Chapter three

CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is a piece of hardware that carries out the
instructions of a computer program. It performs the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output
operations of a computer system. The CPU is like the brains of the computer - every instruction,
no matter how simple, has to go through the CPU. So let's say you press the letter 'a' on your
keyboard and it appears on the screen - the CPU of your computer is what makes this possible.

Over the past few years, we have seen the CPU MHz speeds go from 100 MHz to over 2 GHz
(1000 MHz = 1 GHz). This is one reason that people need to learn about a CPU. Many people
would expect a 1.8 GHz Intel Pentium 4 to be much faster than a 1.4 GHz AMD Athlon because
its speed is 0.4 GHz faster. In truth, not only is the Intel Pentium 4 up to three times more
expensive than the AMD Athlon, it is either much slower or neck to neck in most "Real world
tests", which compares the amount of times that it takes each CPU to perform a certain task.

Components
A typical CPU has a number of components. The first is the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which
performs simple arithmetic and logical operations. Second is the control unit (CU), which
manages the various components of the computer. It reads and interprets instructions from
memory and transforms them into a series of signals to activate other parts of the computer. The
control unit calls upon the arithmetic logic unit to perform the necessary calculations.
Third is the cache, which serves as high-speed memory where instructions can be copied to and
retrieved. Early CPUs consisted of many separate components, but since the 1970s, they have
been constructed as a single integrated unit called a microprocessor. As such, a CPU is a
specific type of microprocessor. The individual components of a CPU have become so integrated
that you can't even recognize them from the outside.
To understand how a microprocessor works, it is helpful to look inside and learn about the logic
used to create one. In the process you can also learn about assembly language the native
language of a microprocessor and many of the things that engineers can do to boost the speed of
a processor.
A microprocessor executes a collection of machine instructions that tell the processor what to do.
Based on the instructions, a microprocessor does three basic things:

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 Using its ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit), a microprocessor can perform mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Modern
microprocessors contain complete floating-point processors that can perform extremely
sophisticated operations on large floating-point numbers.
 A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another.
 A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on
those decisions. There may be very sophisticated things that a microprocessor does, but
those are its three basic activities.

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Features affecting processor performance and motherboards
– System bus speeds the processor supports
– Processor core frequency
– Motherboard socket and chipset

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 – Multiprocessing ability
– Memory cache
– Amount and type of DDR, DDR2, DDR3 memory
– Computing technologies the processor can use
– Voltage and power consumption
• Three methods to improve performance
• Multiprocessing: Processor contains more than one ALU
• Multiple processors: Installing more than one processor on a motherboard
• Multi-core processing: Processor housing contains two or more cores operating at
same frequency, independently of each other. Dual core, triple core, quad core, octo
core
Intel and AMD are very popular with their features and a lot of new designs coming to the
market every quarter of a year. There are other popular CPU manufacturers and designers also
who are still there doing their work silently.
Some of the CPU manufactures and designers are:
1) Intel 5) IBM 9) Dell
2) AMD 6) Samsung 10) Acer
3) Qualcomm 7) Motorola 11) VIA
4) NVIDIA 8) Hewlett-Packard (hp) 12) Marvell
The ranking may be different according to their users but you can find the first 10-15 processors
coming to the market with the most appropriate and dedicated application designs.
Installing the CPU
The CPU, RAM, Expansion cards, Hard disk drive and motherboard are sensitive to electrostatic
discharge. When handling a CPU and motherboard, make sure that you place them on a
grounded antistatic mat. You should wear an antistatic wrist strap while working with these
components. The CPU sockets today are zero insertion force (ZIF) sockets. You should be
familiar with the locking assembly before attempting to install a CPU into the socket on the
motherboard.
Be very careful when handling the CPU. Make sure not to bend or break any pins inside the
socket. Hold the processor only by the edges and do not touch the bottom of the processor. Use
the following procedure to install the CPU onto the motherboard
1. Unhook the socket lever by pushing down and away from the socket.

