UNIT-I

Overview Networking terminology, network types- Transmission Media, Control Schemes

Layered Architecture, OSI Reference Model
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1. Introduction:
1.1 NETWORK: A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. (Behrouz A.
Forouzan)
1.2 Computer Network: Computer network is a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are
able to exchange information. The connection may be via a copper wire, fiber optics,
microwaves, and infrared or communication satellites. (Andrew S. Tanenbaum)
2. Advantages
The advantages of using computer networking can be explained as below.
(i) RESOURCE SHARING. The aim is to make all programs, data and devices available
to anyone on the network irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the
user.
(ii) RELIABILITY. A file can have copies on two or three different machines, so if one
of them is unavailable (hardware crash), the other copies could be used. For military,
banking, air reservation and many other applications it is of great importance.
(iii) COST FACTOR. Personal computers have better price/performance ratio than micro
computers. So it is better to have PC's, one per user, with data stored on one shared file
server machine.
(iv) COMMUNICATION MEDIUM. Using a network, it is possible for managers,
working far apart, to prepare financial report of the company. The changes at one end can
be immediately noticed at another and hence it speeds up co-operation among them.

3. Overview networking terminology: Before we begin discussing networking with any

depth, we must define some common terms that you will see throughout the study of computer

3.1 Connection: In networking, a connection refers to pieces of related information that are
transferred through a network. This generally infers that a connection is built before the data
transfer and then is deconstructed at the at the end of the data transfer

3.2 Packet: A packet is, generally speaking, the most basic unit that is transferred over a
network. When communicating over a network, packets are the envelopes that carry your data (in
pieces) from one end point to the other.

3.3 Network Interface: A network interface can refer to any kind of software interface to
networking hardware.

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3.4 LAN: LAN stands for "local area network". It refers to a network or a portion of a network
that is not publicly accessible to the greater internet. A home or office network is an example
of a LAN.
3.5 WAN: WAN stands for "wide area network". It means a network that is much more
extensive than a LAN. While WAN is the relevant term to use to describe large, dispersed
networks in general, it is usually meant to mean the internet, as a whole.

3.6 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that basically define a language that
devices can use to communicate. There are a great number of protocols in use extensively in
networking, and they are often implemented in different layers. Examples: (TCP, UDP,
IP,ICMP, HTTP, SSH, TLS/SSL, and FTP.)

3.7 Port: A port is an address on a single machine that can be tied to a specific piece of software.
It is not a physical interface or location, but it allows your server to be able to communicate
using more than one application.
3.8 Firewall: A firewall is a program that decides whether traffic coming into a server or going
out should be allowed. A firewall usually works by creating rules for which type of traffic is
acceptable on which ports. Generally, firewalls block ports that are not used by a specific
application on a server.
3.9 VPN: VPN stands for virtual private network. It is a means of connecting separate LANs
through the internet, while maintaining privacy. This is used as a means of connecting remote
systems as if they were on a local network, often for security reasons.
3.10 OSI Model: Historically, one method of talking about the different layers of network
communication is the OSI model. OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnect. This model
defines seven separate layers. The layers in this model are
3.11 TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model, more commonly known as the Internet protocol
suite, is another layering model that is simpler and has been widely adopted. It defines the
four separate layers, some of which overlap with the OSI model
3.12 Interfaces: Interfaces are networking communication points for your computer. Each
interface is associated with a physical or virtual networking device.
3.13 Media Access Control: Media access control is a communications protocol that is used
to distinguish specific devices. Each device is supposed to get a unique MAC address during
the manufacturing process that differentiates it from every other device on the internet.
3.14 IP: The IP protocol is one of the fundamental protocols that allow the internet to work.
IP addresses are unique on each network and they allow machines to address each other
across a network.
3.15 ICMP: ICMP stands for internet control message protocol. It is used to send messages
between devices to indicate the availability or error conditions. These packets are used in a
variety of network diagnostic tools, such as ping and trace route.
3.16 TCP: TCP stands for transmission control protocol. It is implemented in the transport
layer of the IP/TCP model and is used to establish reliable connections.
3.17 UDP: UDP stands for user datagram protocol. It is a popular companion protocol to TCP
and is also implemented in the transport layer.
3.18 HTTP: HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol. It is a protocol defined in the
application layer that forms the basis for communication on the web.

