&mwGif (where) rnfodkYrnfyHk (how) jzpfaMumif;udk adverbial clause u
azmfjyonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Do the job this way. [this way = adv. ph.]
Do the job however you like. [however you like = adv. cl.]
tJ'Dtvkyfudk rif;BudKufovdk vkyf/
2 Leave the books there. [there = adv.]
Leave the books wherever you like. [wherever you like = adv. cl.]
pmtkyfawGudk rif;BudKufwJhae&mrSm xm;cJhyg/
3 I will come tomorrow. [tomorrow = adv.]
I will come after I have been to the shops.
qdkifawGqDudk t&if oGm;NyD;rS vmcJhr,f/
 adverbial clause rsm;udk adverb u modify vkyfEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
adverbial clause rsm;udk modify vkyfonfh adverb wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Do exactly as you are told. [as you are told = adv. cl.]
rif;udk cdkif;wJhtwdkif; twdtus vkyfyg/
2 She left just before you came in. [before you came in = adv. cl.]
rif; 0ifrvmcifav;wif olru xGufoGm;wm/
19.2 Types of Adverbial Clause
¤if;wdkY\ t"dyÜm,fESifh toHk;jyKyHkay:wGif rlwnfí adverbial clause wdkYudk atmufygtwdkif;
trsdK;tpm; cGJjcm;Edkifonf/

1. Adverbial clause of time (tcsdefjy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

 wpfcck o
k nf rnfonft h csed w
f iG f jzpfysuo
f nfukd azmfjyonfh subordinate clause udk adverbial
clause of time [kac:onf/ adverbial clause of time udk (after, as, as soon as, before,
once, since, till, until, when, whenever, while paom) subordinating conjunction wdkYjzifh
tpjyKNyD; a&;onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause of time rsm;udk
rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
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 1 I'll come when I'm ready. [when I'm ready = adv. cl. (time)]
tqifoifhjzpfwJhtcsdefrSm uRefawmf vmr,f/
2 I'm not leaving till I know the truth. [till I know the truth = adv. cl.(time)]
trSefudk rodrcsif; uRefawmf xGufcGmoGm;rSm r[kwfbl;/
3 Always wash your hands before you handle food.
tpm;tpmudk rudkifcif vufudk tjrJwrf; aq;yg/
4 You'll be all right once you get to the hotel.
[dkw,fudk a&mufwmeJY rif; tqifajyoGm;rSmyg/

2. Adverbial clause of place (ae&mjy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

 adverbial clause of place onf wpfckck rnfonfhae&mwGif jzpfysufonfudk azmfjyaom
subordinate clause jzpfygonf/ adverbial clause of place udk where ESifh wherever
wdkYjzifh tpjyKía&;onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause of place rsm;udk
rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Put it wherever you like. [wherever you like = adv. cl. (place)]
tJ'gudk rif;BudKufwJhae&mrSm xm;vdkufyg/
2 Put that rock where you put the other ones.
tjcm;ausmufwHk;awG xm;wJhae&mrSm tJ'DausmufwHk;udk xm;vdkufyg/

3. Adverbial clause of manner (trlt&mjy^enf;vrf;jy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

 adverbial clause of manner onf wpfckck rnfonfhrnfyHk jzpfysufonfudk azmfjyonf/ as,
as if, as though, how, however, like wdkYESifh tpjyKí a&;om;onf/ atmufyg Oyrm
0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause of manner rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 You must do it exactly as I told you. [as I told you = adv. cl. (manner)]
tJ'gudk ig cdkif;xm;wJhtwkdif; twdtus rif; vkyf&r,f/
2 Glue the pieces together as I showed you.
ig rif;udkjyxm;wJhtwdkif; tydkif;tpawGudk aumfeJYuyfyg/
3 He behaved as if nothing had happened.
olu bmrSrjzpfwJh yHkpHrsdK; aeaewm/
4 I'll do it however I like.
tJ'gudk ig BudKufovdk vkyfr,f/
5 Mould the clay just how I showed you. [just (adv.) = exactly]
tJ'D&THUap;udk ig rif;udk jyxm;wJhtwdkif; twdtus yHkoGif;yg/

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 4. Adverbial clause of reason (taMumif;jy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)
 adverbial clause of reason u wpfckck rnfonfhtwGufaMumifh jzpfonf (odkU) rnfonfh
twGufaMumifh jzpfoifhonfudk azmfjyonf/ as, because, in case, seeing, seeing as,
seeing that, since wdkYjzifh tpjyKí a&;om;onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverbial
clause of reason wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 They didn't go on a picnic after all because it was raining.

tqHk;rSmawmh rdk;&GmaewmeJY olwdkY aysmfyGJpm; rxGufcJhMubl;/
2 As it was raining, we decided not to go.
rdk;&GmaewJhtwGufaMumifh uRefawmfwdkY roGm;zdkY qHk;jzwfcJhMuw,f/
3 Take an umbrella in case it rains.
rdk;&GmEdkifwmrdkYvdk h xD; ,loGm;/
4 Seeing that it's raining, you'll have to play indoors.
rdk;&GmaewJhtwGufaMumifh rif;wdk h trdk;tumatmufrSmyJ upm;&awmhr,f/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

5. Adverbial clause of purpose (&nfpl;csufjy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

 adverbial clause of purpose onf wpfckck jyKvkyf&onfh &nf&G,fcsuf? OD;wnfcsufwkdUukd
azmfjyonf/ so, so that, in order that tp&Sdaom conjunction rsm;jzihf tpjyKonf/
atmufyg Oyrm0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause of purpose wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Take an umbrella so you don't get wet.
rkd; rpdkatmif xD; ,loGm;yg/
2 My neighbour looked after the baby so that I could go shopping on my
own.
tdrfeD;csif;u uav;xdef;ay;vdk huRefr wpfa,mufwnf; aps;0,fxGufEkdifwm/

6. Adverbial clause of result (tusdK;&v'ffjy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

 adverbial clause of result onf wckck jzpfysuf&mrS jzpfay:vmonhf &v'f (result) ukd
azmfjyonf/ adverbial clause of result ukd that ESihftpjyKNyD; main clause rS so/such
ESihf csdwfqufonf/ main clause onf taMumif;&if;udk azmfjyNyD; adverbial clause onf
tusdK;quf^&v'fudk azmfjyonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause of
result wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 It rained so much that the garden was flooded.

rkd;&Gmwmu rsm;vGef;vkdU O,smOfudk a&vTrf;oGm;w,f/

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 2 She was so nervous that she spilt her drink.
olru pdwfvIyf&Sm;vGef;vkdU ollr&JUazsmf&nfawG zdwfukefw,f/
3 There was such a demand for the tickets that they sold out within half
an hour.
vufrSwf&JU0,fvkdtm;u aumif;vGef;vkdU em&D0uftwGif; a&mif;ukefoGm;w,f/
4 It was so cold that we stopped playing.
&moDOwku at;vGef;vkdU upm;wmukd uRefawmfwkdU &yfvkduf&w,f/

7. Adverbial clause of concession (qef husifjy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

adverbial clause of concession ukd (although, even if, even though, however, no
matter what/who/where, though, whatever, wherever, while, whilst, whoever,
whereas ESifh whether ... or ponhf) conjunction wkdUjzihf tpjyKí azmfjyonf/

 main clause xJwGifygonhf tcsufrsm;onf tHhtm;oifhzG,f jzpfaeonfudk adverbial

clause of concession xJwGif azmfjyxm;onhf tcsufrsm;u oG,f0dkuf azmfjyonf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause of concession wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 Although I've known Peter for years , I've never met his wife.
yDwmukd odwm ESpfaygif;rsm;pGm MumcJhayrJh olUZeD;ukd wpfcgrS rawGUzl;bl;/
2 Even though the sun was shining , it was still very cold.
aeom aeayrJh &moDOwku at;aewkef;yJ/
3 I'll be happy no matter where we go.
igwkdU b,fukdyJoGm;oGm; iguawmh aysmfaerSmyJ/
4 Whatever I do , I'm always in the wrong.
uRefawmf bmyJvkyfvkyf trSm;yJ tNrJ vkyfrdaew,f/
5 I'm going whether you come with me or not.
rif; igeJUvkdufvkduf rvkdufvkduf iguawmh oGm;rSmyJ/

 wpfckck jyKvkyfjcif;twGuf reason ukd concession clause wGif tqkdjyKxm;aomfvnf; xdk

reason onf main clause wGif azmfjyxm;onhf taMumif;t&mukd jyKvkyfzkdU vHkavmufonhf
reason r[kwfyg/ atmufyg Oyrmwdk hudk avhvmyg/

1 Even though he broke your camera , you had no right to hit him.
[=he broke your camera but that is not a good enough reason for hitting him]
olUaMumihf rif;&J huifr&muGJoGm;cJhayrJh rif; ol hukd vufoD;eJUxkd;ykdifcGihfr&Sdbl;/

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 2 Even if the exam questions are simple, check your answers carefully.
[= the questions may be simple but that is not a good enough reason for
you not to check your answers]
pmar;yGJar;cGef;awG vG,f&ifawmifrS tajzawGukd aoaocsmcsm ppf&r,f/

 main clausewGif yg0ifonhf taMumif;t&mESihf adverbial clause wGif yg0ifonhf

taMumif; t&mwkdU uGJjym;jcm;em;aeyHkukd EIdif;,SOfazmfjy (contrast vkyf) vkdaomtcgwGif
concession clause ukd oHk;onf/

1 She's a charming woman, whereas her husband is a complete pain

in the neck.
olru ESpfvkdp&m t&rf;aumif;wJh trsdK;orD;wpfOD; jzpfayrJh
olUcifyGef;uawmh N*dK[farTwJholwpfOD;yg/
2 The main winter holiday in England was always Christmas, whilst in
Scotland it was New Year. [whilst = while]
t*FvefrSm aqmif;&moD t"du tm;vyf&ufu c&pörwf jzpfayr,fh
paumhwvefrSmawmh t"du tm;vyf&ufu ESpfopful; jzpfaew,f/
 uGJjym; jcm;em;yHkudk EIdif;,SOfMunfh (contrast vkyf) onfh txufyg adverbial clause of
concession ukd adverbial clause of contrast [k ac:ygonf/

8. Adverbial clause of comment

 subordinate clause aemufwpfrsdK;onf comment clause jzpfygonf/ comment clause
onf adjunct (okdU) conjunct tjzpf vkyfaqmifNyD; main clause xJwGif azmfjyxm;onhf
taMumif;t&mwkdUtay:ü xifjrifcsuf^rSwfcsu(f comment) udk ay;onf/ atmufyg Oyrm
0guswdk hwGif comment clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 This is, as you can see , a specimen of 3rd-century Roman pottery.
rif;jrifwJhtwkdif;yJ 'g[m (3)&mpkESpf a&mracwf ajrtkd; erlem wpfvHk;yg/
2 She was, as is well known , a member of the Republican Party.
vltrsm; odwJhtwkdif;yJ olr[m &DyAÁvpfuef ygwD0ifwpfOD; jzpfcJhw,f/
3 As you know , her husband is a well-known television personality.
rif;odwJhtwkdif;yJ olr&JUcifyGef;u ½kyfoHavmurSm ausmfMum;wJholwpfOD;yg/
4 What's more , she was an active member of the party.
'ghtjyif olr[m wuf<uwJh ygwD0ifwpfOD;vnf; jzpfcJhw,f/
5 What was worse , I was totally lost.
ykdqkd;wmu uRefawmf vHk;0 rsufpdvnf vrf;aysmufcJhwmyJ/

162
 6 Foot-and-mouth disease is, as you probably already know , a highly
infectious disease of cattle, sheep and pigs.
vQmem? cGmem[m uRJEGm;awG? okd;awG? 0ufawGtwGuf tvGeful;pufvG,fwJh
a&m*g wpfckqkdwmudk rif; t&ifuwnf;u odcsifodcJhrSmyg/
7 As I say , there's no harm done and we'd best just forget about it.
uRefawmfajymovdkyJ uRefawmfwdk hrSm xdckdufepfemwm r&SdcJhbl;/ tJ'gukd
uRefawmfwkdU arhypfvkdufwm taumif;qHk;ygyJ/
 clause \ tpOD;qHk; ae&mwGif conjunction rygonhf comment clause rsm;vnf; &Sdonf/
1 He is, I believe , a Buddhist.
uRefawmf xifwmuawmh ol[m Ak'¨bmom0if wpfa,mufyJ/
2 It was, you see , the very last thing I had expected to happen.
rif;odwJhtwkdif;yJ aemufqHk; jzpfvmvdrfhr,fvkdU ig arQmfvihfcJhwm tJ'gyJ/

9. Adverbial clause of comparison ( EIdif;,SOfjy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

 main clause xJwGif azmfjyxm;onhf taMumif;t&mESihf subordinate clause xJwGif azmfjy
xm;onhft&mwkdUukd EIdif;,SOfazmfjy&ef adverbial clause of comparison ukd oHk;onf/ ¤if;
clause ukd as/than ESihf tpjyKonf/ than ukd main clause twGif;rS comparative word
ESihf link vkyfonf/ as ukd main clause twGif;rS as ESihf link vkyfonf/ atmufyg Oyrm
0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause of comparison rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 She plays chess well. olr ppfwk&if upm;wm aumif;w,f/
She plays chess better than her father does.
[NOT ..... She plays chess well than her father does.]
olr ppfwk&if upm;wmu olr&JUtazxuf ykdaumif;w,f/
txufyg 0guswGif better onf well \ comparative word jzpfygonf/
than onf comparative word jzpfonfh better ESifh link vkyfygonf/ well than
[k oHk;í r&yg/ better than [kom oHk;&ygonf/
2 Dogs can run fast. acG;u ajy;wm jrefw,f/
Dogs can run faster than cats can.
acG;u aMumifxuf ajy;wm ykdjrefw,f/
3 She eats little. olr pm;wmu enf;w,f/
She eats less than I do. olr pm;wmu uRefawmfhxuf ydkenf;w,f/
4 She's not stupid.
She's not as stupid as she looks.[NOT ..... She's not stupid as she looks.]
olru xiffoavmuf wu,f rtbl;/

163
 5 We ran as quickly as we could.
uRefawmfwkdU ajy;EkdiforQ jrefjref ajy;cJhMuw,f/
6 Eat as much as you like.
rif; BudKufoavmuf pm;/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

10. Adverbial clause of proportion (tcsdK;jy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

 wpfckcku ykdrsm;av (odk h) ydkenf;av? tjcm;wpfcku ykdrsm;av (odk h) ydkenf;av jzpfaeaMumif;
ukd azmfjy&mü adverbial clause of proportion udk oHk;onf/
1 As the forests shrink , the deserts advance.
opfawmawG usHK hoGm;wmeJUtrQ oJuEÅm&awGu us,fjyef hvmw,f/
2 As she became more and more unhappy at school , so her absences
became more and more frequent.

3 The more unhappy she was , the more frequent her absences became.
olru ausmif;rSm raysmfav ausmif;ysuf&uf ykdpdwfvmavyJ/
4 The more I know him , the less I like him. [the = adverb]
olUtaMumif;udk ykdodav ykdNyD; rESpfoufavyJ/
0gus1 wGif adverbial clause of proportion udk as ESifh tpjyKNyD; a&;xm;onf/
0gus 2 wGif adverbial clause of proportion udk as ESifh tpjyKNyD; main clause
udk so ESifh tpjyKí a&;xm;onf/ 0gus 3 ESifh 4 wGif the ESpfckudk linking word
tjzpf oHk;xm;onf/ yxr the udk subordinate clause üvnf;aumif;? 'kwd,
the udk main clause üvnf;aumif; toHk;jyKxm;ygonf/

11. Adverbial clause of condition (uef howfcsufjy Bud,m0daooe 0gusu@)

 main clause xJwGif azmfjyxm;onhf taMumif;t&mwkdU jzpfysuf&ef^jyKvkyf&ef vkdtyfaom
tajctaewkdUudk azmfjyonhf subordinate clause onf adverbial clause of condition
jzpfygonf/ conditional clause ygaom sentence ukd conditional sentence [kac:onf/
adverbial clause of condition udk as long as, if, on condition that, provided, provided
that, providing, providing that, so long as, unless wkdUESihf tpjyK a&;om;onf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adverbial clause of condition rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 I'll come if she invites me. [if she invites me = adv. cl. (condition)]
olru zdwf&if uRefawmf vmrSmyg/ [I'll come = main clause]

2 I won't come unless she invites me. [unless ≈ if not]

olru rzdwf&if uRefawmf vmrSm r[kwfbl;/

164
 3 You won't pass your exams if you don't study.
rif; pmrusuf&if pmar;yGJatmifrSm r[kwfbl;/
4 You won't pass your exams unless you work harder.
rif; 'DhxufydkNyD; rBudK;pm;&if pmar;yGJatmifrSm r[kwfbl;/
5 So long as you don't forget your lines , you'll be fine.
ajym&r,hf pmom;awGukd rarhao;oa&GU rif; tqifajyygvdrfhr,f/
6 You can stay providing you lend a hand.
rif; ulnDr,fqkd&if aevkdU&w,f/

19.3 First, Second and Third Conditionals

 first conditionals, second conditionals ESifh third conditionals [lí conditional sentence
(3)rsdK; &Sdonf/
A first conditionals
If we play tennis, I'll win. [If + V1, will + V1]
uRefawmfwkdU(2)a,muf wif;epfupm;&if uRefawmfEkdifrSm/
B second conditionals
If we played tennis, I would win. [If + V2, would + V1]
uRefawmfwkdU (2)a,muf wif;epfupm;cJh&if uRefawmfEkdifavmufw,f/
C third conditionals [If +had+ V3, would have + V3]
If we had played tennis, I would have won.
uRefawmfwkdU(2)a,mufom wif;epfupm;cJh&if uRefawmf EkdifcJhrSmaygh/
A wpfckckjzpfvQif^rjzpfvQif tjcm;wpfckonf tem*wfwGif jzpfvdrhfrnf^jzpfaumif;jzpfvdrfh
rnf[kazmfjy&ef first conditionals ukd oHk;onf/ future taMumif;udk ajymaomfvnf; if-
clause wGif present tense ukdom oHk;onf/ main clause wGif will + V1 ukd oHk;onf/

1 If I go to the shops tomorrow, I'll get you those books you want.
[NOT ..... If I will go to the shops tomorrow, .....]
reufjzef qkdifawGukd oGm;&if rif;vkdcsifwJh pmtkyfawG ig 0,fay;r,f/
[ig oGm;r,f roGm;bl;qkdwmu raocsmao;bl;/ oGm;jzpf&if 0,fay;r,f/]
2 Those plants will die if you don't water them regularly.
Those plants will die unless someone waters them.
a& rSefrSef ravmif;&if tJ'DtyifawG aoukefvdrfhr,f/
3 Unless you work a lot harder, you won't pass your exam.
jyif;jyif;xefxef rBudK;pm;&if rif; pmar;yGJatmifrSm r[kwfbl;/

165
 4 If he has finished the crossword, I'll get a look at the paper at last.
pum;vHk;ya[Vdukd ol ajzNyD;rSqkd&if owif;pmukd tMumBuD;aerS ig Munhf&rSm/
5 If James isn't home yet, I can phone again later on.
*sdef;(rfpf) tckxd tdrfjyefra&mufao;&if uRefawmf aemufrSxyfNyD; zkef;qufr,f/
6 If it doesn't stop raining soon, the match may be cancelled.
rkd; jrefjref rwdwf&if NydKifyGJukd zsufaumif;zsuf&vdrfhr,f/
 first conditionals wGif main clause onf imperative (trdef a
h y;^apcdik ;f 0gus) jzpfEidk o
f nf/
1 If she asks you where I am, tell her you don't know.
igb,frSm&SdvJvkdU rif;ukd olru ar;&if rif; rodbl;vkdU olrukd ajymvkdufyg/
2 If the baby's asleep, don't waken her.
uav;u tdyfaysmfae&if rEId;ygeJU/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 3 udk avhvmyg/

 B wpfcgwpf&HwGif first conditionals ukd real conditionals [kac:NyD;? second conditionals
ukd unreal conditionals [kac:onf/ first conditionals ESifh EIid ;f ,SOaf omf second conditionals
onf ajymqkdaeonhf taMumif;t&mwkdU jzpfrjzpfESihfywfoufNyD; ykdí raocsm ra&&mjcif;ukd
azmfjyonf/ second conditional sentence onf tcsdefumvtm;jzifh present (okdU) future
ukd nTef;qkdonf/ if-clause wGifygaom past tense onf twdwftcsdefukd nTefjyjcif; r[kwfyJ
tppftrSef r[kwfjcif; (unreality)? oHo,&Sdjcif; (doubt) wkdUukdom nTefjyjcif; jzpfonf/
atmufyg second conditional sentence [If + V2, would + V1] wdk hudk avhvmyg/
1 I would come if she invited me. [but she might not invite me]
olru ighukd zdwf&ifawmh ig vmrSmaygh/ ('gayrJh ighukd zdwfcsifrS zdwfrSm/)
2 I wouldn't come unless she invited me.
olru ighukd rzdwf&ifawmh ig vmrSm r[kwfbl;/
3 If you worked harder, you would pass your exams.
[but I know you may not work harder]
'DhxufykdNyD; BudK;pm;&ifawmh rif; pmar;yGJ atmifrSmyg/
('gayrJh rif; ykdNyD; rBudK;pm;csifwm ig odw,f/)
4 If we were asked to help, of course we would help.
[but we might not be asked]
tultnD awmif;vm&ifawmh uRefawmfwkdU ulnDrSmyg/
('gayrJh tultnDu awmif;csifrS awmif;rSm/)

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 pdwful;,OfMunhfaom taMumif;t&mwkdUukd ajymqkd&ef second conditionals ukd oHk;Ekdifonf/
1 If only we had wings, we could fly out of here.
[but we don't have wings, so we can't fly]
uRefawmfwkdUrSm awmifyHawGom &SdcJh&if 'Dae&muae tjyifukd ysHxGufoGm;rSm/
('gayrJh uRefawmfwkdUrSm tawmifyH r&SdvkdU ysHvkdUr&bl;/)
2 We could go to Japan for our holiday if only we had enough money.
[but we don't have enough money, so we can't go]
ykdufqHom vHkvHkavmufavmuf&SdcJh&if tm;vyf&ufrSm *syefukd oGm;vkdU&w,f/
('gayrJh ykdufqH vHkvHkavmufavmuf r&SdvkdU oGm;vkdUr&bl;/)
 tMuHÓPf (advice) ay;&mwGifvnf; second conditionals ukd oHk;Ekdifonf/
If I were you, I would buy a car.
If I was you, I would buy a car.
igom rif;ae&mrSmqkd&if um;0,fpD;rSm/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 4 udk avhvmyg/

 C third conditionals [If +had+ V3, would have + V3] onf tcsdefumvtm;jzifh twdwf (the
past) udk ñTef;qdkNyD; trSefwu,f rjyKvkyfcJhjzpfaom vkyfaqmifrI (action), trSefwu,f
rjzpfysufcJhaom tajctae(situation) wdkYudk azmfjyonf/
1 I would have come if she had invited me.
olru ighudk zdwfcJh&if ig vmcJhrSmaygh/ (rzdwfvdkY rvmcJhwm/)
2 If I had seen him, I would have warned him.
[but I didn't see him, so I didn't warn him]
ig olYudk awGUcJh&if owday;cJhrdrSmyJ/ ('gayrJh rawGUcJhvdkY owd ray;cJh&bl;/)
3 We would have won if we had played better.
[but we didn't play better, so we didn't win]
uRefawmfwdkY ydkNyD; aumif;aumif; upm;cJh&if EdkifcJhrSm/
('gayrJh ydkNyD; aumif;aumif; rupm;cJhvdkY uRefawmfwdkY rEdkifcJhwm/)
4 If you'd spoken politely, he wouldn't have been angry.
rif;u ,Of,Ofaus;aus;ajymcJh&if olu pdwfqdk;cJhrSm r[kwfbl;/
('gayrJh rif;u vnf; ,Of,Ofaus;aus; rajymcJhbl;/ oluvnf; pdwfqdk;cJhw,f/)
5 If I had known that, I would never have helped them.
tJ'gudk ig odcJh&if ig olYwdkYudk ulnDcJhrSm r[kwfbl;/ (rodvdkY ulnDcJhwm/)
6 We could have escaped if only we had had a ladder.
uRefawmfwdkYrSm avSum;om &SdcJh&if xGufajy;NyD; vGwfcJhrSm/

167
 7 We might have stayed longer if we had had more time.
uRefawmfwdkYrSm tcsdefydkNyD; &cJh&if ydkNyD;MumMum aecJhMurSm/
8 If you hadn't lost the tickets, we would have been watching the football
by now.
rif;om vufrSwfawG raysmufcJh&if ckcsdefrSm igwkd habmvHk;yGJ MunfhaeMurSm/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 5 udk avhvmyg/

EXERCISE 19
A atmufyg0gusrsm;wGif rsOf;wm;jyxm;onfh clause rsm;\ trsdK;tpm;udk azmfjyyg/
1. I went to bed when I got home.
2. I went to bed though I wasn't feeling very tired.
3. I don't dance as well as you do.
4. Because they were late, they didn't get very good seats in the cinema.
5. Come whenever you want.
6. He's more relaxed than he was before he retired.
7. I ate so much at the dinner that I was almost sick.
8. Since you're here, you can help me clean the house.
9. She's not as shy as she used to be.
10. When I'm doing the ironing, I like to watch television or a video.
11. As there was nobody at home, I left the parcel on the doorstep.
12. As I was walking along the street, a tile fell off a roof and nearly hit me.

B uGif;xJwGif ay;xm;aom conjunction rsm;rS wpfckudk a&G;NyD; uGufvyfjznfhyg/

1. Take an umbrella with you ______ you don't get wet. [because, until, so that]
2. Take an umbrella with you______it might rain. [because, until, so that]
3. Don't go out ______it stops raining. [because, until, so that]
4. Don't go out ______it's raining. [whereas, if, while]
5. I'll come tomorrow______I can. [if, when, unless]
6. I'll come tomorrow ______ I can't for some reason. [if, when, unless]
7. ______ the meeting finishes on time, I should be here by six. [if, providing, so]
8. She was late home ______ she missed the bus. [as, because, that]
9. She was so late leaving the office ______she missed the bus. [when, that,as]
10. Ask him yourself ______ you want to know. [if, in order that, until]
11. I found it exactly ______ it was supposed to be. [when, where, because]
12. I've found out ______ the meeting is supposed to take place.
[when, where, because]

168
C uGif;xJwGifay;xm;aom verb udk oifhawmfaom tense ajymif;NyD; uGufvyfjznfhyg/
Example Question: Although I ______ tired, I couldn't sleep. [be]
Answer: Although I was tired, I couldn't sleep.