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2. Put your finger on the tail of the load plate and press the tail down
3. Lift the load plate. There is a protective socket cover in the socket to protect the socket when
there is no CPU installed (for the new board without CPU).
4. Remove the protective socket cover from the CPU Socket (for the new board without CPU).
Note: Remove the processor from its protective cover, making sure you hold it only by the
edges. It is a good idea to save the cover so that whenever you remove the CPU, you have a
safe place to store it.
5. Align the notches in the processor with the notches on the socket. Orient the missing pin in
the corner of the CPU to the missing hole on the socket. (See label “B” and “C”) in the
following figure.
6. Lower the processor straight down into the socket without tilting or sliding it into the socket
Note: Make sure the CPU is fully seated and level in the socket.
7. Close the load plate over the CPU and press down while you close and engage the socket
lever.
8. The CPU installation is complete.
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Thermal compound
Thermal compound helps to conduct heat away from the CPU. If this compound is rubbed from
the back of the CPU and the heat sinker your computer gets overheating soon. Due to this

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overheating your CPU may died. Figure 1. shows thermal compound being applied to the CPU.
When you are installing a used CPU, clean the CPU and the base of the heat sink with isopropyl
alcohol. Doing this removes all traces of old thermal compound. The surfaces are now ready for
a new layer of thermal compound. Follow all manufacturer recommendations about applying the
thermal compound.
Non-conductive thermal pastes made up of silicon are the cheapest and safest. Silver-based
thermal pastes sometimes perform better than normal thermal pastes, and carbon based ones
perform better still. When applied improperly both can be conductive, causing electrical shorts
upon contact with the motherboard. A thin properly-applied layer will usually prevent this
problem, though some pastes can become runny when they get hot. Technicians should also
beware that many "silver" thermal pastes do not actually contain any silver metal.
Caution
Silver-oxide thermal compound is toxic. Use rubber gloves and wash your hands thoroughly
afterward. Do not use very much compound to fill the space between the CPU and heat sink. If
you use too much it will leak onto the motherboard.
Installing the CPU Heat Sinker and Fan
As processors, graphics cards, RAM and other components in computers have increased in speed
and power consumption, the amount of heat produced by these components as a side-effect of
normal operation has also increased. These components need to be kept within a specified
temperature range to prevent overheating, instability, malfunction and damage leading to a
shortened component lifespan. Other devices which need to be cooled include the power supply
unit, optoelectronic devices such as higher-power lasers and light emitting diodes (LEDs) and
hard disks.
Installing the CPU, and the CPUs heat sink and fan, are by far the most difficult steps you will
have to complete during your build. Here, more than anywhere else, it will pay to read the
instructions carefully, look at the parts, study the diagrams that came with your CPU and/or third
party cooling solution, and make sure you thoroughly understand what you are going to do
before you try to do it. During the process, if anything does not seem to fit or make sense, put the
parts down and look things over carefully before you proceed. Some operations, especially
installing the heat sink/fan combination, can require pretty firm pressure, so don’t be afraid to
push a little harder if you are sure everything is set up correctly. The details of the installation

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process differ in slight but important ways for each manufacturer’s processors, and even within a
manufacturer’s product line. Therefore, for these details, you should rely on the instructions that
are provided with the CPU. The two things that go wrong the most often and most expensively
(minimum of a killed CPU, sometimes more) in building/upgrading one’s own computer are both
related to the CPU and its cooler:
1) Switching the computer on “just to see if it works” before adding any CPU cooling unit.
Without cooling, CPUs heat up at extreme rates (a CPU heats up anywhere between ten
times and a thousand times as fast as a cooking area on your stove!) By the time you see
the first display on the screen; your CPU will already be severely overheating and might
be damaged beyond repair.
2) Mounting the CPU cooler improperly. Read the instructions that came with your CPU
and cooler very carefully and ensure you are using all components in the correct order
and correct place.
If you buy a third party cooling solution for your CPU make sure you get one that is compatible
with the CPU you have. Most brands come with multiple mounting brackets that will suit many
different chipsets, but it’s best to check for compatibility just in case. If using thermal paste,
apply it only to the CPU die (the square piece of silicon in the middle of the CPU) and do so
sparingly – most modern CPUs take no more than a grain of rice sized dab of thermal paste.
Some people do like to wipe some onto the heat sink’s surface and then wipe it smoothly off so
that bits of it may get into tiny holes for better heat transfer. Refer the Instructions for more
information on how to apply and remove thermal paste/grease. If you are using a thermal pad
supplied with your cooler, make sure you remove any protective tape from the die just before
installing and do not get it dirty and do not combine thermal pads with thermal paste, it’s either
one or the other. Then, check that you install the cooler in the right orientation and that you set it
flat on the CPU die without exerting undue pressure on any edges or corners; the latter can make
small pieces of the die break off, killing the CPU.
One option you may consider, before installing the heat sink, is to “lap” the heat sink, which
means to smooth out the bottom surface. To do this, you will need a very flat surface; a piece of
thick window glass will work. Fasten your sandpaper on the flat surface, invert the heat sink on
the sandpaper and sand in small circles, applying minimum pressure. Check frequently and when
you see a uniform pattern of scratches, switch to finer grained sandpaper. Remember that you are