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3.19 FTP: FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is also in the application layer and provides
a way of transferring complete files from one host to another.
3.20 DNS: DNS stands for domain name system. It is an application layer protocol used to
provide a human-friendly naming mechanism for internet resources. It is what ties a domain
name to an IP address and allows you to access sites by name in your browser.

Conclusion

At this point, you should be familiar with some basic networking terminology and be able to
understand how different components are able to communicate with each other. This should
assist you in understanding other articles and the documentation of your system.

OR
3. Overview networking terminology:

It is some time to learn about the components/terms mostly used in networking. Whenever we
talk about a network it includes the hardware and the software that make up the network. Now let
us have a look at some typical hardware components of network.

Nodes (Workstations)
The term nodes refer to the computers that are attached to a network and are seeking to share the
resources of the network. Of course, if there were no nodes (also called workstations), there
would be no network at all. A computer becomes a workstation of a network as soon as it is
attached to a network.
Server
Def: A computer that facilitates "the sharing of data" software" and hardware - resources (e.g.
"printers" modems etc,) on the network" is termed as a SERVER. On small networks,
sometimes, all the shareable stuff (like files, data, software etc.) is stored on the server. A
network can have more than one server also. Each server has a unique name on the network and
all users of network identify the server by its unique name. Servers can be of two types: non-
dedicated and dedicated servers
Non-dedicated Servers:
On small networks, a workstation that can double up as a server is known as non-dedicated
server since it is not completely dedicated to the cause of serving. Such servers can facilitate the
resource-sharing among workstations on a proportionately smaller scale. Since one computer
works as a workstation as well as a server, it is slower and requires more memory. The (small)
networks using such a server are known as peer-to-peer networks.
Dedicated Servers:
On bigger network installations, there is a computer reserved for server's job and its only job is
to help workstations access data, software and hardware resources. It does not double-up as a
workstation and such a server is known as dedicated server. The networks using such a server are
known as master-slave networks.
On a network, there may be several servers that allow workstations to share specific resources.
For example, there may be a server exc1usivelyfor serving files related requests like storing files,
deciding about their access privileges and regulating the amount of space allowed for each user.

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This server is known as file server. Similarly, there may be printer server and modem server. The
printer server takes care of the printing requirements of a number of workstations and the modem
server helps a group of network users use a modem to transmit long distance messages.

Network Interface Unit (NIU)

Def: A NETWORK INTERFACE UNIT is an interpreter that helps to establish communication
between the server and workstations. A standalone computer (a computer that is not attached to a
network) lives in its own world and carries out its tasks with its own inbuilt resources. But as
soon as it becomes a workstation, it needs an interface to help establish a connection with the
network because without this, the workstations will not be able to share network resources. The
network-interface-unit is a device that is attached to each of the workstations and the server, and
helps the workstation to establish the all-important connection with the network. Each network-
interface-unit that is attached to a workstation has a unique number identifying it which is known
as the node address. The NIU is also called Terminal Access Point (TAP). Different
manufacturers have different names for the interface. Computer networks can be used for
numerous services, both for companies and for individuals. For companies, networks of personal
computers using shared servers often provide access to corporate information. Typically they
follow the client-server model, with client workstations on employee desktops accessing
powerful servers in the machine room. For individuals, networks offer access to a variety of
information and entertainment resources. Individuals often access the Internet by calling up an
ISP using a modem, although increasingly many people have a fixed connection at home. An up-
and-coming area is wireless networking with new application such as mobile e-mail access and
m-commerce.

HUB:
Hubs/ repeaters are used to connect together two or more network segments of any media type.
In larger designs, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum length.
Hubs provide the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a greater
distance. Passive hubs simply forward any data packets they receive over one port from one
workstation to all their remaining ports. Active hubs, also sometimes referred to as "multi port
repeaters", regenerate the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal.