1. Watch me while I ______ this. [do]

2. Plants won't grow unless you ______ them. [water]
3. Although she ______ only four, she could already read and write. [be]
4. What will happen if the rainforests ______ all cut down? [be]
5. What would happen if the rainforests ______ all cut down. [be]
6. If you ____ _____ harder, you might have passed your exams. [work]
7. If you ______ harder, you might pass your exams. [work]
8. What would have happened if Napoleon ____ _____ the battle of Waterloo?
[win]
9. Wherever she ______, she seemed to make friends. [go]
10. If you ______ up all your vegetables, you can have some pudding. [eat]
11. If you ____ _____ all your vegetables, you would have got some pudding.
[eat]
12. Even if I ______ a lot, I'll never be a great pianist. [practise]
13. Even if I ______ a lot, I'd never be a great pianist. [practise]
14. There was a phone call for you while you ______ out. [be]
15. If you ______n't ______ , you wouldn't have such a bad cough. [smoke]

Grammar Help 1

 clause trsdK;tpm; wpfckxufruwGif toHk;jyKEdkifonfh conjunction tcsdKU &Sdonf/ Oyrm -

1 As I was leaving my office, I heard an explosion in the street.
½Hk;cef;u xGufvmcsdefrSm vrf;ay:rSm aygufuGJoHwpfckudk Mum;cJh&w,f/
[time - says when]

As I am just leaving, you can have my seat. [reason - says why]

uRefawmf tckyJ oGm;awmhrSmrdk h cifAsm; uRefawmfhcHkae&mudk ,lvdk h&w,f/
Do as I do. igvkyfovkd vkdufvkyfyg/ [manner - says how]

2 He has been very depressed since his wife died. [time - says when]
olUrdef;r qHk;NyD;uwnf;u ol 0rf;enf;n§dK;i,faewm/
Since I have nothing better to do, I'll come with you. [reason - says why]
ighrSm vkyfp&m axGaxGxl;xl; r&SdvkdU ig rif;eJU vkdufcJhr,f/

169
  pum;vHk;wpfckxuf ykdíygaom conjunction rsm;jzpfMuonhf in order that, so that, as
soon as, as long as, on condition that ESihf as if wkdUukd complex conjunction rsm;[k
ac:onf/

Grammar Help 2

 than \aemufrS verb ukdjzKwfí a&;vQifvnf; &onf/ xkdtcg than onf conjunction
r[kwfawmhyJ preposition jzpfoGm;onf/
1 She plays chess better than her father does. [than = conj.]
She plays chess better than her father. [than = prep.]

2 My dog can run faster than I can. [than = conj.]

My dog can run faster than me. [than = prep.]

 verb ygvQif than onf subordinate clause ukd tpjyKonhf conjunction jzpfygonf/
1 She eats less than I do. [than = conj.]
2 I'm cleverer than he is. [than = conj.]
3 No-one is more easily offended than she is. [than = conj.]

 verb rygvQif than onf preposition jzpfNyD;? than \ aemufu vkdufaom pum;vHk;onf
prepositional object jzpfygonf/

1 She eats less than me. [than = prep.] [me = prep. Obj.]

2 I'm cleverer than him. [than = prep.] [him = prep. Obj.]

uRefawmfu olUxuf ykdawmfw,f/
3 No-one is more easily offended than her. [than = prep.]
olravmuf b,folurS tvG,fwul pdwfrqkd;wwfbl;/
4 Dogs run faster than cats. [than = prep.]

5 She eats less than her sister. [than = prep.]

 formal English wGif than \aemufü subject form emrfpm;ukd oHk;Ekdifonf/ xkdtcgü than
onf conjunction jzpfonf (okdU) preposition jzpfonf[k twdtus rqkdEkdifawmhyg/ Oyrm
1 She eats less than I. [than = conj.?] [than = prep.?]
2 I'm cleverer than he.
3 No-one is more easily offended than she.

170
Grammar Help 3

1. If-clause wGif present tense tpm; present continuous (am/is/are + V-ing) udkvnf;
oHk;Ekdifonf/ present perfect (has/have + V3) ukdvnf; oHk;Ekdifonf/
1 If you are looking for Tom, you'll find him upstairs.
rif;u wGef(rf)ukd &Smaewmqkd&if olUukd tay:xyfrSm &SmawGUvdrfhr,f/
2 If you have finished your homework, we'll watch TV.
rif;&JUtdrfpm NyD;&if igwkdU wDADMunhfMur,f/
2. cGihfjyKjcif; (permission) twGuf main clause wGif will tpm; may/can ukd oHk;onf/
If you eat all your dinner, you can have a chocolate.
rif;&JUnpmukd ukefatmif pm;r,fqdk&if rif; acsmuvufwpfck pm;vkdU&w,f/
jzpfEkdifajc&Sdjcif; (possibility) twGuf will tpm; may/might/could ukd oHk;onf/
If it's foggy tonight, the plane may be late.
'Dn jrLawGqdkif;ae&if av,mOfu aemufusaumif; aemufusEkdifw,f/
jyKvkyfEkdifpGrf;&Sdjcif; (ability) twGuf will tpm; can/could ukd oHk;onf/
If the ice is thick, we can walk across.
a&cJjyifu xl&if uRefawmfwkdU jzwfavQmufvkdU&w,f/
3. automatic result (okdU) habitual result wkdUtwGuf if-clause ESihf main clause ESpfckpvHk;
wGif present tense ukd oHk;Ekdifonf/
1 If you press this button, the light goes on. [automatic result]
'Dcvkwfukd ESdyfvkduf&if rD; vif;w,f/ (tvkdtavsmufjzpfonfh &v'f)
2 If you argue with him, he gets angry. [habitual result]
oleJU jiif;&if olu pdwfqkd;w,f/ (tusihfaMumihfjzpfonfh &v'f)
Grammar Help 4

1. if-clause wGif past continuous tense (was/were + V-ing) udk oHk;Edkifonf/

I'm going by bus. If I were going by car, I'd offer you a lift.
uRefawmfu bwfpfeJYoGm;rSm/ um;eJYoGm;r,fqdk&if cifAsm;udk vdkufcJhzdkY ac:rSm/
2. jzpfEdkifaom &v'f (possible result)? jyKvkyfEdkifpGrf;&Sdjcif; (ability) wdk hudk azmfjy&ef main
clause wGif might/could udk oHk;Edkifonf/
1 If you wrote to him, he might answer. [possible result]
rif; olYqDudk pma&;&ifawmh ol pmjyefaumif; jyefrSmaygh/ (jzpfEdkifaom &v'f)

171
 2 If I knew his address, I could write to him. [ability]
ol hvdyfpmom odcJh&if ig olYqDudk pma&;vdkY&w,f/ (jyKvkyfEdkifpGrf;&Sdjcif;)
3. main clause wGif would + be + V-ing udkvnf; toHk;jyKEdkifonf/
If I were on holiday now, I'd be skiing.
ig tck tm;vyf&ufc&D;xGufaewmqdk&if pudwfavQmpD;aerSm/

Grammar Help 5

 if-clause wGif past perfect continuous (had been + V-ing) udk oHk;Edkifonff/
You were driving too fast. If you had been driving more slowly, you'd
have been able to stop.
rif;u wtm;tjref armif;aevdkYyg/ tJ'Dxuf ydkNyD; aES;aES;om
armif;aecJh&if tcsdefrD &yfvdkY &cJhrSm/
 if udk csefvSyfcJhNyD; tulBud,m (had/were/should) udk a&SUqHk;odkY ydkYí a&;onfh 0gusyHkpHudk
formal English wGif oHk;Muonf/

1 Had I known that, I wouldn't have come. [= If I had known that, ...]
'DvdkrSef; od&if ig rvmygbl;/
2 Had we played better, we might have won. [= If we had played better, ....]
aumif;aumif; upm;cJh&if EdkifcJhrSm/
3 Had we had wings, we could have flown like birds.
igwdk hrSm awmifyHawGom &SdcJh&if iSufawGvdkyJ ysH0JEkdifrSm/
4 Were they to be found guilty, it would be an appalling injustice.
olwdkYudk tjypf&Sdw,fvdkYom qHk;jzwfcJh&if tJ'g[m pdwfysufp&maumif;wJh
rw&m; rrQwrI jzpfcJhrSmyJ/
5 Should she ask you, tell her you don't know anything.
olru rif;udk ar;&if olrudk rif; bmrSrodbl;vdkY ajymvdkufyg/

172
 Glossary

absence ^'tJh(bf).pJh(ef)(pf)^ ysufuGufjcif;/

appalling ^t.'azm.vif(if)^ qdk;&Gm;aom/ pdwfysufzG,fvdvd/
conditional ^cif(ef).''D;.&Sif.e,f(vf)^ tajctaet&jzpfaom/
doorstep ^'a'g.(pf)wuf(yf)^ zdeyfcRwf/ wHcg;0/
flood ^(zf)vwf('f)^ a&BuD;onf/
frequent ^'(zf)&D;.uGJ h(ef)(wf)^ rMumcPjzpfaom/
guilty ^'*pf(vf).wD^ tjypf&Sdaom/
indoors ^ tif(ef).'a'g(Zf)^ trdk;atmuf/
'
infectious ^tif(ef).'zuf(cf).&Syf(pf)^ (a&m*g)ul;pufwwfaom/
lift ^vpf(zf)(wf)^ um;ESifhwifac:jcif;/
pottery ^'aygh.x.&D^ ajrtdk;/ tdk;xdef;onftwwf/
pudding ^'yGwf.'if(if)^ ylwif;/
purpose ^'zm;.ywf(pf)^ &nf&G,fcsuf/
shrink ^(&Sf)&ifh(if)(cf)^ t&G,f? yrmP i,foGm;onf/
specimen ^'(pf)yuf.pD.rif(ef)^ erlem/
spill ^(pf)yif;(vf)^ zdwfpifonf/ spilt ^(pf)ypf(vf)(wf)^
warn ^a0g..(ef)^ owday;onf/

173
Unit Unit
20 17 Noun Cl auses

20.1 Noun clauses

 0guswpfck\ function slot ae&mwpfckudk noun/pronoun uJhodk h jznfhEdkifaom subordinate
clause udk noun clause [kac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif noun clause rsm;udk
rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 It was quite unforgivable. [it (pronoun) = subj.]
tJ'g[m tawmhfudk cGifhrvTwfEdkifp&myJ/
What you did was quite unforgivable. [What you did (N cl.) = subj.]
rif; vkyfcJhwmu cGifhrvTwfEdkifp&myJ/
2 I didn't realize that. [that (pronoun) = obj.]
tJ'gudk uRefawmf oabmraygufcJhbl;/
I didn't realize that you were coming with us.
[that you were coming with us (noun clause) = object]
rif; igwdkYeJYtwl vdkufr,fqdkwmudk ig oabmraygufcJhbl;/
3 The problem is money. [money(noun) = subj. cpm]
jyóemuawmh ydkufqHyJ/
The problem is that no-one came to the party.
[that no-one came to the party (noun clause) = subj. cpm]
jyóemu ygwDyGJudk b,folrS rvmwmyJ/
4 The prize will go to Raymond. [Raymond (noun) = obj of prep.]
'Dqkudk 'a&;rif(ef)('f)u &&Sdygw,f/
The prize will go to whoever answers the question correctly.
[whoever answers the question correctly (noun clause) = obj of prep.]
ar;cGef;udk rSefatmifajzqdkEdkifolu qk &&Sdygr,f/
 noun clause rsm;udk subordinating conjunction (that) jzifh tpjyKí a&;onf/ that jzifh
tpjyKí a&;om;aom noun clause rsm;udk tawG; (thought), cHpm;csuf (feeling), wifjycsuf
(statement) ESifh indirect speech wdkYtm; azmfjy&mwGif oHk;onf/ Oyrm -
1 I am saying that we must look for new markets for our products.
uRefawmfwdkY&JU ukefypönf;awGtwGuf aps;uGuftopfawGudk &SmazG&r,fvdkY
uRefawmf ajymaewmyg/
174
 2 I'm sure that things will get better soon.
rMumcif tajctaeawG ydak umif;vmr,fqw
kd m uReaf wmf aocsmaygufow
d ,f/
3 Are you aware that we've been waiting for more than an hour?
igwdkY apmifhaewm wpfem&DausmfoGm;NyDqdkwmudk rif; owdxm;rdvm;/
 noun clause wdk hudk ( who, whose, what, which, where tp½Sdaom) interrogative
pronoun rsm;jzifhvnf; tpjyK a&;om;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -

1 I wonder where he was. [where = interrogative pronoun]

ol b,frSm &SdaecJhovJqdkwmudk ig odcsifw,f/
2 I don't know who won the prize. [who = interrogative pronoun]
b,fol qk&cJhovJqdkwm uRefawmf rodbl;/
3 Do you know why the rainbow has seven colours in it?
oufwHrSm bmhaMumifh ta&mif(7)rsdK; &SdovJqdkwm rif; odvm;/
4 I wonder what he was doing.
ol bmvkyfaecJhovJqdkwmudk uRefawmf pOf;pm;aewm/
5 Have you any idea which is John's ?
*Ref&JUOpömu b,f[mvJqdkwmudk rif; odvm;/
6 She wants to know whose that is.
tJ'DOpömu b,folY[mvnf;qdkwmudk olr odcsifw,f/
 (what, which, whose tp½Sdaom) interrogative determiner rsm;jzifh tpjyKí noun
clause wdk hudk a&;om;Edkifonf/

1 Which book I should choose is the big question. [which = determiner]

ig b,fpmtkyfudk a&G;oifhovJqdkwmu BuD;rm;wJh jyóemyJ/
2 I wasn't sure about what clothes I should be taking with me.
b,ft0wftpm;awG ,loGm;oifhvJqdkwmudk uRefawmf rodbl;/
3 The police want to know whose car that is. [whose = determiner]
tJ'g b,folYum;vJqdkwmudk &JwyfzGJ hu odcsifaew,f/
 noun clause rsm;udk if (or) whether wdkYjzifhvnf; tpjyK a&;om;Edkifonf/ if (or) whether
wdkYjzifh tpjyKí a&;om;aom noun clause rsm;udk raocsm ra&&maom taMumif;rsm;?
indirect yes/no question rsm;tm; azmfjy&mwGif oHk;onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
noun clause rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 I wonder if Iris will be coming with us. [if = conjunction]

tdkif;&pf(pf)u igwdkYeJY vdkufrSmvm;qdkwmudk ig odcsifw,f/

175
 2 Ask her whether she's coming. [whether = conj.]
vdkufrSmvm;vdkY olrudk ar;vdkufyg/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

 Unit 18 wGif avhvmcJo

h nfh nominal relative clause rsm;onfvnf; noun clause trsKd ;tpm;
xJwGif yg0ifonf/ ¤if clause rsm;onf relative clause uJhodkYvnf;aumif;? noun clause
uJhodkYvnf;aumif; jyKrlaqmif&GufMuonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif noun clause uJhodkY
jyKrlaqmif&GufMuaom nominal relative clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 The price is what is most important.
[what is most important = the thing that is most important]
aps;EIef;u ta&;tBuD;qHk; t&myJ/
2 Whoever answers the question correctly will win the prize.
[= the person who answers the question correctly...]
ar;cGef;udk rSefatmifajzEdkifwJhol qk&r,f/
3 According to what he said, a lot of people are going to lose their jobs.
ol ajymwJhtwdkif;qdk&ifawmh vltrsm;BuD; tvkyfvufrJh jzpfMuawmhrSmyJ/
4 I'll give whoever answers the question correctly a prize.
ar;cGef;udk rSefatmifajzEdkifwJh oludk ig qkay;r,f/ [give sb sth]

5 Take whatever book you need.

rif; vdktyfwJhpmtkyf b,fpmtkyfrqdk ,lyg/
6 Take whichever ones you want. rif; vdkcsifwmawG ,lyg/
7 She can do whatever she likes. olr BudKufwm olr vkyfEdkifw,f/

20.2 Functions of Noun Clauses

 noun clause onf 0guswpfckwGif subject tjzpf vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm
0guswdk hwGif subject tjzpf vkyfaqmifonfh noun clause rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 What you did was quite unforgivable. [what you did (N cl.) = subj.]
rif; vkyfcJhwJht&mu tawmfudk cGifhrvTwfEdkifp&myJ/
2 That I forgot your birthday was quite unforgivable.
rif;&J harG;aeYudk ig arhaecJhwm tawmfudk cGifhrvTwfEdkifp&myg/

 noun clause onf 0guswpfckwGif direct object tjzpf vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm
0guswdk hwGif direct object tjzpf vkyfaqmifonfh noun clause rsm;udk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/

176
 1 I didn't realize what I had done. [what I had done = D.O.]
uRefawmf bmvkyfcJhrdvJqdkwmudk uRefawmf rodcJhbl;/
2 I didn't realize that you were coming with us.
rif; igwdkYeJY vdkufvmr,fqdkwmudk ig oabmraygufcJhbl;/
 noun clause onf 0guswpfckwGif indirect object tjzpf vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/
I'll give whoever answers the question correctly a prize.
rSefatmifajzEdkifwJhol b,foludkrqdk qkkcsr,f/ [give sb sth]

 noun clause onf 0guswpfckwGif subject complement tjzpf vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/

1 The problem is who we should invite.
jyóemuawmh b,folawGudk uRefawmfwdkY zdwfoifhvJ qdkwmyg/
2 The worry is that no-one might turn up at all.
pdk;&drfwmuawmh wpfa,mufrS vHk;0 ay:rvmrSmudkyJ/
 noun clause onf 0guswpfckwGif preposition \ complement tjzpf vkyfaqmifEdkifonf/
The money will go to whichever charity you choose. [to = preposition]
rif; a&G;cs,fwJh oma&;^ema&;tzGJUudk 'DydkufqH vSLr,f/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 2 udk avhvmyg/

20.3 Direct and Indirect Speech

 noun clause \ tawGUtrsm;qHk; yHkpHwpfckrSm indirect speech (odkY) reported speech jzpf
onf/ direct speech wGif ajymqdkol\ wdkuf½dkufpum;vHk;rsm; twdtusyg0ifNyD; indirect
speech wGif wpfa,mufa,mufu ajymqdkcJhonfh taMumif;t&mrsm;udk jyefvnfazmfjyonf/
direct speech rS indirect speech odk h ajymif;vdkvQif conjunction (that) oHk;jcif;? pronoun,
tense ESifh ajymif;vJ&ef vdktyfaom word rsm;tm; ajymif;vJjcif;wdk hudk jyKvkyf&onf/

1 She said, 'James is coming too'. [direct speech]

olru ajymw,f ]]*sdrf;(pf)vJ vmrSm/}}
Shesaidthat James was coming too. [indirect speech]
S V D.O. (Noun clause beginning with 'that')

*sdrf;(pf)vJ vmrSmvdkY olru ajymw,f/

2 'I'll be there, ' she promised. [direct speech]
]]uRefr tJ'DrSm &SdaerSmyg}} olru uwday;cJhw,f/
She promised that she would be there. [indirect speech]
tJ'DrSm &SdaerSmygvdkY olru uwday;cJhw,f/

177
 direct ESifh indirect speech wGif statement omru question vnf; ygEdkifonf/ direct
speech wGif yes/no question ygvQif indirect speech wGif if/whether ESifh paom noun
clause udk oHk;&onf/ direct speech wGif information question ygvQif indirect speech
wGif wh-words ESifhpaom noun clause udk oHk;&onf/ Oyrm -
1 'Are you singing with us?' she asked me. [direct speech]
olru uRefawmfhudk ar;cJhw,f ]]rif; igwdkYeJYtwl oDcsif;qdkrSmvm;/}}
Sheaskedmeif I was singing with them. [indirect speech]
S V I.O. D.O. (Noun clause beginning with 'if')

uRefawmfu olwdkYeJYtwl oDcsif;qdkrSmvm;vdkY olru uRefawmfhudk ar;cJhw,f/

2 'When does the London train arrive?' I inquired. [direct speech]
uRefawmf pHkprf;ar;jref;cJhw,f/ ]]vef'ef&xm; b,ftcsdef qdkufrSmvJ/}}
I inquiredwhen the London train would arrive. [indirect speech]
S V D.O. (Noun clause beginning with 'wh-word')

vef'ef&xm; b,ftcsdef qdkufrSmvJqdkwmudk uRefawmf ar;jref;pHkprf;cJhw,f/

 direct speech indirect speech

statement → that ESifhpaom noun clause
yes/no question → if/whether ESifh paom noun clause
information question → wh-words ESifhpaom noun clause

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 3 udk avhvmyg/

20.4 Tenses in Indirect Speech

 indirect speech xJrS verb \ tense (tcsdefumv)onf (say, tell ... ponfh ) reporting
verb \ tense ay:wGifvnf;aumif;? direct speech xJrS ajymqdkolu oHk;onfh verb \
tense ay:wGifvnf;aumif; rlwnfonf/

1. reporting verb \ tense onf present tense jzpfaevQif direct rS indirect odkY ajymif;aom
tcg tense ajymif;&ef rvdktyfyg/ Oyrm -
1 He says, 'I am unwell." [say (reporting verb) = present tense]
He says that he is unwell. [am = present tense] → [is = present tense]
aeraumif;bl;vdkY olu ajymw,f/
2 He has just said, ''My master is writing letters."
He has just said (that) his master is writing letters.
olYocifu pmawGa&;aew,fvdkY olu ckeuyJ ajymvdkufw,f/

178
 3 He says, ''I have passed the examination." [says = present tense]
He says (that) he has passed the examination.
ol pmar;yGJ atmifoGm;NyDvdkY olu ajymw,f/
4 He says, '' The horse died in the night." [says = present tense]
He says (that) the horse died in the night.
jrif;u nwkef;u aooGm;NyDvdkY ol ajymw,f/

2. reporting verb u past tense jzpfaevQif direct speech xJrS present tense rsm;udk past
tense tjzpfodkY ajymif;&onf/ simple present udk simple past odk hvnf;aumif;? present
continuous udk past continuous odkY vnf;aumif;? present perfect udk past perfect odkY
vnf;aumif;? present perfect continuous udk past perfect continuous odkY vnf;aumif;
ajymif;&onf/ reporting verb u past tense jzpfaevQif direct speech rS simple past
(V2) udk indirect speech wGif past perfect (had+V3) odkY ajymif;&onf/

1 " I never eat meat," he explained. [explained = past tense]

He explained that he never ate meat. [eat → ate]
ol b,fwkef;urS tom;rpm;cJhbl;vdk h olu &Sif;jycJhw,f/
2 " I am waiting for Ann," he said. [said = past tense]
He said (that) he was waiting for Ann. [am waiting → was waiting]
ol tJh(ef)udk apmifhaewmvdk h olu ajymcJhw,f/
3 " I have found a flat," he said. [said = past tense]
He said (that) he had found a flat. [have found → had found]
ol wdkufcef;wpfcef;udk &Smvdk hawG hcJhNyDvdk h olu ajymcJhw,f/
4 He said, "I have been waiting for ages." [said = past tense]
He said (that) he had been waiting for ages. [have → had]
ol apmifhaewm MumvSNyDvdk h olu ajymcJhw,f/
5 " I took it home with me," she said. [said = past tense]
She said (that) she had taken it home with her. [took → had taken]
olr tJ'gudk olreJ htwl tdrfudk ,loGm;cJhNyDvdk h olru ajymcJhw,f/
6 He said, " I will/shall be in Paris on Monday." [said = past tense]
He said that he would be in Paris on Monday. [will be → would be]

7 " I shall be using the car myself on the 24th," she said.
She said that she would be using the car herself on the 24th.

179
 3. reporting verb u past tense jzpfaeaomfvnf; statement onf vuf&SdtcsdefESifh oufqdkif
aeao;vQif (odkY) xm0pOf rSefuefonfh t&mjzpfaevQif tense udk rajymif;yJ xm;vQifvnf;
&onf/ ajymif;vQifvnf; &onf/ Oyrm -
1 " I know her address," said Ryan. [said = past tense]
Ryan said that he knows/knew her address. [know → knows/knew]
olr&JUvdyfpmudk ol odw,fvdkY ½dkif,efu ajymw,f/
2 The teacher said, "The earth goes round the sun."
The teacher said that the earth goes/went round the sun.

3 "English is easy to learn," she said.

She said (that) English is/was easy to learn.
t*Fvdyfpmu avhvm&wm vG,fw,fvdkY olru ajymw,f/
4. direct speech \ pronoun wdkYudk indirect speech wGifvdktyfvQif ajymif;&onf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif direct speech \ pronoun rsm;udk indirect speech ü ajymif;vJoHk;EIef;
xm;yHkudk avhvmyg/
1 He said to me, " I don't believe you."
He said he didn't believe me. [I → he] [you → me]

2 She said to him, " I don't believe you."

She said she didn't believe him. [I → she] [you → him]

3 I said to him, " I don't believe you."

I said I didn't believe him. [I → I] [you → him]

5. direct rS indirect odkY ajymif;aomtcg tcsdefjy^ae&mjypum;vHk;rsm;udkvnf; ajymif;vJ&onf/

direct indirect
here → there
thus → so
now → then / at that time
today → that day
tomorrow → the next day / the following day
yesterday → the day before / the previous day
the day after tomorrow → in two days' time
the day before yesterday → two days before
last night → the night before / the previous night
last week/year → the previous week/year
ago → before
a year ago → a year before / the previous year
an hour ago → an hour before / an hour earlier

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 Oyrm - He said, " I am glad to be here this evening." [direct speech]
He said that he was glad to be there that evening. [indirect speech]
[here → there] [this evening → that evening]

6. reporting verb u past tense jzpfaevQif direct speech rS modal auxiliary (would,
should, could, might, ought ESifh must) wdkYudk ajymif;&ef rvdkyg/ Oyrm -
1 'I might do it!'
She said she might do it.
olru tJ'gudk vkyfaumif;vkyfEdkifvdrfhr,fvdkY ajymcJhw,f/
2 'I could meet you next week.'
He said he could meet us next week.
olu uRefawmfwdkYudk aemufwpfywfrSm awGUr,fvdkY ajymvdkufw,f/
3 'You must come and see me soon.'
She said we must come and see her soon.
uRefawmfwdkYu olrudk rMumcif vmawGU&r,fvdkY olru ajymoGm;w,f/
7. reporting verb u simple past tense jzpfaevQif direct speech xJrS simple past tense
udk rajymif;yJxm;vQifvnf; &onf/ (odkY) past perfect tense okdY ajymif;vQifvnf; &onf/
"I was frightened," she said. [said = simple past tense]
She said that she was frightened. [was → was]
She said that she had been frightened. [was → had been]

EXERCISE 20
atmufyg uGufvyfrsm;udk tcsdefumv (tense) tm;jzifh rSefuefonfh verb rsm;jzifh jznfhpGufyg/
(rSefaom tajz wpfckxufru &SdEdkifonf/)
Example Question: Are you coming?
Answer: He asked if I was coming.

