B K Sarkar - Thermal Engineering

THERMAL
ENGINEERING
000549
THERMAL
ENGINEERING
B K Sarkar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Malda Polytechnic
Malda
Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

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Copyright 1998, by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited
Eighteenth reprint 2011

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Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited
ISBN-13: 978-0-07-463363-2
ISBN-10: 0-07-463363-5
Published by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited,

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Cover: Mudrak
The McGraw-Hill Companies

Dedicated-to
my loving daughters
Moumita Sarkar and Ambika Sarkar
0 5
Prefacel
Thermal Engineering, a core subject in many universities is offered to ecigi-

neeying students, both at undergraduate and diploma level. This book is the
answer to my long-felt need for a good textbook in thermal engineering over the
two decades of my teaching experience.
The key features of the book are:
• S.I Units have been used throughout.
• The fundamentals are discussed through simple notations, figures and
illustrative examples.
• Topics of analytical similarity are put together for easy learning.
• The indexing of figures, examples and exercises is chapter wise.
• A large number of worked-out examples are provided to help the students
clearly understand the basic principles and also build confidence to attempt
the solutions of problems in the university examination papers.
The book covers the syllabi of polytechnics and Section A and Section B of
Institution of Engineers' Examinations. It also covers the undergraduate B Tech
course of many universities.
I would be extremely grateful if suggestions for further improvement of the
book are forwarded.
B K SARkAR
000549
Preface vii
1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 S.I. System of Units 1
1.3 Units of Different Quantities /
1.4 System and Surrondings 5
1.5 Working Substance 6
1.6 Thermodynamic Equilibrium 7
1.7 Property, State and Process 7
1.8 Process and Cyclic Process 8
1.9 Energy and Forms of Energy 8
1.10 Heat 9
1.11 Work 10
1.12 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 10
1.13 Thermal Capacity, Specific Heat and Molecular Heats 12
Solved Problems 12
Exercises 14
2 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 16
2.1 Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy 16

2.2 First Law of Thermodynamics 17
2.3 The First Law Applied to Closed System Processes 17
2.4 Application of First Law to Non-flow Process or Closed System
and Flow Process 19
Solved Problems 27
Exercises 35
3 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND 37

AVAILABILITY
3.1 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics and Introduction

to the Second Law 37
x Contents.
3.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 37

3.3 Heat Engine and Heat Pump 38
3.4 Carnot Cycle 40
3S Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 41
3.6 Equivalence of Kelvin Planck and Clausius Statments 43
3.7 Clausius Inequality 43
3.8 Unattainability of Absolute Zero and the Third Law of
Thermodynamics 45
3.9 Available and Unavailable Energy 45
3.10 Availability 6f a Non-flow or Closed System (Non-cyclic) 47
3.11 Availability of a Steady Flo.w System 48
3.12 Helmboltz and Gibb's Functions 49
3. I 3 Irreversibility and Loss in Availability 50
3.14 Effectiveness 51
Solved Problems 51
Exercises 63
4 PROPERTIES OF GASES 65
4.1 Perfect Gas 65
4.2 Vapour 65
4.3 Laws of Perfect Gas 65
!
4.4 Com6inadon of Boyle s and Charles' Law 67
4.5 Unit of R 68
4.6 Universal Gas Constant 68
4.7 Avogadro's Law 68
4.8 Internal and External Energy 68
4.9 Joule's Law 68
4;10 Specific Heat of Gas 69
4.11 Ratio of Specific Heats 69
4.12 Relation between Two Specific Heats and Gas Constant 69
4.13 Process 70
4.14 Properties of Gas Mixtures 78
Solved Problems 80
Exercises 96
5 ENTROPY OF GASES 98
5.1 Entropy 98
5.2 Temperature Entropy Diagram 99
5.3 Entropy is a Point Function/Unit of Entropy 99
5.4 Entropy of Reversible Cyclic Process is Zero JOO
5.5 ·General Expression for Change of Entropy of a Perfect Gas 101
Contents xi
5.6 Change of Entropy of a Perfect Gas During Various Thermodynamic

Processes 102
Solved Problems 105
Exercises 111
6 PROPERTIES OF STEAM 113
6.1 Introduction 113

6.2 Phase Transformation 113
6.3 Effect of Pressure on Boiling Point 114
6.4 Generation of Steam 114
6.5 Conditions of Steam / 16
6.6 Dryness Fraction of Saturated Steam 117
6.7 Use of Steam Tables 117
6.8 Internal Energy of Steam 120
6.9 Entropy 120
6.10 Temperature-Entropy Diagram of Steam 123
6.11 Enthalpy-Entropy Chart for Steam (Mollier Diagram for Steam) / 23
6.12 Vapour Processes 124
Solved Problems 131
Exercises 146
7 STEAM BOILERS, BOILER MOUNTINGS AND 149

ACCESSORIES
7. I Function of a Boiler 149
7.2 Classification of Boilers 149
7.3 Terms Commonly Employed in Connection with Boilers I 50
7.4 Comparison between Water Tube and Fire Tube Boilers 15 I
7.5 Cochran Boiler I5 I
7.6 Locomotive Boiler I 52
7.7 Lancashire Boiler I 53
7.8 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler 154
7.9 Boiler Mountings I 55
7. l O Boiler Accessories I 63
8 DRAUGHT 169
8.1 Definition of Draught 169

8.2 Objects of Producing Draught in a Boiler 169
8.3 Classification of Draught 169
Solved Problems 178
Exercises I 84
xii Contents
9 PERFORMANCE OF BOILERS 186
9.1 Evaporation 186

9.2 Equivalent Evaporation 186
9.3 ]?oiler Efficiency of Thermal Efficiency 187
9.4 Economiser Efficiency 188
9.5 Boiler Power 188
9.6 Heat Loss in a Boiler Plant 188
9.7 BoilerTrial 189
9.8 Heat Balance Sheet 190
Solved Problems 190
Exercises 198
10 FUELS AND THEIR COMBUSTION 201
IO.I Fuel 201

10.2 Types of Fuels 201
10.3 Combustion 203
10.4 Calorific Value of Fuels 204
10.5 Theoretical Determination of Calorific Value of Fuel 204
10.6 Combustion of Fuels 205
I 0.7 Determination of Minimum Air Required for Complete Combustion
of 1 kg of Solid or Liquid Fuels 207
10.8 Conversion of Volumetric Combustion on Mass Basis 208
10.9 Conversion of Composition on Mass Basis to Composition by
Volume 208
10.10 Determination of Air Supplied Per kg of Fuel when the
Volumetric Analysis of Dry Flue Gases and Percentage of Carbon
by Mass in Fuel is given 209
10.11 Determination of Excess Air Supplied Per kg of Fuel 210
10.12 Determination of Percentage of Carbon in Fuel Burning to CO 2
and CO from the Volumetric Composition of Dry Flue Gas 210
1OJ 3 Determination of Minimum Quantity of Air Required for the
Complete Combustion of One Cubic Metre of Gaseous Fuel with a
Given Volumetric Analysis of Gaseous Fuel 211
10.14 Determination of Excess Air Supplied in m3 per m3 of Gaseous
Fuel when the Volumetric Percentages of Fuel Gas and Dry Flue
Gases are Given 212
10.15 Flue Gas Analysis 212
I 0.16 Bomb Calorimeter 213
10.17 Boy's Gas Calorimeter 215
Solved Probie1r1s 216
Contents xiii
11 THERMODYNAMIC VAPOUR CYCLES 228

11.2 Carnot Cycle 228.
11.3 Application of Carnot Cycle 230
11.4 Rankine Cycle 230
11.5 Rankine Cycle Applied to Steam Engine Plant 233
11.6 Working Fluid for Rankine Cycle 234
11.7 Difference between Carnot and Rankine Cycle 235
11.8 Methods of Increasing the Thermal Efficiency of a Rankine
Cycle 235
11.9 Modified Rankine Cycle 235
11.10 Expression for the Efficiency of Modified Rankine Cycle 236
Solved Problems 237
Exercises 245
12 STEAM ENGINE 248

12.2 Steam Engine Plant 248
12.3 Classification of Steam Engine 248
12.4 Parts of a Simple Steam Engine 249
12.5 Function of the Steam Erigine Parts 250
12.6 Terms used in Steain Engine 251
12.7 Working of a Steam Engine 254
12.8 Hypothetical or Theoretical Indicator Diagram 254
12.9 Work Done in a Steam Engine Cylinder During a Hypothetical
Cycle 256
12.10 Difference between the Theoretical and Actual Indicator
Diagram, Diagram Factor 256
12.11 Determination of Indicated Power 258
12.12 Determination of Brake Power 259
12.13 Steam Consumption (m,) 261
12.14 Efficiencies 261
12.15 Missing Quantity 262
12.16 Steam Engine Indicator 263
12.17 Governing of Steam Engine 263
12.18 Compound Engines 265
12.19 Advantages of Compounding 265
12.20 Classification of Compound Engines 266
12.21 Terms used in Compound Engines 269
12.22 Estimation of Cyclinder Dimensions 269
12.23 Triple and Quadruple Expansion Engine 276
xiv Contents
12.24 Governing of Compound Engine 277

l '.U5 Uniflow Engine 278
Solved Problems 280
Exercises 305
13 STEAM NOZZLES 309

13.2 Types of SteamNozzles 309
I 3.3 Flow of Steam throughNozzles 310
13.4 Mass of Steam Discharged through aNozzle 311
13.5 Condition for Maximum Discharge throughNozzle 312
I 3.6 Critical Pressure Ratio 313
13.7 Areas of Throat and Exit for Maximum Discharge 314
13.8 Values for Maximum Discharge 315
13.9 Supersaturated or Metastable Flow through Nozzle 316
13. IO Effects of Supersaturation 317
13.11 Effect of Friction in aNozzle 317
13.12 Flow of Gases or Vapours with very Small.Pressure Difft;rence 318
13. I 3 Underexpansion and Over-expansion 318
13.14 Length of theNozzle 319
13.15 Steaminjector 319
Solved Problems 322
Exercises 335
14 STEAM TURBINE" 337

I 4.1- Introduction 337
14.2 Classification of Turbines 337
14.3 Difference between Imp•ilse and Reaction Turbine 338
14.4 Advantages of Steam Turbine over Reciprocating St.earn Engine 338
14 .5 Simple Impulse Turbine 339
14.6 Velocity Diagram for Moving Blades for an Impulse Turbine 340
14.7 Combined Velocity Diagram 340
14.8 Maximum Work and Maximum Diagram Efficiency 342
I 4.9 Methods of Reducing Rotor Speed 343
I 4.10 Reaction Turbine 350
14.11 Governing of Turbines 353
14.12 Improvement in Turbine Efficiency 355
14.13 Losses in Steam Turbines 365
Solved Problems 366
Exercises 389
Contents xv
15 STEAM CONDENSER 392

15. l Introduction 392
15.2 Advantages Obtained by Incorporating a Condenser in a Steam
Engine or SteamTurbine Plant 392
15.3 Principal Requirements of a Condensing Plant 393
15.4 Types of Condenser 393
15.5 Vacuum in Condenser and its Measurement 397
15.6 Vacuum Efficiency 398
I 5.7 Condenser Efficiency 399
15.8 Co-efficient of Performance (C.O.P.) of Condenser 399
I 5.9 Sources of Air Leakage in Condenser 399
15.10 Effects of Air Leakage in a Condenser 399
1.5.11 Detection of Air Leakage 400
15.12 Determination of the Quantity of Circulating Water required in
a Condenser 400
15.13 CoolingTower 401
15.14 Air Pumps 401
Solved Problems 402
Exercises 412
16 AIR STANDARD CYCLES 415

I 6.1Otto Cycle (Constant Volume Cycle) 415
16.2 Me�n Effective Pressure for Otto Cycle 416
I 6.3Diesel Cycle (Constant Pressure Cycle) 418
16.4 For the same Compression Ratio the Efficiency of the Otto Cycle
is Greater than that of Disel Cycle 420
16.5 Essential Features of a Diesel Engine 420
16.6 Composite Cycle (Dual-Combustion Cycle) 420
16.7 Brayton Cyck or Joule Cycle 422
Solved Problems 424
Exercises 434
17 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 436
17. I Introduction 436

l 7.2 I.C. Engine Versus Steam Engine 436
'7.3 Classification ofl.C. Engines 437
i 7.4 Main Parts of an I.C. Engine 43/J
17.5 Terms Used for an I.C. Engine '-139
17.6 Four Stroke andTwo Stroke Cycle Engines 440
17.7 Four Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine (S.I. Engine) 440
xvi Contents
17.8 Theoretical andActual P-V Diagram of a Four Stroke Petrol

Engine 442
17.9 FourStrokeCycle DieselEngine (C.I. Engine) 444
171. 0 Theoretical andActual P-V Diagram for Four Stroke Diesel
Engine 445
17.11 Valve Timing Diagram of a FourStroke DieselEngine 445
17.12 TwoStrokeCycle.PetrolEngine 446
17.13 TwoStrokeCycle DieselEngine 448
17.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of TwoStrokeCycleEngines Over
FourStrokeCycleEngines 449
17 .15 Comparison between DieselEngine and PetrolEngine 453
17.16 Fuel FeedSystem of a PetrolEngine 453
17.17 Types of Fuel FeedSystems 454
171. 8 Carburettor 455
17.19 FuelSupply System of a DieselEngine 456
17 .20 Methods ofIgniting Fuel in PetrolEngines 460
17.21 Power and Efficiency 464
17 .22 Cooling of LC. Engines 467
17.23 Scavenging 470
172. 4 Supercharging ofl.C. Engines 47 J
·l7.25 Lubrication of LC. Engines 471
17.26 Governing of LC. Engines 473
17.27 Testing of LC. Engines 474
Salved Problems 480
Exercises 503
18 AIR-COMPRESSORS 505
18.2 Uses ofCompressedAir 505
18.3 Classification ofCompressor 505
18.4 AirCompressor Terminology 506
18.5 Reciprocating Compressors 506
18.6 Ideal Single Stage ReciprocatingAir Compressor 507
18.7 Effect ofClearance Volume andExpression for Volumetric
Efficiency 509
18.8 Expression for Work Done havingClearance 51 I
18.9 Power andEfficiency of aCompressor 511
18.1 O Ratio of Cylinder Diameters 519
18.11 Methods ofControlling Output of ReciprocatingCompressors 520
181. 2 ReciprocatingAirMotor 520
18.13 RotaryC0111pre�sors 521
Solved Problems 528
Exercises 543
Contents xvii
19 GAS TURBINE AND JET PROPULSION 546

19 .1 Introduction 546
19.2 Classification 546
19.3 Jet Propulsion 564
19.4 Thrust Power and Propulsion Efficiency 566
Solved Problems 568
Exercises 583
20 REFRIGERATION 584
20.2 Refrigeration 584
20.3 Unit of Refrigeration, Refrigerating Effect and Coefficient of
Performance 584
20.4 Carnot Cycle for Refrigeration 585
20.5 Air Refrigeration System and Bell-Coleman Cycle 586
20.6 Advantages of Air Refrigeration System 587
20.7 Disadvantages of Air Refrigeration System 587
20.8 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 588
20.9 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle on T-<p
Diagram 589
20.10 Undercooling or Subcooling 591
20.11 Analysis of the Refrigeration System 592
20.12 Advantages of Vapour Compression System 593
20.13 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System 593
20.14 Electrolux Refrigerator 595
20.15 Advantages of Absorption Refrigeration System over Vapour
Compression System 596
20.16 Properties of Ideal Refrigerants 597
20.17 Important Refrigerants 598
Solved Problems 598
Exercises 611
Appendix-A 613
Appendix-B 618
Appendix-C 619
Appendix-D 628
Index 659
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Basic Concepts of
Thermodynamics
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with the relationship between
heat and mechanical energy. James Joule proved that mechanical energy can be
converted into heat energy. The credit for using heat by converting it into
mechanical work goes to James Watt who also invented the first steam engine.
The relation between heat and mechanical energy is mainly governed by the
laws of thermodynamics. When a substance changes from one state to another,
in the process energy transformation, may take place. Laws of thermodynamics
are applied to the work producing and work absorbing devices in order to
understand and improve their performance. In the present situation of energy
crisis, there is a special need to study thermodyanmics and also develop devices
using unconventional energy sources like solar heat.
1.2 S.I. SYSTEM OF UNITS