Hubs are also used in star topologies such as 10BaseT. A multi-port twisted pair hub allows
several point-to-point segments to be joined into one network. One end of the point-to-point link
is attached to the hub and the other is attached to the computer. If the hub is attached to a
backbone, then all computers at the end of the twisted pair segments can communicate with all
the hosts on the backbone. An important fact to note about hubs is that they only allow users to
share Ethernet. A network of hubs/ repeaters is termed a "shared Ethernet", meaning that all
members of the network are contending for transmission of data onto a single network (collision
domain). This means that individual members of a shared network will only get a percentage of
the available network bandwidth. The number and type of hubs in any one collision domain for
10BaseT Ethernet is limited by the following rules:
OR
HUB:
What is Hub: A Hub is a networking device which receives signal from the source, amplifies it
and send it to multiple destinations or computers. Sometimes, hubs are also called Ethernet Hub,

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Repeater Hub, Active Hub and Network Hub. Basically it is a networking device which is used
multiple devices like Computers, Servers etc to connect each other and make them work as a
single network segment. Hubs are used in 'Physical Layer' of OSI Model.

Construction of Hub:

Practically Hubs is a small box in rectangular shape which have multiple ports for connecting
various devices to it. It receives its power supply from auxiliary power sources. The main work
of Hub is to receive incoming data signals, amplify them in the form of electrical signals and
then send them to each connected device. A Hub may contain a number of ports. Minimum
amount of ports that a hub can have is 4 and it can have up to 24 ports for connecting various
devices and peripherals to it.

Types of Hub:On the basis of its working methods, the Hubs can be divided into two types,
given as:

 Active Hub
 Passive Hub

Active Hub:
As its name suggests, Active Hub is a hub which can amplify or regenerate the information
signal. This type of bus has an advantage as it also amplifies the incoming signal as well as
forwards it to multiple devices. This Bus is also known as Multiport Repeater. It can upgrade the
properties if incoming signal before sending them to destination.

Passive Hub:
Passive Hub works like a simple Bridge. It is used for just creating a connection between various
devices. It does not have the ability to amplify or regenerate any incoming signal. It receives
signal and then forward it to multiple devices.

Repeaters:
A repeater is a device that operates only in the physical layer. Signals that carry information
within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation endangers the integrity of the
data. A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates and
retimes the original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal. In the past, when
Ethernet LANs were using bus topology, a repeater was used to connect two segments of a LAN
to overcome the length restriction of the coaxial cable. Today, however, Ethernet LANs use star
topology. In a star topology, a repeater is a multiport device, often called a hub that can be used
to serve as the connecting point and at the same time function as a repeater. Following figure
shows that when a packet from station A to B arrives at the hub, the signal representing the
frame is regenerated to remove any possible corrupting noise, but the hub forwards the packet
from all outgoing port to all stations in the LAN. In other words, the frame is broadcast. All
stations in the LAN receive the frame, but only station B keeps it. The rest of the stations discard
it. The figure shows the role of a repeater or a hub in a switched LAN. The figure definitely
shows that a hub does not have a filtering capability; it does not have the intelligence to find
from which port the frame should be sent out. A hub or a repeater is a physical-layer device.

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They do not have any data-link address and they do not check the data-link address of the
received frame. They just regenerate the corrupted bits and send them out from every port.

4. Network types:
There are three primary categories of networks as listed below.

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
1. Local Area Network (LAN):
A LAN is a privately owned network linking devices within a single room, building or
campus, extending up to a few kilometers in size. The LAN is generally used to share
resources and exchange information by connecting PCs, workstations and other hardware
in offices, organizations and institutions. LANs are different from other networks in three
ways, Size, Transmission technology and Topology. In LANS all machines are attached
to a cable. LAN is a broadcast network. LANs can give 10 Mbps to 10Gbps speed for
data transmission. For LAN setup we can use bus, ring and star topologies. In LAN
channel allocation can be either static or dynamic. In static allocation a fixed time slot is
given to each machine for data transmission. In dynamic channel allocation a host can
transmit data whenever it has data. But it needs collision detection technique.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A MAN is a network which extends over an entire city. It may be a single network such
as the common cable television network or ti may connect several LANs. For example, a
company may use a MAN to connect all hosts into LAN’s in its offices spread throughout
a city. The ownership of MAN may be wholly private or a public service company such
as a local telephone company. Recent developments in wireless technology have resulted
in another AMAN.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN):

A WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country continent or the whole world. It
provides long distance transmission of data, voice, images and videos. WANs generally
use public, private or leased communication equipment in combination. WAN’s typically
use point-to-point transmission technology. The structure of a WAN is as shown in the
following figure.
The machines which run user applications are referred to as host and also called end
system. The hosts are connected by communication subnet or subnet which carries data
from host to host.
Nearly all WANs have store-and-forward or packet-switched subnets, i.e., when a
message arrives at an Intermediate system like a router, it is stored there until the required
output line is free and then forwarded to the next node.
The subnet consists of:
i. Transmission Lines: Which moves bits between machines and it can be copper
wires, optical fibers or wireless links.

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 ii. Switching Elements: These are specialized computers which are used to connect
two or more transmission lines. They are also called Intermediate systems,
exchanges or Routers.

Except all above three main types of networks can be classified as

1. Wireless Networks
2. Home Networks
3. Internetwork
Wireless Networks: Wireless networks can be of following types
i. System interconnection.
ii. Wireless LANs
Wireless WANs.
System interconnection: System interconnection allows interconnecting components of a
computer like keyboard, mouse printer, modem joystick, microphone, camera, etc, using wireless
medium. Bluetooth is a short range, wireless network which allows connecting these
components without wireless network which allows connecting these components without wires.
Bluetooth uses master-slave method of communication in which the main unit called master
interacts with peripherals as slaves.

Wireless LANs: Wireless LANs are being used in small offices, institutions, conferences rooms
etc. to network devices. Each computer in a wireless LAN has a radio modem and antenna using
which it communicate4s with other systems. Typically, they communicate with an access point
which is connected to a wired network. Wireless LAN functions under the IEEE standard 802.11

2. Home Networks: A home network is a newly emerging concept. A home network is network
of devices within a home. These devices will be able to communicate with each other and can be
controlled through the internet. For example Computers; Ente4rtainment devices like TV, Music
system Camera, mobiles etc; Home appliances like Washing Machine, refrigerator, lights etc;
Telemetry systems like alarms, sensors, thermostat etc.

3. Internetworks: A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or

internet. There exist a large number of diverse and heterogeneous networks. The users of one

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type of network often require communicating with users of other. This requires special
computers called gateways to make the connection and translation in terms of hardware and
software between the incompatible networks. To create an internetwork, two or more networks
are connected, using internetwork connectivity devices like routers. They connect two or more
logically separate networks. The main function of the routers is to route a data packet along the
correct path from the source machine to destination machine.

5. Transmission Media:
Transmission media are the physical media that carry data from one computer to another.
These are the basic part of data communication. Transmission media may be in the form
of a physical wire or they can be invisible and wireless. We will study these different
types of transmission media. All transmission media can be divided into two main
categories as Guided and Unguided.
Transmission media

Guided Transmission Media Unguided Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Coaxial cable Fiber optic

Satellite
cable cable Microwave
Communicati
Communicati
on
on
Unshielded Shielded
twisted Pair twisted Pair
cable cable
GUIDED MEDIA
Guided Media can be further subdivided into three main types as shown in above Fig. Guided
media are typically based on some physical cable. Twisted pair and coaxial cables carry signals
in the form of electrical current, whereas optical fiber carries signals in the form of light. We will
now study these one by one.

Twisted Pair Cable

There are two classes of twisted pair cables as unshielded twisted pair cable and shielded twisted
pair cable.

Unshielded Twisted Pair cable (UTP):

This is the most commonly used medium, because of its use in the telephone system. This
cable can carry both voice as well as data. It consists of two conductors of copper. In the
beginning, the wires were kept parallel. But it results in far greater levels of noise. Hence,
the wires are normally twisted as in above figure and it results in the reduction of noise to

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a great extent, although it is not eliminated completely. The copper conductors are
covered by PVC or other insulator.

Twisted pairs

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

UTP is flexible, cheap and easy to install. The Electronic Industries Association
(EIA) has developed standards for UTP cables. These are as listed below.