1. I'm a Sagittarius.
She says she _____ a Sagittarius. ^ pJh.*sD.'ax;.&D.,yf(pf)^ "Ek &moDzGm;/
'
2. I'm a Sagittarius.
She told me she _____ a Sagittarius.
3. Do you work at home?
I asked her whether she _____ at home.
4. Can you work with the television on?
She asked me if I _____ work with the television on.
5. Where shall I put the vase?
She wondered where she _____ put the vase.

181
 6. Where should I put the vase?
She wondered where she _____ put the vase.
7. May I come in?
He asked if he _____ come in.
8. When does the train leave?
Go and ask when the train _____ .
9. Can I do that for you?
He asked if he _____ do that for us.
10. I have never been to Japan before.
She said she _____ never been to Japan before.
11. Has the bus arrived yet?
She inquired whether the bus _____ arrived yet.
12. Has the bus arrived yet?
I would like to know whether the bus _____arrived yet.

Grammar Help 1

 informal English wGif know, say, think paom Bud,mrsm;\ aemufü noun clause udk
that rygyJ oHk;avh&Sdonf/
1 I know he's here somewhere. [= I know that he's here somewhere.]
'Dae&m teD;w0dkufrSm ol &Sdw,fqdkwmudk uRefawmf odw,f/
2 Ricky said he had a cold. ol tat;rdNyD; zsm;aew,fvdkY &pfuD uajymw,f/
3 She thinks I'm crazy. ig ½l;aewmvdkY olru xifaewm/
 sure, possible, paom adjective rsm;\aemufwGifvnf; noun clause udk that rygyJ
a&;Edkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif that rygaom noun clause rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í
jyxm;onf/
1 Are you sure you've met him before?
t&ifu olYudk rif;awGUzl;w,fqdkwm aocsmvm;/
2 It is possible we might be late.
uRefawmfwdkY aemufusaumif; aemufusr,fqdkwm jzpfEdkifw,f/

Grammar Help 2

 noun clause udk subject ae&mwGifxm;rnfhtpm; it udk empty subject tjzpf a&SUüxm;NyD;
noun clause udk aemufqHk;wGif xm;avh&Sdygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif it udk
preparatory subject tjzpf a&SUüxm;NyD; noun clause udk aemufqHk;wGif xm;í a&;xm;yHkudk
avhvmyg/

182
 1 That we won the match surprised everyone.
It surprised everyone that we won the match. [it = noun clause]
'DNydKifyGJudk uRefawmfwdkYEdkifcJhwm vlwdkif; tHhtm;oifhcJhw,f/
2 That the other team played badly really helped us.

It really helped us that the other team played badly.

wpfzuftoif; upm;wm nHhvdk h uRefawmfwdkYtwGuf EdkifzdkY vG,fcJhwm/
3 How the thieves broke in is obvious, but why they only took one old
computer is a mystery.
It is obvious how the thieves broke in , but it is a mystery why they
only took one old computer .
olcdk;awG b,fvdkazmuf0ifcJhw,fqdkwm odomw,f/ 'gayrJh uGefysLwm
ta[mif;wpfvHk;udkyJ bmaMumifh ,loGm;cJhwmvJqdkwmu ya[Vdjzpfaew,f/
 if ESifh tpjyKaom noun clause udk subject ae&mü xm;í r&yg/ Oyrm -
Whether you go now or later doesn't really matter.
[NOT ..... If you go now or later doesn't really matter.]
rif; tckyJ oGm;oGm;? aemufusrS oGm;oGm;? tJ'gu wu,fudk ta&;rBuD;bl;/

 BudKufonf? rBudKufonfudkazmfjyaom verb \ aemufwGif empty object (it) udk noun clause
\ a&SUwGif xm;í a&;avh&Sdonf/ it onf ¤if; clause udk udk,fpm;jyKonf/
1 He doesn't like it that she still smokes. [it = noun clause]
[NOT ..... He doesn't like that she still smokes.]
olr aq;vdyf qufaomufaewmudk olu rBudKufbl;/
2 I hate it that nobody ever cleans up after the meeting.
[NOT ..... I hate that nobody ever cleans up after the meeting.]
tpnf;ta0;NyD;&if oefY&Sif;a&; rvkyfwmudk uRefawmf rBudKufbl;/
3 I love it when you sing. [it = when you sing]
rif; oDcsif;qdkwJhtcsdefawGqdk&if ig oabmusw,f/
 [ verb + object + object complement] yHkpHwGif noun clause onf object jzpfaevQif xdk
object ae&mü empty object (it) udka&;NyD; noun clause udk complement \ aemufwGif
a&;ygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif it udk preparatory object tjzpf a&SUü xm;í
a&;NyD; noun clause udk aemufqHk;wGif xm;í a&;xm;yHkudk avhvmyg/
1 I thoughtit strangethat she hadn't written.
S V Obj Obj. Cpm Noun clause = it

[NOT .....I thought that she hadn't written strange.]

183
 olr pmra&;wm xl;qef;w,fvdkY uRefawmf xifw,f/
2 George made it clear what he wanted. [it = noun clause]
[NOT ..... George made what he wanted clear.]
a*smh(*sf)u ol vdkcsifwmudk &Sif;&Sif;vif;vif; ajymw,f/
3 We thought it odd that no one called us. [it = noun clause]
[NOT ..... We thought that no one called us odd.]
uRefawmfwdkYudk b,folrS zHk;rqufwm xl;qef;w,fvdkY uRefawmf xifw,f/
4 They consider it an offence when women go out in public without
covering their heads. [it = noun clause]
trsdK;orD;awG acgif;NrD;rjcHKbJ vlxJolxJ tjyifxGufwm[m jypfrIwpfckvdkY
olwdkYu ,lqw,f/

 noun clause rsm;onf noun trsm;pk\ aemufrS complement tjzpf vdkufygEdkifonf/ a&SUu
noun udk aemufu noun clause u uyfvQuf wnf&& dS if; txl;jyKonfyh pkH H jzpfonf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif a&SUu noun udk aemufu noun clause u txl;jyKaeyHkudk avhvmyg/
1 Her conclusion that boys are faster is wrong.
a,musfm;av;awGu ydkjrefw,fvdkYqdkwJh olr&JU oHk;oyfcsufu rSm;w,f/
2 There have been some indications that the economy is slowing down.
rMumao;rDu pD;yGm;a&;(wdk;wufEIef;)[m aES;auG; vmw,fqdkw,fqdkwJh
ñTefjy csufawG &SdvmNyD/
3 Is there any chance (that) we can meet?
uRefawmfwdkY (aemufxyf)awG hEdkifwJh tcGifhtvrf; &Sdao;vm;/

 noun clause rsm;onf adjective tcsdKU\aemufrS complement tjzpf vdkufygEdkifonf/ xdk

adjective udk modify vkyfaomaMumifh xdk noun clause rsm;onf adverbial
odk hvdkufyg&if;
tvkyfudk vkyfonf[kvnf; qdkEdkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif adjective wdk h\aemufrS
complement tjzpf vdkufygaom noun clause rsm;udk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 Marks was surprised that you asked about him. [surprised = adj.]
rif;u olYtaMumif;udk ar;vdkY rwf(cf)u tHMoaew,f/
2 We werent' certain when he would arrive. [certain = adj.]
ol b,ftcsdef a&mufrSmvJqdkwm uRefawmfwdkY aocsm rodbl;/
3 I am sorry that I was late. [sorry = adj.]
uRefawmf aemufuswmudk awmif;yefygw,f/

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Grammar Help 3

 (who, what, whose tp&Sdaom) wh-words ESifh ponfh ar;cGef;rsm; direct speech wGif
yg0ifvQif indirect speech wGif word order (pum;vHk; ae&mtxm;todk) ajymif;&onf/
verb udk subject \aemufodkY a&TU&onf/

1 'Who is that man? tJ'Dvlu b,folvJ/

She is asking who that man is. tJ'v
D b
l ,fov
l q
J w
kd m olru ar;aew,f/
[NOT ..... She is asking who is that man.]

2 'What is that noise? tJ'DqlnHoHu bmvJ/

He asked what the noise was. tJ'DqlnHoHu bmvJvdkY olu ar;cJhw,f/
[NOT ..... He asked what was the noise.]

3 'Whose car is that? tJ'Dum;u b,folYum;vJ/

I wondered whose car it was. tJ'Dum;u b,folYum;vJvdkY odcsifw,f/
4 'Where is the money?' tJ'DydkufqHu b,frSmvJ/
He asked where the money was. tJ'DydkufqHu b,frSmvJvdkY ol ar;cJhw,f/
 which ESifh paom ar;cGef;tcsdKUudk noun clause tjzpfodkY ajymif;&mwGif word order
ajymif;&ef rvdkyg/
]Which car is yours?} [direct question] ]
rif;&J hum;u b,fum;vJ/
She asked which car was mine. [indirect question]
uRefawmf&JUum;u b,fum;vJqdkwmudk olru ar;cJhw,f/

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Unit Unit
21 Non17
- f inite and Verbless Cl auses

21.1 Finite and Non-finite Verbs

 subject ESifh agreejzpfaom verb onf finite verb jzpfonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
subject ESifh agree jzpfaom finite verb wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 Alice has a new car. [Alice = singular] [has = singular]

Alice and John have a new car. [Alice and John = plural] [have = plural]

2 Alice is very proud of their new car. [is = singular]

Alice and John are very proud of their new car. [are = plural]

3 Alice goes everywhere in her new car. [goes = singular]

Alice and John go everywhere in their new car. [go = plural]

 subject ESihf agree jzpfp&m rvka

d om verb rsm;onf non-finite verb rsm;jzpfMuonf/ infinitive,
present participle (V4), past participle (V3) ESifh verbal noun(gerund) rsm;onf non-
finite verb rsm; jzpfMuonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif subject ESifh agree jzpf&ef
rvdkaom non-finite verb wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/ subject ESifh agree jzpfonfh
finite verb wdk hudk pmvHk;trnf;jzifh jyxm;onf/
1 To buy a new car, Alice needs a bank loan. [to buy = infinitive]
To buy a new car, Alice and John need a bank loan.
um;topf0,fzdk h bPfacs;aiG &zdk hvdktyfaew,f/
2 Being very proud of her new car, she washes it every single day.
Being very proud of their new car, they wash it every single day.
um;topftwGuf *kPf,l0rf;omvdkY um;ukd aeYwkdif; a&aq;w,f/
3 Worried by the cost of petrol, she has bought a smaller car.
Worried by the cost of petrol, they have bought a smaller car.
"gwfqDzkd; ukefusrSm pkd;&drfvdkY t&ifuxuf ydkao;wJhum;ukd 0,fvkdufw,f/
4 In buying a new car, she has committed herself to a huge bank loan.
In buying a new car, they have committed themselves to a huge bank
loan. [buying = gerund]
um;topf 0,f&mrSm bPfacs;aiGawG trsm;BuD; ,lcJh&w,f/

186
21.2 Non-finite Clauses

 non-finite verb om yg0ifaom subordinate clause udk non-finite clause [k ac:onf/

(a) non-finite clause udk to ygaom infinitive jzifh
zGJUpnf;Ekdifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
to-infinitive jzifh zGJUpnf;xm;aom non-finite clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 I only wanted to help you. [to help you = non-finite clause]
ig rif;ukd ulnDcsifwm oufoufyg/
2 To sail round the world on your own would be quite an adventure.
wpfa,mufwnf; urÇmwpfywf &GufvTifhzkdYqkdwm tawmfBuD;rm;wJh
pGefYpm;rIwpfck jzpfvdrfhr,f/
3 We don't want you to feel embarrassed.
igwdkYu rif;udk t&Suf r&apcsifygbl;/
4 The doctor arranged for Mrs Shaw to be admitted to hospital
immediately.
rpöpfa&Smudk csufcsif; aq;½kHwif&atmif q&m0efu pDpOfcJhw,f/
5 I think he'd like us to leave now.
olu igwdkYukd tckyJ xGufoGm;apcsifwmvkdY ig xifw,f/
6 I'd hate to be a schoolteacher nowadays.
tckacwfrSm ausmif;q&mvkyf&rSmukd uRefawmf rBudKufbl;/
7 What I need is to have a hot bath.
uRefawmf vkdtyfaewmuawmh a&ylylav;eJY a&csKd;zdkYygyJ/
8 I went early in order to get a good seat.
xkdifcHkae&maumif; wpfae&m&zkdY uRefawmf apmapm oGm;cJhw,f/
(b) non-finite clause udk to rygaom infinitive jzifhvnf; zGJUpnf;Ekdifonf/ atmufyg 0guswdk hwGif
to rygaom infinitive jzifh zGJUpnf;xm;aom non-finite clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/
1 All I did was break her window. [break her window = subj. cpm.]
uRefawmf vkyfcJhorQuawmh olr&JUjywif;aygufukd cGJcJhwmyJ/
2 What you've done is give away our secret.
rif;u igwkdY&JUvQKdU0Sufcsufudk tvum; azmfaumiffvkyfypfvdkufwmyJ/
3 What he's trying to do is forget his past.
olvkyfzdkYBudK;pm;aewJh t&muawmh ol&JUtwdwfudk arhypfzkdYygyJ/
(c) non-finite clause udk participle ESifhvnf; zGJUpnf;Ekdifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif
participle (V3 or V4) jzifh zGJUpnf;xm;aom non-finite clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

187
 1 Sailing round the world, Nancy visited many fascinating and exotic
places. [sailing round the world = non-finite clause]
eefpDu urÇmwpfywf &GufvTifh&if;eJY tvGefpdwf0ifpm;zG,faumif;wJh xl;jcm;
qef;jym;wJh ae&mtrsm;tjym;udk vnfywfcJhw,f/
2 While running for the bus , I slipped on the ice and fell.
bwf(pf)um;rDatmif ajy;oGm;&if;eJY a&cJay: wufeif;rdNyD; acsmfvJcJhw,f/
3 When alerted to the problem , the company immediately withdew the
car from the market.
tJ'DjyóemtwGuf owday;cH&wJhtcgrSm ukrÜPD[m um;awGudk
aps;uGufuae tjref ½kyfodrf;cJhw,f/
4 Sarah watched her mother working in the garden.
O,smOfyef;jcHxJrSm tvkyfvkyfaewJh rdcifudk p,f&mu apmifhMunfhaecJhw,f/
5 The fellow painting that fence is a friend of mine.
tJ'DNcHpnf;½kd;udk aq;okwfaewJh vlu igholi,fcsif;yg/
6 She watched me calmly, all her fear gone.
aMumuf&GHUpdwfawG aysmufoGm;wJhaemuf olru uRefawmfhudk rwkefrvIyf
MunfhaecJhw,f/
(d) non-finite clause udk verbal noun jzifhvnf;zGJUpnf;Ekdifonf/ verbal noun udk gerund [k
vnf; ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif verbal noun jzifh zGJUpnf;xm;aom non-
finite clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/

1 I keep on hearing funny noises. [hearing funny noises = non-finite clause]

xl;xl;qef;qef; qlnHoHawGudk uRefawmf tqufrjywf Mum;ae&w,f/
2 By sailing round the world on her own, she showed incredible courage.
wpfa,mufwnf; urÇmywf &GufvGifhjyNyD; olr[m r,HkEkdifavmufatmif
xl;jcm;wJh &JpGrf;owådukd jycJhw,f/
3 Instead of running away from your problems , face up to them.
rif;&JUjyóemawGuae a&Smifrajy;yJeJ h &ifqkdifajz&Sif;vkdufprf;yg/
þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

21.3 Verbless Clauses

 verbless clause onf verb vHk;0rygaom subordinate clause jzpfonf/ atmufyg Oyrm
0guswdk hwGif verbless clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;jyxm;onf/
1 Come next week if possible. [if possible = verbless clause]
jzpfEkdif&if aemufwpfywfrS vmyg/
188
 2 When in Rome, do as the Romans do. [When in Rome = verbless clause]
a&mr a&mufwJhtcg a&mrom;awGvkd usifhyg/
3 Though still in our shirt sleeves, we set to work.
*smuif taEG;xnfrygayrJh uRefawmfwkdY tvkyfukd pwifvkyfaqmifcJhMuw,f/
4 Always helpful, Diana was in the kitchen peeling potatoes.
tNrJulnDwwfwJh 'kdif,mem[m rD;zkdacsmifxJrSm tmvl;oD; tcGHETmay;aew,f/
5 Now much weaker, Maria could hardly raise herself from her bed.
tck ykdNyD;awmh tm;enf;vmvdkY rm&D,m[m tdyf&mxJuae ukd,fhbmomukd,f
rxEdkifoavmufyJ/

21.4 Functions of Non-finite and Verbless Clauses

 non-finite clause rsm;pGmwkdYonf 0guswdkYwGif noun clause rsm;\ function wdk hudk vkyf
aqmifEdkifMuonf/ Oyrm -
1 Painting the kitchen will take ages.
[painting the kitchen (non-finite noun clause) = subject]
rD;zkdacsmifudk aq;okwfwm tcsdeftrsm;BuD; vkdvdrfhr,f/
2 To have known her is a great privilege.
[to have known her (non-finite noun clause) = subject]
olreJY&if;ESD;cGifh&zdkYqkdwm[m wu,fhudk txl;tcGifhta&;wpfckygyJ/
3 For him to be here is an insult.
[for him to be here (non-finite noun clause) = subject]
ol 'Dukdvmwm[m apmfum;wmyJ/
4 I want to be a doctor.
[to be a doctor (non-finite noun clause) = direct object]
uRefawmf q&m0ef jzpfcsifw,f/
5 My wife doesn't like doing the shopping.
[doing the shopping (non-finite noun clause) = direct object]
uRefawmfhZeD;u aps;0,fxGuf&wmudk rBudKufbl;/
6 I gave writing this book a lot of thought.
[writing this book (non-finite noun clause) = indirect object]
uRefawmf 'Dpmtkyfukda&;&mrSm trsm;BuD; awG;ac:MuHqcJh&w,f/
7 Her ambition is to be a doctor.
[to be a doctor (non-finite noun clause) = subject-complement]
olr&JU&nfrSef;csufu q&m0ef jzpfzkdYyg/

189
 8 What I remember best is you falling in the water.
[you falling in the water = non-finite noun clause as subj. cpm.]
ig aumif;aumif;rSwfrdwmuawmh rif; a&xJudk vdrfhuswmyJ/
9 What I did was break her favourite vase.
[break her favourite vase = non-finite noun clause as subj. cpm.]
uRefawmf vkyfcJhwmuawmh olr BudKufwJh yef;tkd;udk cGJcJhwmyJ/
 non-finite clause ESifh verbless clause rsm;pGmwkdYonf 0guswdkYwGif adverbial tjzpf
vkyfaqmifEdkifMuonf/ Oyrm -
1 While in town, I met your mother. [while in town = while I was in town]
[while in town = verbless clause as adjunct, saying when]
ig NrdKUxJa&mufaewkef;u rif;&JUtarudk awG hcJhw,f/
2 I went into town in order to buy some shoes.
[non-finite clause as adjunct, saying why]
½SL;zdeyf0,fzdkY uRefawmf NrdKUxJudk oGm;cJhw,f/
3 Strictly speaking, you shouldn't be here. [non-finite clause as disjunct]
trSefwdkif;ajym&&if rif; 'Dukd rvmoifhbl;/
4 To be frank with you, I don't much like that dress.
[non-finite noun clause as disjunct]
&Sifhudk yGifhyGifhvif;vif;ajym&&if uRefr tJ'D*g0efukd odyfrBudKufbl;/
5 From being totally unknown, she rose to the top of her profession.
[non-finite clause as complement of preposition]
olr[m vHk;0 rxif&Sm;wJh tnw&uae olr vkyfief;&JU tjrifhqHk;&mxl;
txd wufoGm;cJhw,f/
6 Mother is busy working in the garden.
[non-finite clause as complement of adj.]
taru O,smOfxJrSm tvkyf½Iyfaew,f/
7 I'm glad to be of help. [non-finite clause as cpm. of adj.]
ulnDcGifh&wmudk uRefawmf 0rf;omrdygw,f/
 tcsKUd aom non-finite ESihf verbless clause wko
Yd nf reduced relative clause rsm;ESihf qifonf/
atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif reduced relative clause rsm;ESifh qifwlaom non-finite ESifh
verbless clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 The old car, trailing black smoke, drove off towards town.
[= which was trailing black smoke (relative clause)]
tJ'Dum;tdkBuD;[m trJa&mif rD;ckd;wef;woDBuD;eJY NrdKUbufudk xGufoGm;w,f/
190
 2 She looked at the baby, now fast asleep in her cot.
[= who was now fast asleep in her cot (relative clause)]
ykcufxJrSm ESpfESpfNcdKufNcdKuf tdyfaysmfaewJh uav;i,fudk olr Munfhvkdufw,f/
3 Always helpful, Diana was in the kitchen peeling potatoes.
[always helpful = who was always helpful (relative clause)]
tNrJulnDwwfwJh 'kdif,mem[m rD;zkdacsmifxJrSm tmvl;oD; tcGHETmay;aew,f/

21.5 Indirect Commands

 indirect command/request 0gusrsm;udk zGUJ pnf;&ef non-finite clause rsm;udk oH;k onf/ atmuf
yg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif indirect command/request 0gusrsm;ü oHk;xm;aom non-finite
clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;onf/
1 'Don't do that,' I said to her. [direct command]
I told her not to do that. [indirect command]
tJ'gudk rvkyfzdkY uRefawmfu olrukd ajymcJhw,f/
2 'Don't go out,' I said. [direct command]
I asked you not to go out. [indirect command]
rif;udk tjyifrxGufzkdY ig ajymcJhw,f/
3 'Tell us your secret,' we begged. [direct command]
We begged her to tell us her secret. [indirect command]
vQKdU0Sufcsufudk ajymjyzdkY olrudk uRefawmfwdkY tEl;tnGwf awmif;yefcJhw,f/

21.6 Subjects of Non-finite and Verbless Clauses

 non-finite clause wGif subject &SdEkdifonf/
1 I don't like Peter doing that. [Peter = subj. of non-finite clause]
yDwm tJ'gvkyfwmudk ig rBudKufbl;/ [like sb doing sth]
I don't like Ricky doing that. [Ricky = subj. of non-finite clause]

2 I don't want you to do that. [you = subj. of non-finite clause]

ig rif;udk tJ'g rvkyfapcsifbl;/ [want sb to do sth]
I don't want him to do that. [him = subj. of non-finite clause]

 subject udk azmfjyrxm;onfh non-finite clause rsm;vnf; &Sdonf/

1 I don't like doing that. [doing that = non-finite clause]
tJ'gudk uRefawmf rvkyfcsifbl;/ [like doing sth]

2 They don't want to do that. [want to do sth]

tJ'gudk olwdkY rvkyfcsifbl;/

191
 xdkenf;wlpGm subject ukd azmfjyrxm;onfh verbless clause rsm;vnf; &Sdonf/ Oyrm -
While on holiday in Paris, we climbed the Eiffel Tower.
[While on holiday in Paris = while we were on holiday in Paris]

 non-finite clause/verbless clause wkw

Yd iG f subject ukd azmfjyrxm;aomfvnf; ¤if;\ subject
onf main clause xJrS verb \ subject ESifh twlwlyif jzpfonf/
1 I don't like doing that. [The implied subject of doing is 'I']
tJ'gudk uRefawmf rvkyfcsifbl;/
2 Tony doesn't like doing that. [The implied subject of doing is 'Tony'.]
wdkeDu tJ'gudk rvkyfcsifbl;/
3 We don't want to do that. [The implied subject of to do is 'We'.]
tJ'gukd uRefawmfwdkY rvkyfcsifbl;/
4 They don't want to do that. [The implied subject of to do is 'They'.]
olwdkY tJ'gudk rvkyfcsifbl;/
5 While on holiday in Paris, we climbed the Eiffel Tower.
[while on holiday in Paris wGif azmfjyrxm;aom subject onf we jzpfonf/]
yJ&pfrSm tm;vyf&ufc&D;oGm;wkef; uRefawmfwdkY tDz,farQmfpifay:udk
wufcJhMuw,f/
6 Running down the hill, John lost his hat.
awmifukef;ay:uae ajy;qif;vmcsdefrSm *Refu OD;xkyfaysmufcJhwm/
7 Badly damaged by fire, the castle was never rebuilt.
rD;avmifvkdY qkd;qkd;&Gm;&Gm; ysufpD;oGm;wJhaemuf tJ'D&Jwkdufudk
jyefraqmufcJhMuawmhbl;/

 odkYaomfvnf; informal English wGif þpnf;rsOf; (principle)udk rMumcP vspfvsL½Iavh&Sd

Muonf/ non-finite clause/verbless clause \ subject ESifh main clause \ subject
wkdY rwlonfh atmufyg 0gusrsm;udk avhvmMunhfyg/
1 While in town, my house was burgled.
[= while I was in town, my house was burgled]
uRefawmf NrdKUxJudk a&mufaewkef; uRefawmfhtdrfukd olckd;azmufoGm;w,f/
2 Since losing my job, my life has been meaningless and miserable.
[= I lost my job but it is my life that has been miserable]
uRefawmf tvkyfjyKwfNyD;uwnf;u uRefawmhfb0[m t"dyÜg,frJhNyD;
pdwfrcsrf;ajrhp&m jzpfaew,f/

192
 3 While walking home, my phone rang.
[= while I was walking home, my phone rang]
uRefawmf tdrfudk vrf;avQmufjyefvmwkef; uRefawmfhzkef; jrnfvmw,f/
txufyg0guswGif walking onf dangling participle jzpfygonf/ tb,fhaMumifhqdkaomf
walking \ azmfjyrxm;onfh subject (I) onf main clause \ subject(my phone) ESifh
rwlaomaMumifh jzpfygonf/ þodkY a&;om;jcif;udk everyday speech ESifh writing wGif
vufcHaomfvnf; formal English wGif ra&;Muyg/

 non-finite clause/verbless clause \ subject ESifh main clause \ subject wkdY rwlonfh
atmufyg0gusrsm;uJhodk h t"dyÜm,frJhaom a&;om;jcif;rsdK;udk a&SmifMuOfMu&rnf/
1 While talking to a friend of mine, a dog bit me.
acG;wpfaumifu uRefawmfh oli,fcsif;wpfa,mufeJY pum;ajymaewkef;
uRefawmfhudk ukdufvdkufw,f/
talking\ azmfjyrxm;onfh subject onf main clause \ subject (a dog)
jzpfonf [k ,lqvdkufvQif t"dyÜm,frJhaom0gus jzpfoGm;Edkifojzifh xdkuJhodk h
a&;om;jcif;rsdK;udk a&SmifMuOf&rnf/
2 Driving through the farm, a cow ran into me.
EGm;wpfaumifu pkdufysKd;arG;jrL;a&;NcHxJjzwfNyD; um;armif;vmwkef;
uRefawmfhudk 0ifwdkufrdw,f/
3 While climbing in the Alps, John's hat blew away.
*RefYOD;xkyfu tJh(vfyfpf)awmifwef;ay: wuf&if; avxJvGifhoGm;w,f/

21.7 Phrases and Clauses

 phrase wGif subject ESifh verb r&Sd? clause üom subject ESifh verb &Sdonf[k o'´gynm&Sif
trsm;pku qkdonf/ xdkYaMumifh non-finite ESifh verbless clause wdkYudk a&S;½kd; o'´genf;t&
phrase [kom qkd&rnf/ odkYaomf non-finite clause ESifh verbless clause wkdYudk phrase [k
r,lqEdkifaom taMumif;jycsufrsm; &Sdygonf/
A yxrtcsufrSm non-finite/verbless clause udk finite verb ygaom full clause tjzpf jyefNyD;
jzefYí a&;Ekdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 While running for the bus, I slipped on the ice and fell.
[= While I was running for the bus, I slipped on the ice and fell.]