This system is also known as the International system. In this system, the fun-
damental quantities are Length, Mass, and Time.
1.3 UNITS OF DIFFERENT QUANTITIES

Fundamental Quantities
a) Length: The unit of length is metre (m)
b) Mass: The unit of mass is kilogram (kg)
c) Time: The unit of time is second (s)
Force
The unit of force is newton (N) which is defined as a force which when applied
to a body having a mass of one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one metre
per second (per seccnd.)
2 Thermal Engineering
Work
The unit of work is joule (J) which is defined as the work done when a force of
one newton is exerted through a distance of one metre in the direction of the
force. One joule is therefore equal to one newton metre (Nm).
Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. There are different forms of
energy such as mechanical energy, electrical energy, heat energy and chemical
energy. In all the forms, the unit of energy is joule (J). The unit of energy used
frequently by engineers is kilowatt hour (kWh). Kilowatt hour is the energy
expended in one hour when power is one kilowatt.
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
Power
The unit of power is watt (W) which is defined as the rate of work i.e., one joule
per second or one newton metre per second.
1 Nm/s = 1 J/s = 1 Watt
For larger powers, megawatt (MW) is used.
1 MW = 1000000 W = 106W
I kW = 1000 W = 103 W
Pressure
Pressure is the force applied over a unit area. The unit of pressure is newton per
square metre or pascal (Pa).
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2
Engineers measure pressure in kilo pascals and Mega pascals.
1 kilo pascal = 1000 pascals = I kPa
1 Mega pascal = 1000000 pascals = 1 MPa
Other units for pressure not included in the S.I. units but commonly used are bar
and standard atmosphere.
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa
1 standard atmosphere (atm) = 101325 Pa = 760 mm of Hg
= 1.01325 bar.
1 mm of Hg = 0.13332 kPa = 0.0013332 bar
750 mm of Hg = 100 kPa = 1 bar.
All thermodynamic formulae are based on the absoulte pressure expressed in
N/m2.
The pressure of a fluid is measured by instruments known as gauges. Gauges
which measure pressure greater than atmospheric pressure are called pressure
gauges such as the Bourdon pressure gauge. This gauge is used to measure the
pressure of steam in a boiler.
Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 3
Gauges which measure pressure less than atmospheric pressure are called
vaccum gauges. A vaccum gauge is used in a condenser to measure the differ-
ence between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure inside the condenser.
This difference is called the vaccum.
The absolute pressure of steam in a boiler
= Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure.
The absolute pressure within the condenser
= Atmospheric pressure — Vacuum.
Manometers are also used to measure the pressure.
Patm Patm
(a) (b)
Evacuated
h Hg
(c)
Fig. 1.1 (a) U-tube manometer, (b) U-tube manometer measuring pressure less
than atmospheric pressure, (c) closed U-tube indicating absolute
pressure
Figure 1.1 (a) shows a U-tube manometer. One limb of the U-tube is open to the
atmosphere and the other is connected to a vessel having pressure higher than
the atmospheric pressure. Suppose the manometer reads h mm, then absolute
pressure of the gas in the vessel (P)
= Atmospheric pressure + Manometer reading
P=P+h (1.1)
Figure 1.1 (b) shows a U-tube manometer measuring pressure less than atmo-
spheric pressure . One limb of the U-tube is open to the atmosphere and the
other end is connected to a vessel having pressure less than that of the
atmosphere. In this case, P = P — h
Figure 1.1 (c) shows a closed U-tube indicating absolute pressure. If p is the
atmospheric pressure, then this gauge is known as a barometer.
Pressure may be measured by the height of a column of liquid
P = pgh 1\11m2
Temperature
Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. When
heat is added to a body and it becomes hotter, its temperature is said to rise.
When a body cools down, its temperature is said to fall. According to the mod-
em theory, the temperature of a body is a measure of the speed -with which its
molecules are vibrating. A rise in temperature indicates an increase and a fall in
temperature, a decrease of molecular speed.
Temperature is the thermal condition of a body on which its capacity of
communicating heat to or receiving heat from other bodies depends. Tempera-
ture determines the direction in which the heat flow will take place. Tempera-
ture is measured by the instrument known as thermometer. Very high
temperatures are measured by an instrument known as pyrometer.
The unit of temperature measurement is degree. In a centigrade thermometer,
the freezing point of water is marked as zero and the boiling point as 100. The
centigrade scale of temperature is constructed by dividing the thermometer stem
between the fixed points in 100 equal parts or degrees. Under the S.I, system of
units the centigrade scale is now named after Celsius, a swedish astronomer
who invented this scale in 1953, and is thus called the celsius scale.
Another scale which is used in calculations involved in solving enbineering
problems is the absolute temperature scale. This scale is based on absolute zero
temperature or the point at which a perfect gas is considered to have zero
volume. It has been found that a perfect gas expands or contracts to of

273
its volume at zero degree (0°C) for each degree centigrade change in tempera-
ture when pressure remains constant. So, absolute zero may be taken as 273°C
below the melting point of ice.
The absolute temperature in the centigrade scale is called degree kelvin (K).
T represents the temperature on the absolute scale.
Temperature K = Temperature °C + 273
Temperature T on the kelvin scale is written as T K and not as T°K
For gases, N.T.P. means 760 mm of mercury pressure and 0°C.
S.T.P means 760 mm of mercury pressure and 15°C.
Basic Units under the S.I. System

In this text, the S.I. system of units has been used. The basic units in this system
are given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Basic units
Quantity Unit Symbol

(a) Length metre m
(b) Mass kilogramme kg
(c) Time second s
(d) Temperature kelvin k
(e) Plane angle radian rad
(f) Amount of substance mole mol
(g) Electric current ampere A
(h) Luminous intensity candela cd
(i) Solid angle steradian sr
The dimensions of all other quantities are derived from these basic units. These
derived units are given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Derived units
Quantity Unit Symbol

(a) Force newton N
(b) Pressure pascal Pa or N/m2
(c) Energy, Heat or Work joule J = Nm
(d) Power watt W = J/S
(e) Torque newton - metre Nm = J
(f) Specific heat joule per kilo- J/kg K
gramme per
degree kelvin
(g) Dynamic viscosity newton second Ns/m'
per square metre
(h) Thermal conductivity watt per metre W/m K = J/s mK
per, degree kelvin
(i) Frequency hertz Hz = c/s
1.4 SYSTEM AND SURROUNDINGS

A thermodynamic system is a specified quantity of matter or a region in space
on which our attention is concentrated. Everything outside the system is called
the surroundings. The system is separated from the surroundings by a system
boundary as shown in Fig. 1.2(a). The system boundary may be real or imagi-
nary, fixed or deformable.
There are three types of systems:—(a) Closed system, (b) Open system, and
(c) Isolated system.
Closed System
In a closed system, there is no transfer of mass but transfer of energy into or out
of the system does takes place Fig. 1.2 (b).
System boundary Boundary
Energy out
Surroundings Surroundings
(a) (b)
Boundary
Energy in Mass out
Energy out
Surroundings Surroundings
(c) (d)
Fig. 1.2 (a) System boundary separating a thermodynamic system from its
surrounding (b), closed system, (c), open system (d) isolated system
Open System
In an open system both mass and energy may cross the boundary of the system.
Steam turbines, gas turbines, air compressors etc. are examples of an open sys-
tem (Fig. 1.2(c)).
Isolated System
In an isolated system, there is no transfer of mass or energy across the system
boundary. (Fig. 1.2 (d)).
1.5 WORKING SUBSTANCE

The working substance in most work producing and absorbing devices is gas or
vapour, or vapour and liquid in equilibrium. In order to understand their work-
ing, it is essential to know the behaviour and the properties of the working sub-
stance. The concept of pure substance is useful in the determination of the
properties of the working substance at various conditions of pressure and
temperature. A material of single or homogeneous chemical structure is known

as pure substance. Water is an example of pure substance. Air may be consid-
ered as a pure substance in the gaseous state. However when it is in equilibrium
with the liquid phase, it cannot be called a' pure substance. For example, steam
power generating plants use water vapour and ice plants use ammonia or Freon
as the working substance.
1.6 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if there is no change in the
microscopic properties even when the system is isolated from its surroundings.
For thermodynamic equilibrium, the following three types of equilibrium con-
ditions have to be satisfied:—(a) Mechanical equilibrium, (b) Chemical equi-
librium, and (c) Thermal equilibrium.
A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when there is no
unbalanced force within the system itself, or between the system and the sur-
roundings.
A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium when there is no chemical
reaction or transfer of matter from one part of the system to another.
A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no change in any
property of the system when the system is separated from its surroundings by a
wall which allows heat to flow.
1.7 PROPERTY, STATE AND PROCESS
The state of a system can be represented by a point on a diagram whose co-

ordinates are properties like pressure, temperature, specific volume etc.
(Fig. 1.3). When the system goes from one equilibrium state to another, the new
state is represented by another point on the property diagram.
Change in the absolute value of the property during the process in obtained
from the difference between the co-ordinates of the two points. Only such
variables of the system that conform to the
2 description above are known as properties
of the system. These properties depend
only on the equilibrium state itself and not
on the path followed in reaching the state.
The change in property A between states 1
ik) and 2 is the same irrespective of the path a,
Property, B b or c.
Such properties are point functions and
the differentials of these functions are
Fig. 1.3 Property diagram repre- exact differentials. These differentials cari
senting the state of a be integrated between the limits irrespec-
system tive of the path followed during the
change. For example
2
d T = T2 —
f i
Properties of a system can be divided into two types: —(a) Intensive proper-
ties, and (b) Extensive properties.
Intensive properties The properties, which do not depend on the mass, of the
system are known as intensive properties for example, pressure, temperature,
density etc.
Extensive properties The properties which depend on the size of the system
are known as extensive properties, for example, mass, volume, length, energy
etc.
The properties may also be divided into the following two types: —(a) funda-
mental properties, and (b) thermodynamic properties.
The properties which can be measured directly are known as fundamental
properties. For example pressure, volume, temperature.
The properties which cannot be measured directly, but are calculated are
known as thermodynamic properties. For example, work, energy, internal
energy, enthalpy, entropy.
1.8 PROCESS AND CYCLIC PROCESS

A process is said to occur when the system undergoes a change in its state. A
change of state occurs when one or more of the properties of a system changes.
The process is named according to its specification, i.e. constant pressure pro-
cess, constant volume process etc.
A cyclic process is a process when a number of processes in sequence bring
back the system to its initial state, i.e., the initial and final states of the system
are the same. The net effect of a cyclic process may either be the conversion of a
part of heat received at high temperature into work, or to maintain the system at
a temperature lower than the surroundings by means of work input.
1.9 ENERGY AND FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. When energy is added to or sub-
tracted from a system, there occurs a change in the properties of the system. The
energy may be of two types—stored energy or energy in transition form.
Stored Energy
It is the energy contained within the system boundaries. For example, kinetic
energy, potential energy, internal energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy.
Energy in Transition Form

The energy which crosses the system boundaries. For example, heat energy,
work and electrical energy.
Potential energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position is called its potential
energy and is given by
P.E. = mgh Nm.
where m = mass of the body in kg.
h = height of the body in metres from a given datum line.
The earth's surface is considered as the datum line of zero potential energy.
Kinetic energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called its kinetic
energy. The unit of kinetic energy is N.m. The kinetic energy of a body of mass
m moving with a velocity of V metres per second is given by
mV2
K .E =
2
Internal energy
According to the kinetic theory of matter, the molecules of a body are constantly
in motion. The molecules execute translational, rotational and vibratory motions
depending on the number of atoms in a molecule. The kinetic energy due to the
motion of the molecules contributes to the internal energy of the matter.
Another factor that contributes to the internal energy is the relative position of
the molecules. Thus, the internal energy is the sum total of the activity and the
configuration of the molecules in a substance. As the motion and configuration
cf the molecules depend on temperature, the internal energy will be a function
of temperature. The internal energy is expressed in joules. The change of inter-
nal energy when the substance passes from state 1 to state 2 can be expressed in
a general way as AU = U2 — U1.
1.10 HEAT
Heat is a form of energy. It can be transferred from one body to another due to
the difference of temperature. Heat is defined as the energy transferred without
transfer of mass across the boundary of a system due to temperature difference
between the system and the surroundings. The energy in transition alone is
called heat. If a finite temperature difference exists during the process of heat
flow, the heat flow cannot be reversed without the help of an external agency.
Such a process is called irreversible. The amount of heat transferred during a
process depends on the path followed during the process and not on the end
conditions. For example, a system can go from state 1 to 2 following different
processes (Fig. 1.3). Though the end conditions are the same, the heat, exchange
during the processes will be different.
Therefore, hear: is said to be a path function where the differential is in exact
and cannot be integrated unless the path followed by the process is fixed. Dur-
ing the process, heat flow into the system is considered to be positive and heat
flow out of the system is considered to be negative. The unit of heat is joule (J).
1.11 WORK
When a force is acting on a body causing it to move, work is said to be done.
Work is a transient from of energy. This work is equal to the force multiplied by
the distance through which it acts. The unit of work is joule which is equal to
one newton metre. (J = 1 Nm). Thus, we see that the unit of work is independent
of time. In order to include all thermodynamic processes, work is said to be
done by a system when the sole effect external to the system can be reduced to
raise a mass against gravity. Systems like a storage battery, though only sup-
plying an electrical current, can be said to do work since the current can operate
a motor which may lift a mass against gravity. Thus, work may be defined as
energy transferred, without the transfer of mass, across the boundary of a sys-
tem. When work is done by a system it is arbitrarily taken as positive and when
work is done on a system, it is taken to be negative. The definition of work can
be illustrated with the help of the following diagrams. Figure 1.4(a) illustrates
the work done at the boundary of a system and Fig. 1.4(b) illustrates the work
crossing the boundary of a system.
The area below each curve which gives the work transfer during process 1-2
is different (Fig. 1.4(c)).
v2
W12 = pdv
fv,
The work transfer is thus found to depend on the process or path followed
between the same end states. Work is thus a path function and not a property.
1.12 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE

PROCESSES
A cyclic process will be considered reversible only if it produces no change
anywhere in the universe when traced in the reverse order. For example, iso-
thermal and adiabatic processes. If there is any change whatsoever, either in the
system or in the universe due to the process, the process is irreversible. All
natural processes produce changes and consequently, are irreversible. For
example, constant pressure, constant volume and polytropic process. However,
we can find out the conditions under which some typical processes would be
irreversible.
A perfectly elastic ball is dropped on a perfectly elastic plate. There is no
dissipation of energy and the ball again rises to its original height. The process
is a reversible one. But if either the ball or the plate or both be inelastic, the ball
will not rise to its original height. Some of the potential energy will be con-
verted to heat energy through friction and the process will be irreversible. Thus,
in the absence of friction and inelasticity, mechanical processes are reversible.
Another condition that must be satisfied for a process to be reversible is that
r System boundary
-
m.
I
Motor
System boundary
Motor
1
I LSI t
Battery Battery
(a) (b)
0.)
z
Volume
(c)
Fig. 1.4 (a) Work done at the boundary of a system, 1.4 (b) work crossing the
boundary of a system 1.4 (c) work transfer during process 1-2
the working substance should be in mechanical and thermal equilibrium with

the surrounding as well as internally. If there are internal eddies in the sub-
stance, the process will be irreversible.
Thermodynamic probability is another criterion which determines whether a
change is reversible or irreversible. When a body changes from state 1 to state 2,
the thermodynamic probablity of the two states determines whether the change
is reversible or irreversible. If the thermodynamic probability be the same for
the two states, the change is reversible; if it be more for state 2, the change is
irreversible. If the thermodynamic probability be more for state 1, the change
will not take place.
Entropy is a measure of thermodynamic probability. All natural processes
are irreversible because they proceed with finite velocities. Reversible processes
are purely ideal, having maximum efficiency, which cannot be achieved in any
aatui al or manmade process, though attempts may be made to keep on improv-
ing the techniques to reach the ideal efficiency.
1.13 THERMAL CAPACITY, SPECIFIC HEAT AND

MOLECULAR HEATS
Thermal Capacity
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by one degree is
known as its thermal capacity.
Heat added
Thermal capacity =
= Temperature change AT
Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is the heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of the substance through one degree. It's unit is J/kg K or kJ/kgK.
Molecular Heat
The heat required to raise the temperature of one molecular weight of a material
by one degree is known as molecular heat. Thermal capacity = m.c. AT where m
is the mass of the body and c is the specific heat. Molecular heat = M.C.
Where M is the molecular weight of the material.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. The density of mercury IS 13600 kg/m3. Calculate the pressure in (a) (b) bar due to a
column of 300 mm of mercury.
2 13600 x 9.81 x 300 N/m2 = 40020 N/m2
Solution P = Pgh N/m —
1000
40020
1 bar = 105 N/m2 p — = 0.4002 bar.
105
2. Calculate the absolute pressure in the boiler and in the condenser if the gauge pressure of
steam in the boiler is 30 bar, the condenser vacuum is 700 mm of mercury, the barometer
indicates the pressure of 750 mm. Express these pressures in N/m2.
Solution: The absolute pressure in the boiler is equal to the sum of the gauge pressure plus
the barometric pressure.
750
Absolute pressure in the boiler = 30 + — = 31 bar = 31 x 105 N/m2
750
Absalute pressure in the condenser =750-700 = 50 mm bf Hg
= 5 = 0.066666 bar = 6666.6 N/m2.