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not trying to remove any material, just polish out surface irregularities. If you get it right, you
should have a surface which feels completely smooth to the touch (but don’t touch it, the oil in
your fingers can cause corrosion of the fresh surface) with a mirror finish. Some companies
producing heat sinks lap the surface themselves, so if the surface already looks like a perfect
mirror, leave it alone. A lapped heat sink is more effective as it will have better surface contact
with the chip. Tighten the cooler using only the specified holding devices—if you did everything
right, they will fit. If they don’t fit, check your setup; most likely something is wrong. After
mounting the cooler, connect any power cables for the fan that is attached onto the cooler. As an
aside to the instructions above, it has been my personal experience that fitting the CPU and heat
sink is best done on a supportive surface prior to installation, to avoid excessive flexing of the
motherboard. If you’ve got the CPU and its cooler installed, and the motherboard in the case,
you are over the hump, there just a few more easy pieces to go before that momentous first
power-up.
Installing fan and heat sink
A heat sink is a heat exchanger component attached to a device used for passive cooling. It is
designed to increase the surface area in contact with the cooling fluid surrounding it, such as the
air thus allowing it to remove more heat per unit time. Other factors which improve the thermal
performance of a heat sink are the approach air velocity, choice of material – usually an
aluminum alloy due to its high thermal conductivity values fin (or other protrusion) design and
surface treatment.
The approach air velocity depends on the attached or nearby fan. When there is no air flow
around the heat sink, energy cannot be transferred. A computer fan is any fan inside, or attached
to, a computer case used for active cooling, and may refer to fans that draw cooler air into the
case from the outside, expel warm air from inside, or move air across a heat sink to cool a
particular component.
CPU Cooling
The CPU has two types of cooling device (heat sinker and fan). CPU cooling is very important
and should not be overlooked. A less than average CPU temperature prolongs CPU’s life (up to
more than 10 years). On the other hand high CPU temperatures can cause unreliable operation,
such as computer freezes, or slow operation.

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Extremely high temperatures can cause immediate CPU destruction by melting the materials in the chip
and changing the physical shape of the sensitive transistors on the CPU. Because of this, never switch on
the computer if your CPU has no cooling at all. It is an extremely stupid thing to do “I will just test
whether my CPU works!” as by doing so, you would find that the CPU fries in less than 5 seconds and
you will be off to buy a new one.
Most CPU installations use forced-air cooling, but convection cooling and water cooling are also other
options. Another option is to choose a large copper heat sink with an open fin pattern. However, true
fanless operation is difficult to achieve in most case designs.
You can position a case fan to blow across the heat sink, or mount a fan on the heat sink. With either
choice of fan placement, choose a large and slow fan over a small and fast fan to decrease noise and
increase air flow.
Some low-noise CPU cooling fans require special mounting hardware on the motherboard. Be sure that
the cooling fan you choose is compatible with your motherboard.
The heat sink draws heat away from the CPU. The fan moves the heat away from the heat sink. The fan
usually has a 3-pin power connector to the mother board.
There are many different heat sinker and fan types that can be used with this motherboard. Follow the
instruction that came with your heat sinker and fan assembly. Be sure that the heat sinker and fan
orientation is correct for your chassis type and your heat sinker and fan assembly.
1) Make sure that the CPU load plate close and secure it in place by closing the load lever and
moving it under the load lever retention tab (keep in mind the CPU installation).
2) Put/lubricate the thermal compound between the CPU and the heat sinker. (if necessary)

3) Align the heat sink assembly retainers with the holes on the motherboard and place on to the
CPU.
4) Tighten the heat sink with mother board to secure the assembly in place.
5) Place the fan assembly onto the heat sinker, being careful not to pinch the CPU fan wires.
(Remember some fans are not aligning on the CPU, such as Dell 745,755…)
6) Tighten the fan assembly retainers to secure the assembly in place.
7) Connect the fan power pin to the header on the motherboard.
8) The heat sinker and CPU fan installation is complete

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