2 The job having been completed, we went back home.

[= When the job had been completed, we went back home.]

3 Come next week if possible. [= Come next week if that is possible.]

tvkyfNyD;wJhtcgrSm uRefawmfwdkY tdrfjyefcJhMuw,f/
193
 4 When ripe, strawberries are red.
[= When they are ripe, strawberries are red.]
rSnfhwJhtcg pawmfb,f&DoD;awGu eDoGm;w,f/
5 When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
[= When you are in Rome, do as the Romans do.]
oif a&mrNrdK hudk a&mufwJhtcg a&mrom;awGvkd usifhyg/
B 'kwd,tcsuftaejzifh non-finite/verbless clause wGif &Sdaom pum;vHk;wdkYonf (subject,
verb, object ponfh) function wpfckxufru vkyfaqmifonf/ Oyrm-

1 When ripe, strawberries are red.

[when = conj.] [ripe = subj. cpm]
rSnfhwJhtcg pawmfb,f&DoD;awGu eDvmw,f/
2 I don't like Peter doing that.
[Peter = subj.] [doing = verb] [that = D.O.]
yDwm tJ'gvkyfwmudk uRefawmf oabmrusbl;/
3 I want to be a pilot. [to be = verb] [a pilot = subj. cpm]
uRefawmf av,mOfrSL; jzpfcsifw,f/
4 Though always helpful, Diana was sometimes quite infuriating.
[though = conj.] [always = adv.] [helpful = subj. cpm]
tNrJwap ulnDwwfayrJh 'kdif,memu wpfcgwpfav pdwfwdkp&maumif;w,f/
C aemufqHk;tcsufrSm phrase wpfckonf function wpfckudkom vkyfaqmifonf/ Unit 10 udk
avhvmyg/

EXERCISE 21
atmufyg0gusrsm;rS non - finite ESifh verbless clause rsm;udk finite verb ygaom clause rsm;
tjzpf ajymif;í a&;om;yg/
1. While exploring the Amazon jungle, he came across several new species of
insect.
2. When working in the garden, you should always wear old clothes.
3. If necessary, leave the money under the doormat.
4. I like to do the accounts myself whenever possible.
5. Although afraid of dogs, she is very fond of cats.
6. Having got no answer when she knocked on the front door, she went round to
the back of the house.

194
 7. Washing the dishes, I broke three plates.
8. While digging in the field, the boys found a Roman coin.
9. Maths is fascinating, although very difficult.
10. Once settled, the babies slept right through the night.
11. Delete where not applicable.
12. After eating a large meal, I usually have a walk.

Grammar Help 1

 present participle (V4) \a&SUwGif noun \ ykdifqkdifrI rygonfhyHkpH(non-possessive form)ESifh

ykdifqkdifrIjyonfhyHkpH(possessive form) ESpfckpvHk;ukd oHk;Ekdifonf/
1 Paul behaving like that really upset his mother. [non-possessive form]

2 Paul's behaving like that really upset his mother. [possessive form]
ayg(vf) tJ'Dvkd jyKrlwmudk olYtaru pdwfqkd;wm/

 present participle \a&SUwGif pronoun (odkY) (my, your, his, her ponfh) determiner wdk hudk
vnf; oHk;Ekdifonf/
1 I'm surprised at him making a mistake like that. [him = pronoun]

2 I'm surprised at his making a mistake like that. [his = determiner]

ol tJ'DvkdtrSm;rsKd; vkyfwmudk ig tHhMordw,f/

 0gus\a&SUqHk;üqkdvQif pronoun xuf determiner ukd ydkíoHk;Muonf/

1 His behaving like that really upset his mother.
[NOT ..... Him behaving like that really upset his mother.]

 preposition/conjunction jzifh qufxm;aom noun/pronoun wdkYonf non-possessive

yHkpHjzifhom &Sdoifhonf/
1 Paul and his brother behaving like that upset his mother.
[NOT ..... Paul and his brother's behaving like that upset his mother.]

2 I don't object to some of you going.

[NOT ..... I don't object to some of your going.]
rif;wdkYxJu vlwpfcsKdU oGm;rSmudk ig ruefYuGufygbl;/

195
 Glossary

applicable ^t.'(yf)vpf.u.b,f(vf)^ oufqdkifaom/

calmly ^'cef;(rf).vD^ at;at;aq;aq;/ rwkefrvIyf/
castle ^'cg;.p,f(vf)^ &Jwdkuf/
commit ^c.'rpf(wf)^ uwday;onf/
courage ^'cg;.&pf(*sf)^ &J&ifhjcif;/ owåd/
delete ^'D.'vd(wf)^ (a&;xm;aompmudk) y,fzsufonf/
doormat ^'a'g.rJh(wf)^ ajcokwfzHk/
embarrassed ^tif(rf).'bm;.&yf(pf)^ &Sufudk;&Sufuef;jzpfaom/
exotic ^tpf(*f).'aZmh.wpf(cf)^ xl;jcm; qef;jym;aom/
explore ^tpf(uf)(pf).'(yf)avm^ oGm;a&muf pl;prf;avhvmonf/
fascinating ^'zJh.pD.edwf.wif(if)^ pdwf0ifpm;p&m aumif;aom/
huge ^([),k h(*sf)^ BuD;rm;aom/ rsm;jym;aom/
incredible ^tif(ef).'(cf)&uf.'pf.b,f(vf)^ r,HkMunfEdkifavmufaom/
infuriating ^tif(ef).'zsL;.&D.,dwf.wif(if)^ a'goxGufp&m/
insult ^'tif;(ef).pwf(vf)(wf)^ apmfum;rI/
loan ^vHk;(ef)^ acs;aiG/
miserable ^'rpf.Z.&.b,f(vf)^ pdwfrcsrf;ajrhaom/
object ^tuf(bf).*suf(cf)(wf)^ uef huGufonf/
peel ^zD;..(vf)^ tcGHETmonf/ oifonf/ cGmonf/
privilege ^'(yf)&pf.A.vpf(*sf)^ tcGifhxl;/ tcGifhaumif;/
profession ^(yf)&m.'zuf.&Sif(ef)^ tvkyftudkif/
settle ^'puf.w,f(vf)^ NidrfNidrfaeonf/
sleeve ^(pf)vd..(Af)^ tuÐsvuf/
species ^'(pf)yD;.&SD(Zf)^ rsdK;pdwf/
trail ^(xf)a&;(vf)^ w&Gwfygonf/

196
Unit Unit
22 17 Ellipsis

22.1 Ellipsis
 pum;vHk;wkdYudk xyfíajymjcif;? xyfía&;jcif;rS a&Smif&Sm;vkdaomtcgü (odkY) tcsKdUaom
pum;vH;k wdYk rygyJ qkv
d o
dk nfh t"dymÜ ,fukd em;vnfEidk af omtcgü xkpd um;vH;k wdu
Yk kd csex
f m;cJo
h nf/
þodkY csefvSyfxm;cJhjcif;udk ellipsis [kac:onf/
 pum;ajymqk&d mwGif ellipsis udk toH;k rsm;onf/ csev
f yS cf v
hJ Qiv
f nf; wpfzufol em;vnfEidk o
f nf[k
,lqaom pum;vHk;rsm;udk pum;ajymolonf rajymyJ csefcJhavh&Sdonf/ Oyrm -
1 Ready? [= Are you ready?] Yes, ready. [= Yes, I'm ready.]
tqifoifhjzpfNyDvm;/ [kwfuJh/ jzpfygNyD/
2 Who broke my vase? Sue. [= Sue broke your vase.]
yef;tkd; b,folaMumifh uGJwmvJ/ pl;aMumifh/
3 Where is she now? Hiding. [= She's hiding.]
olr tck b,frSmvJ/ ykef;aew,f/
4 Where are you going? Into town. [= I'm going into town.]
rif; b,foGm;rvdkYvJ/ NrdKUxJudk/
5 Why? [= Why are you going into town?]
bmhaMumifh oGm;rSmvJ/
To buy some shoes. [= I'm going into town to buy some shoes.]
&SL;zdeyf oGm;0,frvkdY/
6 Looking for something? [= Are you looking for something?]
rif; wpfckck &Smaewmvm;/
 ellipsis aMumifh rjynfhpHkaom 0gusrsm;jzpfvmonf/ odkYaomf em;axmifol^zwfol\ pdwfxJwGif
csev
f yS cf ahJ om pum;vH;k rsm;udk odaomaMumifh xk0d gusrsm;udk jynfph pkH mG em;vnfEidk o
f nf/ txuf
yg ellipsis rsKd;ukd informal conversational English üom oHk;aomfvnf; atmufwGif azmfjy
rnfh ellipsis trsKd;tpm;rsm;udk formal ESifh informal English (2)ckpvHk;wGif oHk;Ekdifonf/

22.2 Ellipsis in Co-ordinate Clauses

 co-ordinate clause wkdYwGif ellipsis udk rMumcP awGU&wwfonf/ yxr clause wGif ygaom
element wkuYd kd 'kw,
d clause ESihf aemufqufwJG clause rsm;wGif csev
f yS x
f m;Ekid o
f nf/ atmufyg
Oyrm 0guswdk hudk avhvmyg/

197
 1 The audience were stamping their feet and clapping their hands.
[= The audience were stamping their feet and the audience were clapping
their hands.]
y&dowfu ajcaxmufeJ hpnf;csufvdkuf&if; vufckyfwD;aeMuw,f/
2 I've done the washing, done the ironing, and put the clothes away.
[= I've done the washing, I've done the ironing, and I've put the clothes away.]
uRefawmf t0wfavQmf? rD;ylwdkufNyD;awmh t0wfawG acgufodrf;NyD;NyD/
3 Peter is playing the violin, Mary the piano, and George the drums.
[= Peter is playing the violin, Mary is playing the piano, and George is
playing the drums.]
yDwmu wa,mxkd;? ar&Du pE´&m;wD;NyD; a*smh(*sf)u '&rfwD;aew,f/
4 I've washed and ironed the clothes.
[= I've washed the clothes and ironed the clothes.]
uRefawmf t0wfawGudk avQmfNyD; rD;ylwdkufNyD;NyD/
5 He opened and closed his eyes several times.
[= He opened his eyes and closed his eyes several times.]
olu rsufvHk;awGudk tBudrfawmfrsm;rsm; zGifhvkdufydwfvkduf vkyfw,f/
6 She was poor but honest.
[= She was poor but she was honest.]
olru qif;&JayrJh ½kd;om;w,f/
7 He looked okay, but tired.
[= He looked okay, but he looked tired.]
ol hudkMunfh&wm aeaumif;yHk&ayrJh yifyef;aeyHk&w,f/
 0gus 1 wGif 'kwd, clause ü subj. + aux. verb (the audience were) udk csefcJhonf/
0gus 2 wGif aemufqufwGJ clause rsm;ü subj. + aux. verb (I have) udk csefcJhonf/
0gus 3 wGif aemufqufwGJ clause rsm;ü verb phrase (is playing) ukd csefxm;cJhonf/
0gus 4 wGif yxr clause \ direct object (the clothes) ukd csefcJhNyD; 'kwd, clause \
direct object (the clothes)ukd azmfjyxm;onf/
0gus 5 wGif yxr clause \ direct object (his eyes) ukd csefcJhNyD; 'kwd, clause \ direct
object (his eyes) ukd azmfjyxm;onf/
0gus 6 ESifh 7 wGif wGif 'kwd, clause ü subject a&m verb yg csefxm;cJhonfudk awGUEkdifonf/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

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22.3 Ellipsis in Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses
A subordinate clause udk main clause \ a&SUü vnf;aumif; (odk h) aemufü vnf;aumif;
xm;Edkifonf/ subordinate clause u t&ifvmvQif main clause \ main verb ukd
csefxm;Edkifonf/ main clause u t&ifvmvQif subordinate clause \ main verb ukd
csefxm;Edkifonf/ Oyrm -
1 If you'll go, I will too. [= If you'll go, I will go too.]
2 I'll go if you will. [= I'll go if you will go.]

B main clause ESihf subordinate clause ESpc

f pk vH;k \ main verb a&m direct object yg wlaevQif
aemufuvdkufonfh clause wGif xddkESpfckpvHk;udk csefcJhEkdifonf/ Oyrm-
If you wash the dishes today, I will tomorrow.
[= If you wash the dishes today, I will wash the dishes tomorrow.]
pm;NyD;om; yef;uefawGudk 'DuaeY rif; aq;&if reufjzef ig aq;r,f/
C main clause ES i f h subordinate clause ESpfckpvHk;\ complement wdkY wlaeMuvQif
aemufuvdkufonfh clause wGif complement udk csefcJhEkdifonf/ Oyrm-
I'll be happy if you are. [= I'll be happy if you are happy.]
rif; aysmf&if igvnf; aysmfrSmyJ/ [happy = subj. cpm.]

D subordinate clause rS pronoun ESifh verb wdkYudk csefvSyfcJhojzifh relative clause/adverbial

clause wdkYonf non-finite/verbless clause rsm;tjzpfodkY ajymif;oGm;avh&Sdonf/ Oyrm-
1 The woman trying on those hats is my mother.
[= The woman who is trying on those hats is my mother.]
tJ'DOD;xkyfawGudk prf;NyD; aqmif;MunfhaewJh trsKd;orD;u uRefawmhftaryg/
2 When a student, he was always to be found in the library.
[= When he was a student, he was always to be found in the library.]
ol ausmif;om;b0wkef;u olYudk pmMunhfwdkufxJrSmyJ tNrJ awGU&w,f/
3 Though a bit nervous, she nevertheless agreed to chair the meeting.
[= Though she was a bit nervous, ...]
eJeJpdwfvIyf&Sm;aeayr,fh tpnf;ta0;rSm obmywdvkyfzkdYoabmwlcJhw,f/

22.4 Ambiguity in Ellipsis

 ellipsis aMumifh t"dyÜg,fESpfcGxGufjcif; (ambiguity) jzpfEkdifonf/ Oyrm-
I can hear her more clearly than you.
[= I can hear her more clearly than you (can hear her).] OR
olr ajymwmudk rif;xuf igu ykdNyD; &Sif;&Sif;vif;vif; Mum;&w,f/ (odk hr[kwf)
[= I can hear her more clearly than (I can hear) you.]

199
 rif; ajymwmukd Mum;&wmxuf olrajymwmukd Mum;&wmu ykd&Sif;w,f/
 pum;vHk;tm;vHk;ukd rcsefvSyfyJ tenf;i,fukdom csefvSyfjcif;jzifh t"dyÜg,fESpfcGxGufjcif;udk
a&Smif&Sm;Ekdifonf/ Oyrm-
1 I can hear her more clearly than you can.
[= I can hear her more clearly than you can (hear her).]

2 I can hear her more clearly than I can you.

[= I can hear her more clearly than I can (hear) you.]

22.5 Some other ways of avoiding repetition of information

 onf information wkdYudk xyfí ajymqkda&;om;jcif;rS a&SmifvTJ&ef enf;vrf;rsm;pGm
ellipsis
xJrS enf;vrf;wpfckom jzpfygonf/
A tjcm;enf;wpfckrSm (it, them paom) pronoun ukd toHk;jyKjcif; jzpfygonf/
1 I've washed and ironed your shirt. [ellipsis]
I've washed your shirt and ironed it. [it (pronoun) = your shirt]

2 My wife loves, but I hate birthday parties. [ellipsis]

My wife loves birthday parties but I hate them. [them = birthday parties]

B say ESifh tell \aemufrSvdkufonfh that clause wGif ygaom information udk repeat
vkyfrnfhtpm; so ukd oHk;onf/ Oyrm -
1 She's going to be the next president . Everybody says so.
[= Everybody says that she's going to be the next president.]
aemufwufr,fh or®wu olr jzpfrSm/ vlwkdif;u tJ'Dvkd ajymMuwmyJ/
2 Taxes are going up. Bob told me so. [= Bob told me that taxes are going up.]
tcGefawG wdk;aumufawmhrSm/ abmh(bf)u ighukd tJ'DtaMumif; ajymjycJhw,f/
C so + verb + subject yHkpHwGif so onf a&SU clause rS predicate \ tpdwftykdif;tcsKdUudk
ukd,fpm;jyKonf/ so \ t"dyÜm,fonf also ESifh qifwlonf/
1 My mother was very upset and so was I.
[so was I = I was also upset.]
uRefawmftaru pdwfraumif;jzpfcJhw,f/ NyD;awmh uRefawmfvnf;
pdwfraumif; jzpfcJh&w,f/
2 Sarah was head girl and so was her sister.
p,f&mu ausmif;twGuf ukd,fpm;jyKol jzpfcJhNyD; olYnDruvnf;
ausmif;twGuf ukd,fpm;jyKol jzpfcJhw,f/

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 3 James will help you and so will I. [so will I = I will also help you]
*sdrf;(rfpf)u rif;udk ulnDrSmyg/ NyD;awmh iguvnf; rif;udk ulnDyghr,f/
4 My brother has had his tonsils out and so have I.
uRefawmftpfudk&J htmoD; cGJxkwfxm;w,f/ uRefawmfvnf; cGJxkwfxm;&w,f/
D tjcm; auxiliary verb rsm; r&SdaomtcgwGif do ukdoHk;onf/
1 Jane paints and so does her sister.
[so does her sister = her sister also paints.]
*sdef;(ef)uyef;csDqGJw,f/ NyD;awmh olYnDruvnf; qGJw,f/
2 My wife likes gardening and so do I.
uRefawmfhZeD;u O,smOfpkduf 0goemygw,f/ uRefawmfvnf; 0goemygw,f/

EXERCISE 22
wlnDaom pum;vHk;rsm;udk xyfrH a&;om;ajymqkdjcif; (repetition) rS a&Smif&Sm;Ekdif&ef ellipsis
(okdY) pronoun (odkY) so udktoHk;jyKí atmufyg0gusrsm;udk jyefa&;yg/
Example
Question: John gave Samantha some flowers and John gave her mother a box of
chocolates. [ellipsis]
Answer: John gave Samantha some flowers and her mother a box of chocolates.

Quesntion: John gave Samantha some flowers because John likes Samantha.
[pronoun]
Answer: John gave Samanth some flowers because he likes her.

Question: John gave Samantha some flowers and I gave Samantha some flowers.
(so)
Answer: John gave Samantha some flowers and so did I.

1. Carlos arrived on Monday and Pedro arrived on Tuesday. [ellipsis]

2. Carlos arrived yesterday and Pedro arrived yesterday. [so]
3. I'll wash the dishes if you'll dry the dishes. [pronoun]
4. I'll sing a solo at the concert if you'll sing a solo at the concert too. [ellipsis]
5. My wife loves opera but I loathe opera. [pronoun]
6. My wife loves opera but I loathe opera. [ellipsis]
7. My wife loves opera and I love opera. [so]
8. Some of my friends voted for the Democrats, some of my friends voted for the
Republicans. [ellipsis]

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 9. Most of my friends voted for the Democrats; most of my colleagues voted for the
Democrats. [so]
10. 'Would you support that proposal?' 'I certainly wouldn't support that proposal.' [ellipsis]
11. We'll do it if they won't do it. [ellipsis]
12. I sent a donation to Oxfam. Did you send a donation to Oxfam? [ellipsis]
13. I sent a donation to Oxfam. Did you send a donation to Oxfam? [pronoun]
14. I sold my car yesterday but I wish I hadn't sold my car yesterday. [ellipsis]
15. We could have come to the rally but we didn't want to come to the rally. [ellipsis]

Grammar Help 1

 yxr clause wGiyf gaom pum;vH;k rsm;ESihf 'kw,

d clause wGiyf gaom pum;vH;k rsm; wlaeMuvQif
wlaom pum;vHk;rsm;udk csefxm;í&onf/ wlaom pum;vHk;tm;vHk;udk csefcJhEkdifaomfvnf;
tcsKdUudkom csefcJhvQifvnf; &onf/ Oyrm -
1 My sister is going to the concert and I might go too.
My sister is going to the concert and I might too.
uRefawmhnDru *DwazsmfajzyGJukd oGm;rSm/ uRefawmfvnf; oGm;csifoGm;rSm/
2 Sarah was head girl in 1997 and her sister was in 1998.
Sarah was head girl in 1997 and her sister in 1998.
p,f&mu (1997)rSm ausmif;twGuf ukd,fpm;jyKol jzpfcJhNyD; olYnDru
(1998)rSm ausmif;twGuf ukd,fpm;jyKol jzpfcJhw,f/

Grammar Help 2

(a) atmufyg0guswGif so + do onf verb ESifh direct object ukd tpm;xkd;í ae&m,lonf/
Jane paints portraits and so does her sister.
[ so does = paints portraits (verb + direct object) ]

(b) atmufyg0guswGif so + be onf verb ESifh complement udk tpm;xkd;onf/

Sarah was head girl and so was her sister.
[ so was = was head girl (verb + complement) ]

(c) atmufyg0guswdkYwGif yg0ifaom adverbial wdkYudk EdIif;,SOfí avhvmMunfhyg/

1 Jane paints portraits for a living and so does her sister.
[so does her sister = her sister paints portraits for a living too]
*sdef;(ef)u toufarG; 0rf;ausmif;zdkYtwGuf yHkwlyef;csDqGJNyD;
olr&JUnDruvnf; toufarG; 0rf;ausmif;zdkYtwGuf yHkwlyef;csDqGJw,f/

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 2 Jane paints portraits for a living and so does her sister as a hobby.
[so does her sister = her sister also paints portraits]
*sdef;(ef)u toufarG; 0rf;ausmif;zdkYtwGuf yHkwlyef;csDqGJNyD;
olr&JUnDruawmh 0goemtavQmuf yHkwlyef;csDqGJw,f/
3 Sarah was head girl in 1989 and so was her sister in 1991.

0gus 1 wGif yxr clause ESifh 'kwd, clause wkdY\ adverbial wdk h wlnDaeMuojzifh xdk
adverbial udk 'kwd, clause wGif xyfa&;p&mrvkdyJ so u ukd,fpm;jyKoGm;onf/ odk haomf
0gus 2 ESifh 3 wGif yxr clause ESifh 'kwd, clause wkdY\ adverbial wkdY rwlMuojzifh 'kwd,
clause wGif adverbial udk csefrxm;yJ azmfjy&onf/

 Glossary

ambiguity ^ tJ(rf).bpf.'(*f),l;.,.wD^ 'Gd[jzpfapaom/

'
clap ^(cf)vJh(yf)^ vufckyfwD;onf/
Democrat ^''J.r.(cf)&uf(wf)^ 'Drdku&ufygwD0if/
ellipsis ^t.'vpf(yf).ppf(pf)^ pum;vHk; jrSKyfcsefonf/
loathe ^vkyf(of)^ &GH&Smpufqkyfonf/ tvGef rkef;onf/
nervous ^'em;.Awf(pf)^ (pdk;&drfylyefrIaMumifh) pdwfvIyf&Sm;aom/
opera ^'atmh(yf).&m^ tqdkjzifhcif;aom jyZmwf/
stamp ^(pf)wJh(rf)(yf)^ ajcaqmifhonf/
tonsils ^'axmh(ef).p,f(vf)^ tmoD;/

 Quick Summary

1 Like words and phrases, sentences can be co-ordinated. [Unit 17]

2 Sentences that are linked to form a larger sentence are called clauses. A clause is
a word-group which has the same structure as a sentence but which is part of a
larger sentence.

3 Clauses that are linked by words such as and and but are called co-ordinate
clauses.

When co-ordinate clauses are placed side by side without any linking words, this is
known as parataxis or asyndeton.

4 Clauses that depend on other clauses are called subordinate clauses or

dependent clauses, and the clauses that they depend on are called main clauses
or principal clauses.

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 Co-ordinate clauses are linked by co-ordinating conjunctions, and subordinate
clauses are linked to main clause by subordinating conjunctions.

5 A relative clause is a subordinate clause that identifies someone or something or

provides information about them. [Unit 18] The person or thing that is described or
identified by a relative clause is its antecedent.

Relative clauses usually begin with a relative pronoun such as that, which or who,
but in some cases the relative pronoun may be omitted. A relative clause may also
begin with a conjunction such as when, where or why.

A restrictive or defining relative clause identifies a particular person or thing,

whereas a non-restrictive or non-defining relative clause simply adds information
about an already known person or thing.

6 An appositive clause is one that is in apposition to a preceding noun.

7 An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause that can fill an adverbial slot in the
main clause it depends on. [Unit 19]
There are many types of adverbial clause: adverbial clauses of time, of place, of
manner, of reason, of purpose, of result, etc.

8 An adverbial clause of condition is also called a conditional clause. A sentence

with a conditional clause in it is a conditional sentence.

Conditional sentences can be classified into first, second and third conditionals,
according to the situations they describe. First conditionals describe what may
happen or will happen, second conditionals describe what would happen, and third
conditionals describe what would have or could have or might have happened.

9 A noun clause is a clause that can fill any of the same slots in a sentence as a noun
or pronoun. [Unit 20]

One type of subordinate noun clause, which reports what a person is saying or has
said, is known as indirect or reported speech. The tense of a verb in indirect
speech depends on both the tense of the verb in direct speech (the person's actual
words) and the tense of the verb in the main clause.

10 A non-finite clause is one that is formed with an infinitive, a participle or verbal

noun. [Unit 21] Non-finite clauses with infinitive are used to form indirect commands.

A dangling participle is a participle in a non-finite clause whose implied subject is

not the same as the subject of the main clause.

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 A verbless clause is one that has no verb in it at all. Verbless clauses should not be
confused with phrases.