750
3. A copper ball moving with 550 m/s is brought to rest suddenly. Assuming that 25% of its
energy is transformed into heat, find the rise in temperature of the copper ball. Specific heat
of copper is 0.394 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Let in be the mass of the copper ball.
mv 2 x 550 x 550
The energy of the copper ball = = Nm.
2 2
x 550 x 550
25% of this energy —
2x4
in x.550 x 550
... =mx0.394x1000x 1
2x4
where '1' is the rise in temperature
550 x 550
8 x 394 — 95.97°C.
4. A forced draught fan supplies air to the furnance of a boiler at draught of 40 mm of water.
The barometer reads 760 mm of mercury. Calculate the absolute pressure of air supply in
kPa.
Solution: As it is a forced draught, the absolute pressure is above atmospheric pressure.
1 mm of water column = 0.07353 mm of Hg.
40 mm of water column = 40 x 0.07353 = 2.9412 mm of Hg
Absolute pressure = Barometer reading + Forced draught reading
= 760 + 2.9412 = 762.9412 mm of Hg
= 762.9412 x 0.13332 = 101.71532 kPa
5. The resistance to the motion of a motor vehicle was 1 kN when it was driven at 80 kmph.
Calculate the minimum engine output required.
Solution: Force = 1 kN = 1000 N
Distance moved per second = 80 x 1000 = 800m/s

3600 36
1000 x 800
Work done per second = = 22222.222 Millis
36
= 22222.222 W = 22.222 kW.

6. If the whole enegry of a mass of 250 kg of water falling through a height of 90 m be uti-
lised to raise the temperature of the mass of water, find the total quantity of heat produced
and the rise in temperature.
Specific heat of water is 4.193 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Energy of water = 250 x 9.81 x 90 Nm = 220725 J = 220.725 Id
Total heat produced = 220.725 kJ.
Total heat produced
Rise of temperature —
mass of water x specific heat of water
220.725
= = 0.2105°C
250 x 4.193
7. A piece of iron ball of mass 5 kg is heated to 105°C and dropped into vessel containing
25 kg of water at 20°C. What is the specific heat of iron, if the rise in temperature of water be
3.6°C by the heat from the iron?
Specific heat of water = 4.193 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Let nz1 = mass of iron ball = 5 kg
ci = specific heat of iron
c2 = specific heat of water = 4.193 kJ/kg K
m2 = mass of water = 25 kg
ti = Initial temperature of water = 20°C
t2 = Temperature of iron ball = 105°C

t2' = Final temperature of water = 20 + 3.6 = 23.6°C
Heat lost by iron ball = Heat gained by water
t2) = m2c2(t2 - t,)
25 x 3.6 x 4.193
c, = 0.927
5 x 81.4
8. Three pipes discharge water into the same main, one supplying 0.75 m3 per min at 82°C,
the second 1.35 m' per min at 7°C and the third 0.06 m' per min at 100°C. Find the final
temperature assuming specific heat to be constant.
Solution: Let the final temperature be 1°C and c be the specific heat. Therefore we have
(0.75 + 1.35 + 0.06) 1000 xc xt= 0.75 x 1000 x c x (273 + 82)
+ 1.35 x 1000 x c x (273 + 7) + 0.06 x 1000 x c x (273 + 100)

(0.75 x 355 + 1.35 x 280 + 0.06 x 373) (666.63)
t - - 308.625K
(0.75 + 1.35 + 0.06) (2.16)
= 35.625°C
9. An artificial satellite has a mass of 600 kg and is moving towards the moon. Calculate its
kinetic and potential energies relative to the earth when it is 50 km from launching and mov-
ing, at 2500 km/hour. Take the acceleration of the earth's gravitational field as 790 cm/s'.
Solution: Here, in = 600 kg, h = 50 km = 50000 m, g = 790 cm/s2 = 7.9 m/s', v =
2500 km/hour
1 2 1 )2
2500 x 100012
Kinetic energy = my = x 600 4
3600
= 1.4467 x 108 J = 144.67 MJ

Potential energy = nigh = 600 x 7.9 x 50000 Nm or J
= 2.37 x 108 J = 237 MJ
10. In a thermal power plant 220000 kg of coal is burnt per hour. The calorific value of coal is
30000 kJ/kg. The efficiency of conversion is 25%. Determine the power developed.
(Power developed)
Solution: Efficiency =
(Heat produced by burning of coal)
220000 x 30000 x 103 x 0.25
Power developed = J/S
3600
= 4.5833 x 108 W = 458.33 MW
EXERCISES
Fill in the blanks:-

1. The boundary of a system may be
2. Everything external to the system is known as
3. Temperature is defined as the degree of or of a body.
4. The temperature T on the kelvin scale is written as
5. Pressure is a applied over an unit area.
6. Energy is defined as the for
7. The system is separated from the suliounJings by
8. In a , transfer of mass does not take place.

9. In an open system both and may the boundary.
10 In an , there is , of across the system boundary.
11. Unit of pressure is
12. Unit of heat is
13. Unit of power is
14. The energy contained within the system boundaries is known as
15. Heat is a of
Answers
1. real or imaginary 2. surrounding 3. hotness, coldness
4. TK 5. force 6. capacity, doing, work
7. system boundary 8. closed system 9. mass, energy, cross
10. Isolated system, no 11. Pascal 12. Joule
transfer, mass or energy
13. Watt 14. Stored energy 15. form, energy
Answer the following questions
1. Define system, boundary, and surroundings.
2. Explain (a) closed system (b) open system (c) isolated system.
3. What is meant by thermodynamic equilibrium?
4. Distinguish between process and cyclic process.
5. What are the various forms of stored energy?
6. Differentiate between absolute and gauge pressure.
7. What is meant by reversible and irreversible process? Give one example of reversible
process.
8. State the conditions to be satisfied for a process to be reversible.
9. Explain (a) thermal capacity (b) specific heat (c) molecular heat.
10. Explain the difference between point function and path function.
11. Give the thermodynamic definition of work. What is positive and negative work?
12. Explain the difference between a point function and a path function.
13. What are the conditions for reversibility?
14. A pressure gauge reads 2.5 MPa and the barometer reads 98 kPa. Calculate the
absolute pressure in MPa. Ans (2.598 MPa)
15. A vacuum gauge on the condenser reads 640 mm of mercury. What is the absolute
pressure in the condenser if the barometer reads 760 mm of mercury? Ans (16 kPa)
16. One kg of liquid is heated from 20°C to 105°C. The heat required was found to be 200
kJ. Determine the average specific heat of liquid.
Ans 2.353 kJ/kg
17. The steam flows out of a nozzle at a velocity of 350 m/s. Determine the kinetic
energy per kg of steam. Ans (61250 Nm)
18. What is the time taken to increase the temperature of 150. kg of water by 25°C
when heated with a 1 kW heater.
19. A car of mass 1000 kg moving with a velocity of 80 kmph is brought to rest by the
application of brakes. Find out the heat generated.
20. Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a copper vessel of
mass 5 kg containing 6 kg of water from 20°C to 90°C. Specific heat of copper is
0.39 kJ/kg K and that for water is 4.193 kJ/kg K. Ans. (1897.56 kJ)
First Law of
Thermodynamics
2.1 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

AND ENERGY
The law of conservation of

HdxH
mass states that mass can
neither be destroyed nor ,V1
PI P2 ,V2
created in the absence of m m
nuclear reaction.
Let us consider a fluid
passing through a pipe as
shown in Fig. 2.1. By taking
the elementary length of the
pipe as dx, the mass in the Fig. 2.1
element is given by dm =
Adxp
Where A = cross-sectional area
p = density.
dm dx
= A.— . p
dt dt
If dt —> 0 then mass per unit time = A .V.p.
dx
where V = Velocity = Ti t
or under steady flow condition
A I VI P I = A2 V2P 2 (2.1)
This equation is known as one dimensional steady flow continuity equation and
it is the result of the law of conservation of mass.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be
destroyed nor created. During any process, energy may only be converted from
one form to another but there is no change in the total energy of the system and
its surroundings.
First Law of Thermodynamics 17
2.2 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics states that in a closed system executing a cycle
(in which the end state is the same as the initial state) the network delivered to
the surroundings is proportional to the net heat taken from the surroundings . In
other words heat and work are mutually convertible and they should be in the
same units. It is represented mathematically as
= (1)clq (2.2)
or 4)(dq — dw)= 0
Where 1)chi, = Network delivered to the surrounding during the cyclic process.
4dq = Net heat taken from the surrounding during the cyclic process.
2.3 THE FIRST LAW APPLIED TO CLOSED

SYSTEM PROCESSES
Corollary 1
A property exists in a closed system such that a change in its value is equal to
the difference between the heat supplied and the work done during any change
of state. This property is known as energy (E). It may be written as
AE = E2 Q— W (2.3)
Where E, = energy of the system in the initial state 1.
E2 = energy of the system in the final state 2.
Energy is a property
Let us consider a system which is
undergoing a cyclic process,
changing through state 1 to state 2
by the process A and returns from
state 2 to state 1 by the process B
or C as shown in Fig. 2.2.
According to first law of
thermodynamics,
Fig. 2.2 Paths of cyclic processes passing
4:1d Q = (Od W through two common state poinis
Considering the process 1 A 2 B1

2 I 2 I
dQ + f dQ = dW + f dW (2.3.1)
1, B2 B2
Considering the cyclic process 1 A, C1

2 l j2
dQ +
dQ = dW + dW (2.3.2)
fA fC2 A fC2
Subtracting Eq. (2.3.1) from Eq. (2.3.2) we get
1 dQ —
132 .1dQ = I"B dW — .1 dW
C2
'
or (dQ—dW)= (dQ —dW)
TB2 c2
The quantity (dQ—dW) is the same for any process between states 2 and 1. Thus
the value of the integral (dQ—dW) depends on the end state and is independent
of the path of the process. Hence, it is a point function and is an exact differen-
tial and thus, a thermodynamic property. This property is given the symbol E.
Internal energy
The energy E is the sum of kinetic energy, (K.E), potential energy (P.E) and
internal energy (U). The internal energy (U) is due to the motion of the mole-
cules and changes with change in temperature.
Thus dE = d(K.E) + d(P.E)+dU
For a closed or non-flow thermodynamic system, the kinetic energy and poten-
tial energy terms are zero. Therefore, energy is equal to the internal energy.
Here Eq. (2.3) becomes
AU = Q — W (2.4)
or U2 — = Q—W (2.4.1)
where U2 U, represents the change in internal energy.
Corollary 2
In an isolated system the energy of the system remains constant. For an isolated
system both Q and W are zero, therefore the change in energy is zero.
When Q = 0, W = 0, AF = 0
This corollary is sometimes called the law of conservation of energy.
2
For a reversible non-flow process, W = pdv
or in differential form dw = pdv

Therefore for any reversible non-flow process
Q =W + AU = f pdv + (U2 — U1) (2.4.2)
In differential form, dQ = pdv + dU (2.4.2(a))

2.4 APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW TO NON-FLOW

PROCESS OR CLOSED SYSTEM AND FLOW
PROCESS
Non-flow Process
In a non-flow process, the substance remains in a closed system, i.e. it does not
leave the system, only energy crosses the boundary in the form of heat and
work. Non-flow processes may be reversible or irreversible.
Reversible Non-flow Processes
The reversible non-flow processes are the following:
(a) Constant volume process (Isochoric)
(b) Constant pressure process (Isobaric)
(c) Constant temperature process (Isothermal)
(d) Adiabatic process (Isentropic)
(e) Polytropic process.
Reversible constant volume process
A process in which the vol-
ume of the system remains
constant during its execution V = Constant
is known as a constant vol-

ume process. Fig. 2.3.
Let the system contain unit
mass. Point 1 represents the
state of the system before V
heating and point 2 represents
the state of the system after
heating. Fig. 2.3 The constant volume process
Applying the First Law of thermodynamics
dQ = dW +dU
As dv =0, dW = f pdv =0
dQ = dU (2.4.'3)
Thus the addition of heat increases the internal energy and loss of heat decreases
the internal energy of the system.
Equation 2.4.3 can also be written as
dQ = dU = CvdT
Cv = dU v = constant
dT
Where C, = Specific heat at constant volume.
dU = Cv dT f 2dU = 12 C, . dT (2.4.4)
i
.'. U2 - U1 = Cv(T2 - TO provided C, is independent of temperature, but many
times C, =f(T) and in that case AU = Cr(T2 — T1) cannot be used. The integral
form of the Eq. 2.4.4 should be used here.
Reversible constant pressure process A a. = Constant
process in which the pressure of the system 2
remains constant is known as constant pres-
sure process. The process is shown in
Fig. 2.4.
Applying the first law to the process V
Q =W+AU=P.dv+AU
Fig. 2.4 Constant pressure pro-
cess
dQ = d(P .V)+ dU = d(PV + U)= dh (2.4.5)

It is seen from Eq. (2.4.5) that the heat transfer is equal to the change in enthalpy
during constant pressure process.
dQ = dh = C pdT ...Cp = dh = constant
dT P
Again dh = C pdT
2 f 2
dh = CpdT (2.4.6)
...h2 — Cp(T2 —T1) provided C,. is independent of temperature, a but many

times C, = f(T) and in that case Ah = Cp(T2 — TO cannot be used. The integral
form of Eq. 2.4.6 is used here.
Reversible constant temperature process A 1
iT = Constant
process in which the temperature of the system
remains constant is known as constant tempera-
ture process. The process is shown in Fig. 2.5. 2
Applying the first law to the process,
V
Q = W +AU =W as AU = 0 because T is constant.
2 Fig. 2.5 Constant temper-

Q= Pdv (2.4.7) ature process
1 Reversible adiabatic process A process in

.,-Reversible which the heat transfer to or from the system is
adiabatic
zero is known as reversible adiabatic process.
The process is shown in Fig. 2.6.
Applying the first law to the system,
-1.- V
Q = W + AU = W + (U2 — U1 )
Fig. 2.6 Reversible adiabatic

As Q = 0, W = — U2 (2.4.8)
process
It is seen from Eq. 2.4.8 that the system develops work at the expense of its
internal energy.
Irreversible non-flow process
In thermodynamics, most of the processes are irreversible because of the pres-
ence of friction. The important non-flow irreversible process is free expansion.
Free expansion Free expansion is a process in which the fluid expands sud-
denly into a vacuum chamber through an orifice of large size.
Let two vessels A and B are be connected
by a valve V, with vessel B having vacuum
as shown in Fig. 2.7. When valve V is A V
opened the gas rushes from A to B with a
high velocity and is finally brought to rest
by striking the walls of the vessel and by
the friction of eddy currents thus formed. Fig. 2.7 Free expansion
The final temperature of the gas is the
same as the initial temperature of A. When the gas expands through the valve,
the temperature falls but the friction converts the kinetic energy into heat which
increases the temperature so that the original temperature is restored. In this
process no external heat has been supplied and no external work has been done.
There is no change in internal energy. The enthalpy of the fluid remains con-
stant during the process. The non-flow energy equation can be applied between
initial and final state.
Q = W + U2
0 = 0 + M Cy (T2 T1)
or T2 = T1
The free expansion differs from isothermal expansion in having no external

work. Furthermore, it is not an adiabatic process. It cannot be represented on a
P—V diagram.
Flow Process
In a flow process the fluid enters the system and leaves after doing work. Flow
processes may be classified into steady flow and non-steady flow process.
Steady flow process
In a steady flow process, the mass flow is the same at the inlet and outlet and the
properties of the fluid do not change with time at any point in the system.
Examples of steady flow processes are flow through nozzles, turbines, com-
pressor's etc.
J System boundary
Steady flow general energy r -----.
equation Though energy is ,
indestructible, it can be easily Flow in 11-1 W
transformed from one form to 1[
System
another. When a steady state is
reached in any system, the 2 Flow out
),
sum total of the different
forms of energy entering the Z2
system is equal to the sum
total of the different forms of
energy leaving it. This Datum level
assumes that no energy is used
up by the system.
Since in ordinary machines Fig. 2.8 Steady flow process
matter is not converted to
energy, we can assume the continuity of mass, which means there is no accu-
mulation or diminution of matter within the machine. The mass of working
substance entering the machine is equal to the mass of the working substance
leaving it. Sections 11 and 22 indicate respectively the entrance and exit of the
fluid.
Let m = Mass flow rate, kg/s at entrance and exit
P 1,P, = Absolute pressure, N/m2 at entrance and exit
v„ v2 = Specific volume, m3/kg at entrance and exit
V1 , V, = velocity, at rids at entrance and exit
Z„ Z2 = Elevation above datum, m at entrance and exit
1/1, U2 = Specific internal energy, J/kg at entrance and exit
Q = Heat introduced into the system, J
W = Amount of work available, J
From the law of conservation of energy we have
Energy in = Energy out
2
vi
M( + gZI + Ul + Pi v 1 + Q = m + gZ2 + U2 + P2V2j ± W
2 2
By definition h = U + P v
+h,)+ Q =m(- + gZ2+ h 2) + W (2.5)

2 2
This equation is known as steady flow energy equation.