Category Use
The basic cable used in the telephone system. This is fine for voice
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communication, but is unsuitable for data communication
2 Suitable for voice and data communication up to the speed of 4 Mbps.
Can carry voice and data up to 10 Mbps. It requir3es minimum three
3 twists per foot. Today, these are more regularly used in telephone
networks.
These are similar to the category 3, but can handle data up to 16
4
Mbps.
5 Can handle data speed of 100 Mbps

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

In the shielded twisted pair cables, the insulated twisted wire pair itself is covered by
metal shields and finally by the plastic cover as shown in following fig. The metal shield
prevents penetration of electromagnetic noise. It also helps to eliminate cross talk, an
effect wherein one wire picks up some of the signals travelling on the other wire. This
effect can be felt sometimes during telephone conversations, when we hear other
conversations in the background during our call. The shield prevents such unwanted
sounds.

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 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (also called as coax) has an inner central conductor surrounded by an insulating
sheath, which is again enclosed in the outer conductor called shield. This shielding works as a
second conductor to complete the circuit and also acts as a shield against noise. This outer
conductor is covered by a plastic cover. This whole arrangement is shown in following figure

Coaxial Cable
Compared to UTP or STP, coaxial cable is more expensive, less flexible and more difficult to
install in a building where a number of twists and turns are required. However, it is much more
reliable and can carry far higher data rates. Coaxial cables are divided into various categories
depending upon the thickness and size of the shields, insulators and the outer coating and other
considerations. They are commonly used by cable companies to carry cable transmissions. The
various coaxial cable standards are RG-8, RG-9, RG-11, RG-58 and RG-59.

Optical Fiber:
Optical fibers use light instead of electrical signals to transmit data. Optical fiber cables
are made of glass fibers that are enclosed in a plastic jacket. The plastic jacket provides
flexibility to bend and not to break. A transmitter at the sender's end of the optical fiber
sends a light emitting diode (LED) or laser to send pulses of light across the fiber. A
receiver at the other end makes use of a light-sensitive transistor to detect the absence or
presence of light to indicate a 0 or a 1. In the fiber, the cladding covers the core (fiber)
depending upon the size. Commonly, the fiber is covered by a buffer layer, which
protects it from moisture. Finally, an outer jacket surrounds the entire cable. This is
shown in following figure.

Optical Fiber

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The core and cladding must be extremely pure, and should not vary in size or shape. The
outer jacket, however, can be made of Teflon, plastic or metal. Teflon is more expensive
than plastic, but both do not provide the structural strength to the fiber. Metal can provide
that, but is very heavy and expensive. The choice depends upon many of these factors.

UNGUIDED MEDIA (Wireless Communication)

Unguided media, also called as wireless communication, transport electromagnetic

waves without using a physical conductor. The signals propagate through air or
sometimes water. The communication band for unguided media is as shown in following
figure. We shall concentrate on the radio communications.

Radio Communication:

Very Low Frequency (VLF) waves propagate as surface waves, usually through air, but
sometimes also through water. VLF waves do not suffer attenuation, but atmospheric
noise affects them. VLF waves are usually used for long-range radio navigation and
submarine communication.
Low Frequency (LF) waves also propagate as surface waves. Attenuation is higher
during the daytime. These waves are used for long range radio navigation or navigation
locators.
Middle Frequency (MF) waves rely on line-of-sight antennas to increase and control
absorption problems. These waves are used for AM radio, radio direction finding and
emergency frequencies.
High Frequency (HF) waves are used for amateur radio, citizen's band radio,
international broadcasting, military communication, telephone, telegraph and facsimile
communication.
Very High Frequency (VHF) waves use line-of-sight propagation, and are used for
VHF television, FM radio, aircraft AM radio and aircraft navigation.
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) waves use line-of-sight propagation. They are used for
television, mobile phone, cellular radio, paging and microwave links.