11 Ellipsis occurs when an element of a sentence is left unsaid because it can be

deduced from the context in which the sentence is spoken. [Unit 22]

Other ways of avoiding the unnecessary repetition of information are by the use of
pronouns and by words such as so and do.

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 Part
5 Sentence Types
simple, compound, complex
[lí 0gus(4)rsKd; cGJjcm;Edkifonf/
ESihf compound - complex

 co-ordinate clause (odkY) rsm; ryg

subordinate clause
aom ½dk;½dk;0gusudk simple sentence [k ac:onf/
He scratched his head. olu acgif;udk ukwfw,f/
Who told you that ? rif;udk tJ'g b,folajymwmvJ/

 2-ck (odkY) 2-cktxuf yg0ifaom 0gus

co-ordinate clause
udk compound sentence [k ac:onf/
He lay down on the bed and switched on the radio.
olu tdyf&may:vSJcsvdkufNyD; a&'D,dkudk zGihfvdkufw,f/
 main clause wpfckESihf subordinate clause wdkY yg0ifaom
0gusudk complex sentence [kac:onf/
I'm glad (that) you could come.
rif;tck vmEdkifwm ig0rf;omw,f/

 subordinate clause tenf;qHk; wpfck ygNyD; main clause

Unit ESpfckESihf txuf ygaom 0gusudk compound-complex
sentence [k ac:onf/
Simple, Compound,
Complex and
23 Compound-
I'll asked her when I see her and then I'll tell you.
Complex Sentences ig olrudkawGU&if ar;NyD; rif;udk ajymjyr,f/
Positive and not, never, no-one, nowhere, nothing ponhf tjiif; pum;
24 Negative vHk;rsm; rygaom 0gusudk positive sentence [k ac:onf/
Sentences
Interrogative It's very warm in here.
25 Sentences and 'DtxJu tdkufvdkufwm/
Question Tags
Active and Passive
26 Sentences
206
 tjiif;pum;vHk;rsm; ygaom 0gusudk negative
sentence (tjiif;0gus) [k ac:onf/

It's not very warm in here.

 wh-question, yes/no question ESihf alternative question

[lí interrogative sentence (ar;cGef;0gus) (3)rsKd; &Sdonf/
Where are you? rif; b,frSmvJ/
Are you coming too? rif;vnf; vmrSmvm;/
Would you prefer tea or coffee?
rif;u vufzuf&nf BudKufwmvm;? aumfzD BudKufwmvm;/

 rdrdajymqdkaom taMumif;t&mESihfywfoufí rSefrrSef (odkY) oabmwlrwl

od&ef em;axmifaeoltm; twnfjyKcdkif;onhf ar;cGef;wdkudk question tag
[k ac:onf/
You will come, won't you? rif; vmrSmaemf? rvmbl;vm;/
She's not coming with us, is she?
olru igwdkUeJU vdkufrSm r[kwfbl;av/ vdkufrSmrdk hvm;/

 subject u jyKvkyfjcif;udk jyaom verb form onf active voice jzpfygonf/

active voice ygaom0gusudk active sentence [kac:onf/

Sam chose the prizes.

prf(rf)u qkawGudk a&G;cs,fowfrSwfay;chJw,f/
Charles baked the pies.
csm;vfpfu rkefYawGzkwfchJw,f/

 subject u jyKvkyfcH&jcif;udk jyaom verb form onf passive voice

jzpfygonf/ passive voice ygaom 0gusudk passive sentence
[kac:onf/
The prizes were chosen by Sam.
The pies were baked by Charles.

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Unit Unit
23 Simple,
17 Compound, Compl ex
and Compound-compl ex Sentences

 clause structure udk tajcjyKí sentence trsKd;tpm;udk (4)rsKd; cGJEkdifonf/ ¤if;wdkYrSm simple,
compound, complex ESifh compound-complex wkdYjzpfMuonf/

23.1 Simple Sentences

 simple sentence wGif clause wpfckom yg0ifonf (odkY) finite verb wpfckom yg0ifonf/
clause rsm;udk (and, but, or ponfh) co-ordinating conjunction rsm;jzifh qufxm;jcif;vnf;
r&Sd? subordinate clause rsm;vnf; yg0ifjcif;r&Sdonfh ½kd;½kd;0gusrsm;onf simple sentence
rsm; jzpfMuonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk honf simple sentence rsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 I loved him. ig olYudk cspfcJhygw,f/
2 Anne has lost her keys. tef(ef)&J haomhawG aysmufoGm;vdkY/
3 Let's go for a walk. vrf;avQmuf xGuf&atmif/
4 What are you doing? rif; bmawG vkyfaewmvJ/
5 Don't be silly. rrkdufprf;ygeJY/
6 The lambs were gambolling in the field.
odk;uav;awG[m uGif;jyifxJrSm ckefaygufajy;vTm; upm;aeMuw,f/
 simple sentence wGif (and, but, or wkdYESi)fh co-ordinate vkyfxm;aom pum;vHk;rsm;? yk'fpk
rsm; yg0ifEkdifonf/ Oyrm -
All flowers and foodstuffs will be delivered freshly and safely the
following day.
aemuf&ufrSm yef;awGeJY pm;aomufukefawGtm;vHk;udk vwfvwf
qwfqwf ta&mufydkYay;ygr,f/
 There + verb + subject yHkpH&Sdonfh atmufyg0guswdkYonfvnf; ½kd;½kd;0gusrsm; jzpfMuygonf/
1 There were two dogs in the garden. [were = verb]
O,smOfxJrSm acG;ESpfaumif &Sdw,f/ [two dogs = subj.]

2 There's someone at the door. [is = verb]

wHcg;0rSm wpfa,mufa,muf a&mufaew,f/ [someone = subj.]

3 There must be something wrong.

jyóem wpfckckawmh &Sdaew,f/

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 4 There were some lambs gambolling in the field.
uGif;jyifxJrSm ckefaygufajy;vTm;upm;aewJh okd;i,fav;awG &Sdw,f/
5 There must be something worrying her.
olr pkd;&drfaewJht&m wpfckckawmh &Sd&r,f/
 wpfOD;OD;tm; trnfwyfí ac:aompum; (vocative) (odkY) tmar#dwfpum; (exclamation)
wkdYonf ½kd;½kd;0gusrsm;wGif yg0ifEkdifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif vocative ESifh
exclamation wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/

1 George , don't do that. a*smh*sf ]]rvkyfygeJY/}}

2 Can I help you, madam? uRefawmf ulnDay;&rvm; a':a':/
3 Gosh , that's amazing! bk&m;a& tJ'gu r,HkEkdifp&myJ/
4 No , I don't want any more cake, thank you.
awmfNyD/ uRefawmf udwfrkefY xyfrpm;csifawmhbl;/ aus;Zl;yJ/
 0guswpfckonf conjunction jzifh paomfvnf; tjcm; clause rsm;rygyJ clause wpfckwnf;
om&SdvQif xkd0gusonf ½kd;½kd;0gusyif jzpfonf/
1 But that's another story. 'gayrJh tJ'gu aemufZmwfvrf;wpfyk'fyg/
2 And you must start right away. NyD;awmh rif;taeeJ h tckcsufcsif; pvkyf&r,f/

23.2 Compound Sentences

 co-ordinate clause ESpfckESifhtxuf yg0ifaom 0gusukd compound sentence [k ac:onf/
1 You can go and I will stay. [You can go = clause] [I will stay = clause]
rif; oGm;vkdY&ygw,f/ iguawmh aeOD;r,f/ [and = conjunction]

2 I spoke to Mrs Brown and she gave me your address.

rpöpf(bf)a&mif;udk pum;ajymMunfhawmh olru ighudk rif;&JUvdyfpm ay;w,f/
3 The lambs were gambolling in the field and the ewes were grazing
contentedly near them.
uGif;jyifxJrSm odk;uav;awGu ckefaygufajy;vTm; upm;aeMuw,f/
NyD;awmh okd;rBuD;awGu olwdkYem;rSm at;at;aq;aq; jrufpm;aeMuw,f/
4 Anne lost her keys but I found them and gave them back to her.
tef(ef)u aomhawG aysmufcJhw,f/ 'gayrJh igu tJ'DaomhawGudk
jyefawGUcJhNyD; olrukd jyefay;cJhw,f/
5 Either she goes or I do. [she goes = clause A] [I do = clause B]
olr eJ hig wpfa,mufr[kwf wpfa,muf oGm;rSm/ [either A or B]

209
  compound sentence wGif clause ta&twGufu (2) ckxufykdaomfvnf; conjunction
wpfckudkom oHk;avh&Sdonf/ Oyrm -
1 He looked at her, scratched his head and laughed.
olu olrudkMunfhNyD; acgif;udk ukwfw,f/ NyD;awmh &,fw,f/
2 She came home, ate her supper, and went straight to bed.
olr tdrfjyefvmw,f/ nvnfpm pm;w,f/ NyD;awmh wef;NyD; tdyf&m0ifw,f/
3 That is true; it is an important truth; but it is surely not the whole truth.
tJ'g[m rSefygw,f/ ta&;ygwJh trSefw&m;wpfckyg/ 'gayrJh vHk;0NyD;jynfhpHkwJh
trSefw&m; r[kwfwmawmh aocsmw,f/

23.3 Complex Sentences

 main clause wpfckESifh (relative clause, adverbial clause, noun clause paom )
subordinate clause wpfckESifhtxufygaom 0gusudk 0gusa&m (complex sentence) [k
ac:onf/ atmufyg complex sentence wdk hrS subordinate clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD;
jyxm;ygonf/
1 I'll tell you when I get home. ig tdrfjyefa&mufrS rif;udk ajymjyr,f/
2 I did it because I love you. rif;udk cspfvkdY igu tJ'gudk vkyfcJhwm/
3 What you've told us is excellent news.
rif; igwdk hudk ajymjycJhwJhowif;uawmh t&rf;aumif;wJh owif;yJ/
4 He said that he had finished what he was doing.
ol vkyfaewmawG NyD;oGm;NyDvkdY ol ajymw,f/
5 Although I'm not a gambling man, I always put some money on a horse
in the Grand National.
uRefawmf[m avmif;upm;vkyfolwpfOD; r[kwfayrJh Grand National
jrif;NydKifyGJrSmawmh tNrJwrf; jrif;avmif;ygw,f/
6 The fact that he is Japanese has nothing to do with it.
olu *syefvlrsKd;jzpfw,fqkdwmeJY tJ'gu bmrS rqdkifbl;/
7 This is the man I was talking about.
uRefawmf ajymajymaewJh olu 'DvlyJ/
 non-finite clause ESifh verbless clause wkdYonfvnf; subordinate clause rsm; jzpfMuonf/
xdk haMumifh non-finite (odk h) verbless clause ygaom 0gusudk 0gusa&m(complex sentence)
[k ac:Edkifonf/ atmufyg Oyrm complex sentence wdk hwGif non-finite clause wdk hESifh
verbless clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/

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 1 To be here is a great honour. [to be here = non-finite clause]
'Dukd a&mufaewm[m tvGef *kPf,lp&myg/
2 Being aware of the dangers ahead, he took a different route.
a&SUrSmBuHKawGUEdkifwJh tEÅ&m,fawGudk owdjyKrdwJhtwGufaMumifh ol
vrf;aMumif;ajymif;NyD; oGm;cJhw,f/
3 Afraid of the thunder and lightning, she hid in a cave.
rkd;csKef;oHeJY vQyfpD;vufwmawGudk aMumufvkdY vkdPf*lwpfckxJrSm ykef;cJhw,f/
 odkYaomf o'´gpmtkyftcsKdUwGif non-finite ESifh verbless clause wdkYudk yk'fpk(phrase) [kom
,lqMuonf/ xdkYaMumifh non-finite/verbless clause wpfckESifh txufyg0ifNyD; main clause
wpfckyg0ifaom 0gusudk simple sentence [líom xdkpmtkyfrsm;wGif ,lqMuygonf/

 complex sentence wpfcw

k iG f subordinate clause wdu
Yk kd co-ordinating conjunction wkjYd zifh
qufxm;Ekid o
f nf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswkd wh iG f co-ordinating conjunction wdk jh zifh qufxm;
aom subordinate clause wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
I did it because I love you and because we need the money. (OR)
I did it because I love you and we need the money.

23.4 Compound-complex Sentences

 main clause (2)ckESifh txufudk co-ordinating conjunction jzifhqufxm;NyD; tenf;qHk;
subordinate clause wpfckygaom 0gusukd compound-complex sentence [k ac:onf/
atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif co-ordinating conjunction ESifh subordinate clause
wdk hudk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
1 I'll go with her and show her that there are no monsters under her bed.
uRefawmf olreJYtwl vdkufoGm;NyD; olr&JUckwifatmufrSm aMumufp&m
{&mrowå0gBuD;awG r&SdaMumif; jyvdkufr,f/
2 Come if you can and I'll meet you there.
rif; vmEkdif&if vmyg/ NyD;awmhrS tJ'DrSm ig rif;eJY awGUr,f/
3 We did enjoy the show that they put on and were very sad when the final
curtain fell.
olwdkY wifqufwJh ZmwfyGJudk uRefawmfwdkY BudKufESpfoufcJhw,f/ NyD;awmh
ZmwfyGJNyD;qHk; wJhtcsdefrSm uRefawmfwdkY tvGef0rf;enf;cJhMuw,f/
4 I first came here with my parents when I was sixteen, and I have come
back here every year since then.
uRefawmf(16)ESpft&G,fu 'Dukd uRefawmfhrdbawGeJYtwl yxrOD;qHk;tBudrf
a&mufvmcJhw,f/ NyD;awmh tJ'DESpfupNyD; wpfESpfwpfBudrf 'Dukd jyefvmw,f/

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EXERCISE 23
atmufyg0guswo Ydk nf rnfonfh 0gustrsKd ;tpm; (simple/compound/complex/compound-
complex) jzpfaMumif; az:jyyg/

Handy Hints

0gusrsm;udk aoaocsmcsmzwfyg/ main clause rsm;udk atmufrSrsOf;wm;yg/ xkdYaemuf xkd

main clause rsm;udk co-ordinate clause rsm;ESihf link vkyfxm;rxm;udk ppfaq;yg/

main clause r[kwfaom^co-ordinate clause r[kwf aom clause onf subordinate

clause jzpfonf/
sub-ordinate clause rsm;ukdvnf; co-ordinating conjunction rsm;jzifh link vkyfxm;Ekdif
onfudkvnf; rarhygESifh/

1. When she found a parking space, she parked the car and got out.
2. She sat down at the bar and asked for a glass of red wine.
3. Myra was making toast when Katie walked into the kitchen, singing loudly.
4. I knew that Joe was in trouble but he always seemed a man who was not afraid of
anything.
5. There's a man over there smiling at me.
6. If you change your mind when you've had time to think about it, give me a call.
7. Knowing the hotel was not far away, Karen walked on through the rain.
8. She took off her ring and threw it into the river.
9. Taking off her ring, she threw it into the river.
10. He was standing with his hands in his pockets and a quizzical look on his face.
11. After a while things went back to normal, and every day there was less excitement in
their relationship than there had been the day before.
12. The old man told the reporter that some of the debris had landed in the sea close to
where he was fishing but that by the time he had sailed his boat to where the pieces
had fallen, they had all disappeared beneath the waves.

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 Glossary

beneath ^b.'ed(of)^ atmufwGif/

complex ^'cGef h(yf).vuf(pf)^ cufcJ&IyfaxG;aom/
debris ^'a';.(bf)&D;^ tusdK;tyJh/ tysuftpD;/
ewe ^,l;..^ odk;r/
excitement ^tpf(cf).'pdkuf(wf).rJh(ef)^ pdwfvIyf&Sm;aysmf&TifrI/
land ^vmh(ef)('f)^ ajrodk husonf/ ^vJ(ef)('f) U.S.^
quizzical ^'uGpf.Zpf.u,f(vf)^ jyHK;ppjzpfaeaom/ wpfckckar;vdk[ef&Sdaom/
subordinate ^p.'abm.'D.euf(wf)^ ta&;rygvSaom/ tqifhedrfhaom/
toast ^xdk h(pf)(xf)^ aygifrkef hrD;uif/

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Unit Unit
24 17 Positive and
Negative Sentences

24.1 Positive Sentences

 (not, -n't, never, no, nobody, nowhere, nothing, none, nor, neither ponfh) tjiif;pum;
(negative word)rsm; ryg0ifaom 0gusonf positive sentence
vHk; jzpfygonf/ positive
sentence udk affirmative sentence [kvnf; ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk honf
positive sentence rsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 Please go. aus;Zl;jyKNyD; oGm;ygawmh/
2 Are you coming with us? rif; igwdkYeJY vkdufrSmvm;/
3 I've been to India. tdEd´,ukd ig a&mufzl;w,f/
4 I saw her standing there. olr tJ'DrSm &yfaewm uRefawmfjrifcJhw,f/
5 I like curry.
rqvm? i½kwfoD;rIefY? qEGif;rIefYxnfhcsufwJh [if;awGukd ig BudKufw,f/
6 Someone told me what to do.
uRefawmf bmvkyfoifhw,fqkdwmudk vlwpfOD;u ajymjycJhw,f/
7 The doctors were able to tell me what was wrong with me.
uRefawmfhrSm bma&m*gjzpfaew,fqkdwmudk q&m0efawGu uRefawmfhudk
ajymjyEkdifcJhw,f/
8 There is good reason for her behaving like that.
olr tJ'DvkdjyKrlwm taMumif; &Sdw,f/

24.2 Negative Sentences

 tjiif;pum;vHk;rsm;yg0ifaom 0gusonf tjiif;0gus (negative sentence) jzpfygonf/
atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk honf negative sentence rsm; jzpfMuonf/
I don't like curry. [don't = do not]
Please don't go. [not = -ve word]
I didn't see her standing there.
Are you not coming with us?

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 I've never been to India. [never = -ve word]
No-one told me what to do. [No-one = -ve word]
There is no good reason for her behaving like that.
None of the doctors could tell me what was wrong with me.

24.3 Position of Negative Adverbs

(a) tjcm; adverb rsm;uJhodkYyif (never, not paom) negative adverb rsm;udk auxiliary verb
ESifh main verb Mum;wGif xm;Ekdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 We have never been to India. [have = aux. verb]
tdE´d,ukd wpfacgufrS ra&mufzl;bl;/ [never = -ve adv.]
[been = main verb]

2 I've not slept all night. [not = -ve adv.]

ig wpfnvHk; rtdyf&ao;bl;/
3 They haven't finished yet. [haven't = have not]
tckxd olwdkY tvkyf rNyD;ao;bl;/ [not = -ve adv.]

(b) auxiliary verb wpfckxufykdí ygvQif þ negative adverb rsm;onf yxrOD;qHk; auxiliary
verb \aemufu uyfívkdufonf/ Oyrm -

1 I've not been sleeping well lately. [have = aux. verb]

tckwavm ig odyfNyD; tdyfraysmfbl;/ [not = -ve adv.]
[been = aux. verb]

2 Such thing has never been seen before. [never = -ve adv.]
tJ'Dvdk[mrsdK; t&ifu wpfcgrS rjrifzl;bl;/
(c) atmufyg0gusrsm;wGif positive sentence rS negative sentence odkY ajymif;&mü do/did/
does ukd auxiliary verb tjzpf toHk;jyKyHkudk avhvmyg/

1 I like curry. [like = do + like]

I don't like curry. [don't like = do not like]
i½kwfoD;rIefY? qEGif;rIefYxnfhcsufwJh [if;awGukd rBudKufbl;/
2 We saw Mrs Parkinson yesterday. [saw = did + see]
We didn't see Mrs Parkinson yesterday. [didn't see = did not see]
raeYu rpöpfyguifqefudk uRefawmfwdkY rawGUcJhbl;/
3 He knows what he's doing. [knows = does + know]
He doesn't know what he's doing. [doesn't know = does not know]
ol bmvkyfaewmvJqkdwmudk ol rodbl;/

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 (d) be (am/is/are/was/were) onf main verb vnf; jzpfouJo h Ykd auxiliary verb vnf; jzpfonf/
rnfonfhtrsKd;tpm;yifjzpfap ¤if;\aemufrS not (odk h) -n't vkdufEdkifonf/
1 She isn't ready yet. [is = main verb] tckxd qifoifh rjzpfao;bl;/
She isn't coming. [is = aux. verb] olr vmrSm r[kwfbl;/
2 They weren't there. [were = main verb] olwdkYu tJ'DrSm r&Sdbl;/
They weren't running. [were = aux. verb] olwdkYu ajy;aewm r[kwfbl;/
(e) have, dare ESifh need wdkYudkvnf; auxiliary verb tjzpfa&m main verb tjzpfyg rSwf,l
Ekdifonf/
1 I don't have any money. [have = main verb]
I haven't got any money. [have = aux. verb]
ighrSm ykdufqH r&Sdbl;/
2 We don't need to check that. [need = main verb]
We needn't check that. [need = aux. verb]
tJ'gukd igwkdY ppfaq;zdk h rvkdtyfbl;/
3 I don't dare suggest that to her. [dare = main verb]
I daren't suggest that to her. [dare = aux. verb]
tJ'g olrudk tBuHray;&Jbl;/

24.4 Some important points about Negative

(a) is ESifh are udk -n't ESifh aygif;í negative form vkyfaomtcg isn't ESifh aren't udk &onf/ odkY
aomf am + -n't onf amn't r[kwfyg/ I am \ negative form onf I'm not omjzpfygonf/
(b) negative form jzpfonfh ain't (= am not / is not / are not / has not / have not) onf
informal jzpfygonf/ American English wGif ykdí oHk;ygonf/
1 We ain't going. [ain't = are not]
uRefawmfwdkY oGm;jzpfrSmr[kwfbl;/
2 I ain't done anything wrong. [ain't = have not]
bmtrSm;udkrS uRefawmf rvkyfcJhbl;/
3 He ain't been seen round here for years. [ain't = has not]
'Dae&mwpf0kdufrSm olYudk rawGUwm ESpfaygif;rsm;pGm MumNyD/
(c) can ESifh not ukdaygif;NyD; cannot [k wpfvHk;wnf; a&;ygonf/ (odkY) can't [kvnf; a&;onf/
can't wGif n wpfvHk;om ygonfudk owdjyKyg/
I just cannot understand why she did it.
tJ'gukd olr bmaMumifh vkyfcJhovJqkdwmudk uRefawmf em;rvnfbl;/

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 (d) will not \ twda
k umufypkH o
H nf won't jzpfNy;D shall not \ twkad umufypkH rH mS shan't jzpfygonf/

(e) ought to \ tjiif;yHkpHrSm ought not to (okdY) oughtn't to jzpfygonf/

You ought not to do that. tJ'gudk rif; rvkyfoifhbl;/
(f) used to \ tjiif;yHkpHrSm used not to ESifh usedn't to wkdY jzpfMuygonf/
1 He used not to smoke as much as he does now.
olu aq;vdyfudk tckavmuf rsm;rsm;pm;pm; t&ifwkef;u raomufcJhzl;/
2 He usedn't to smoke at all.
olYrSm aq;vdyfaomufwJhtusifh t&ifu vHk;0 r&SdcJhbl;/
informal English wGif didn't use to udk vufcHoHk;pGJMuonf/
1 He didn't use to come here very often, but nowadays we see him here
at least three times a week.
ol t&ifu 'Dukd cPcP vmavhr&Sdbl;/ 'gayrJh uRefawmfudk tckwavm
olYudk 'DrSm wpfywfudk tenf;qHk; (3)Budrf awGUw,f/

24.5 Changes from Positive Sentences to Negative Sentences

 positive sentencerS negative sentence odkY ajymif;aomtcg do ESifh tjiif;pum;vHk;
xnfh&½kHomru tjcm;pum;vHk;rsm;udkvnf; ajymif;&avh&Sdonf/ atmufyg Oyrm0guswdk hwGif
ajymif;&aom pum;vHk;rsm;udk rsOf;wm;NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
1 I have some interesting news for you. [+ve sentence]
ighrSm rif; pdwf0ifpm;avmufwJh owif;wck &Sdw,f/
I haven't any interesting news for you. [-ve sentence]

2 Close some of the windows. jywif;aygufawGudk ydwfvkdufyg/

Don't close any of the windows.

3 I have something to tell you. rif;ukd ajymjyp&mwpfck ighrSm &Sdw,f/

I haven't anything to tell you.

4 They were talking to someone. vlwpfa,mufeJY pum;ajymaeMuwm/

They weren't talking to anyone.

5 The guests have already arrived. {nfhonfawG a&mufESifhaeMuNyD/

The guests haven't arrived yet.

6 You're going too. rif;uvnf; oGm;rSm/

You're not going either.

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 7 We were laughing about something.
taMumif;wpfckeJY ywfoufNyD; igwdkY &,faeMuwm/
We weren't laughing about anything.