Unsteady flow process
In unsteady flow process, the mass flowing into the system is not equal to the
mass flowing out of the system in a given time and there is no change in storage
energy of the system.
Let AE = change in storage energy
AF.ut AF,„ = change in flow energy
Q — W = DE + AFout —AF,,, (2.6)
But AE = (u2 + K.E.2 + P.E2) — (u, + K.E, + P.E,)
2 2
V2 VI
= M[(111z. gZ2) —(tt I + —
2 +gd]
Putting this value in Eq. 2.6, we get

2
V2
Q -141 =m[(u2+- +gZ2)--(ui +- + g i
2 2 d
2 2
+ [M2
V2
2
VI
+gZ2+h2j—nii(- + g Zi +
2 h it (2.7)
For steady flow process m, = m, = m and AF = 0

Application of steady flow energy equation
Application of steady flow energy equation is illustrated in the examples given
below.
Boiler Boiler receives water while heat is given from an external source and
water is converted into steam. The steam is then fed to steam engines or steam
turbines for doing work. No mechanical work is done by the boiler.
W=0
K.E and P.E can be neglected, therefore from Eq. 2.5.
Steam out
I Feed
I water
Boiler I in
L.
Q
--System
boundary
Fig. 2.9 Application of steady flow energy equation in a boiler
mhi + Q = mh2
Q = m(h2 — h i )
= H2 — H1 (2.8)
Fluid in
Turbine A turbine is a device in
— Boundary
which fluid energy is converted into j
mechanical work. In a turbine there
is no transfer of heat energy as it is
well insulated. Thus Q= 0. Here K.E Turbine
and P.E are neglected. The steady
flow energy equation then becomes
ink= mh2 +W
Fluid out
or W = tn(h i — h2 ).= Hi — H2 (2.9)
Nozzle A nozzle is a device which Fig. 2.10 Application of steady flow energy
increases the velocity of the equation in a turbine
fluid. It is not a work develop-
Nozzle
ing device, so W = 0. The
nozzle is insulated from its
surrounding and thus Q = 0.
Fluid out
The steady flow energy equa-
tion then becomes
v2 v2
M +1= M L
i 2 2 2
2 l2 System boundary
V1 V2
h +- = h +-
1 2 2 2
Fig. 2.11 Application of steady flow energy
equation in a nozzle
0,2
2 2 2
or = h i — h2 or v2 = 2(h — h2) +
2
v2 = -\1(2(h, — h2) + v12) (2.10)

When the inlet velocity or the velocity of approach v, is small as compared to
the exit velocity v2, Eq. (2.10) is written as
v2 = -\/(2(h, —112) (2.11)

Fluid out
Compressor Work is done on the
system, so W is negative.
Heat is lost from the system, so Q is
negative.
The steady flow energy equation then
becomes
mh i —Q=mh2 — W
W = Q + in (/12 — h i)
Fig. 2.12 Application of steady flow

W = Q + (H2 — H1) (2.12)
energy equation in a
compressor
Steam in
Water
out
Water
in System
boundary
Condensate out
Fig. 2.13 Application of steady flow energy equation in a heat exchanger
Heat exchanger In a heat exchanger heat is transferred from one fluid to

another. A steam condenser is also considered to be a heat exchanger. In a con-
denser the exhaust steam from the steam engine or steam turbine is condensed
by circulating cooling water. In this case there is no external work done. So
W=0.
Assuming that the system is perfectly insulated from the surrounding,
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by cooling water

ms(h, — h 2) = m,v(h4 — h3) (2.13)
where Ins = mass rate of flow of steam, m„ = mass rate of flow of water and
h,, h2, h3 and h4 are the enthalpies.
Throttling process This process occurs when a fluid flows through a restricted
passage like an orifice and there is an appreciable drop in pressure.
The fluid expands without doing any work or any appreciable increase in
kinetic energy. K.E = 0, P.E. = 0, W = 0, Q = 0. The steady flow energy equation
becomes
Thermometers
Insulation
Fluid in Fluid out
Control volume Porous plug
Fig. 2.14 Application of steady flow energy equation in a throttling process
= mh2 or hi = h2 (2.14)
The enthalpy of the fluid before and after throttling is equal.
Centrifugal water pump In
this case Q = 0 and Au = 0
vi = V2.
Water out
The steady flow energy
Electric
equation becomes motor
VZ
2 + gZi + Pi vi + W
Zt
Water
pump
2
V2 Water in
= — +g Z2 + P2V2 (2.15)
2
Water turbine In this case Q

= 0 and Au = O.
The steady flow energy equa- Fig. 2.15 Application of steady flow energy
tion becomes equation in a centrifugal water
pump
Water in
Water
turbine
Water
out
Generator
Fig. 2.16 Application of steady flow energy equation in a water turbine
— + gZ i + piv i = — +gZ2 +p2v2 + W (2.16)
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. In a cyclic process there are four heat transfers which are given below,
Q(1 _2) = 925 kJ, Q(2 _ 3) = —110 kJ, Q(3 _4) = —770 kJ and Q(4 _ ,) = 220 kJ. The work done
during three processes is Wu 2) = 70 kJ, W(2 _ 3) = —50 kJ, and Wo _„ = 170 kJ. Find the work
done during the process 3-4.
Solution: Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the cyclic process,
4)(1Q =
925- 110 — 770 + 220 = 70 — 50 + + 170
W(3 _ 4) = 75 kJ
Positive value of the work indicates that work is done by the system.
2. The pressure and volume relation during a non-flow reversible process is given by
P =(v 2 +:) bar.
The volume changes form v, = 6 cu.m and v2 = 2 cu.m. Calculate the work done. The heat
rejected during the process is 200 kJ. Determine the change in internal energy.
8
Solution: P = (v 2 +- 105 N/m2
v
v, i,
v 8 5 v3
W = 1 pdv = 105 f 2(v2 + jc/v = 10 [— +81og,v
v, ,, v 3 vi
5 [ (23 — 63) 21 5 [ (8 — 216)

= 10 + 8 loge = 10 8.78889]
3 6 3
= —78.1222 x 105 Nm or Joule.

Applying the energy equation, Q = W + AU
—200 = —7812.22 AU
AU = 7612.22 kJ
3. In a system executing a non-flow process, the work and heat transfer are given by
dw 1 dq 1
= kJ/ C and — = — kJ/ C. The temperature of the system increases from 150°C
dt 7.5 dt 2.5
to 300°C. Find the change in internal energy.
dT
Solution: dw =
111
VY = f - / 5 (300 — 150) = 20 kJ
7-, 7.5 — 7.5 (1.1) =71.
dT
dq =
2.5
1.2 dT 1
Q B(300 —150) = 60 kJ
= Jr, 2.5 =
Applying the energy equation
Au = Q — W = 60 — 20 = 40 kJ.
This indicates that the internal energy of the sys-
tem increases.
4. A gas is enclosed in a cylinder with a frictionless
piston at 3 bar as shown in Fig. 2.17. The spring
force exerted through the piston is proportional to the
volume of the gas. The atmospheric pressure on the
spring side of the piston is 1 bar. The gas is expanded
from 0.2 m3 to 1 m3. Calculate the work done by the
gas.
Solution: The pressure exerted by the spring
P,= 3 — 1 = 2 bar Fig. 2.17
The spring force = Spring pressure x area of piston

= 2x 105 xA N
Volume 0.2
The spring displacement x, =
Area A
1
x, — A
The spring constant is given by

(2 x 105 xA) 106A 2
K, = =
0.2/A
Work done against atmospheric pressure
W, = 1 x 105 (1 — 0.2) = 8 x 104 Nm.
Work done against spring

i x.i 21E2
W2 = 106A 2Xdx = 106A 2 [L
., 2 „,
10,A 2 x [A2 _ (0.2)2

= = 106 X —1 (1 — 0.04) = 48 x 104 Nm.
12 A2 2
Total work done by the gas is given by

W = W, + W2 = 8 x 104 +48x 104 = 56 x 104 Nm.
5. In a system 80 kJ of heat is supplied from state 1 to state 2 by constant volume process. The
internal energy at state 1 is 90 kJ. The system rejects 95 kJ of heat from state 2 to state 3 by
constant pressure process and 30 kJ of work is done, on it. The system is brought back from
state 3 to state 1 by a reversible adiabatic process. Calculate the adiabatic work and the values
of internal energy at state 2 and state 3.
Solution: Considering process 1-2
1Q 2 = 1W 2 = AU
80 = 0 + (u2 — u1) [During constant volume process , W2 = 0]
U2 — u, = 80, u2 = 80 + 90 = 170 kJ
Considering process 2-3
2Q3 = (u,— 140+ 21413, — 95 = u,— u2 — 30
u,— u2 = —65 kJ u3 = —65 + 170 = 105 kJ
process 3-1 is adiabatic, so 3Q, = 0
cyclic fdq = 80 — 95 = —15 kJ

According to the first law of thermodynamics
cyclic fdq = cyclic fdw z —15 = 0 — 30 + 3W, V
3W, = 15 kJ.
Fig. 2.18
6. In an air conditioned conference room of size 20 m x 12m x 3 m, 50 people are attending

the conference. There is a temporary failure of its air conditioning system. Each person gives
up 400 kJ of heat per hour. The room is completely insulated. Assume each person occupies a
volume of 0.07 m3. Determine the increase in temperature of air after 10 minutes. Take
C. = 0.714 kJ/kg K and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K. Room air pressure is 1 bar and temperature is
20°C.
Solution: The room is considered as a thermodynamic system. The people are adding heat to
the air in a constant volume process.
The volume of the room = 20 x 12 x 3 = 720 m3
The volume of air in the room = 720 — 50 x 0.07 = 716.5 m3
Pv (1 x 105 x 716.5)
The mass of air in the room, m=
RT (287 x (273 + 20)j
in = 852.05 kg.
From the first law of thermodynamics, au = Q — W
For constant volume process W = 0
Au = Q = 50 x 400 = 20000 kJ/hour

C
20000 x 10
During 10 minutes Au = — 3333.33 kJ
60
A
B The rise in temperature during first 10 minutes
Au 3333.33
= 5.48°C
mC, 852.05 x 0.714
7. A gas may be taken from an equilibrium state

1 to a second equilibrium state 2 by three qua-
sistatic processes as shown in Fig. 2.19. Path A is
Fig. 2.19 an adiabatic process. Path B consists of a process
at constant volume followed by a constant pre-
ssure process. Path C consists of process at constant pressure followed by a constant volume
process. The internal energy at state 1 is 80 kilkg. Determine the internal energy at state 2 and
the energy flowing into the system during the three paths when
WA = 12 kJ, IV, = 10 kJ, W, =15 kJ.
Solution: Path A is an adiabatic process, Q = 0

From the first law Q = WA (U2 — U1)
0= 12 + (U2 — 80)
U2 = 68 kJ/kg
Internal energy at state 2 = 68 kJ/kg,

Path B consists of two processes
(i) constant volume process
(ii) constant pressure process
From the first law, Q = WB + (U2 — U1) = 10 + (68 — 80) = —2 kJ/kg
Thus 2 kJ/kg of energy flows oUt from the system to the surroundings.
Path C, Q = Wc + (U2 — U1 ) = 15 + (68 — 80) = 3kJ/kg.
Thus 3 kJ/kg of energy flows into the system from the surroundings.
8. A steam turbine developing 34 kW receives steam at 15 bar with an internal energy of 2720
kJ/kg and specific volume of 0.17 m3/kg and velocity of 110 m/s. Steam is exhausted from
turbine at 0.1 bar with internal energy 2177 kJ/kg and specific volume 15 m3/kg and velocity
320 m/s. The heat loss over the surface of the turbine is 20 kJ/kg. Neglecting change in
potential energy, determine (i) work done per kg of steam (ii) steam flow through the turbine
in kg/hour.
Solution: Applying steady flow energy equation, the change in P.E. is neglected.
— +u +P v)+Q=m(- + u2 +P 2V 2}I- W
m( 2 " 2
Here m = 1, Q = —20 as ther is heat loss.

W=N
11 4-ti,+P,v,)+Q -- (14+112 +P2 v2)
4 11°2 +2720+1500 x 0.17)-20 ( 32°2 +2177+10 x 16)

2000 2000
= 572.85 kJ/kg.
34
Power = W, m= — 0.0593 kg/sec.
572.85
steam flow through the turbine = 0.0593 x 3600 = 213.48 kg/hour
9. A steam turbine developing 400 kW receives a flow of 20000 kg/hour of steam. The inlet
and outlet velocities of steam are 100 m/s and 320 m/s respectively. The inlet pipe is 4 m
above the exhaust. Determine the change in enthalpy neglecting heat loss from the turbine.
Solution: Work done per hour = 400 x 3600 = 1440000 kg/hr.
1440000
Work done per kg of steam = — 72 kJ/kg
20000
Taking the outlet as datum Z2 = 0
Q = 0, in = 1
Applying steady flow energy equation
1/;
171(T+ gZi +kJ+ Q =Ill(VgZ2 -1-112)+W
2 2
112 -
h1—h2= +g(Z2—Z,)+W—Q
2
3202 — 1002 9.81 x (-4)

+72 —0 = 118.16 kJ/kg.
2000 1000
change in enthalpy = 118.16 kJ/kg
10. In a steam power plant the
boiler is supplied with 60 kg of
water per minute.Theenthalpy and
velocity of water entering the
boiler are 840 kJ/kg and 5 m/s
respectively. The water receives
Turbine I 2300 kJ/kg of heat at constant
pressure in the boiler. The boiler
inlet is 3/m above the turbine exit.
Steam out The steam leaves the turbine with
a velocity of 3000 m/min and its
enthalpy is 2640 kJ/kg. The heat
Fig. 2.20 losses from the turbine and boiler
to the surroundings is 1260 kJ/min.
Determine the power output of the turbine.
Solution: Applying steady flow energy equation
4+gZ,+//2)+W
m(-1-gZi +h,)+Q =4-
2
60
Here, in= = 1 kg/s, v, =5 m/s, h,= 840 kJ/kg
1260
Q = Q,— (Q2 + Q3) = 2300 60 = 2279 kJ/kg.
W—m + g(Z,—Z2)+ (h,— h2)]+ Q

2
52-502 9.81 x 3
+ + (840 —2640)] + 2279 = 477.79 kJ/sec.
= 1[ 2000 1000
Power output of the turbine = 477.79 kW.