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Super High Frequency (SHF) waves are transmitted as either line-of-sight or into the
space. They are used for terrestrial and satellite microwave and radar communication.
Extreme high Frequency (EHF) waves are transmitted into space, and are used for
scientific applications such as radar, satellite and experimental communication

Microwave Communication
As shown in the following figure, microwaves use the line of sight method of
propagation. As the signals do not travel along the surface of the earth, therefore the two
antennas must be in a straight line, able to look at each other without any obstacle in
between. The taller the antennas, the more are the distance that these waves travel.
Usually, the antennas are positioned on mountain tops to avoid obstacles. Microwave
signals travel only in one direction at a time. This means that for two-way
communication such as in telephony, two frequencies need to be allocated. At both ends,
a transceiver is' used which is a combination of a transmitter and a receiver operating at
the two respective frequencies. Therefore, only one antenna can serve both the functions
and cover both the frequencies..
Repeaters are used along with the antennas to enhance the signal. The data rates offered
are 1 Mbps -10 Gbps.

Terrestrial Microwave Communication

For many decades, before fiber optics was used, microwave communication formed an
important part of telephony. The company Sprint was based on optical fiber
communication, whereas the company MCI was completely based on the microwave
communication initially. The name MCI, in fact, stood for Microwave Communications
Inc. Lately, MCI is also changing over to optical fiber. However, microwave
communication will continue to be useful as it allows you to communicate from
anywhere. Microwave is also relatively inexpensive.

Satellite Communication
Satellite communications is similar to the terrestrial microwave, except that the satellite
acts as one of the stations. Following figure illustrates this. The satellite does the
functions of an antenna and the repeater together. For instance, in the following figure,
ground station A can send the information to ground station B via the satellite. This,
however, poses a problem. If the earth along with its ground stations is revolving and the
satellite is stationery, the sending and receiving earth stations and the satellite can be out
of sync over time. Therefore, normally geosynchronous satellites are used, which move at
the same Revolutions per Minute (RPM) as that of the earth in the same direction, exactly
like the earth. Thus, both the earth and the satellite complete one revolution
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 Satellite Microwave Communication
exactly in the same time the relative position of the ground station with respect to the-
satellite never changes. Therefore, the movement of the earth does not matter for the
communicating nodes based on the earth. Using satellites, we can communicate from any
part of the world to any other. However, a minimum of three satellites needed to cover
the earth's surface entirely as in the following diagram. Normally, SHF, which covers the
frequency range of 3 GHz to 30 GHz used for satellite communications. Two frequency
bands are used for the signals from the earth to the satellite (called uplink), and from the
satellite to the earth (called downlink).

Three Satellites to Cover the Planet

6. Layered Architecture:
Most networks are designed or organized as a series of Layers or Levels to reduce their design
complexity. The number of layers, their names and functions vary from network to network. But,
in all networks, the purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers and use
the services of the layer below it. A layer on one machine carries on a conversation only with its
corresponding layer on another machine, i.e. layer ‘n’ on one machine communicates only with
layer ‘n’ on another machine. The rules and conventions used for this conversation are known as
layer-n-protocol

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Corresponding layer entities on different machines are called peers i.e. peers communicate using
the protocol like maximum packet size, timer values, etc. A five-layer network is as shown in
following figure.
Host 1 Host 2
Layer 5 Protocol
Layer 5 Layer 5

Layer 4/5 Interface

Layer 4 Protocol
Layer 4 Layer 4

Layer 3/4 Interface

Layer 3 Protocol
Layer 3 Layer 3

Layer 2/3 Interface

Layer 2 Protocol
Layer 2 Layer 2

Layer 4/5 Interface

Layer 1 Protocol
Layer 1 Layer 1

Physical Medium

Between each pair of adjacent layers, there is an interface. This defines which primitive
operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one. Interfaces should be clear-cut and
the amount of information passed between the layers should be at minimum. This makes it easier
to replace the implementation of one layer with a different implementation, without affecting the
other layers. Actual communication between layers occurs only through the physical medium.
Virtual Communication is depicted by dotted lines. A set of layers and protocols is called
network architecture. A protocol stack is a list of protocols, one per layer, used by a certain
system.

7. OSI Reference Model:

The International Standards Organization (ISO), developed a network design in 1970 known as
ISO-OSI (Open System Interconnection) reference model. An open system allows
communication between two different systems. The OSI model deals with connecting systems
open for communication and interconnection with other systems. This is the model which helps
to understand the network architecture. There are seven distinct layers. The actual work is done
by the software and protocols present in the appropriate layers. The model clears which tasks
need to be done and which layer and protocols handles these tasks. The following diagram
explains the structure of model.