8 There must be something someone can do.

wpfa,mufa,muf vkyfEkdifwJh t&mwpfckckawmh &Sd&r,f/
There isn't anything anyone can do.
b,folrqkd vkyfEkdifwJht&m r&Sdygbl;/

 not tjyif positive sentence rS negative sentence odkY ajymif;apEkdifonfh tjcm; negative
word rsm;vnf; &Sdygonf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif xdk negative word rsm;udk rsOf;wm;
NyD; jyxm;ygonf/
1 Someone must have some idea of what to do. [+ve sentence]
bmvkyfoifhw,fqkdwJh tBuHÓPfpdwful; wpfa,mufa,mufrSmawmh &Sd&r,f/
No-one has any idea what to do. [-ve sentence]

2 There must be something someone can do. [+ve sentence]

There is nothing anyone can do. [-ve sentence]

3 I have some interesting news to tell you. [+ve sentence]

You never have any interesting news to tell me. [-ve sentence]

4 He sometimes says something interesting. [+ve sentence]

ol[m wpfcgwpf&HrSm pdwf0ifpm;p&mpum;wcsKdUudk ajymavh&Sdw,f/
He never says anything interesting. [-ve sentence]

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

 ESihf dis- paom) negative prefix rsm; (odk )h negative oabm twkid ;f twmwpfct
(un-, in- k xd
yg0ifaom pum;vHk;rsm;ESifhtwloHk;&ef some tpm; any ukdom a&G;cs,f&onf/ Oyrm -
1 The management were unaware of any difficulties.
pDrHtkyfcsKyfolawGu wcsKdUtcuftcJawGudk rodMubl;/
2 She is incapable of any malice towards anyone.
olr[m b,folYtay:rS tNidK; rxm;wwfbl;/
3 I am disinclined to give them any more help.
olwdkYudk 'DxufykdNyD; tultnDay;zkdY uRefawmf qE´ r&Sdawmhbl;/
4 I have hardly any money.
uRefawmfhrSm ykdufqH ukefoavmuf jzpfaeNyD/

218
 5 We scarcely know anyone here.
'DrSm uRefawmfwdkY odwJhol r&SdoavmufyJ/
6 We seldom go anywhere interesting nowadays.
uRefawmfwkdY pdwf0ifpm;zG,fae&mawGudk tckwavm odyfroGm;jzpfbl;/
7 Without any doubt at all, he is the one who did it.
tJ'gudkvkyfwJhol[m olyJqkdwm vHk;0 aocsmw,f/ [without doubt = definitely]

24.6 Transferred Negation

 (think, believe, suppose, imagine) paom pum;vHk;rsm;udk oHk;í tjiif;vu©Pmaqmif
aom idea wkdYudk wifjyaomtcg not udk yxr verb rsm;jzpfonfh (think, believe, suppose,
imagine) wdkYESifhom wGJíoHk;onf/ Oyrm-
1 I dont' think he's coming. [= I do think he isn't coming]
ol vmr,fvdkY uRefawmf rxifbl;/
2 I don't suppose I'd be much help. [= I do suppose I wouldn't be much help]
uRefawmftaeeJ h tultnDtrsm;BuD; ay;Ekdifr,fvkdYawmh rxifbl;/
3 I don't expect she'll come. [= I do expect she won't come]
olr vmvdrfhr,fvkdY uRefawmf rxifbl;/
4 We don't believe it'll work. [= we do believe it won't work]
tJ'gu tvkyfjzpfvdrfhr,fvkdY uRefawmf rxifbl;/
 negative word (not) onf 'kwd, verb twGuf jzpfaomfvnf; 'kwd, verb ESifh wGJroHk;yJ
yxr verb ESifhwGJí oHk;jcif;udk transferred negation [k ac:onf/

EXERCISE 24
A uGif;xJwGifay;xm;onfh pum;vHk;rsm;udk toHk;jyKí atmufyg positive sentence rsm;udk
negative sentene jzpfatmif ajymif;ay;yg/

Example Question: I can see something. [-n't]

Answer: I can't see anything.
1. He has discussed the matter with me. [never]
2. I know how to do it. [-n't]
3. They're being very sensible. [not]
4. Somebody knows something. [nobody]
5. We do have some food with us. [-n't]
6. They saw someone on the beach. [-n't]
7. She might be there tomorrow. [not]

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 8. I could come next week. [-n't]
9. The concert has already started. [-n't]
10. I was aware of some animosity between them. [not]

B some/any ukd oHk;í atmufyg0gusrsm;wGif uGufvyfjznfhyg/

1. I haven't _______ chocolate to give you.
2. I do have _______ sweets, though.
3. We never have _______ money to spare.
4. No-one round here has _______ money to spare.
5. I can't see _______one there.
6. _______ people have all the luck!
7. There is nowhere _______ of you can hide.
8. There has to be _______ one in charge of the project.
9. Without ______ doubt, that's the best dinner I've had all year.
10. None of our friends have ever won _______ money in the National Lottery.

Grammar Help 1

 0guswpfcwk iG f negative word ESpcf o

k ;kH jcif;ukd double negative [kac:onf/ standard English
wGif 0guswpfckü negative word wpfckudkom oHk;avh&Sdonf/ double negative oHk;jcif;onf
o'´genf;t& rrSefuefyg/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hudk avhvmyg/
1 I didn't do nothing. [-n't, nothing]
I didn't do anything. [-n't] 
2 I don't have no money. [-n't, no]
I don't have any money. [-n't] 
I have no money. [no] 
3 We never saw nobody steal no money. [never, nobody, no]
We never saw anybody steal any money. [never]

4 I ain't seen nobody. [-n't, nobody]

I haven't seen anybody.[-n't] 

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 Glossary

sensible ^'pJ(ef).ppf.b,f(vf)^ pOf;pm;csifhcsdefwwfaom/

aware ^t.'0J^ owdrlrdaom/
animosity ^ tJ.eD.'armh.p.wD^ rkef;wD;rI/
'
lottery ^'avmh.x.&D^ xD/
guest ^*uf(pf)(xf)^ {nfhonf/
incapable ^tif(ef).'ac;.y.b,f(vf)^ rcHpm;wwfaom/ rwwfpGrf;aom/
disinclined ^ 'pf.pif(if).'(uf)vdkif;(ef)('f)^ qE´r&Sdaom/
'
scarcely ^'(pf)uJ(,).(pf)vD^ r&Sdoavmuf/
malice ^'rmh.vpf(pf)^ rvkdwrmpdwf/ tNidK;/

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Unit Unit
25 Interrogative Sentences
17
and Question Tags

25.1 Interrogative Sentences

 ar;cGef;ar;aom 0gusonf interrogative sentence jzpfygonf/ t"dutm;jzifh interrogative

sentence (3) rsKd;&Sdonf/ ¤if;wdk hrSm -
(a) wh-questions
(b) yes/no questions
(c) alternative questions

(a) (who, whom, whose, what, where, when, why, which ESifh how) ar;cGef;pum;vHk; rsm;udk
toH;k jyKí information ukd ar;jref;awmif;qkad om ar;cGe;f rsm;udk wh-question rsm;[k ac:onf/
1 Who was that at the door? wHcg;0u b,folvJ/
2 What have you got in your hand? rif;&J hvufxJrSm bm&SdovJ/
3 When did you arrive? rif; b,ftcsdefu a&mufwmvJ/
4 How did he do that? tJ'gukd ol b,fvkd vkyfcJhwmvJ/
5 Which one is your car? rif;&J hum;u b,fum;vJ/
6 Where do you come from? rif;u b,fEdkifiHom;vJ/
(b) taMumif;t&mwpfckudk ar;cGef;yHkpH tBuHjyKxm;NyD; tar;cH&olxHrS yes (odk h) no ajzqkd&ef
zdwfac:aom ar;cGef;rsm;udk yes/no question rsm;[k ac:onf/
1 Have you ever been to Italy? rif; tDwvDEkdifiHukd a&mufzl;vm;/
Yes, I have. [kwfuJh a&mufzl;ygw,f/
No, I haven't. [ifhtif;/ ra&mufzl;ygbl;/
2 Will you be here next week? rif; aemufwpfywf 'DrSm &SdrSmvm;/
Yes, I'll be here. [kwfuJh uRefawmf 'DrSm &SdrSmyg/
No, I won't be here. [ifhtif;/ uRefawmf 'DrSm &SdrSmr[kwfbl;/
3 Did you break that vase? tJ'Dyef;tkd;udk rif; cGJcJhwmvm;/
Yes, I did. [kwfygw,f/ uRefawmf cGJwmyg/
No, I didn't. [ifhtif;/ uRefawmf r[kwfbl;/
(c) wpfckckudk a&G;cs,fNyD; ajzqkdEdkif&ef a&G;cs,fp&m 2 ck (odkY) 2 cktxuf ay;xm;aom ar;cGef;udk
alternative question [k ac:onf/

222
 1 Are you a Buddhist or a Christian?
rif;u Ak'¨bmom0ifvm;? 'grSr[kwf c&pf,mefbmom0ifvm;/
2 Do you want to stay here or come with us?
rif;u 'DrSm aecJhcsifwmvm;? 'grSr[kwf igwkdYeJY vkdufcsifwmvm;/
3 Is Mary's brother called Sam or Tim?
ar&D&JUtpfudkudk qrf(rf)vdkY ac:wmvm;? 'grSr[kwf wif(rf)vkdY ac:wmvm;/
4 Would you like tuna, scampi or salmon for tea?
vÇuf&nfyGJtwGuf ig;rnf;vHk; pm;rSmvm; (odkY) ykpGefwkyfaMumf (odkY)
qmvfrGefig; pm;rSmvm;/

25.2 Formation of Interrogative Sentences

 ar;cGef;0guszGJU&ef yxrOD;pGm auxiliary verb udk subject \a&SUodkY ykdY&onf/ Oyrm-
1 He is coming. → Is he coming?
ol vmrSm/ ol vmrSmvm;/
2 John will be coming. → Will John be coming?
*Refefvmvdrfhr,f/ *Refefvmr,fvdk h xifvm;/
3 I should have known that. → Should I have known that?
tJ'gudk uRefawmf odcJhoifhw,f/ tJ'gudk uRefawmf odcJhoifhovm;/

 odkYaomf wh-word u 0gus\ subject jzpfaevQif wh-word u t&if vm&onf/ NyD;rS
auxiliary verb vdkuf&onf/ Oyrm-

Who is coming? [who = subj.] [is = aux. verb]

Who will be coming? [who = subj.] [will = aux. verb]

 auxiliary verb rygvQif do (do/does/did) ukd auxiliary verb tjzpfoHk;&onf/ Oyrm-
1 He arrived last night. → Did he arrive last night?
ol raeYnu a&mufvmwm/ ol raeYnu a&mufwmvm;/
2 She knows what to do. → Does she know what to do?
bmvkyfoifhw,fqkdwmudk olr odw,f/
3 Katy speaks French very well. → How well does Katy speak French?
auwDu jyifopfpum; aumif;aumif; ajymwwfw,f/

 tar;0guswGif negative adverb jzpfonfh not (odk h) never ygvQif ¤if;onf subject \
aemufrS vkduf&rnf/

223
 1 Are you not coming with us?
rif;u igwdkYeJY rvkdufbl;vm;/
2 Will she never come?
olru b,fawmhrS rvmawmhbl;vm;/

 odkYaomf negative particle jzpfonfh -n't udk auxiliary ESifh om wGJí oHk;&onf/
1 Aren't you coming with us?
2 Won't you come with us?

 linking verb wpfckjzpfonfh be ygvQif ¤if;udk subject \ a&SUokdY ykdYjcif;jzifh ar;cGef; jyKvkyf
Ekdifonf/
1 They are in the garden. olwdk h O,smOfxJrSm &SdMuw,f/
Are they in the garden? olwdk h O,smOfxJrSm &SdMuovm;/
2 The boys were at school yesterday. om;wdk h raeYu ausmif;wufMuw,f/
Were the boys at school yesterday? om;wdk h raeYu ausmif;wufMuovm;/

 have, dare ESifh need wdu

Yk kd auxiliary verb tjzpfvnf;aumif;? main verb tjzpfvnf;aumif;
,lqEkdifonf/
1 Have you got any money? OR [have = aux. verb]
Do you have any money? [have = main verb]
Have you any money? [have = main verb]
rif;qDrSm ykdufqHygvm;/
2 Need you leave so soon? OR [need = aux. verb]
Do you need to leave so soon? [need = main verb]
tapmBuD; jyefzkdY vkdvdk hvm;/
3 Dare I say that? OR [dare = aux. verb]
Do I dare to say that? [dare = main verb]
tJ'gudk ig ajym&Jovm;/

25.3 Some and Any in Questions

 ar;cGef;0gusrsm;wGif some a&m any udkyg oHk;Ekdifonf/ ar;cGef;trsm;pkwGif any ukdoHk;onf/
odk haomf yes [k ajzqkdvdrfhrnf[k arQmfvifhNyD; ar;aom ar;cGef;rsm;wGif some ukd oHk;onf/
1 Have you taken any food with you? OR
Have you taken some food with you?
tpm;tpmawG rif;eJYtwl ygNyDvm;/

224
 2 Is there anyone in the house? OR
Is there someone in the house?
tdrfxJrSm wpfa,mufa,muf &Sdovm;/
3 Is there anywhere you could go for a rest? OR
Is there somewhere you could go for a rest?
rif; oGm;NyD; tem;,lEkdifwJh ae&mwpfck &Sdovm;/
4 Have you any money in the bank? OR
Have you some money in the bank?
rif; bPfrSm aiGpkxm;wm &Sdovm;/
5 Is anything wrong? OR
Is something wrong? jyóem &Sdovm;/
6 Did you see anyone acting suspiciously? OR
Did you see someone acting suspiciously?
rouFmzG,f&m vlwpfa,mufa,mufudk rif; awGUcJhovm;/
7 Is there anyone who could help your mother with the housework? OR
Is there someone who could help your mother with the housework?
rif;tarudk tdrftvkyfawG ulvkyfay;r,fhol &Sdovm;/
8 Have you said anything to her that might have upset her? OR
Have you said something to her that might have upset her?
olrudk pdwftaESmifht,Sufjzpfp&m wpfckckrsm; rif; ajymvdkufovm;/

25.4 Some important points about Interrogative

1. I am \ tjiif; tar;0gus yHkpHonf aren't I? jzpfygonf/
1 Am I silly? ig rdkufrJ&m usovm;/
2 Aren't I silly? ig rdkufrJ&m rusbl;vm;/

2. ought to \ ar;cGef;yHkpHrsm;rSm atmufygtwkdif; jzpfonf/

1 Ought we to tell him? uRefawmfwdkY olYudk ajymjyoifhovm;/
2 Ought we not to tell him? uRefawmfwdkY olYudk rajymjyoifhbl;vm;/
3 Oughtn't we to tell him? uRefawmfwdkY olYudk rajymjyoifhbl;vm;/

3. used to \ ar;cGef;yHkpHrsm;udk atmufwGif az:jyxm;ygonf/

1 Did he use to do it? ol tJ'gudk t&ifu vkyfavh&Sdovm;/
2 Used he to do it? ol tJ'gudk t&ifu vkyfavh&Sdovm;/
3 Did he not use to do it? ol tJ'gudk t&ifu vkyfavhr&Sdbl;vm;/
4 Didn't he use to do it? ol tJ'gudk t&ifu vkyfavhr&Sdbl;vm;/

225
25.5 Question Tags
 pum;ajym&mwGif taMumif;t&mwpfckukd ajymqkdNyD; xkdtaMumif;t&m rSefrrSefudk od&Sd&ef
twnfjyKcsuf (confirmation) udk awmif;qkdavh&SdMuonf/ Oyrm -
It's very hot, isn't it? &moDOwku ylvkdufwmaemf? rylbl;vm;/
 xkdodkY twnfjyKcsufawmif;onfh ar;cGef;wkd ]]isn't it ?}} udk question tag (odkY) tag question
[kac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk hwGif question tag wdk hudk rsOf;wm;í jyxm;ygonf/
1 It was a great party, wasn't it?
tJ'g[m BuD;us,fcrf;em;wJh ygwDwpfckyJav/ r[kwfbl;vm;/
2 We can finish this tomorrow, can't we?
uRefawmfwdkY 'gudk reufjzef NyD;Ekdifw,fav/ rNyD;Ekdifbl;vm;/
3 That's not really true, is it?
tJ'g[m wu,fawmh rrSefbl;av/ rSefvkdYvm;/
4 There's no 'f' in 'cough', is there?
cough (acghzf) qdkwJhpum;vHk;xJrSm f rygbl;av/ ygvkdYvm;/
5 Your mum enjoys gardening, doesn't she?
rif;taru O,smOfpkdufysKd;wm BudKufw,fav/ rBudKufbl;vm;/
 statement u positive jzpfvQif tag question u negative (tjiif;) jzpfrnf/
[positive statement + negative tag]

1 You are coming with us, aren't you?

rif;u igwdkYeJY vkdufrSmav/ rvkdufbl;vm;/
2 You can speak Japanese, can't you?
rif;u *syefpum; ajymwwfw,fav/ rajymwwfvkdYvm;/
3 We should go and visit your aunt, shouldn't we?
igwdkY rif;ta':qD oGm;vnfoifhw,fav/ rvnfoifhbl;vm;/
 statement u negative (tjiif;yHkpH)jzpfaevQif tag question u positive jzpf&rnf/
[negative statement + positive tag]

1 You aren't coming with us, are you?

rif;u igwdkYeJY rvkdufbl;av/ vdkuf rvkdYvm;/
2 You can't speak Japanese, can you?
rif;u *syefpum; rajymwwfygbl;/ ajymwwfvkdYvm;/
3 We shouldn't be here, should we?
igwdkY 'Dae&mrSm raeoifhbl;av/ aeoifhvdk hvm;/

226
 negative tag question \tajzudk yes [kvnf;aumif;? positive tag question \ tajzudk
no [kvnf;aumif; wzufolu ajzqkdvdrfhrnf[k arQmfvifh&if; question tag udk ar;Muonf/

1 ]'It's very hot, isn't it?}} ]]Yes, it is.}}

&moDOwku ylvu
dk w
f maemf? rylb;l vm;/ [kww
f ,f/ ylvu
dk w
f m/
2 ]]She can swim well, can't she?}} ]]Yes, she can.}}
a&aumif;aumif;ul;wwfw,fav/ [kwb
f ;l vm;/ [kww
f ,f/ ol ul;wwfw,f/
3 ]]You aren't busy, are you?}} ]]No, I am not.}}
rif; tvkyrf ½Iyyf gbl;/ ½Iyv
f kd v
h m;/ [ift
h if;/ tvkyrf ½Iyyf gbl;/
4 ]]He doesn't work hard, does he?}} ]]No, he doesn't.}}
olu rBuKd ;pm;bl;av/ BuKd ;pm;vdk v
h m;/ [ift
h if;/ olu rBuKd ;pm;bl;/
 tHhMojcif; (surprise)? oabmrusjcif; (disapproval)? xdwfvefYwkefvIyfjcif; (shock) wkdYudk
azmfjy&efvnf; question tag udk oHk;Muonf/
1 You can't speak Japanese, can you? ↑
[= I am surprised that you are able to speak Japanese.]
rif;u *syefpum; rajymwwfbl;av/ ajymwwfvdk hvm;/
(rif; *syefpum;ajymwwfwmudk ig tHhMow,f/)
2 You aren't coming with us, are you? ↑
[= I realize you're coming with us but I am surprised that you are.]
rif;u igwkdYeJY rvdkufbl;av/ vdkufrvdk hvm;/
(rif;u igwdk heJ hvkdufr,fqkdvkdY ig tHhMooGm;w,f/)
0gus 1 ESifh 2 wdk h\ tqHk;wGif toHu jrifhwufoGm;onf/ xdkodk htoH jrihfwufoGm;jcif;
(rising intonation) onf tHhMojcif;udk azmfjyjcif; jzpfygonf/

 positive statement + positive question tag yHkpHudk tHhtm;oifhjcif; (okdY) trSwfrxif
Mum;vkduf&? odvkduf&aom t&mwdkYudk xyfajymjcif;twGuf oHk;onf/
1 So you're getting married, are you? How nice!
tJ'Dawmh rif;u vufxyfawmhr,fayghav/ [kwfvm;/ [efusvkdufwm/
2 So she thinks she's going to become a doctor, does she? Well, well.
tJ'Dawmh olru q&m0efjzpfawmhr,fvkdY xifw,faygh/ [kwfvm;/
 negative statement + negative question tag yHkpHjzifh ajymqdkjcif;wGif pdwfqkd; a'goxGufoH
ygonf/
1 I see. You don't like my cooking , don't you?
uRefr odygNyD/ &Sifu uRefr&JUvuf&mudk rBudKufbl;/ rBudKufbl;rkdYvm;/

227
 2 ''Please, sir, I haven't done my homework.''
q&m? uRefawmf tdrfpm rNyD;ao;ygbl;/
''Oh, you haven't, haven't you?''
rif; tdrfpm rNyD;ao;bl;/ rNyD;ao;bl; [kwfvm;/

þ unit \ aemufydkif;wGif azmfjyxm;onfh Grammar Help 1 udk avhvmyg/

 statement wGif auxiliary verb ygvQif xkd auxiliary verb udo
k m question tag wGif jyefo;kH onf/
1 Sally can speak French, can't she? [can = aux. verb]
p,fvDu jyifopfpum; ajymwwfw,fav/ rajymwwfbl;vm;/
2 You didn't speak to Luke, did you?
rif;u vk(cf)udk pum; rajymcJhbl;av/ ajymcJhvdk hvm;/
3 You wouldn't like a puppy, would you?
rif;u acG;av;awGudk rcspfbl;av/ cspfvdk hvm;/
4 Jim should pass the exam, shouldn't he?
*sif(rf)u pmar;yGJ atmifoifhw,fav/ ratmifoifhbl;vm;/

 statement wGif auxiliary verb rygyJ main verb csnf;om ygcJhvQif question tag ü do udk
auxiliary verb tjzpf oHk;&onf/
1 You like oysters, don't you? [like = do + like]
rif;u c½k BudKufw,fav/ rBudKufbl;vm;/
2 She likes Beethoven's music, doesn't she? [likes = does + like]
olru bD;xdkAif&JUaw;*Dwudk BudKufw,fav/ r[kwfbl;vm;/
3 Harry gave you a cheque, didn't he? [gave = did + give]
[,f&Du rif;udk csufvufrSwfwpfapmif ay;w,fav/ ay;w,f r[kwfvm;/

 statement wGif be u linking verb jzpfaevQif question tag ü ¤if; be ukdom jyefoHk;onf/
1 The meeting is at ten, isn't it? [be = am/is/are/was/were]
tpnf;ta0;u 10 em&D vkyfrSmav/ r[kwfbl;vm;/
2 You are not the new secretary, are you?
rif;u twGif;a&;rSL;topf r[kwfygbl;aemf/ [kwfovm;/
3 The books were here, weren't they?
pmtkyfawGu 'Dae&mrSm &SdcJhwmav/ r&SdcJhbl;vm;/

228
 I am twGuf question tag onf aren't I? (am I not?) jzpfygonf/
I'm late, aren't I?
uRefawmf aemufusw,fav/ aemufrusbl;vm;/

 statement wGif have u main verb jzpfaevQif question tag wGif have/do ukd oHk;Ekdifonf/
1 You have two sisters, haven't you? OR
You have two sisters, don't you?
rif;rSm nDrESpfa,muf &Sdw,fav/ r&Sdbl;vm;/
2 They've no hope of winning, have they? OR
They've no hope of winning, do they?
olwdkYrSm EkdifzkdYarQmfvifhcsuf r&Sdbl;av/ &Sdvdk hvm;/

 have onf action wpfckjyKvkyfonf[k t"dyÜg,f&vQif question tag ü do ukdom oHk;&onf/
She had a long talk with him, didn't she?
olru oleJY tMumBuD; pum;ajymcJhw,fav/ rajymcJhvdk hvm;/

 statement wGif ought to ygvQif question tag wGif ought ukd oHk;&onf/
1 She ought to be here by now, oughtn't she?
tckcsdefqkd&if olr 'Dukd a&mufoifhNyDav/ r[kwfzl;vm;/
2 We ought not to be here at all, ought we?
uRefawmfwdkY 'Dukd vHk;0 rvmoifhbl;/ vmoifhvm;/

 statement wGif used to ygvQif question tag wGif did udk oHk;onf/
1 He used to live nearby, didn't he?
t&ifu 'DteD;tem;rSmyJ ol aecJhwmav/ raecJhbl;vm;/
2 They didn't use to live near here, did they?
olwdkY 'Dem;rSm t&ifu raecJhbl;av/ aecJhvdk hvm;/

 tp&Sdaom) imperative 0gusrsm;twGuf question tag wGif will you....

(Do.../Don't do...
ukdom trsm;tm;jzifh oHk;Muonf/
1 Give me a hand, will you?
2 Open the door, will you?
3 Don't forget, will you?
ighudk ulygOD;/ ulrSmvm;/
wHcg; zGifhay;yg/ zGifhay;av/
rarheJYaemf/ arhrSmvm;/

229
 statement udk Let's ESifhpvQif question tag wGif shall we ukdoHk;&onf/
1 Let's have a party, shall we? ygwDyGJvkyfMu&atmif/ vkyfrSmvm;/
2 Let's go for a walk, shall we? vrf;avQmufxGuf&atmif/ xGufrvm;/

 statement wGif (never, no, nobody, hardly, scarcely ESifh little paom) negative wordrsm;
ygvQif positive question tag ukdom oHk;onf/
1 It's no good, is it? [NOT ..... It's no good, isn't it?]
tJ'gu raumif;bl;av/ aumif;vdk hvm;/
2 She seldom smiles, does she?
She scarcely ever smiles, does she?
She hardly ever smiles, does she?
olru NyHK;cJw,fav/ [kwfvm;/
3 There is little we can do about it, is there?
tJ'geJYywfoufvkdY igwdkY vkyfEkdifwm enf;enf;yJ &Sdw,f/ [kwfvm;/

 transferred negation jzifha&;vQif positive question tag udk om oHk;&onf/

1 I don't think she is coming, is she? [= She isn't coming, is she?]
olr vmr,fvkdY uRefawmf rxifbl;/ vmrSmvm;/
2 I don't suppose they'll be able to come, will they?
[= They won't be able to come, will they?]
olwdkY vmEkdifMuvdrfhr,fvkdY uRefawmf rxifbl;/ vmMurSmvm;/

EXERCISE 25
A atmufyg0gusrsm;ukd ar;cGef;0gusjzpfatmif ajymif;í a&;om;yg/
1. My brother was there last night.
2. Your sister met her old music teacher in town yesterday.
3. He's always rude to people.
4. They were intending to come with us.
5. They have enough food with them.
6. They have some food with them.
7. The boys could have worked harder.
8. There's no solution to that problem.
9. I'm coming too.
10. You cannot see what they are doing.

230
B atmufyg statement rsm;wGif oifhawmfaom question tag rsm;udk aygif;xnfhay;yg/
1. She can't walk all that way.
2. I was sure I could do it.
3. He won't be at the meeting.
4. The dog was watching us.
5. The book belongs to your dad.
6. That tree has a lot of apples on it.
7. I shan't be able to go.
8. Sue rarely manages to get to her aerobics class.
9. I don't suppose she does nowadays.
10. Your parents used to live on that farm.