11. One kg of fluid enters a nozzle with a velocity of 3300 m/min and enthalpy of 2990 kJ/kg.
The enthalpy of the fluid at exit is 2760 kJ/kg. The nozzle is placed horizontally; neglect the
heat loss from the nozzle. Determine (a) the velocity of the fluid at exit; (b) the mass flow
rate, the inlet area of the nozzle is 0.095 m2 and specific volume at inlet is 0.19 m3/kg (c) the
exit area of the nozzle if the specific volume at exit is 0.5 m2/kg.
2
V2
mi-- gZ,+ h,)-FQ = m(+ gZ2 + h2)+W
2
3300
Here, in = 1, v1 = 3300 m/min = 60 = 55 m/s
h, = 2990 kJ/kg, h2 = 2760 kJ/kg, Z, = Z2, Q = 0, W = 0

2 2
V2 - VI
Or = h, — h,
2
v22 =2(h,— h2)+ v,2 = 2(2990 —2760) x 103 +552
(a) v2 = 680.459 m/s
Alv, 0.095 x 55
(b) in = = — 27.5 kg/s
0.19
A2V2 mV12 27.5 x 0.5

(c) m = A2= - 0.0202 m2
v,2 V2 680.459 —
12. A gas expands through an ideally insulated nozzle following a reversible polytropic law
PV I 2 = C.There is no change in potential energy but the pressure drops from 20 bar to 2 bar
and the specific volume increases form 0.05 in' to 0.3 m3. If the entrance velocity is 80 m/s
determine the exit velocity.
Solution: Here, Z2 — Z, = 0, W = 0, Q = 0
2 171- 1/ VZ -
- vdp = 2 +g (Z2 —Z,)+W = 2
2 n
But —1 vdp =
1— n
(p,v, p,v,) = n— 1 (p,v,—p,v2)
q-v; n
Therfore
2 = n - I (Ply' P2v2)
VZ — 802 1.2
or (20x 105 x 0.05 —2 x 105 x 0.3) = 24 x 104
2 — 0.2
V22 = 48 x 104 + 6400 = 486400 V2 = 697.423 m/s
Note: dQ = du + d(pv) + dw + d (K.E) + d (P.E)

= du + pdv + vdp + dw + d (K.E) + d(P.E)
Also dQ = du + pdv For nozzle dw = 0, d(P.E) = 0
vdp + d(K.E) = 0 or d(K.E) = —vdp
- v; 2
= vdp
2
13. In a centrifugal compressor the suction and delivery pressure are 1 bar and 5.5 bar
respectively. It draws 15 m3/min of air whose density is 1.3 kg/m3 and discharges at a density
of 4.9 kg/m2. The power of the motor for driving the compressor is 40 kW. The heat lost
through the compressor to the surroundings is 30 kJ/kg. Neglect changes in P.E and K.E.
Determine the increase in internal energy per kg of air.
V2
nt + gZ,+ u, + pi vi j+ Q = + gZ2+ u2 + p2v 2)+ W
2 2
Neglecting changes in P.E and K.E
m(u,+ p,v,)+ Q = m(u2 + p2v2)+ W
Here Q = —30 kJ and W is (—)ve as it is'a work absorbing system.

= Volume x density = 15 x 1.3 = 19.5 kg/min.
Power = m x W where W is the work in kJ/kg.
19.5 x W 40 x 60
40 = — 123.076 kJ/kg.
60 19.5
m(u,+p,v 1)-Q = m(u2+ p2v2)-W
m(u2-141 )= m(p,v,— p2v2)+W — Q
Taking m = 1
u2 — = (Pivi — P2v2)+ W — Q
=(122. w _Q
[As v=-]
Pi P2
= 1 — 5'51 x 100 + 123.076 — 30 = 57.75 kJ/kg.

1.3 4.9
!4. A centrifugal compressor delivers 960 kg of air per hour. The inlet and exit conditions of
air are v, = 6 m/s, p, = I bar, v,, = 0.5 m3/kg and v2 = 8 m/s, p2 = 7 bar, v,2 = 0.16 m3/kg.
While passing through the compressor the enthalpy increases by 170 kJ/kg and heat loss to
the surroundings is 750 kJ/min. The inlet and discharge lines are at the same level. Determine
(a) power required to drive the compressor (b) ratio of inlet pipe diameter to outlet pipe
diameter.
14 +gZ,+h,j+Q = 14'+8Z2+h2)+ W
m(-
2 2
•/z = 0, Let m = 1
W=(, —vz
= + (h,— h2 )+ Q
2
750 x 60
Heat loss/kg of air Q= = 46.875 kJ/kg and it is (—)ve.
960
66 -82
170 —46.875 = —216.86 kJ/kg.
2 x 1000
The (—) ve sign indicates that work is supplied to the system.
Power required to drive the compressor = m x W
960 x 216.86
— — 57.8296 kW
3600
A, V, A2V2 A, V2 vs, 8 x 0.5
= x = —4.1666
vs. Vs, A2 VI vs, 6 x 0.16
d,)2
02) = 4.1666
d,
— = 2.04
d2
15. Steam enters a steam condenser with an enthalpy of 2090 kJ/kg and a velocity of 510 m/s.
The condensate leaves the condenser with an enthalpy of 209 kJ/kg and with a velocity of
10 m/s. Determine the heat received by the cooling water per kg of steam condensed.
Solution: Neglecting P.E. in this case W= 0
(2+h,)-1•Q =P+h
2 2)
2 2
v2 —1/1 02-5102
Q = h2 — h, + = 209-2090+ = 2011 kJ/kg
2 1 2 x 1000
The (—) sign indicates that heat is rejected by the system.
16. A centrifugal pump delivers 3000 kg of water per minute from initial pressure 0.8 bar to
final pressure 3 bar. The suction is 3 m below and delivery is 8 m above the centre of the
pump. Find the power required to drive the pump. The diameter of the pipe is 15 cm at the
inlet and 10 cm at the exit.
Solution: For centrifugal pump du = 0, Q = 0
in(-gZ,+pi v,)= m(-

2 + g Z2+ p2v 2)+W
2
Let m = 1
— Vz
W= + g(z,—z2)+(pivi — p2v2)
2
m =n IC 2
4d,2 V,p,= 4d2 V2p2
" = n (0.15)2 X V, x 1000 =11 (0.1)2 X V2 X 1000

360 4
V, = 2.829 m/s, V2 = 6.366 m/s
The suction level is taken as datum

1
Z, = 0, Z, = 3+ 8 = 11 m, v=
p = 1000
2.8292-6.3662 (0.8 x 105 3 x 101
W= + 9.81(0 — 11) +
2 1000 1000
= —16.261-107.91 —220 = —344.171 Nm/kg.

The (—) ye sign indicates that the work is absorbed by the pump.
kyv =
Power required to drive the pump = 50 x 344.171— 17.208 kW
1000 1000
17. A conference hall to seat 100 people is heated for maintaining a comfortable condition by
circulating hot water through the pipe. The water enters the pipe at h, = 240 kJ/kg and leaves
as h 2 = 200 kJ/kg. The exit of the pipe is 10 m above entry. The heat required to be supplied
to the hall is 32000 kJ/hour. Find the quantity of water circulated through the pipe per minute.
Neglect change in velocity.
Solution: Applying steady flow energy, equation
in(-+gZ, +/t,)+ Q =nt gZ22j+ W

2
Here, W = 0, d(K.E) = 0, and taking t = 1, (gZ, + + Q = ( gZ2+ 112)
9.81 x 10
Q = h,— h,+ g (Z2 — Z1 ) = (200 — 240) + = 39.9019 kJ/kg
1000
The (—)ve sign indicates that heat is given out by water
32000
Mass of water circulated through pipe = = 13.366 kg/min
60 x 39.9019
18. A fluid stream of 2.5 kg/min with V, = 32 m/s and T, = 30°C mixes with another fluid
stream of 4 kg/min, V2 = 64 m/s and T2 = 45°C. The mixture leaves with a velocity of 16 m/s;
20 kJ of heat is added per kg of fluid during mixing. Take = 1.005 T, d(P.E) = 0 and W = 0.
Determine the temperature of fluid in the mixed stream.
Solution: Total energy of mixed stream = Total energy of first stream + Total energy of sec-
ond stream.
2
Vitt 2 , Vi2
(M i +7212)( 2 + tutt) = )+Q
2 ' 2 2
162 ( 322
(2.5 +4)( + 1.005 Titt)= 2.5 + 1.005 x 30)+4 642 +1.005 x 45)+ (2.5 + 4)20
2000 2000 (2000
or 0.832 + 6.5325 Tin = 76.655 + 189.092 + 130
or 6.5325 Tm = 394.915
Tut = 60.453°C
EXERCISES

1. Internal energy of ideal gas is a function of alone.
2. Internal energy is a function.
3. In an isolated system the energy remains

4. Heat is also energy in
5. Work is a function.
Answers
1. temperature 2. point 3. constant
4. transition 5. path
1. State the law of conservation of mass and conservation of energy.
2. State the first law of thermodynamics and prove that for a non-flow process
Q = W + AU.
3. Define internal energy and prove that it is a property of the system.
4. What is the difference between non-flow and steady flow process?
5. Explain the general steady flow energy equation.
6. A jet engine turbine receives gases at 7.5 bar and 900°C and 170 m/s. It discharges the
gases at 2.5 bar 650°C and 340 m/s. Find the work output of the turbine. Take
C, = 1.3 kJ/kg K .
7. A steam turbine receiving steam at 1 kg/sec develops 400 kW of power. Neglecting the
heat losses from the turbine casing, calculate the change of enthalpy when (i) K.E. and
P.E. are negligible, (ii) velocity of steam at inlet to turbine = 50 m/s, velocity of steam at
outlet from trubine = 350 m/s. Inlet pipe is 4 m above the exhaust pipe.
8. A boiler produces 300 kg of steam per hour from feed water at 35°C. Assuming the
boiler to be a steady flow system and neglecting P.E and K.E. find the rate at which heat
is transferred. Take enthalpy of steam as 2650 kJ/kg.
9. Steam enters a nozzle with a velocity of 50 m/s and with a enthalpy of 2850 kJ/kg. At
exit, the enthalpy is reduced to 2600 kJ/kg. Assuming the nozzle to be horizontal and
heat losses as negligible, find the velocity of steam at the exit.
10. In a steady flow air compressor, the air enters at 1 bar and 20°C with a velocity of
90 m/s. The inlet area is 0.093 m2. At discharge the temperature of air is 60°C and
velocity 140 m/s. Neglecting all losses, calculate (i) power required to run the compres-
sor and (ii) the rate of flow in kg/min.
Second Law of
Thermodynamics
and Availability
3.1 LIMITATIONS OF THE FIRST LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS AND INTRODUCTION
TO THE SECOND LAW
According to the first law of thermodynamics, heat and work are mutually con-
vertible during any cycle of a closed system. This law does not specify the con-
ditions under which conversion of heat into work is possible. It also does not
give any information regarding the direction of heat and work.
The following systems follow the first law of thermodynamics, however
some limitations will be observed in all such cases.
1. If two bodies having temperatures T, and T2 (T1 > T2 ) come in contact with
each other but are separated from their surroundings, the heat flows from
the body with higher temperature to the body with lower temperature, till
the temperature of both the bodies are equal. But we know that the reversal
of the process in which heat flows from body with lower temperature to the
body with higher temperature is impossible.
2. An automobile running at a certain speed can be stopped by applying the
brakes. Here the kinetic energy of the automobile is converted into heat and
the brakes get hot. If the hot brakes were to cool off and give back its inter-
nal energy to the automobile, it would cause the automobile to move on the
road again. But this is impossible.
From the above examples it may be concluded that the first law of thermody-
namics is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for a process to take place.
The above limitations form the basis of the second law of thermodynamics.
3.2 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in two statements which are
given below:-
Kelvin-Planck Statement Hot reservior Hot reservior

or Or
It is impossible to construct an Source Source, T1
engine which while operating in
a cycle, will produce no effect f Qi
other than the exchange of heat w=Q1 -
Engine
from a single reservoir and pro-
duce work.
In other words, no actual Q2
engine operating in cycles can Cold reservior
or
convert all the heat energy Sink, T-)
supplied to it into work. It means (a) (b)
that some of the heat energy
must be lost to the surroundings.
Actually only a small part of the
heat supplied to the engine is Fig. 3.1 (a) Not possible (b) possible engine
converted into work while large
part of the heat is lost to the surroundings.
Thus a 100% efficient engine (i.e = Hot reservior
or
Q Source, T1
— x 100 = — x 100 = 100%) is not possible
This is shown in Fig. 3.1(a). Fig. 3.1(b)
shows the possible engine in which heat is
supplied from the hot reservoir or source and
a part of the heat is rejected to the cold res-
ervoir or sink and work equal to the differ-
ence of heat supplied and rejected is done on
Cold reservior
the surroundings. The ratio of work to the or
heat supplied is known as efficiency of the Sink, T2
engine.
Clausius Statement Fig. 3.2 External agency required

Heat cannot flow from a lower to a higher for heat flow from the sink
temperature without the aid of an external to the source
agency.
According to this statement, if a source is at a temperature T1 and a sink is at
a temperature T2(T, > T2 ), then heat cannot flow from the sink to the source
without the aid of an external agency like a heat pump (Fig. 3.2) which takes
mechanical work to deliver heat continuously from sink to source.
3.3 HEAT ENGINE AND HEAT PUMP
Heat Engine
Heat engine is a machine used to convert heat energy into mechanical work in a
cyclic process.
Second Law of Thermodynamics and Availability 39
Consider the system shown in Fig. 3.3 which represents a steam power plant.
High pressure steam is generated in the boiler and supplied to the steam turbine.
The work is developed in the turbine and the exhaust steam from the turbine
then flows to the condenser where it gets condensed and is returned to the boiler
by means of a pump to complete the cycle. The boiler, turbine, condenser, and
pump do not constitute a heat engine but they are part of the cycle. These com-
ponents are necessary to complete the cycle.
x—Boundary of system
Turbine )1' wt
From Boiler
High
temperature
source Condenser
Pump )111- Q2
Wp
Fig. 3.3 A steam boiler plant

The net heat entering into the
system i3 (Q, — Q2 ) and is equal
to the turbine work and the pump
work. As per .the first law of
thermodynamics.
dQ = dW , ••• Q1 — Q2 = — Wp
The efficiency of the heat

engine is given by
(a) (b) Network output Qi — Q2 Qs

=
= Heat supplied — Q1 Q,
Fig. 3.4 (a) Heat engine & (b) heat pump (3.1)
Heat Pump
A heat pump is adevice which when working in a cycle transfers heat from low
temperature to high temperature.
The heat engine and heat pump are shown in Fig. 3.4. The efficiency term is
replaced by C.O.P. for heat pump just to avoid confusion between heat engine
and heat pump.
If the heat pump T2 is used to take out heat from a low temperature source
and supply it to a room T, at temperature for the purpose of heating, then the
C.O.P. of the pump is given by,
Qi
C.O.P = = (3.2)
W Qi - Q2
If a heat pump is used to extract heat from a low temperature source T, to
maintain it at this low temperature compared with sink temperature T, and reject
the extracted heat to the sink then this type of heat pump is known as refrigera-
tor. The C.O.P. of the system is given by
Q2 Q2
C.O.P = = (3.3)
W Qi Q2
3.4 CARNOT CYCLE
In 1824, a French engineer Sadi Carnot suggested an engine using perfect gas
undergoing a cyclic process and consisting of reversible processes. It has four
reversible processes—two frictionless isothermal processes and two frictionless
adiabatic processeS..
The P-V (1) diagram of the Carnot cycle is shown in Fig. 3.5.
Isothermal 2
expansion Tt
4 4 2
C:P <e' Adiabatic
• 0 expansion
'0 4 T2
3 4 3
Isothermal
compression
Volume (V) ---).-

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.5 Carnot cycle (a) P- V diagram, (b) T -(1)
Process 1-2 represents isothermal expansion. Heat is supplied during this

process and it is equal to the work done during the process.
V2
Heat supplied, Q1 = P1 V1 loge V
, 000549'
= mRT, log, r
V2
Where r=
VI
In process 2-3 the source is removed at point 2. The air is allowed to expand
adiabatically up to point 3. Work is done at the cost of internal energy. The
temperature becomes T2 at point 3. The work done during this process
P2 V2 — P, V3
y— 1 •
In process 3-4 the sink at temperature T2 at point 3 is brought in contact with
the cylindrical end. The air is now compressed isothermally up to point 4. The
heat will be rejected by the air to the sink.
V3 [ V3 V2 1
Heat rejected Q2 = P3V3 loge =. niRT2 loge r /.
Va * VI
In process 4-1 the system returns back to the initial state by adiabatic com-
pression. The temperature of the air rises from T2 to T, and work is done on the
air.
P4 1/4 — P,V,
Work done during compression =
y-1
Network done = Heat supplied — Heat rejecte
= Q1 - Q2 = mR(T1 —T2)loge r
cc
Work done per c
Efficiency of the Camot cycle —
Heat supplied per cyc
mR(TI —T2)loge r T2 T2
(3.4)
mRTi loge r T1
3.5 THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

The thermodynamic temperature scale is independent of the property of the
thermometric substance.
Q,
The ratio „—depends on the temperatures t,, t2 of the reservoirs. The thermo-
dynamic temperature scale may be defined by taking an arbitrary form of the
function 41(1). Kelvin proposed that if 41(t) = T then we can write
Qi
Q2 - T2
The two systems are shown in Fig. 3.6.