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1. Physical Layer:
The physical layer transmits raw bits through the communication medium. It deals with physical
devices and components needed for communication. The functions of physical layer can be
described as below.
i.) Mechanical: Consider the physical properties of the medium and interfaces between devices
like connectors, cables etc.
ii) Signal representation: It deals with encoding mechanism for representing data bits on the
transmission media.
iii) Timing: It deals with the transmission rate, bit duration i.e. how many bits sent per second.
iv) Synchronization: It synchronizes the events like connection establishment and release
between sender and receiver. Also decides the communication type as simplex or duplex.
v) Line Configuration: connection of devices to communication links – point to point, multipoint
etc.
For connecting devices – mesh, star, ring topologies can be implemented and the devices like
Hub or Repeaters can be used.

2. Data Link Layer:

Data link layer transforms raw data bits into a line that is free of transmission error. To do this it
breaks the data into frames and gives the identification for each frame. This layer is responsible
for error-free transmission of frames from one hop to the next. The main functions of data link
layer can be described as below.
i) Logical Link Control (LLC): It creates and maintains the links between communication
devices.

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ii) Media Access Control (MAC): allows sharing the same communication channel among
multiple devices.
iii) Framing: The stream of bits is divided into logical parts called frames.
iv) Error Control: Provides mechanisms to detect and correct errors.
v) Physical addressing: Identifies the sender as well as receiver in the network with the help of
physical address.
vi) Multiple access control: For multipoint links, it provides the mechanisms to access the shared
communication channel between multiple machines.
It uses Bridge or Switch in this layer.

3. Network Layer:
The network layer is responsible for the transfer of data packets from source to destination
machines across the communication subnet i.e. across multiple networks. Following are the main
functions of Network Layer
i) Addressing: Using the logical address network layer identifies the machines in the
communication. Logical address helps to identify the network to which the machine belongs.
ii) Routing: Network layer is responsible for routing packets form source to destination using
routing algorithms.
iii) Congestion Control: Controlling the congestion of packets as they are travelling by the
subnets is also the job of network layer.
Network layer uses the Routers for packet routing.

4. Transport Layer:
This is an end-to-end layer, which ensures process-to-process delivery from the source to the
destination. It checks that the whole message will arrives as it is (intact) and in order to the
destination. The main functions of this layer can be explained as below.
i) Port addressing: Using the port address this layer finds the application in the host from whom
the data is to be sent.
ii) Segmentation and reassembly: A large message must be split up if needed. This layer at
destination reassembles the fragmented message.
iii) Services: It also decides whether connection oriented or connection less service is to provide
to its upper layer.
iv) Flow and Error Control: It ensures the end-to-end controlled error free delivery of data.
Transport layer uses Gateways.

5. Session Layer:
This layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. It also controls
the dialog whether it is half-duplex or full-duplex, For preventing two users form performing
same operation at the same time it applies the token management. It also checks the authorization
of users and maintains the checkpoints for continuing the receiving of frames from the same
point where it is lastly loosed.
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The main functions of this layer can be explained as below.
i) Dialog Control: This layer allows communicating entities to establish a dialog whicvh is either
half or full duplex.
ii) Synchronization: It allows processes to add checkpoints so that the communication can
continue from that point in the event of a crash or disconnection.

6. Presentation Layer:
This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of data transmitted like data
transformation, encryption, compression.
The main functions of the presentation layer are as below.
i) Translation: This layer translates data from an application dependent format to a standard
format which can be transmitted over the network.
ii) Encryption: This allows communicating entities to encrypt data to ensure secrecy of data.
iii) Compression: Large volumes of data can be compressed and sent over the network so that
bandwidth utilization is less for videos, images and audio data.

7. Application Layer:
This layer provides a means for user applications to access the network. It contains a variety of
services commonly needed by users like file transfer, e-mail, remote terminal access, access to
the World Wide Web, etc.
Services provided by application layer are as below.
i) File transfer: This service allows a user to send access and retrieve file on remote machines.
ii) e-mail: This service allows users to create, send and receive mails.
iii) Remote access: This is also called network virtual terminal service which allows a user to
login into a remote machine.

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