Grammar Help 1

 sentence \ subject u noun/noun phrase jzpfaevQif question tag wGif ¤if;udk pronoun
jzifh tpm;xkd;&onf/ Oyrm -
1 Louise is a lovely dancer, isn't she? [she = Louise]
vl0D;(Zf)u cspfp&maumif;wJh uacsonfrav;yg/ cspfp&mraumif;bl;vm;/
2 Both your sisters like Beethoven, don't they? [they = both your sisters]
rif;nDrESpfa,mufpvHk;u bD;xkdAif&JU aw;*Dwudk BudKufMuw,f/ rBudKufbl;vm;/
 everyone/someone udk they jzifh tpm;xkd;&onf/
1 Everyone is so very kind, aren't they? [they = everyone]
vlwkdif;u t&rf; ESpfvkdp&maumif;w,fav/ raumif;bl;vm;/
2 Well, somebody must have seen something, mustn't they?
wpfa,mufa,mufawmh wpfckckukd jrifudk jrifcJh&r,f/ jrifcJhw,f r[kwfvm;/
 everyone/someone aemufrS singular verb vku
d Nf y;D they \aemufrS plural verb vku
d o
f nfukd
owdjyKyg/
1 Everyone is so very nice to you, aren't they?
vlwkdif;u rif;tay: t&rf; aumif;Muw,fav/ raumif;Mubl;vm;/
2 Somebody here knows something about the stolen money, don't they?
'DrSm&SdaewJh wpfa,mufa,muf[m ckd;cH&wJh ydkufqHeJ h ywfoufNyD; wpfckckudk
odaew,fav/ odw,f r[kwfvm;/

231
 Glossary

aerobics ^t,f.'&kd;.bpf(cf)(pf)^ at&kd;Apf tm;upm;enf;/

cheque ^csuf(cf)^ csufvufrSwf/ [= check (U.S.)]
intonation ^tif(ef).w.'ae;.&Sif(ef)^ toH twuftus/
oyster ^'tGdKuf.(pf)wm^ urm/ rkwfaumif/
rude ^&k h..('f)^ &kdif;ysaom/
seldom ^'pJ(vf).'ef(rf)^ jyKcJpGm/ jzpfcJpGm/
suspiciously ^pyf.'(pf)yD;.&Syf.p.vD^ oHo,jzpfzG,f/

232
Unit Unit
26 A c17
tive and Passive Sentences

26.1 Active and Passive Sentences

1 They built the house in 1986.
2 The house was built in 1986.

 txufyg 0gusESpfckwkdY\ teuft"dyÜg,frSm twlwlyifjzpfonf/ odkYaomf 0gus 1 wGif verb \

yHkpHonf subject u jyKvkyfjcif;udk jyonf/ 0gus 2 wGif verb \ yHkpHonf subject u
jyKvkyfcH&jcif;udk jyonf/
 subjectu jyKvkyfjcif;ukdjyaom verb form onf active voice jzpfonf/ xkd active voice
ygaom 0gusudk active sentence [k ac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk honf active
sentence rsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 Sam broke the vase. [active sentence]
pefY(rf)aMumifh yef;tkd; uGJoGm;cJhwm/
2 Charles Dickens wrote 'A Tale of Two Cities'.
'A Tale of Two Cities' udk csm;(vfpf)'pfuif(Zf) a&;cJhwm/
3 Her enthusiasm greatly encouraged me.
olr&J h pdwftm;xufoefrIu uRefawmfhudk trsm;BuD; tm;wufapcJhw,f/
4 A fox killed all my hens.
ajracG;wpfaumifu uRefawmfhMuuftm;vHk;udk udkufpm;oGm;w,f/
 subject u jyKvkyfcH&jcif;udkjyaom verb form onf passive voice jzpfonf/ xkd passive
voice ygaom 0gusudk passive sentence [kac:onf/ atmufyg Oyrm 0guswdk honf
passive sentence rsm; jzpfMuonf/
1 The vase was broken by Sam. [passive sentence]
pefY(rf)aMumifh yef;tkd; uGJoGm;cJhwm/
2 'A Tale of Two Cities' was written by Charles Dickens.
'A Tale of Two Cities' udk csm;(vfpf)'pfuif(Zf) a&;cJhwm/
3 I was greatly encouraged by her enthusiasm.
uRefawmf trsm;BuD; tm;wufcJhwm[m olr&J h pdwftm;xufoefrIaMumifhyg/
4 All my hens were killed by a fox .
ajracG;wpfaumifu uRefawmfhMuuftm;vHk;udk pm;oGm;w,f/

233
26.2 Formation of Passive Verbs
active voice rS passive voice odkY ajymif;yHkudk atmufyg Z,m;uGufwGif avhvmyg/

Tense Active Voice Passive Voice

simple present take am taken

takes is taken
are taken

present continuous am taking am being taken

is taking is being taken
are taking are being taken

present perfect has taken has been taken

have taken have been taken

simple past took was taken

were taken

past continuous was taking was being taken

were taking were being taken

past perfect had taken had been taken

simple future will take will be taken

shall take shall be taken

future perfect will have taken will have been taken

future is going to take am going to be taken

is going to be taken
are going to be taken

can/may/must ...+ V1 can take can be taken

must take must be taken

 future continuous (will be taking) ESifh perfect continuous (has been taking) wdkYtwGuf
passive ukd oHk;cJonf/ xdk haMumifh ¤if;wdk hudk Z,m;uGufwGif azmfjyxm;jcif; r&Sdyg/

 atmufyg active ESifh passive 0guswGJrsm;udk avhvmyg/

1 We keep the key here.
The key is kept here. [V1 → am/is/are + V3]
aomhudk 'Dae&mrSm odrf;wm/ [keep → is kept]

234
 The wind shakes the branches of the trees.
The branches of the trees are shaken by the wind.
avwdkufvdk h opfyif&JUopfukdif;awGu vIyf,rf;Muw,f/
2 They are sweeping the streets. [am/is/are + V4 → am/is/are + being + V3]
The streets are being swept. [are sweeping → are being swept]
vrf;awGay:rSm wHjrufpnf; vSnf;aeMuw,f/
The Council is rebuilding the city hall.
The city hall is being rebuilt by the Council.
NrdKUawmfcef;rudk jyefaqmufaew,f/
3 They haven't washed the car. [has/have + V3 → has/have + been + V3]
The car hasn't been washed. [hasn't washed → hasn't been washed]
olwdkY um;udk a&raq;&ao;bl;/
The students have invited us to a dance.
We have been invited to a dance (by the students).
uyGJudkvmzdk h uRefawmfwdkYudk zdwfxm;w,f/
4 Someone stole the money. [V2 → was/were + V3]
The money was stolen. [stole → was stolen]

Someone stole my keys last week.

My keys were stolen.

5 They were repairing the roads. [was/were +V4 → was/were + being + V3]
The roads were being repaired. [were repairing → were being repaired]
My parents were discussing my future.
My future was being discussed by my parents.
uRefawmfh rdbawGu uRefawmfh&JUtem*wfudk aqG;aEG;aeMuw,f/

6 The club had wasted a lot of money. [had + V3 → had + been + V3]
A lot of money had been wasted by the club.
uvyfu ykdufqHtrsm;BuD;udk jzKef;wD;ypfvkdufw,f/
7 I will tell you when the time comes. [will + V1 → will be + V3]
You will be told when the time comes. [will tell → will be told]
tcsdefwef&if rif;udk ig ajymjyr,f/
8 We will have done everything by Tuesday.
Everything will have been done by Tuesday.
t*FgaeYqkd&if tm;vHk; vkyfNyD;om; jzpfvdrfhr,f/

235
 9 Who are you going to invite? [going to + V1 → going to be + V3]
Who is going to be invited? [going to invite → going to be invited]
b,folawGudk zdwfrSmwkef;/
10 You should type the letter. [should + V1 → should be + V3]
The letter should be typed.
pmudk uGefysLwmeJY ½kdufoifhw,f/
11 We had to count the money. [had to + V1 → had to be + V3]
The money had to be counted.
ydkufqHawGudk a&wGuf&r,f/

 active verb \ object onf passive verb \ subject jzpfygonf/ Oyrm -
They built this house in 1986. [this house = obj. of active verb]
This house was built in 1986. [this house = subj. of passive verb]

 passive sentence trsm;pkwGif active verb \ subject udk azmfjyavhr&Sdyg/ xdk subject udk
passive sentence wGif azmfjyvkdvQif by + noun yHkpHudk oHk;onf/ xdk noun udk agent [k
ac:onf/ Oyrm -
This house was built in 1986 by my grandfather.
[my grandfather (noun phrase) = agent]

 verb wpfck\aemufwGif direct object ESifh indirect object ESpfckvHk; vkdufygEkdifvQif passive
0gusyHkpH (2)rsKd; a&;Ekdifonf/
1 Shegaveher sisterthe car. [active] [give sb sth]
S V I.O. D.O.

2 Shegavethe carto her sister. [active] [give sth to sb]

S V D.O. prep. + I.O.

1 Her sister was given the car. [passive] [sb is given sth]
2 The car was given to her sister. [passive] [sth is given to sb]

txufyg passive 0gusESpfckwGif person jzifhtpjyKonfh passive 0gus 1 udk ykdí toHk;
jyKMuonf/ atmufyg0gusrsm;udkvnf; avhvmyg/
1 We gave the police the information. [active] [give sb sth]
We gave the information to the police. [active] [give sth to sb]

The police were given the information. [passive] [sb is given sth]
The information was given to the police. [passive] [sth is given to sb]
&JwyfzGJUukd owif;ay;cJhw,f/

236
 2 They offered me the job. [active] [offer sb sth]
I was offered the job. [passive] [sb is offered sth]
tJ'Dtvkyfudk vufcHzkdY uRefawmfhtm; urf;vSrf;w,f/
3 We will give you plenty of time. [active]
You will be given plenty of time. [passive]
rif;udk tcsdeftrsm;BuD; ay;yghr,f/
4 Has anybody shown you the new machine? [show sb sth]
Have you been shown the new machine? [sb is shown sth]
rif;udk puftopf jyNyD;NyDvm;/
5 The judge fined him $ 250. [NOT .. The judge fined $ 250 to him.]
He was fined $ 250. [NOT .......... $ 250 was fined to him.]
olYudk a':vmESpf&mhig;q,f 'PfaiG½dkufvkdufw,f/
6 He explained the problem to me. [NOT.. He explained me the problem.]
The problem was explained to me. [NOT.... I was explained the problem.]

 active sentence rS object ESihf object complement wdo

Yk nf passive sentence wGif subject
ESifh subject complement toD;oD; jzpfoGm;Muonf/
1 Other children called him stupid. [him = obj.] [stupid = obj. cpm.]
He was called stupid by other children. [stupid = subj. cpm.]
olYudk tjcm;uav;awGu iwHk;vdkY ac:Muw,f/
2 They elected Mrs Sanderson President. [elect sb +noun]
Mrs Sanderson was elected President. [sb is elected +noun]
[NOT ..... President was elected Mrs Sanderson.]
rpöpfpJ(ef)'gqefudk Ouú|tjzpf a&G;aumufwifajr§mufcJhMuw,f/
3 We all regarded Kathy as an expert. [regard sb as sth]
Kathy was regarded as an expert. [sb is regarded as sth]
auoDudk uRrf;usifynm&Siftjzpf rSwf,lMuw,f/
4 You've made the house beautiful. [make sth +adj.]
The house has been made beautiful. [sth is made +adj.]
tdrfudk vSoGm;atmif jyifvkdufNyD/
5 Queen Victoria considered him a genius. [consider sb +noun]
He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria.
Apfwkd;&D,m bk&ifrBuD;u olYudk ÓPf&nf tvGefxufjrufolvdkY ,lqw,f/

237
 active sentence wGif see, make, help, hear paom verb rsm;\ aemufrS object +
infinitive without to vkdufygEkdifonf/ passive sentence wGif infinitive without to twGuf
to-infinitive ukd oHk;&onf/
1 I saw him come out of the house. [see sb do sth]
He was seen to come out of the house. [sb is seen to do sth]
ol tdrfxJu xGufvmwmudk jrifcJhw,f/
2 They made him tell them everything. [make sb do sth]
He was made to tell them everything. [sb is made to do sth]
tm;vHk; rcRif;rcsefajymjyzdk h ol hudk ckdif;w,f/
 tcsKdU active sentence rsm;wGif noun-clause u object tjzpf &Sdaeaomtcg ¤if; clause
twGuf it udk preparatory subject tjzpf toHk;jyKNyD; passive sentence udk a&;Ekdifonf/
1 They all thought that she was a spy. [think that]
It was thought that she was a spy. [it is thought that]
olr[m olvQKdwpfa,muf jzpfw,fvkdY ,lq&w,f/
2 We felt that he was the right man for the job. [feel that]
It was felt that he was the right man for the job. [it is felt that]
ol[m tJh'DtvkyftwGuf toifhawmfqHk;olvdkY ,lqygw,f/
3 The newspapers say that his company is in trouble.
It is said that his company is in trouble.
His company is said to be in trouble.
olYukrÜPD 'ku©a&mufaeNyDvkdY owif;pmawGu qkdMuw,f/
4 People say that elephants have good memories.
It is said that elephants have good memories.
Elephants are said to have good memories.
qifawG[m rSwfÓPfaumif;w,fvdk h qdkMuw,f/
 transitive phrasal verb wdkYudk passive voice jyKvkyfEkdifonf/
1 They put out the fire. [put out = transitive phrasal verb]
The fire was put out. [put out sth]
rD;ukd Ni§drf;owfcJhMuw,f/ [sth is put out]

2 They knocked down the building last year. [knock down sth]
The building was knocked down last year. [sth is knock down]
tJ'DtaqmufttHkudk rESpfu NzdKcsvkdufw,f/

238
 3 Have you sent for the doctor? [send for = transitive phrasal verb]
Has the doctor been sent for?
q&m0ef yifhckdif;vdkufNyDvm;/
 passive 0guszGJU&mwGif be tpm; get udk tulBud,mtjzpfvnf; oHk;Ekdifonf/ Oyrm -
1 Be careful or you'll get hurt. [will get hurt = will be hurt]
owdxm;/ ckdufrdvdrfhr,f/
2 They'll get caught one of these days. [will get caught = will be caught]
rMumcif &ufydkif;twGif; olwdkYudk zrf;rdvdrfhr,f/
3 We got beaten four-nil. [got beaten = were beaten]
(4)*kd;(0) eJY igwkdY ½IH;oGm;w,f/

 get udkoHk;onfh passive sentence rsm;udk informal English wGif ydkí oHk;onf/ wpfa,muf
a,muf^wpfckcktwGuf jzpfysufaeonfh aumif;aom^qkd;aom t&mrsm;udk azmfjy&mwGif
¤if;0gusrsm;udk oHk;onf/
1 Luckily, I got accepted at art school.
uHaumif;vdk h yef;csDtEkynmausmif;rSm uRefawmf 0ifcGifh&cJhwm/
2 Lots of people get killed on the roads, unfortunately.
uHraumif;taMumif;rvSvkdY vrf;awGay:rSm toufqHk;½IH;Mu&w,f/

 passive t"dyÜg,f &Sdaomfvnf; active voice jzifhoHk;aom Bwd,mtcsKdU &Sdygonf/

1 Her last record is selling in huge numbers.
[= It is being sold in huge numbers.]
olr&JUaemufqHk;ay:"mwfjym;u trsm;BuD; a&mif;ae&w,f/
2 This sentence doesn't read quite right.
[= When it is read, it isn't right.]
'D0gusudk zwfMunfh&wm odyfrrSefcsifbl;/
3 This sweater washes all right in warm water.
[= It can be washed in warm water.]
'DqG,fwmudk a&aEG;aEG;eJY avQmfvkdY&w,f/

26.3 Verbs which cannot be passive

 object rvkdaom intransitive verb rsm;udk passive voice rvkyfEkdifyg/ atmufyg active
0gusrsm;udk passive 0gustjzpfodkY rajymif;Ekdifyg/

239
 1 We stayed at home. [stay = Vi]
uRefawmfwkdY tdrfrSmyJ aecJhMuw,f/
2 We live in Mandalay. [live = Vi]
uRefawmfwkdYu rEÅav;rSm aeMuw,f/
 linking verb rsm;udk passive voice rvkyfEkdifyg/ atmufyg 0gusrsm;udk passive 0gustjzpfodkY
rajymif;Ekdifyg/
1 The problem will become more urgent. [become = linking verb]
'Djyóemudk csufcsif; ukdifwG,fajz&Sif;zkdY vdktyfvmvdrfhr,f/
2 The streets seem empty. [seem = linking verb]
'Dvrf;awGay:rSm vloGm;vlvm enf;yHk&w,f/
 have (=own), lack, resemble, suit paom transitive verb tcsKdUudk passive voice vkyfí
r&yg/ ¤if; verb wkdYonf action verb rsm; r[kwfMuyJ state verb rsm;om jzpfMuaomaMumifh
passive yHkpHa&;í r&jcif; jzpfygonf/
1 My friend had a sports car. [NOT... A sports car was had by my friend.]
uRefawmfholi,fcsif;rSm NydKifum;wpfpif; &Sdw,f/
2 The player lacks ability. [NOT... Ability is lacked by the player.]
tJ'Dtm;upm;orm;rSm pGrf;aqmif&nf jynfhjynfh00 r&Sdbl;/
3 That colour suits you. [NOT... You are suited by that colour.]
tJ'Dta&mifu rif;eJY vkdufw,f/
 odkYaomf believe, contain, include, intend, know, like, love, mean, need, owe, own,
understand, want paom state verb tcsKdUudk passive voice jyKvkyfEkdifygonf/
1 The business is owned by an American company.
'DpD;yGm;a&;vkyfief;udk tar&duefukrÜPDwpfcku ydkifwm/
2 These old postcards are wanted by collectors.
'DwHqdyfacgif;ta[mif;awGudk pkwJholawGu vdkcsifMuw,f/

26.4 The use of the passive

 rnfonfhtcsdeftcgwGif active voice ukd oHk;&rnf? rnfonfhtajctaewGif passive voice
udk oHk;&rnf ponfwkdYudk ausmif;om;? ausmif;olwdkYtaejzifh od&rnf/
1 jyKvkyfol agent ukd rodaomtcg
2 agent onf trsm;jynfol jzpfaomtcg
3 agent udk azmfjy&ef ta&;rBuD;aomtcg
4 agent udk xif&Sm;pGmodEkdifaomtcgwkdYwGif passive ukd oHk;Muonf/ Oyrm -
240
 1 My office was broken into when I was on holiday. (jyKvkyfoludk rodyg/)
uRefawmf tm;vyf&ufc&D;xGufaewkef; ½kH;cef; azmufxGif;cHcJh&w,f/
2 An order form can be found on page 2.
trSmpm yHkpHpm&Gufudk pmrsufESm (2)wGif awGUEkdifonf/
3 He is thought to be somewhere in Russia.
ol[m ½k&Sm;EkdifiH wpfae&m&mrSm &Sdaew,fvkdY ,lq&w,f/
4 She is being treated in hospital.
olru aq;½kHrSm aq;0g;ukorI cH,laew,f/
(jyKvkyfol(agent)onf aq;bufqkdif&m 0efxrf;rsm; jzpfonfrSm xif&Sm;ygonf/)

 vkyfukdifyHktqifhqifh (procedure) ? vkyfief;pOf (process) wdk h\ tcsuftvufwdkYudk a&;om;

azmfjy&mwGif agent udk csefxm;vkdaomaMumifh passive voice udk oHk;onf/ Oyrm -
1 Nuclear waste must be disposed of carefully.
EsLuvD;,m;tnpftaMu;rsm;udk *½kwpkdufpGefYypf&rnf/
2 It can be stored as a liquid in stainless-steel containers which are
encased in concrete.
¤if;wdkYudk uGefu&pfjzifh tjynfht0 iHkxm;onfh oHacs;rwufaom pwD;
av;axmifh uefrsm;twGif;ü t&nftjzpf okdavSmifxm;Ekdifonf/
 jyKvkyfolu rnfolrSef; rodaomfvnf; people, somebody/someone, something, they,
we, you ponfh subject wdkYESifhpaom active sentence wkdYudk pum;ajym&mwGif oHk;Muonf/
okdYaomf formal English wGif agent udk razmfjyvkdaomaMumifh passive ukdom oHk;ygonf/
1 Somebody will give you the questions a week before the exam.
You will be given the questions a week before the exam. (Formal)
pmar;yGJrwkdifcif wpfywftvdkrSm rif;udk ar;cGef;awG ay;vdrfhr,f/
2 They're installing the new computer system next month.
The new computer system is being installed next month. (Formal)
aemufvrS uGefysLwmpepftopfudk wyfqifrSm/
 t*FvdyfpmwGif rdrdajymvkdaom t"du taMumif;t&macgif;pOf (topic) udk 0gus\a&SUqHk;wGif
xm;í a&;avh&Sdonf/ wpfcgwpf&HwGif passive ukd oHk;jcif;jzifh topic udk 0gus\a&SUqHk;wGif
xm;í a&;Edkifonf/
1 Thomson discovered the electron. [Thomson = subject]
2 The electron was discovered by Thomson. [the electron = subject]

yxr0gus\ topic onf Thomson jzpfNyD; 'kwd,0gus\ topic onf electron jzpfygonf/

241
 long subject rsm;udk 0gus\aemufqHk;wGifxm;í a&;jcif;u ydí
k obm0usonf/ Oyrm -
1 Don's decision to give up his job and move to Sydney surprised me.
I was surprised by Don's decision to give up his job and move to Sydney.
tvkyfuxGufNyD; qpf'eDNrdKUudk ajymif;r,fqkdwJh 'Gef(ef)&JU qHk;jzwfcsufukd
uRefawmf tHhtm;oifhrdw,f/

EXERCISE 26
tulBw,
d m be udk toHk;jyKí atmufyg0gusrsm;ukd active rS passive odkY ajymif;ay;yg/
Example
Question: The government should ban protests like that.
Answer: Protests like that should be banned by the government.

1. Everyone must wear a safety helmet on the building site.

Safety helmets must _____ _____ on the building site.

2. We always sang the school song on Friday mornings.

The school song _____ always _____ on Friday mornings.

3. Vistors must leave their footwear at the door of the temple.

Footwear must _____ _____ by visitors at the door of the temple.

4. One can often see flocks of geese flying south at this time of year.
Flocks of geese can often _____ _____ flying south at this time of year.

5. You should plant bulbs in the late autumn.

Bulbs should _____ _____ in the late autumn.

6. Dr Hunter gave the boy $ 5.

The boy _____ _____ $ 5 by Dr Hunter.

7. You ought to take that dog to the vet.

That dog ought to _____ _____ to the vet.

8. How soon will you finish the job?

How soon will the job _____ _____ ?

9. Crocodiles often seize the wildebeest as they cross the river.

The wildebeest _____ often _____ by crocodiles as they cross the river.

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10. Bells PLC have donated $ 50,000 to a local hospital.
$ 50,000 _____ _____ _____ by Bells PLC to a local hospital.

11. Bells PLC have donated $ 50,000 to a local hospital.

A local hospital _____ _____ _____ $ 50,000 by Bells PLC.

12. Someone ought to do something about this mess.

Something ought to _____ _____ about this mess.

 Glossary

autumn ^'atm.wef(rf)^ aqmif;OD;&moD/

ban ^bef h(ef)^ wm;jrpfydwfyifonf/ ^bJ(ef) U.S.^
bulb ^bwf(vf)(bf)^ ajratmuf yifpnfzk/
dispose ^'pf(pf).'ydk h(Zf)^ pGef hypfonf/
elect ^tD.'vuf(cf)(wf)^ rJay; a&G;cs,fonf/
empty ^'tJ(rf).wD^ Avm/ tvGwf/
encase ^tif(ef).'ach(pf)^ zHk;tkyfxm;onf/
encourage ^tif(ef).'um;.&pf(*sf)^ tm;ay;onf/ tm;wufaponf/
enthusiasm ^tif(ef).'(of)&l;.ZD.,m.Zif(rf)^ pdwftm;xufoefrI/
expert ^'tuf(uf)(pf).ywf(wf)^ uRrf;usifol/ ynm&Sif/
flock ^(zf)avmh(cf)^ iSuftkyf/
genius ^'*sD;.eD.,yf(pf)^ ÓPf&nfxufjrufol/ xl;cRefol/
goose ^*l;..(pf)^ bJief;/ [geese (plural)^*D;..(pf)^]
lack ^vJh(cf)^ csdK hwJhonf/ uif;rJhonf/
mess ^ruf(pf)^ npfayjcif;/ &IyfyGjcif;/
protest ^(yf)&kd;.'wuf(pf)(wf)^ uef huGufqE´jyjcif;/
regard ^&D.'*wf('f)^ oabmxm;onf/
seize ^pD;..(Zf)^ zrf;qD;onf/
spy ^(pf)ydkif;..^ olvQdK/
sweep ^pGd..(yf)^ wHjrufvSnf;onf/
unfortunately ^tef(ef).'azm.cs.euf(wf).vD^ uHqdk;csifawmh/
urgent ^'tm;.*sJ h(ef)(wf)^ taqmwvQif/
vet ^Auf(wf)^ wd&pämefaq;uk q&m0ef/
wildebeest ^'0D(vf).'.bD;(pf)(wf)^ tmz&duwdkufrS orifwpfrsdK;/

243
 Quick Summary

1 In terms of their clause structure, there are four types of sentence: simple,
compound, complex and compound-complex. [Unit 23]

2 A simple sentence is a sentence in which there is no co-ordination or subordination

of clauses.

3 A compound sentence is a sentence that consists of two or more co-ordinate

clauses.

4 A complex sentence is a sentence that consists of one main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses.

5 A compound-complex sentence is a sentence that consists of two or more main

clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

6 A negative sentence is a sentence that has a negative word in it, such as not,
never, no-one, nowhere or nothing. [Unit 24]
A positive sentence is a sentence that does not have a negative word in it.

7 Transferred negation occurs when a negative word is attached to the first verb in
a sentence but really applies to the second verb.

8 An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question. [Unit 25]

There are three main types of interrogative sentence: wh-questions, yes/no
questions and alternative questions.

Wh-questions are formed with words such as who?, what? and why?

Yes/no questions expect an answer that makes a choice between alternatives.

9 A question tag, or tag question, is a short question used at the end of a sentence
to ask the listener to confirm that they agree with what has been said or that what
has been said is true.

10 A verb is said to be in the active voice when the subject of the verb is the person or
thing that performs the action of the verb. [Unit 26]

11 A verb is said to be in the passive voice when its subject is the person or thing that
receives the action of the verb.