The efficiency of the engine in Fig. 3.6 (a) is given by
Q1 — Q2 Q2 T2 T
= = 1 - -= 1 - (3.5)
Q1 Q,
Qi
= f(r,, t 2)
Q2
Qi
For engine 1 in Fig. 3.6 (a) = f(ti t3)
3
For engine 2 in Fig. 3.6(b)

Q3 4.,
= t2)
Q2
Q1 Qi Q3 fitl, t3)
= =
Q2 Q3 Q2 f(t3, t2)
41)(t,)
= f(t i , r2)=
(3.6)
1)(t2)
where 4) is another function of t.
Consider a series of revers-
ible engines as shown in Fig.
3.7. The amount of work done
by each engine is the same as
the temperature selected.
••• W = Qi — Q2 = Q2 Q3 = Q3 Q4
(3.7) (a) (b)
As per Eq. 3.6

Q1 _ Q2 Q3 Q4
(3.8) Fig. 3.6 (a) Carnot engine working between
T1 — T2 — T3 T4 temperatures T, and T2, (b) two
carnot engines operating in series
Thus T, — T2 = T, — T3 = T3 T4 = between the same temperature limits
(3.9) T, and T2. Engine 1 works between
temperatures T, and T3 and engine 2
With the help of these rela- works between temperatures T3 and T2
tions the temperature scale may
be calibrated.
3.6 EQUIVALENCE OF KELVIN PLANCK

AND CLAUSIUS STATEMENTS
The equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements can be proved by
showing that violation of the Clausius statement implies the violation of
Kelvin-Planck statement or vice versa.
Figure 3.8(a) shows a heat pump which transfers Q2 amount of heat from a
low temperature to a high temperature reservoir without requiring any external
work. Thus, this violates the Clausius statement. Figure 3.8(b) shows a heat
engine which takes Qi amount of heat from a high temperature reservoir and
rejects Q2 amount of heat, producing work W = Q, — Q2. As there is no net heat
transfer to the lower temperature reservoir they together may be considered as a
device that operates in the cycle exchanging heat from a high temperature res-
ervoir and producing no effect, other than that of thermodynamic work.
This is a violation of the Kelvin-Planck state-
ment. Therefore it proves that violation of the
Clausius statement implies violation of the
Kelvin-Planck statement.
3.7 CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY
Let ABCD be a reversible cycle divided into a

number of small Carnot cycles by drawings adia-
batic and isothermal lines as shown in Fig. 3.9. It is
seen from the figure that the inside boundaries of
the Carrot cycle cancels out i.e. 3-4 is adiabatic
expansion while 5-6 is adiabatic compression. So,
the process 3-4 is cancelled out as regards energy
transfer by 5-6. The small Carnot cycle will coin-
cide with the reversible cycle ABCD.
So for all small Carnot cycles, we have
and in the differential form

dQ 0
JT
This equation is valid for reversible cycles only.

Fig. 3.7 Reversible We know that the thermal efficiency of the revers-
engines ible cycle.
Q1- Q2 T1 - T2 — 1 — T2
Tlrn =
Q1
According to Carnot theorem, the thermal efficiency of an irreversible engine

operating between the same temperature limits is less than that of a reversible
engine.
High High High
temperature temperature temperature
t Qt-Q2
Q2
Ic W Q1- Q2 W=Q1-Q2
Q2
ii
Low Low
temperature temperature
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.8 Equivalence of Clausius and Kelvin Planck statements
Q1 — Q2 TI T2 Q2>T2
Q1 T, Q1 T1 Adiabatics
ri
Q2 QI Q1 Q2 QI Q2
or — > or <— - <n
T2 T2 T2
Therefore, in differential form, for revers-

0
ible engine. 0-4
fdQ
<0
J T
so, for any cyclic process, reversible or \ 9 \ 12
irreversible,
fdQ <0 Volume
J T
This statement is termed as Clausius Fig. 3.9

Inequality.
For reversible engine,

3.8 UNATTAINABILITY OF ABSOLUTE ZERO

AND THE THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Unattainability of absolute zero is based on the third law of thermodynamics
which states that the entropy of a pure substance of absolute zero temperature is
zero. This is also called Nernst Theorem.
A system is shown in Fig. 3.10 which is at a temperature lower than the
atmospheric temperature. The equation for work is given by
Surrounding
atmosphere
Tt
Reversible
engine
W
System
T
(a)
Fig. 3.10
(T1 — T)
W=Q
The work required will increase if the temperature T is lowered. If T = 0, the

work required will be infinite. Thus, for absolute zero temperature infinite
amount of work is to be done. Therefore it is impossible to attain absolute zero.
3.9 AVAILABLE AND UNAVAILABLE ENERGY

The thermal energy in the form of heat obtained from combustion of fuels, or
nuclear fission cannot be fully converted into work because of restriction of the
second law of thermodynamics. So, the thermal energy is known as low grade
energy. The part of thermal energy which can be converted into work under
ideal conditions is known as available energy and the remaining part which
cannot be converted into work is known as unavailable energy. While consid-
ering available and unavailable heat energy, the following two cases are con-
sidered.
case 1: Heat withdrawn from an infinite reservoir
Consider Q amount of heat which is available at temperature T1. The maximum
amount of work will be produced through a reversible cycle i.e. Carnot cycle.
The rejection of heat takes place to the sink at temperature To. In this case, the
maximum work obtained is given by
(T1 — To)
W=Q
Available
2 T1 energy
T1
To
4
H To Unavailable
4
.4r6 energy
5 6 5
cr.
Fig. 3.11 Heat withdrawn from (a) an infinite reservoir, and (b) a finite reservoir
where Ti = Temperature of source, To = Temperature of sink.

T0 T0
w Q Q Q
T1 Ti
= Q — To 64 because
W = Q — T0(02 — 4) 1) (3.10)
where W is the available energy given by the area 1-2-3-4. The unavailable
part of the energy is given by the area 3-4-5-6.
Case 2: Heat withdrawn from a finite reservoir
In case of finite reservoir the temperature T, of the reservoir changes as the heat
is withdrawn from it and so the heat is supplied at varying temperatures. Let us
consider an infinitesimal Carnot cycle which takes dQ amount of heat at tem-
perature T and rejects it to a sink temperature To. The maximum amount of work
is given by.
W=
f1
2 Td0 T02 - 01) = f 2 dQ
1
TCO2 - (1)1)
W= Q — T0(0 2 — 4)1)
The result in this case is the same as in case 1.
3.10 AVAILABILITY OF A NON-FLOW

OR CLOSED SYSTEM (NON-CYCLIC)
Consider a system in which fluid at P,, T, expands reversibly (isentropically) to

final atmospheric state 130,T, During this process Q amount of heat is rejected by
the piston to the atmosphere. Maximum work out of Q can be obtained if it is
supplied to a Carnot engine, as shown in Fig. 3.12. The work done by the sys-
tem is the sum of the work done by the fluid and the engine. It is the maximum
work. But this is not useful work as some work is lost in compression of the
atmosphere by the piston.
Carnot engine
operation
1 To
(Do
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.12
Maximum work = WI + W,
Maximum useful work = W1+ 141 141c
According to the first law, Q = W + AF

Here Q is negative as it leaves the system. Neglecting the changes in K.E. and
P.E, AE = U1 ) where U0 = Final internal energy, and U, = Initial internal
energy
—Q =Wf +(u0 — u1)
or Wf = (u,— u„) — Q
The work developed by the engine is given by
We = Heat supplied — Heat rejected = Q — Q,
= — To A4) = — T0(4)1 — 4)0)

Where (1), = entropy of fluid when it has received heat
(I)„ = entropy of fluid when it has rejected heat.
The work of compression of the atmosphere is given by = Po (v„— v1)

Maximum available useful work or network
W„ = Wf + We — 14/,
= (u1 — u0) — Q +Q — To(0 )1 — — Po(vo — v 1)
= (01 + poi — TA1) — (uo + Povo — TA) (3.11)
= A, —A 0. (3.12)
Where A = (u + p„v —TA)) is known as non flow availability function. A is a
composite property as it consists of three extensive properties u, v and ( and two
intensive properties P, and To. If the work of compression of the atmosphere is
not considered, then
(u1 — T04)1) (140 — Tho) (3.13)
3.11 AVAILABILITY OF A STEADY FLOW SYSTEM

The availability of a steady flow system can be analysed in a similar fashion as
for a closed system. Consider a system in which the initial condition of the fluid
entering is P„ V„ T, with a velocity of V1; the discharge condition is P0,7;3, with
zero velocity. Let the system rejects Q amount of heat. The reversible engine
rejects Q, = T„(4)1 — units of heat to the surroundings.
Using steady flow energy equation, work developed by the fluid is given by
+h —Q — WI = 0 +
2 1
Taking potential energy change as zero.

V2
W1 = 2- +(h 1 —h0)—Q (3.14)
We = Heat supplied — Heat rejected
= (2, — = — To(01 — (3.15)
Network done, Wn =4111+We
=— + (hi — ho)— Q + Q — T(C —(00)

2
= (— + h — T 4) )— (ho — To00)
2 I ° I
If the kinetic energy at entrance is neglected, then

= To4)1) — (ho — To4)0) (3.16)
= B1 — Bo (3.17)
where the property B is known as steady
flow availability function and it is a corn- P1 ,vt ,T Po,vo,To
System
posite property of system and surroundings,
containing two extensive properties h and 4)
and one intensive property To.
The difference between steady flow
availability function B and non-flow avail-
ability function A is in the pressure term. Qr = To( (Di — (Do)
Between state 1 and any state 2, inter-

mediate between 1 and 0, the change in Fig. 3.13
availability function is given by
AB = (Bi — B0)— (B2 — Bo) = BI — B2 (3.18)
For non-flow system neglecting compression work on atmosphere, the avail-
ability function is given by
A = u — T04)
Neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy the availability function for
steady flow system is given by
B = h —T04)
3.12 HELMBOLT Z AND GIBB'S FUNCTIONS
When a non-flow reversible system is brought to the dead state, the expansicn
work done is given by
W = Q - (u0-u 1) = Td4)- (u0-u 1 )
= T(4)0 — 4)1) — (uo — u1 ) = (u1 — — (uo — T4)0)
where (u —T4)) is called Helmboltz function. It gives the maximum output for a
constant temperature process.
When the work against atmosphere is considered, then network is given by
W„ = W — Po(vo — v,)= (u,— T4)0 — (uo — T4)0 )— Po(vo — v,)
= (u,+ pov,— TO,) — (u,+ p0v0 — T4),)= (h,— — (h0 — T4)0) = GI — G, (3.19)
where G is called Gibb's function or free energy function. When the system
changes from state 1 to state 2, intermediate between 1 and 0, then maximum
possible available work is given by
W„ = (G1 — G0) — (G2 — Go) -= — G2 (3.20)
Gibb's function is a property of the system.
For steady flow system the maximum available work is given by

W„ = (G,— G2 )+ (KE,— KE2 )+ (PE,— PE2 ) (3.21)
The availability function A = (u —T04) is a composite property of the system and
surroundings.
A = u + Pov — T04
B = u + P v — To(1)
G = u + Pv —
At dead state A = B = G.
3.13 IRREVERSIBILITY AND LOSS IN

AVAILABILITY
Irreversibility is defined as the loss in available energy due to the irreversible
process. It is represented by I.
— Wmax useful Wuseful (3.22)
Non-flow Process
I = Ru — TA) — (u 2 — TOM — [(—Q) — (u2 — u,)l
= TO(02 01) + Q = TA Cyst.

Change of entropy of atmosphere due to addition of heat Q at To is given by
Q
A0surroundings —
Or Q = TO,A4) surroundings
Putting the value of Q
I = Ty64system + T44 surroundings
= To(Ad?system + AOsurroundings)
TOAOnet = TOAOuniverse (3.22(a))
Therefore, irreversibility of a process is the product of temperature of the sur-

roundings and net change of entropy.
Flow Process
I = Rh1 — T04 1) — — To$2)] — Rh — h — QI
= 0(4 — 01) + Q
= ToAkv,,,,, + Q
Again Q = TO4surroundings
/ = ToA4) tern + ToA(I)surroundings = TOAkniverse
The loss in availability is a measure of the irreversibility or ideal nature of the
process. Thus to determine the loss in availability it is only necessary to calcu-
late the net change in entropy.
3.14 EFFECTIVENESS
The fraction of the maximum useful work actually utilised is called effective-
ness. Effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the increase in availability of the
surrounding because of the work delivered by the system to the loss of
availability of the system.
Effectiveness for heating or expansion process:
Increase of availability of the surrounding
— (3.23)
Loss of availability of the system
Effectiveness for cooling or compression process:
Increase of availability of the system
E (3.24)
Loss of availability of the surrounding
For reversible process effectiveness is unity. For irreversible process (which are
common in practice) the effectiveness is less than one.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A reversible engine receives heat from a high temperature source at 145°C and rejects heat
to a low temperature sink at 30°C. Determine the Carnot efficiency of the engine working
between these two temperature limits.
Solution: T1 = 145°C = 145 + 273 = 418 K
T2= 30°C = 30 + 273 = 303 K

T2 33
0
Carnot efficiency t1= 1— = 0.2751 = 0.2751 x 100 = 27.51%
—4 18
2. A Carnot engine works between temperature limits of 825°C and 125°C. The engine
receives 3600 kJ of heat per minute. Determine the power of the engine and the amount of
heat rejected to the sink per second.
Solution: T1 = 825°C = 825 + 273 = 1098 K
T2 = I25°C = 125 + 273 = 398 K
3600
= 3600 kJ per minute = 60 = 60 kJ per second
work done
Carnot efficiency _
= heat supplied = 1—T2
Ti
. Work done — (1 — 1'2 )X (1 —398) x 60 = 38.251 LI/s

— T, QI — 1098
... P wer of the engine = 38.251 kW.
T2 398
/I = I - T,= 1-1719i =°'""
Qi-Q2 Q2
Efficiency is also given by, = —1 ,
QI
Q2
0.6375 = 1- 60 Q2 = 21.75 kJ per second.
3. A reversible engine receives heat from a mixture of water

vapour and liquid water under a pressure of 1.01 bar and
rejects 8000 kJ of heat per hour to a mixture of ice and liquid
water under a pressure of 1.01 bar. Find the power deliverd
by the engine.
[AMIE Summer 19821.
Solution: The heat is supplied at a temperature
T, = 100°C and it is rejected at a temperature
000 20
T2 = 0°C. Q2 .= 8000 kJ/hour — kJ/s = — kJ/s
3600 9
Fig. 3.14 The efficiency of the reversible engine is given by
T,— T2 Q1-Q2 W W
1.%w =Qi - QJ
7.1 Q, Qi w+ Q2
T2 W 273 W
1 =
T, W+Q2 373 w +.21
0.26809 — 20
+
W(1-0.26809) = 0.59577, W= 0.81399 kJ/s
Power delivered by the engine = 0.81399 kW = 813.99 Watt.
4. A refrigerator operates on a reversed Carnot cycle whose
C.O.P is 5.5. The evaporator is maintained at a temperature of
—6°C. The power required to run the refrigerator is 3.7 kW.
Find the refrigerating effect and condenser temperature of the
refrigerator.
Solution: Here, C.O.P. = 5.5, T2 = —6°C= —6 + 273 = 267 K.
The C.O.P. of the refrigerator is given by,
Q2 T2 267
C.O.P — 5.5 =
W T,—T2' T1 — 267'
T, =267 + 267 = 315.545 K

Condenser temperature T1 = 315.545 K
Q2 = C.O.P x W= 5.5 x 3.7 = 20.35 kJ/s Fig. 3.15
Q2= 1221 kJ/min

Refrigerlifing effect Q2 = 1221 kJ/min
5. A heat pump is used for heating a room during winter.
The heat is absorbed from the earth by a fluid circulating
through burried pipes and delivered to the room to main-
tain the temperature at 25°C. The soil temperature is 0°C.
The power required to operate heat pump is 1 kW. Find
the amount of heat supplied to the room in kJ/min.
Solution: Here T1 = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K
T2 = 0°C = 273 K
Q, 7', Q, 298
C.O.P.--- • = -11.92
Qi — Q2 TI T2 W T2 - 298-273
Q,=11.92xW=11.92x1=11.92 klls=11.92x60
= 715.2 kJ/min.
Fig. 3.16
6. A reversible engine-receives heat from two constant temperattire sources at 870°K and
580°K. It rejects 3000 kJ/min to a sink at 290°K. The engine develops 85 kW. Determine the
heat supplied by each source and the efficiency of the engine.
Solution: The work developed by the engine = 84 kJ/s = 85 x 60 = 5100 kJ/min
Work developed = Heat supplied—Heat
2 rejected
Source Source
870°K 580°K Heat supplied = 5100 + 3000 = 8100
kJ/min.
Q V (8100 — Q) Let the quantity of heat supplied by source 1
be Q.
Heat supplied by source 2 = 8100 — Q.
As the engine is reversible, the net change in
entropy of the system will be zero.
)1. 85 kW
Q 8100 — Q 3000
870 580 290 = 0
3000 kJ/min.
2Q + 24300 — 3Q — 18000 = 0 ,
Sink Q= 24300-18000=6300
290°K Heat supplied by source 2 = 8100 6300
= 1800 kJ.
Heat supplied-Heat rejected
— Heat supplied
Fig. 3.17 5100
= x 100 = 62.96%
8100
7. A reversible engine takes 4800.1d per/minute from a reservoir at 800°K and develops 800
kJ of work per minute when executing complete cycles. The engine rejects heat to two
reservoirs at 700°K and 600°K. Find the heat rejected to each sink.
Solution: Q1 =4800 kJ/min., W = 800 kJ/min.
Let .heat rejected to sink 1 be Q2 and to sink 2 be Q3.
W = Q,- (Q2+ Q3)
Q2+ Q3 = Q, — w = 4800-800 = 4000 kJ/min.
Q3= 4000— Q2.

As the engine is reversible, the change in
entropy for the system must be zero.
4800 ( Q2
4. 4000— Q2 Q2 Q2 40
600 )— 06 +— — — —
800 . 700 600 700 6 —0
Q2 = 2800 kJ/min,
Q3 = 4000 - 2800 = 1200 kJ/min.
8. The air-conditioning plant of a cinema

house having a seating capacity of 1200, is
run by a Carnot refrigerator. The tempera-
ture in the cinema house is maintained at
25°C and the atmospheric temperature is
38°C. The Camot refrigerator is run by a
Fig. 3.18 Carnot engine which absorbs heat from a
source at a temperature of 107°C and rejects
it to the atmosphere. Determine the required capacity of the Camot engine in kW and the
amount of fuel of calorific value 22000 Id/kg required to be burnt per hour for running the
engine. The amount of heat dissipated per person is 418 Id per hour.
Solution: The efficiency of the heat engine is given
by
T,- T2 380 -311 60 W (-) 380
T, 380 380 Q, 69 W.
The quantity of heat to be removed by the refrigera-
tor Q3 = Capacity of cinema house x heat dissipated
by each person
= 1200 x 418 = 501600 kJ/hour
Q3 T3
C.O.P. of the refrigerator = =
W I 3
273 + 25 298
311 - 298 13
13 13
, Q3 X 501600
W = 298 298
= 21881.879 Id/hr. = 6.0782 Ws Fig. 3.19
Power required to drive the refrigerator = 6.0782 kW

380 380
Qi = 69 x 21881.879 kJ/hour = 120508.9 kJ/hour.
W 69
120508.9
Amount of fuel to be burnt per hour = = 5.4776 kg/hr.
22000
9. A reversible engine has a thermal efficiency of 85% to that of a Carnot cycle. The engine
which is mounted on a ship receives heat from sea-water at 28°C and rejects heat to the
atmosphere at 6°C. The work of the engine is dissipated through an agitation to heat 600 kg of
sea water to 80°C. Find out the quantity of heat which is extracted from the source to provide
the required heating effect.
Air
Solution: Amount of heat required to heat the
6°C
sea water
= 600 x 4.187(80 — 28) = 130634.4 kJ
T, — T2 353 — 279
Carnot efficiency = — 355 = 0.2084
T, 355
Efficiency of the engine = 0.85 x 0.2084 =
0.1771
Q,
But the efficiency of the reversible engine =
,
130634.4
0.1771 = Q„ = 737630.72 kJ.
Qh Sea water
10. A reversible heat engine receives heat from 28°C
a high temperature reservoir at T, K and rejects
heat to a low temperatUre sink at 560°C. A sec-
ond reversible engine receives the heat rejected
by the first engine at 560°C and rejects to a cold Fig. 3.20
reservoir at 4.4°C. Find the temperature T,:
(i) for equal thermal efficiencies of the two
engines, (ii) for the two engines to deliver the High temp.
same work. reservoir
VI(
[AMIE, Summer 1983]
Solution: (i) For the first engine,
Qi
T2 = 560 + 273 = 833K
Efficiency of the first engine is given by lsl = Qi
engine
T, — T2 T — 833 833
11i= =1— (i)
T, T,
(ii) For the second engine Q2
Heat received at temperature = 560° C = 560 +
Low emp.
273 = 833 K or, T,= 833 K. sink
Heat rejected at temperature = 4.4° C = 4.4 + 560°K
273 = 277.4 K or T3 = 277.4 K
Efficiency of the second engine is given by
T2 -T, T3 277.4
112= =1 =1
T2 I2 833
For equal thermal efficiency of the two engines
, 833 = , 277.4
T, 833'
833 x 833 Cold

T, — = 2501.4 K = 2228.4°C. reservoir
277.4 T3= 4.4°C
Work delivered by first engine is given by
= Qt Q2
Work delivered by second engine is given by Fig. 3.21
W2 = Q2 Q3
As the work delivered by the two engines is the same.
WI W2, QI Q2 =Q2 — Q3
i Q3 Ti T3
Or,+Q3
.(2 =2Q2 , or -Q + = 2 , or =2
Q2 Q2 T2 T2
T, . 277.4
qr — =2 or T, + 277 .4 = 2 x 833 T, = 1388 K = 1115°C
833+— $3-3-.
4-1. miss en-of water at temperature T1 is isobatically and adiabatically mixed with an equal
Mass of water at- temperature T2. Show that the entropy change of the mixture is given by
[(T, + T2)
(&)„„,„,=•2fie-c
„. ifog, ,--- and this quantity is positive. [AMIE Summer 1987]
2NTI T2
Solution: Taking 0°C as datum,
T,
T4Werttropy of the hot liquid = m Cp log,►(
273
2)
The entropy of the cold liquid = in Co log,(T
277
The entropy of the mixture = 2m C

(273
Where T„, is the temperature of the mixture. Equating the enthalpies before and after mixing
in C pT, + m C pT2 = 2m CpT„, T„,= (T, + T2)/2
T1 + T2)
Entropy of mixture = 2mCp loge(
2 x 273
Ti + T2 T, T2
Change in entropy = 2mCp loge( inC log, —inCp log,
,
2 x 273 273
T, + T2 )2 T, x T2 i + T2)2 273x 271

= in Cp loge( inCp log, (T
2 x 273 CP 1°g` 273 x 273 = 4 x 273 x 273 x x T2
T, + T2 )
= m C log,[( TI,—
+T2 )12 = 2mCp loge(
2yT, To TrT
T, + T2
As 7 because the arithmetic mean is always greater than geometric
is greater than4-T,
2
mean therefore the change in entropy is always positive.
12. Sub-system 1 having a fluid of mass ml, specific heat C, and temperature t, is mixed with
sub-system 2 having a fluid of mass m2, specific heat C2 and temperature t, in an adiabatic
enclosure. If ti is the final temperature after mixing and t2 < tf < el, show that
ti ef
(&)„„,,,„„ = CH IC, in — + in — (AMIE Summer 1991)
ti t2
Solution: Since energy interaction is exclusively confined to the two fluids, the system being
isolated,
m,c,(t, — t1) = m2C2(tf —t)
mi Cit, + m2C2t2
IT=
m,C, + in2C2
Entropy change for the fluid in sub-system 1

if ,1 in,C,dt 1 +273
= d Q„,= =in,C, in 1 =mi Ci in 1
Jr t t, + 273
This will be negative as t, > t f
Entropy change for the fluid in sub-system 2
m2C2dt t tf +273
= = C i n I= m2C2 in
2 2 1 + 273
J t2 2
This will be positive, since 12 < tf
..(As)„„,,,,,„ = tn,C, in ti+ ni,C2 in —

t1
It is positive and the mixing process is irreversible.

13. A heat engine is supplied with 2512 kJ/min of heat at 650°C. Heat rejection takes place at
100°C. Specify which of the following heat rejections represent a reversible, irreversible or
impossible result. (i) 867 kJ/min (ii) 1494 kJ/min (iii) 1015 kJ/min.
(AMIE Summer 1990)
fdQ 2512 867
Solution: (i) — 2.721 — 2.324
T 650 + 273 100 + 273
= 0.3966 > 0
This cycle is impossible
fdQ 2512 1494
(ii) = 923 373 2.721
= —4.005 = —1.284 < 0
T
The cycle is irreversible
dQ 2512 10 15
(iii) = — 73 = 2.721 —2.721 = 0
923
The cycle is reversible.
14. 6 kg of water at 32°C is mixed with 1 kg of ice at 0°C. The process of mixing is adiabatic
and the system is open to the atmosphere. Determine the temperature of the mixture and
change of entropy. Latent heat of ice = 335 kJ/kg. C,, (water) = 4.187 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Let T„, be the temperature of the mixture
Heat lost by water = Heat gained by ice
6 x 4.187(32 — T„,)= 335 +4.187(T,,, —0)
T„, = 16°C
16 + 273) 335 289

T C
(0),,,e= —+ p log,( = + 273 + 4.187 log,-
T73= 1.4655 kJ/kg K.
0 + 273
T„, 289
(d0,,
„„ = in Cp log,— = 6 x 4.187 log, 32 273 = 1.3537 kJ/kg K.
T, +
Net change in entropy of the system = 1.4655 — 1.3537 = 0.11179 kJ/K.
15. A hot iron forging weighing 40 kg and at a temperature of 550°C is dropped in 250 kg of
oil at 25°C and having a specific heat of 2.512 kJ/kg K for quenching. The iron forging has
specific heat of 0.5 kJ/kg K. Assume that no heat is transferred to the surroundings. Deter-
mine (i) entropy change of forging, (ii) entropy change of oil, (iii) entropy change of uni-
verse, and (iv) loss in availability if the atmospheric temperature is 27°C.
(AMIE Winter 1989)
Solution: Using the suffix 1 for iron and 2 for oil the common temperature of iron and oil is
given by
m,C,T, + m2C2T2
T„,=
mi Ci + m2C2
40 x 0.5 x (550 + 273) + 250 x 2.512 x (25 + 273)
— = 314.2 K = 41.2°C.
40 x 0.5 +250 x 2.512
T„,
(i) Entropy change of forging = m,C, logy TI
314.2
= 40 x 0.5 loge = 19.2585 kJ/K.
823
T,„
(ii) Entropy change of oil = m2C2 loge 7,
2
314.2
= 250 x 2.512 loge = 33.2439 kJ/K.
298
(iii) Entropy change of universe
(64)„= Entropy change of forging + Entropy change of oil
= — 19.2585 + 33.2439 = 13.9854 kJ/K.
(iv) Loss in availability = To(4)„ = 300 x 13.9854 = 4195.6286 kJ.
16. A heat engine works with a source temperature T, and sink temperature T2 each of mass m
and specific heat Cp. Prove that the maximum work obtained is given by
W = m Cp(4f,--gf2)2
dQ
Solution: For maximum work, the engine must operate on reversible cycle. So f — = 0.
mCpdT, + mCpdT2
or —0
T2
If T„, is the common temperature when the working of the engine will stop, then the above
equation may be written as
. dT,
T T. dT2
MC f MCD f =
P • 12
Tn,
. m Cp loge 4,— + m Cp loge =0
(T„,)
2
loge =0 = loge I T,„2 = T,T, , T„,=1,1If
7 2
T I T2
Wm.= MC p(T,—T„,)— m C p(T„, — T2) = mCp(T,+T2-2T„,)
= mCp(T,+ T2 — 2 7FIT2) = m Cp(4T-47'2)2

17. Three Carnot engines A, B, C working between temperatures of 900 K and 300 K are in a
series combination. The work produced by the engines are in the ratio of 4 : 3 : 2. Determine
the intermediate temperatures.
Solution: The efficiencies of the three engines are given by
WA 900— TA
11A (1)
Qi 900
Fig. 3.22
WB TA — TB
111.
A
W, TB — 300
11c — f)
3G3 B
WA:WB:WC = 4:3:2
Again Q, = WA + (22
Putting the value of Q, in Eq. (1),

WA
_900— TA
WA + Q2 900
WATA
(4)
542 = 900— TA
W B (900 — TA ) TA — TB
Putting the value of Q2 in Eq. (2)
WA TA TA
WB 3
But -
ul =
vr A •-t
3(900 — TA )
X TA = TA —TB.
4 TA
2700
or T B = TA — 4(900— TA) = TA 4 + 4TA
2700 7 4(2700 )
TB +7- -= TI TA ... TA = 1 ,t -i-T„ (5)
6F
Similarly Q2 = Q3 + W8
WB TA —T B W BT B
Putting this value in Eq. (2), Q3+ — • • Q3 =
wfi TA TA _ TB
WC TA —TB T B 300
Putting this value in Eq. (3), . =
WB TB TB
Wc 2 2
But 178 = j(TA — T B ) = TB — 300
2174 2700 1800 13

or x +.1 .8 —T B} = T B — 300 or ----T, = T B — 300
3 4 77 7 21
34_ 3900 4(2700
=— T B = 344.11 K, TA = +344.11)=582.35 K
7 7 4
Diaphragm 18. One kg of 02 at 1 bar and 167°C is mixed with
one kg of H2 at the same pressure and temperature
by removing the diaphragm as shown in Fig. 3.23.
The atmospheric temperature is 27°C. Find out the
loss in availability. Assume
Cp = 0.9169 kJ/kg K for 02 and 14.319 kJ/kg K
for H2
= 0.653 kJ/kg K for 02 and 10.174 kJ/kg
Rigid vessel
for H2
Solution: For oxygen,
R =C p —c= 0.9169-0.653
Fig. 3.23
= 0.2639 kJ/kg K
For hydrogen,
R = Cp — Cy = 14.319-10.174
= 3.965 kJ/kg K.
RT = 0.2639 x 440 3
Volume of oxygen _ = 1.161 m
P 100
RT 3.965 x 440
Volume of hydrogen — — = 17.446 m3
P 100
The change in entropy for oxygen
17.446 +1.161 =
= R loge(1 = 0.2639104 0.7321 kJ/kg K
v, 1.161
(17.446+ 1.161)
The change in entropy for hydrogen = 3.965 loge — 0.2554 kJ/kg K.
17.446
Total change in entropy = 0.7321 + 0.2554 = 0.9875 kJ.
Lois in = T0 x = 300 x 0.9875 = 296.226 kJ
2'
290°K- 4' 3'
5' 6'
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.24
19. The exhaust steam of a steam engine is used for }leafing 600 litres of furnace oil from
25°C to 75°C. The dryness fraction and absolute pressure of s earn are 0.8 and 1.14 bar.
Determine the change in available energy assuming that only latent heat of steam is used for
heating the fumance oil and there is no heat transfer except this. Assume Specific gravity of
oil = 0.85; Specific heat of oil = 2.93 kJ/kg K; Atmospheric temperature = 17°C.
Solution: Heat gained by the furnace oil = mC AT = 600 x 0.8 293(348 - 298) = 74715 kJ.
From steam table at pressure 1.14 bar,