244
ANSWER KEY 2. Subject The old lady; verb chased.
3. Subject My uncle; verb 's coming.
Exercise 1 4. Subject the children; verb are.
A 5. Subject the children; verb are going.
The following examples are complete sentences: 6. Subject The rain; verb stops.
2, 5, 7, 10, 11, 15, 18. 7. Subject that; verb is.
B 8. Subject she; verb did do.
1. Dec. 2. Int. 3. Imp 4. Opt. 5. Int. 6. Dec. 9. Subject That; verb is.
7. Int. 8. Dec. 9. Int. 10. Opt. 11. Dec. 12. Dec. 10. Subject That mistake; verb is.
13. Int. 14. Imp. 15. Exc. 16. Int. 17. Imp. 18. Dec. 11. Subject That; verb would be.
19. Imp. 20. Int. 21. Int. 22. Exc. 12. Subject you; verb Do know; Subject we; verb 're
going.
Exercise 2 E
A 1. would have done. 2. is coming. 3. Should be. 4.
1. You. 2. Bill. 3. I. 4. we. 5. My arm. 6. The day. can say. 5. could be. 6. will work. 7. Is. 8. shall stop.
7. we. 8. My love for her. 9. you two. 10. it. F
11. performing in a concert. 1. There was no-one waiting for them.
12. Memories of last year's holiday. 2. It is of no importance what you think.
B 3. It came as no surprise that we were alone in the
1. Subject She ; action performed by subject. house.
2. Subject Michael ; action performed by subject. 4. There may come a time when racial prejudice no
3. Subject James ; action not performed by subject. longer exists.
4. Subject My aunt ; action performed by subject. 5. There's something wrong.
5. Subject I; action not performed by subject. 6. It would be a waste of time telling her that.
6. Subject This watch ; action not performed by 7. There were two men standing in the doorway.
subject. 8. Was there anyone I know at the meeting?
7. Subject I ; action not performed by subject.
8. Subject Esther ;action performed by subject. Exercise 3
9. Subject He ; action performed by subject. A

10. Subject The door ; action performed by subject. 1. Subject The dog; verb was chased.
C 2. Subject She; the verb should be was, not were.
1. Predicate are very popular in Britain. 3. Subject you; verb were.
2. Predicate Do... speak Spanish. 4. Subject these two boys; the verb should be Are,
3. Predicate What an expense... are nowadays. not Is.
4. Predicate just do not understand your reasoning. 5. Subject They; verb became.
5. Predicate What harm has... ever done to you. 6. Subject The two of us; verb are going.
6. Predicate had been abandoned by the thieves 7. Subject they; verb do want.
several miles away. 8. Subject They; the verb should be were; not was.
7. Predicate Suddenly, down came. 9. Subject It; verb gives.
8. Predicate 'll see you home after the meeting. 10 Subject We; the verb should be don't, not doesen't.
9. Predicate Which room is... in. B
10. Predicate moves very slowly along these roads 1. were. 2. like. 3. have. 4. don't. 5. are. 6. has.
during the rush hour. 7. are. 8. is.
D C
1. Subject She; verb made. 1. dye. 2. needs. 3. has. 4. have. 5. was. 6. believes.

245
7. has. 8. are. 9. are. ('A thousand' is a plural number, E
so the verb must be plural.) 10. was. 11. are ('a (These answers are only examples of what you might
dozen' is a plural number). 12. seems ('a dozen have written. There are many possible correct
eggs' is considered a single quantity). 13. were. answers.)
14. was (single quantity). 15.were (separate 1. May was reading a book.
individuals). 2. Peter watched the teacher carefully.
D 3. I used to teach maths in a high school.
1. are. 2. is. 3. terrify. 4. was. 5. are. 6. were. 4. Simon is upstairs writing a letter.
7. were. 8. are. 9. is. 10. was. 11. is. 5. We won the match!
12. are. 13. were. 14. is. 15. were. 6. Mum's in the kitchen baking cakes.
7. Have you finished your homework yet?
Exercise 4 8. Don't play football in the street.
A
1. Direct object her pencil; indirect object Sarah. Exercise 5
2. Direct object my answer; indirect object you. A
3. Direct object a story; indirect object me. 1. sensible. 2. false. 3. crazy. 4. absolutely rid-
4. Direct object some new pens; indirect object me. iculous. 5. a disgrace. 6. completely mad. 7. What
5. Direct object the money; indirect object James. a silly idea. 8. a dedicated follower of all the latest
6. Direct object a beautiful cake; indirect object her fashions and fads. 9. a soldier. 10. How much.
grandmother. B
7. Direct object his spots; indirect object the doctor. 1. Subject- complement a complete disaster.
8. Direct object first aid ; indirect object 2. Direct object the flowers.
schoolchildren. 3. Subject-complement extremely silly.
9. Direct object some flowers; indirect object your 4. Subject-complement nice.
wife. 5. Direct object 500 grams of flour.
10. Direct object that book; indirect object me. 6. Subject-complement 40 centimetres by 65
B centimetres.
1. ... to Sarah. 2. ... to James... 3. ... for her 7. Subject-complement extremely difficult.
grandmother. 4. ...to me. 5. ... for his wife. 6. ... to the 8. Direct object anything.
rioters. 7. ... to the government. 8. ... for me, ... 9. ... 9. Direct object the ginger.
of our experts. 10. ... to hedgehogs. 10. Subject-complement silghtly bitter.
C C
1. Are coming - intransitive. 1. his own son - object; prime minister - object-
2. had learnt - transitive. complement.
3. Do speak - transitive. 2. me - object; very happy - object-complement.
4. was speaking - intranistive; saw - transitive. 3. the plaster - object; smooth - object-complement.
5. are singing - intransitive. 4. her hair - object; red - object-complement.
6. are singing - transitive. 5. your hair - object; shorter - object-complement.
7. 's working - intransitive; is painting - transitive. 6. her - object; completely mad - object-
8. are going - intransitive. complement.
D 7. that - object; very funny - object-complement.
1. Ditransitive. 2. Monotransitive. 3. Monotransitive. 8. the wall - object; about two metres high - object-
4. Ditranistive. 5. Monotranistive. 6. Ditranistive. complement.
7. Monotransitive. 8. Ditransitive. 9. the hall floor - object; a greeny-blue colour -
object-complement.

246
10 all the tables - object; clean - object-complement. C
1. in the other room - where.
D 2. in bed - where; all night - when.
1. Direct object a bungalow; indirect object Nancy's 3. to the best of your ability - how.
parents. 4. very foolishly - how.
2. Direct object me; object-complement a liar. 5. by the end of the month - when.
3 Direct object my curries; object-complement hot. 6. with care - how.
4. Direct object the sad news; indirect object her 7. so badly - how much; to the party - where.
parents. 8. All over town - where; in the street - where.
5. Direct object a job; indirect object you. 9. rather fast - how; very carefully - how.
6. Direct object a pen; indirect object me. 10. Normally - when; by bus - how.
7. Direct object Carlos; object-complement the D
shop steward. 1. Adjunct (says how). 2. Adjunct (says how).
8. Direct object Carlos; object-complement very 3. Adjunct (says when). 4. Conjunct. 5. Conjunct.
angry. 6. Adjunct (says how). 7. Conjunct. 8. Adjunct
(says how far). 9. Conjunct. 10. Conjunct.
Exercise 6
A Exercise 7
1. in a very pompous manner. A
2. on a tree; with a knife. 1. Verb slot empty.
3. in India; for several years. 2. Subject slot empty.
4. far too quickly. 3. Direct object slot empty.
5. every day. 4. Adverbial slot empty.
6. When; here. 5. Verb slot empty.
7. in the garden; on balmy summer evenings. 6. Direct object slot empty.
8. five miles away. 7. Subject slot empty.
9. so far; without success. 8. Verb slot empty.
10. What ...in. 9. Verb slot empty (if 'computers' is the subject of
B the sentence) OR subject and verb slot
1. in silence - adjunct (saying how). empty (if 'computers' is in the direct object slot)
2. Naturally - disjunct (making a comment); 10. Direct object slot empty.
by car - adjunct (saying how). 11. Adverbial slot empty (if the sentence is saying
3. Suddenly - adjunct (saying how).
4. angrily - adjunct (saying how). where the cup was) OR complement slot empty
5. Briefly - disjunct (making a comment); (if the sentence is saying what the cup was like).
next - adjunct (saying when). 12. Complement slot empty.
6. briefly - adjunct (saying how).
7. definitely - adjunct (asserting the truth of the rest B
of the statement); here - adjunct (saying where); (The following sentences give examples of
tomorrow - adjunct(saying when). possible answers. There are, of course, many
8. To be perfectly honest - disjunct (making a other possibilities.)
comment); -n't - adjunct (saying 'not' ). 1. My grandmother goes to church every Sunday
9. very seriously - adjunct(saying how). morning.
10. Seriously - disjunct (making a comment); 2. Tom was in a foul mood.
by next week - adjunct (saying when). 3. Sue bought new shoes yesterday.

247
4. Sam put his bike in the garage.
5. The two girls often travel by bus.
6. Roberta likes maths.
7. It rained last night.
8. Tom always buys a newspaper to read on the
bus.
9. Computers are very useful. OR I find computers
very useful.
10. Did the dog catch rabbit?
11. The coffee cup was on the table. OR The coffee
cup was very hot.
12. He often seemed a little anxious.
C phrase; includes both the verb and part of the direct
Answers open-ended.
Exercise 8
1. screamed - verb functioning as predicator.
2. doctors - noun functioning as subject-
complement.
3. you - pronoun functioning as subject;
gas - noun functioning as direct object.
4. silly - adjective functioning as subject-
complement.
5. still - adverb functioning as adverbial.
6. pinned - verb functioning as predicator.
7. odd - adjective functining as subject-
complement.
8. Otto - noun functioning as subject;
desperately - adverb functioning as adverbial.
9. never - adverb functioning as adverbial.
10. 's - verb functioning as predicator.
11. When - adverb functioning as adverbial.
12. Open - verb functioning as predicator;
now - adverb functioning as adverbial.
13. What - pronoun functioning as direct object.
14. Breakfast - noun functioning as subject; ready -
adjective functioning as subject-complement.
15. soon - adverb functioning as adverbial;
here - adverb functioning as adverbial.
Exercise 10
A complement the weather.
1. Phrase. 2. Not a phrase. 3. Phrase. 4. Phrase.
5. Not a phrase. 6. Phrase. 7. Phrase.
8. Not a phrase. 9. Not a phrase. 10. Phrase.
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11. Phrase. 12. Phrase. 13. Phrase. 14. Not a
phrase. 15. Phrase. 16. Not a phrase.
B
1. Complement. 2. Not a phrase; include part of
the verb and an adverbial. 3. Adverbial. 4. Subject.
5. Not a phrase; includes both the subject and the
verb. 6. Verb. 7. Adverbial. 8. Not a phrase;
includes both the verb and the complement. 9 . Not
a phrase; includes both the subject and the verb.
10. Subject. 11. Adverbial. 12. Direct object. 13.
Adverbial. 14. Not a pharse; includes part of the verb
and the direct object. 15. Direct object. 16. Not a
object.
C
1. Verb phrase; head consider.
2. Noun phrase; head calves.
3. Adjective pharse; head unjustified.
4. Prepositional pharse; head in.
5. Prepositional pharse; head by.
6. Adjective pharse; head bigger.
7. Noun pharse; head whisky.
8. Noun pharse; head exercise.
9. Adjective pharse; head exhausted.
10. Noun pharse; head boys.
11. Verb pharse; head caused.
12. Noun pharse; head allegation.
13. Verb pharse; head been.
14. Prepositional pharse; head against.
15. Noun pharse; head thought.
16. Adverb pharse; head quickly.
17. Noun pharse; head attempt.
18. Verb pharse; head believe.
19. Adjective pharse; head big.
20. Noun pharse; head boots.
Exercise 11
A
1. In the corner - head in, complement the corner,
on a blanket - head on, compelment a blanket.
2. because of the weather - head because of,
3. In Britain - head in, complement Britain.
4. Where... to - head to, complement where.
5. for her reply - head for, complement her reply.
6. Amongst other things - head amongst, 5. at Tom's behaviour - complement of surprised.
complement other things. 6. at full speed - adjunct.
7. On behalf of my family - head on behalf of 7. at the delay - complement of pleased.
complement my family; for your good wishes - 8. about it - complement of doubt.
head for, complement your good wishes. 9. behind them - modifying' noise'.
8. Without much trouble - head without, 10. from neglect - complement of suffered.
complement much trouble. 11. in that box - adjunct (but remember that
9. Apart from the kitchen - head apart from, obligatory adverbials like this are often called
complement the kitchen. complements:)
10. With increasing alarm - head with, complement 12. with pride - complement of glowing.
increasing alarm.
11. from under the bed - head from, complement Exercise 12
under the bed; head under, complement the bed. A
12. into the man's hand - head into, complement the 1. very sensible. 2. very good. 3. totally lost.
man's hand. 4. absolutely impervious. 5. completely covered.
6. very proud. 7. really surprised. 8. so calm.
B 9. extremely small. 10. utterly exhausted.
1. in silence - adjunct. B 2. for you. 4. to criticism. 5. in golden leaves.
2. To their horror - disjunct; from his grasp - adjunct; 6. of our children. 7. at your behaviour.
to the floor - adjunct. 8. about all this.
3. for a few minutes - adjunct; C 1. first-past-the-post 2. most sensible
with great interest - adjunct. 3. all-in-one 4. balance-of-payments
4. in front of me - modifying 'man' 5. totally normal 6. strangely familiar
5. off the shoulder - adjunct. 7. never-to-be-forgotten 8. oh-my-goodness
6. off-the-shoulder - modifying 'dress'
7. in the house - adjunct; on the corner - modifying Exercise 13
'house'; of the street - modifying 'corner'. A
8. in the least - modifying 'not'. 1. Numeral, adjective phrase (adverb+adjective),
9. in a pile - adjunct (says how the clothes were noun.
lying; on the floor - adjunct (says where the 2. Possessive, noun.
clothes were lying). 3. Determiner, adjective, descriptive noun, noun.
10. in that pile - modifying 'clothes'; 4. Determiner, numeral, noun.
on the floor - modifying 'pile'. 5. Determiner, adjective, descriptive noun, noun.
6. Determiner, adjective, descriptive noun, noun.

11. In my opinion - disjunct. 7. Numeral, adjective, descriptive noun, noun

12. at the same time - adjunct. 8. Quantifier, adjective, noun.
13. In that case - conjunct. 9. Determiner, adjective, noun.
14. with a broken wing - modifying 'bird'; 10. Predeterminer, determiner, adjective, noun.
12. Numeral, adjective, noun.
in the garden - adjunct (says where the bird is). 13. Predeterminer, determiner, adjective, noun.
C 14 Determiner, numeral, numeral, noun
1. to his lips - adjunct. B
2. to the general rule - complement of exception. 1. ....... a small stone statue ---
3. on the bus - adjunct. 3. ....... my new red car.
4. on the bus - modifying 'man' 4. ....... a square brown cardboard box.
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6. ....... a famous old Spanish painitng. 11. Her marriage to a rich man was not a happy one.
7. ....... a big green caterpillar ... 12. She was sacked for disloyalty to the company.

C F
1. ....... a well -cared-for dog. 1. Complement of preposition.
2. ....... well cared for. 2. Direct object.
3. ....... badly damaged ... 3. Subject.
4. ....... a well-laid-out garden. 4. Complement of preposition.
5. ....... a superbly laid out garden. 5. Indirect object.
6. ....... a hastily constructed hut. 6. Direct object.
7. ....... well treated ... 7. Object-complement
8. Best known... 8. Subject-complement.
9. Complement of perposition.
D 10. Indirect object.
1........ a very matter-of-fact way. 11. Direct object.
2........ his Sunday-go-to-meeting suit. ('Sunday-go- 12. Complement of preposition.
to-meeting' clothes are your best clothes, the 13. Direct object.
ones you wear when going to church, to 14. Direct object.
important meetings, etc)
3. ....... over fifty pages long. Exercise 14
4. ....... her holier-than-thou attitude. A
5. ....... on the spot. 1. last year - noun phrase
6. ....... on - the-spot fines ... 2. at the last minute - prepositional phrase.
7. ....... step by step. 3. very slowly - adverb phrase.
8. Easy - to - follow step-by-step instructions. 4. in 1874 - prepositional phrase.
9. ....... a one-off never-to-be-repeated offer. 5. far too loud - adverb phrase.
10. ....... a What-are-you-doing-here? look--- (Notice 6. in silence - prepositional phrase.
that here we have a whole sentence modifying a 7. fairly often - adverb phrase.
following noun) 8. every summer - noun phrase.
11. ....... a three-day protest. B
12. ....... a once-in-a-lifetime experience 1. We'll be finished fairly soon.
E 2. Yes, she plays the piano very well.
1. The waiter brought them a Jug of water. 3. Yes, my mother recovered remarkably quickly
2. She ws carrying a heavy box of books. after her accident.
3. I'm looking for a girl with long fair hair and brown 4. The company is doing really well at the moment.
eyes. 5. Yes, we need to finish this pretty soon.
4. The boys in the garden were playing football. 6. Yes, he did the job well enough.
5. My little sister has an allergy to apples and pears. 7. Yes, the tide comes in incredibly quickly round
6. Doctors have been searching for a cure for here.
cancer for years. 8. Yes, it's raining quite heavily,
7. I need to find a way of expressing my admiration 9. You should have reacted much more quickly.
for her work. 10. Yes, the two of them played even better the next
8. The police asked for proof of who I was. day.
9. Governments are discussing ways of tackling 11. Yes, her parents were waiting rather anxiously
the threat to the environment. for her to come home.
10. The heavy tax on petrol caused a lot of protests. 12. Yes, Violet was driving far too fast at the time of
250
 the accident.
Exercise 15
A B
1. have visited. 2. has done. 3. have gone. 4. do
arrest. 5. has lost. 6. are falling. 7. has had. 8.
can go. 9. might fall. 10. are catching. 11. have
blown. 12. may blow.
B 5. Neither her aunt nor her parents were in Paris
1. Lexical verb (linking verb),
2. Lexical verb.
3. Auxiliary verb.
4. Lexical verb.
5. wagged - lexical verb; barked - lexical verb.
6. wondered - lexical verb; did - auxiliary verb.
7. lexical verb (linking verb).
8. Lexical verb (linking verb)
9. would - auxiliary verb; did - auxiliary verb ( the
implied main verb is 'come', i.e. 'he said he would
(You can choose to co- ordinate either the
prepositional phrases or just the complements
of the preposition.)
1. Mum and Dad were working in the garden.
2. My brother and your brother speak French.
3. Either her borther or her sister speaks French.
4. Either her aunt ot her parents were in Paris last
year.
last year.
6. Neither I nor you are going to the concert.
7. Either Kate or Fred makes the tea.
8. Neither Kate nor Fred makes the tea.OR
Neither Kate nor Fred make the tea.
9. Neither Kate nor I make the tea.
10. You and she have done very well.
Exercise 17
A

come but he didn't come) 1. It's one o'clock / and we should be on our way by
10. listen - lexical verb; am - auxiliary verb. now.
2. I don't like him / but I'll give him my support.

C 3. He put his hand on her arm / and said nothing.

1. adds to 2. caught on. 3. shove off OR go away
OR push off. 4. look after. 5. shake off, 6. fork out
OR shell out. 7. put you up. 8. rabbiting on.
9. wiped out the fish OR wiped the fish out.
10. butter her up. 11. drop by OR drop in. 12. feel
for . 13. fell for. 14. cooked up 15. hang on
Exercise 16
4. You go round to the back of the house / and take
a look / and I'll try the front door again.
5. It's Saturday / so I needn't get up so early.
6. I've tried / and I've tried / but I've never managed
it.
7. She both loves him / and hates him.
8. The government promised reforms / but has
done nothing.

A B

1. My mother was baking cakes and biscuits.
2. This poison is both deadly and fast-acting.
3. I scanned the horizon desperately but in vain.
4. Is he a fair and just ruler?
5. Would you like tea or coffee?
6. She does her work quietly but conscientiously.
7. They stared at her in complete and utter
amazement.
8. The king surrounded himself with men of
wisdom and good character.
9. Is she a Buddhist or a Hindu?
10. Are you working in the house or in the garden ?
OR Are you working in the house or the garden?
1. Either you are crazy or I am crazy. OR ... or I am.
2. I don't want to go but I must go . OR ..... or I must.
3. Either you broke the vase or the dog broke it.
OR ... or the dog did.
4. Fred plays the guitar and so do I.
5. My mother is very keen on opera and so is my
father.
6. I didn't make that mess, nor did she.
7. I've been searching for my boots but I can't find
them.
8. Either she fell down or she was pushed.
9. John is taller than his brother and I am taller than
John, so I must be taller than his brother.

251
10. Cats can climb trees but dogs can't climb trees.
OR... but dogs can't.
C 11. Whenever I run - adverbial.
1. I could see - main clause; that she was worried -
subordinate clause.
2. As I drove towards his house - subordinate
clause; / I was hoping - main clause; that he
would be out - subordinate clause.
3. I'll come - main clause; whenever I can -
subordinate clause.
4. Do you know - main clause; what she did -
subordinate clause.; when I told her - subordinate
clause.; what you'd said - subordinate clause.
5. Why don't we have a cup of tea - main clause;
while we're waiting - subordinate clause.
6. I don't know - main clause; whether we should
be doing this - subordinate clause.
7. The children laughed at the antics of the clowns.
- It is neither a main clause nor a subordinate
clause as there is only one clause (it's a simple
sentence).
8. The children laughed - main clause; as the
clowns poured water over each other -
subordinate clause.
9. Stay - main clause; where you are- subordinate
clause; until I come- subordinate clause.
10. If you go - subordinate clause; I will go too -
main clause.
11. Whenever I run - subordinate clause; my leg
hurts - main clause.
12. I didn't like - main clause; what I was doing -
subordinate clause; but I had no choice - main
clause.
D OR ... that won a prize ...
1. that she was worried - direct object.
2. As I drove towards his house - adverbial;
that he would be out - direct object.
3. Whenever I can - adverbial.
4. What she did - direct object; when I told her -
adverbial; what you'd said - direct object.
5. While we're waiting - adverbial.
6. Whether we should be doing this - direct object.
8. as the clowns poured water over each other -
adverbial.
252
9. Where you are - adverbial; until I come -
adverbial.
10. If you go - adverbial.
12. what I was doing - direct object.
Exercise 18
A
1.Relative pronoun. 2. Subordinating
conjunction. 3. Subordinating conjunction.
4. Relative pronoun. 5. Relative pronoun.
6. Subordinating conjunction. 7. Relative
pronoun. 8. Subordinating conjunction.
B
1. Go and see the nurse, who will check your blood
pressure.
2. That is the nurse who checked my blood
pressure. OR ... that checked my blood pressure.
3. Penguins are birds that cannot fly. OR ... which
cannot fly.
4. My aunt, who lives in London, is coming to visit
us.
5. The coat, which was badly stained, was hanging
in the hall.
6. I want the spade that is in the tool shed. OR ...
which is in the tool shed.
7. I'll catch the number 52 bus, which will take me
right to the theatre door.
8. The professor of French, whose name I forget,
was a tall thin man.
9. We visited the farm where Robert Burns once
lived.
10. The man who won a prize for the best
chrysanthemums is my daughter's father-in-law.
11. The man to whom they gave the prize for the best
chrysanthemums is my daughter's father-in-law.
12. People who live in rural areas need their cars.
OR... that live in rural areas ....
Exercise 19
A
1. time. 2. concession 3. comparison. 4. reason.
5. time. 6. than he was - comparison; before he
retired - time. 7. result. 8. reason. 9. comparison. 10.
time. 11. reason. 12. time.
B 2. Carlos arrived yesterday and so did Pedro.
1. so that. 2. because. 3. until. 4. if OR while. 5. if
OR when. 6. unless. 7. If OR Providing. 8. as OR
because. 9. that. 10. if. 11. where. 12. when OR
where.
C shortened form 'll )
1. ....... while I do this.
2. ....... unless you water them.
3. Although she was only four, ....
4. ....... if the rainforests are all cut down?
5. ....... if the rainforests were all cut down?
6. If you had worked harder, ....
7. If you work harder, .....
8. ....... if Napoleon had won the battle of Waterloo?
9. Wherever she went, .....
10. If you eat up all your vegetables,....
11. If you had eaten all your vegetables, ....
12. Even if I practise a lot, ....
13. Even if I practised a lot, ....
14. ..... while you were out.
15. If you didn't smoke, ...
Exercise 20
1. is. 2. was. 3. worked OR works. 4. could.
5. should. 6. should. 7. might. 8. leaves. 9. could.
10. had. 11. had. 12. has.
Exercise 21
1. While he was exploring . ...
2. When you are working ....
3. If it is necessary ...
4. ..... whenever it is possible.
5. Although she is afraid of dogs ....
6. Since OR As OR Because she had got no
answer ..
7. While OR When I was washing the dishes, ...
8. While they were digging in the field ....
9. ..... although it is very difficult.
10. Once they were settled ....
11. Delete where it is not applicable.
12. After I have eaten a large meal ....
253
Exercise 22
1. Carlos arrived on Monday and Pedro on Tuesday.
3. I'll wash the dishes if you'll dry them.
4. I'll sing a solo at the concert if you will too. (Note
that if the lexical verb is ellipted, the auxiliary verb
must be in the full form will rather than the
5. My wife loves opera but I loathe it.
6. My wife loves, but I loathe, opera.
7. My wife loves opera and so do I.
8. Some of my friends voted for the Democrats,
some voted for the Republicans. OR Some of
my friends voted for the Democrats, some for the
Republicans.
9. Most of my friends voted for the Democrats; so
did most of my colleagues.
10. "Would you support that proposal? ''
''I certainly wouldn't."
11. We'll do it if they won't.
12. I sent a donation to Oxfam. Did you?
13. I sent a donation to Oxfam. Did you send them
one?
14. I sold my car yesterday but I wish I hadn't.
15. We could have come to the rally but we didn't
want to.
Exercise 23
1. Compound-complex. 2. Compound.
3. Complex. 4. Compound-complex. 5. Simple.
6. Complex. 7. Complex. 8. Compound.
9. Complex. 10. Simple. 11.Compound-
complex. 12. Complex (The old man told the
reporter is the main clause, the rest of the
sentence consists of subordinate clauses saying
what the old man told the reporter).
Exercise 24
A
1. He has never discussed the matter with me.
2. I don't know how to do it.
3. They're not being very sensible.
4. Nobody knows anything.
5. We don't have any food with us.
6. They didn't see anyone on the beach.
7. She might not be there tomorrow.
8. I couldn't come next week.
9. The concert hasn't started yet.
10. I wasn't aware of any animosity between them.
B 5. The book belongs to your dad, doesn't it?
1. any. 2. some. 3. any 4. any 5. anyone.
6. Some. 7. any. 8. someone. 9. any 10. any.
Exercise 25
A does she?
1. Was my brother there last night?
2. Did your sister meet her old music teacher in
town yesterday?
3. Is he always rude to people?
4. Were they intending to come with us?
5. Do they have enough food with them?
OR Have they enough food with them?
OR Have they got enough food with them?
6. Do they have any food with them?
OR Have they any food with them?
OR Have they got any food with them?
OR Do they have some food with them?
OR Have they some food with them?
OR Have they got some food with them?
7. Could the boys have worked harder?
8. Is there no solution to that problem?
9. Aren't I coming too?
10. Can you not see what they are doing?
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B
1. She can't walk all that way, can she?
2. I was sure I could do it, wasn't I?
3. He won't be at the meeting, will he?
4. The dog was watching us, wasn't it?
6. That tree has a lot of apples on it, hasn't it?
OR That tree has a lot of apples on it, doesn't it?
7. I shan't be able to go, shall I?
8. Sue rarely manages to get to her aerobics class,
9. I don't suppose she does nowadays, does she?
10. Your parents used to live on that farm, didn't they?
Exercise 26
1. must be worn. 2. was always sung. 3. must be
left. 4. can often be seen. 5. should be planted. 6.
was given. 7. ought to be taken. 8. will the
job be finished. 9. are often seized. 10. has been
donated. 11. has been donated. 12. ought to be
done.