Temperature of steam = 103.3°C
Latent heat of steam = 2248 kJ
74715
Amount of steam required = - 41.545 kg.
2248 x .8
Change of entropy per kg of steam
xL 0.8 x 2248
dil) - - = 4.779 kJ/kg k
T 103.3 + 273
Available energy per kg of steam
= Area 1- 2 - 3 -4 = d4(376.3 - 290) = 4.779 x 86.3 = 412.44 kJ/kg.
... Total available energy of steam = 41.545 x 412.44 = 17134.9 kJ
T2
Change of entropy per kg of oil = C p loge( -T, = 2.93 log, 75 + 273
25 + 273 = 0.4544 kJ/kg K.
For one kg of oil the non-available energy

= Area 3' - 4' - 5'- 6' = 0.4544 x 290 = 131.776 kJ
Total non-available energy of oil = 600 x 0.85 x 131.776 = 67205.76 kJ
... Total available energy of oil = 74715 - 67205.76 = 7509.24 Id
... Loss in available energy during heat transfer = 17134.9 - 7509.24 = 9625.66 kJ.
20. Water is heated in a heater at constant pressure from 25°C to 85°C. The constant temper-
ature source is at 527°C and the surrounding temperature is 17°C. Determine the gain in
availability of water and the effectiveness of the heater. Take Cp for water as 4.187 kJ/kg K.
Solution: The increase in the availability of water = (112 - 121 ) - 7-0 4:2 - 61)
85 73
= 4.187(85 — 25) — 290 x 4.187 loge = 28.482 kJ/kg
25 + 273
Maximum possible work = Heat supplied x Carrot effy.
T„ —To (527 + 273)— (17 + 273)
= (h2 — h,) x = 4.187(85 — 25) x = 160.15 kJ/kg
TN (52 273) •
The possible work from a heat engine is the loss of availability of the heater.
Gain of availability of the system 28.482
Effectiveness = — — 0.1778 or 17.78%
Loss of availability of surroundings 160.15
21. Air is heated from 20°C to 40°C by mixing it with a certain quantity of air at 95°C. The
atmospheric temperature is 20°C. Assuming the mixing process to be adiabatic and the
changes in kinetic and potential energy as negligible, determine: (a) the mass of heating air
per kg of air to be heated; and (b) effectiveness of the heating process. Take C9 =
1.005 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Let Stream No. 1 be the air at 20°C
Stream No. 2 be the air at 95°C
Stream No. 3 be the air at 40°C
Considering the mass for stream No. 1 is 1 kg and for stream No. 2 is in kg
C p.T, + in C pT2 = (1 + pT, or, m = (T2 — T3) = (T3 — TO
T3 - T, 40 — 20
= — 0.3636 kg.
T2— 7.3 95 —40
In stream No. 1, in which air is heated from 20°C to 40°C,
Increase in availability of the system = B3 — 8, = 03 —10 T0(4 3 (I),)
T3
= 1.005(40 — 20)— 293(0, — (1),) = 1.005 x 20 — 293.C9 loge T,
40 + 273
= 1.005 x 20 — 293 x 1.005 loge 20
•+ 273=0.6563 kJ/kg
The loss in availability of the surroundings is due to the cooling of stream No. 2.
Loss in availability of the surroundings = 8,— B3 = in[(112 — 110 — T0(42 — CA
95 + 273]
= 0.3636 [1.005(95 — 40)— 293 x 1.005 loge — 2.7659 kJ/kg.
40+273
Increase in availability of the system 0.6563
Effectiveness = = = 0.2372 or 23.72%
Loss in availability of the surrounding 2.7659
The effectiveness of the mixing process is very low which shows that the process of mixing is
highly irreversible.
22. In a power plant saturated steam is produced by the heat of hot gases of combustion at
200°C. The gased are cooled from 1000°C to 500°C. The atmospheric temperature is 25°C.
Determine: (a) increase in entropy of the system of gas and water combined per kg of water;
and (b) increase in unavailable energy per kg of water. Assume that all heat from gases is
absorbed by water. Co(gas) = 1.005 kJ/kg K ; Latent heat = 1690 kJ/kg.
Solution: Heat by hot gases = Heat gained by water
1690
m9.Cpg(1273 — 773) = 1690 mg =- — 3.363 kg.
1.005 x 500
Change in entropy of gas

(500 + 273) 773
= mgcg log, 3.363 x 1.005 loge 1273 = -1.686 kJ/K.
(100 0 + 273)
L 1690__
Change in entropy of water = = 498 =
3.3935 kJ/kg K.
T
Change in entropy of the system of gas and water combined per kg of water = -1.686 +
3.3935 = 1.7075 kJ/kg K
Increase in unavailable energy per kg of water = (25 + 273)(d0„.- d(g)
= 298 (3.3935 - 1.686) = 508.857 kJ/kg of water.
EXERCISES

1. What are the limitations of the first law of thermodynamics?
2. State the second law of thermodynamics as per (a) Kelvin-Planck (b) Clausius.
3. Define heat engine, heat pump and thermodynamic temperature scale.
4. Prove the equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statement.
5. What are the processes involved in a Carnot cycle? Derive an expression for the ther-
mal efficiency of the Carnot cycle.
6. State and prove Clausius inequality.
7. What is meant by available and unavailable energy ? Prove that the available energy of
heat Q withdrawn from a finite source is dQ - Tod(1).
8. What is meant by non-flow availability function? Prove that the change in availability
of a closed system is (A, -A2) when the system changes from state 1 to state 2.
9. What is steady flow availability function? Is it a property? Explain.
10. What is the difference between steady flow availability function nid non-flow avail-
ability function?
11. Define Gibb's function, when are the non-flow availability function, steady flow avail-
ability function and Gibb's function equal?
12. Define irreverbility, loss in availability and effectiveness.
13. A reversible heat engine receives heat from a high temperature reservoir at 160°C and
rejects heat to a low temperature sink at 40°C. Calculate the Carnot efficiency of the
engine working between these two limits of temperature.
[Ans. 27.72%]
14. A Camot engine operates between two reservoirs at temperatures of T, and T,K. The
work output of the engine is 0.65 times that of heat rejected. Given that the difference in
temperatures between the source and the sink is 195°C, calculate the source temperature,
the sink temperature and the thermal efficiency.
15. If the thermal efficiency of a Camot engine is 1/5, calculate the coefficient of perform-
ance of (a) Camot refrigerator and (b) Carnot heat pump.
16. A Carnot refrigerator requires 1.3 kW per ton of refrigeration to maintain a region at
low temperature of -42°C. Determine (a) C.O.P refrigerator (b) higher temperature of
the cycle (c) the heat rejected in kJ/min and (d) the heat delivered and C.O.P. when this
device is used as a heat pump.
[Ans 2.692; 316.8 K ; 288 ki/min, 3.84]
17. A Carnot refrigerator operates between a temperature range of -38°C and +38 °C.
Determine the C.O.P. It is desired to make the C.O.P equal to 3.6 by changing temper
atures. The increase or decrease in the upper temperature is equal to the decrease or
increase in the low�r temperature. Determine the new temperatures.
[Ans. 3.0921; 315.7 K; 230.292 K]
FOUR
Properties of Gases
4 1 PERFECT GAS
A gas which obeys Boyle's and Charles' laws and whose characteristic equation
is obtained by combining the above laws is known as a perfect gas.
In acutal practice, no gas is a perfect gas, but many gases can apporach this
standard within the temperature limits of applied thermodynamics. Oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, air etc may be regarded as perfect gases as they tend to
obey these laws within the temperature limits of applied thermodynamics. They
are also known as real gases.
4.2 VAPOUR
A vapour is defined as a partially evaporated liquid and consists of the pure
gaseous state together with particles of liquid in suspension. for example,
ammonia, sulphur dioxide, wet steam and carbon dioxide. The vapour does not
obey the laws of gases. When the vapour is heated, the particles of liquid in
suspension get evaporated, and it is then known as a dry vapour-. Further heat-
ing of the dry vapour converts it into superheated vapour, which behaves almost
like a gas. For example,superheated steam behaves like a gas.
4.3 LAWS OF PERFECT GAS

The following are the laws of a perfect gas.
Boyle's Law
Robert Boyle discovered this law in 1662 A.D. The law states that the volume
of a given mass of a perfect gas varies inversely with absolute pressure when
the temperature remains constant.
Let
P = Absolute pressure of the gas
V = Volume of the gas at pressure P
Then according to this law
Voc — when temperature T is constant

V = — where c is a constant of propor-

P
tionality
PV = C.
If a gas is made to change its state from P,V,
to P2V2 without a change in temperature,
then according to this law, at state 1, P,V, =
constant.
-'111.- V Similarly at state 2, P2 V2 = constant.
From the two relations we get P, V, = P2 V2
The real gases obey this law very nearly and
the perfect gas obeys it exactly.
Fig. 4.1 Boyle's law on P- V The equation PV = constant is plotted as
diagram shown in Fig. 4.1.
Charles' Law
Charles discovered this law in 1787 A.D. The law states that the volume of a
given mass of perfect gas varies directly with the absolute temperature, if the
pressure is kept constant.
Let V = Volume of the gas in m3
T = Absolute temperature in K
= (t + 273), where t = temperature in °C
P = Pressure
Then according to this law
VocT when P is constant;
V
= constant.
The above equation can be written as
171 V2
- T2
In the eighteenth century, Gay Lussac

and Regnault found that at constant pres-
sure, the change in volume of any perfect
gas corresponding to everyone degree
temperature change is given by 1/273 of
its volume at 0°C.
Let Vc, = volume of the gas at 0°C
Fig. 4.2 Charles' law on P- V
diagram
V, = volume of the gas at t°C
Properties of Gases 67
V, = Vo + Vo x o (1 + )
273 = V 273
At temperature t = —273°C, the volume V, of the gas will be zero. This is taken to
be the point of absolute zero temperature.
From the above equation, V, = Vo 273

(273+1
T V, T
or V, = Vo x — or =
To v0 1 0
where T = absolute temperature of the gas in K; To = absolute temperature of the

gas at 0°C in K.
Therefore, the volume of a gas varies directly with the absolute temperature
when the pressure P is constant
4.4 COMBINATION OF BOYLE'S AND CHARLES'

LAW
1
According to Boyle's Law, V.< — when T is constant
According to Charles' law, VocT, when P is constant

T
Voc — or PVocT
PV
or — = constant = K, where K is a constant of proportionality.
T
If the gas changes its state from P 1,T, to P2V2,T2 Then P I V1 = KT, and
P2V2 = K T2
PI VI P2V2
= K.
T1 T2
K=m xR
Where m = mass of the gas considered, and R = a constant
then PV = mRT (4.1)
This equation is known as the characteristic equation of a gas. R is called the
characteristic gas constant. If V is the volume of unit mass of gas then the
equation can be written as PV = RT, where R is the specific gas constant of the
gas considered.
4.5 UNIT OF R
If the pressure is in N/m2, volume in cubic metre per kilogramme, and tempera-
ture in kelvin, the gas constant R has a unit of newton metre per kilogramme per
degree kelvin i.e, joule per kilogramme per degree kelvin.
For air, R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
4.6 UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT

The product of molecular weight and specific gas constant of any gas is constant
and is known as universal gas constant.
Let M = molecular weight of the gas in kg
R = characteristic gas constant or specific gas constant
The value of the universal gas constant is 8.3143 kJ/kg mol K.
MR = 8.3143.
4.7 AVOGADRO'S LAW

This law states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of molecules. In other words, it can be stated
that the molecular weights of all the gases occupy the same volume at N.T.P. At
N.T.P. volume of one kg mol of any gas is 22.4 m3.
4.8 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ENERGY

Let us consider heat being supplied to a gas. All the heat supplied has been
received by the gas but generally a portion of it is transformed into mechanical
work and has not entered permanently. The portion of supplied, heat which is
retained in the gas is known as internal energy. The remaining portion of the
supplied heat which does work against external resistance is called external
energy. The internal energy is denoted by the letter E.
4.9 JOULE'S LAW

The internal energy of a perfect gas is a function of temperature only. This is
known as Joule's law of internal energy.
From the above statement, it is clear that the change in internal energy of a
given mass of gas is proportional to the change in temperature.
Change in internal energy .(7',— TO per kg of gas. It is found that the con-
stant is C.
E2 - E1 = CAT2 - TO per kg of gas
E2 E = m Cr (T2 — T1 ) (4.2)
4.10 SPECIFIC HEAT OF GAS

The specific heat of a substance is defined as the
amount,pf heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of the substance through one degree
centigrade.
Solids and liquids have only one specific heat
but a gas has two specific heats, namely.
(a) specific heat at constant volume (Cy).
(b) specific heat at constant pressure (Cp).
Fig. 4.3 Heating at
Specific Heat at Constant Volume constant volume
The amount of heat required to raise the tempera-
ture of unit mass of the gas by 1°C at constant vol-
ume is known as specific heat at constant volume.
It is represented by C. The unit of Cv is kJ/IcgK.
For air C, = 0.7165 kJ/kg K .
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
The amount of heat required to raise the tempera-
ture of unit mass of the gas by 1°C at constant
pressure is known as specific heat at constant
pressure. It is represented by Cp. The unit of C, is
kJ/kg K.
For air Cp = 1.0035 kJ/kg K.
4.11 RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS Fig. 4.4 Heating at

constant pressure
Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure
The ratio
Specific heat of a gas at constant volume
is denoted by Greek letter `gamma'y. It is also called the adiabatic index.
4.12 RELATION BETWEEN TWO SPECIFIC HEATS

AND GAS CONSTANT
Consider a unit mass of gas being heated at constant volume form temperature
T, to T2.
Heat supplied at constant volume = Cv(T2 — T,)
As the heat is supplied at constant volume, there is no external work done. All
the heat energy is utilised for changing the internal energy.
Change in internal energy of unit mass of gas = C„(T2 — (4.3)
Table 4.1 Values of specific heats for gases
Gas Chemcial Cp C, Cp R = Cp - C,
formula kJ/kg K kJ/kg K Y--6: kJ/kg K
z p=
Gasoline (octane) 1.711 1.6385 1.044 0.0725
Ammonia >x no z o.xo z.nz no= 2.177 1.69 1.288 0.487
Carbon dioxide 0.8419 0.653 1.289 0.1889
Methane 2.2537 1.7354 1.299 0.5183
Steam 1.8723 1.4108 1.33 0.4615
Oxygen 0.9216 0.6618 1.393 0.2598
Air 1.0035 0.7165 1.4 0.287
Nitrogen 1.0416 0.7448 1.4 0.2968
Carbon monoxide 1.0413 0.7445 1.4 0.2968
Hydrogen 14.209 10.085 1.409 4.124
Argon 0.52 0.312 1.667 0.208
Helium 5.1926 3.1156 1.667 2.077
Consider unit mass of gas at initial condition P1, V1, T, be heated at constant
pressure. Let the final condition be P,, V2, T2.
Heat supplied = Cp(T2 -
External work done = P,(V2-V1 )
Applying the law of conservation of energy,
Change in internal energy = Heat supplied - External work done
= C p(T2 T1) - i(V2 -V1) (4.4)
As the gas in heated through the same temperature range, the change in internal
energy is the same in both cases. Thus, equating Eqs (4.3) and (4.4), we get.
C,,(T2 - T1 ) = Cp (T2 - - P, ( V2 - V,)
P, (V2 - V1 ) = Cp (T2 - - (T2 -
R(T2 -T,)= Cp(T2 -T1)- Cv(T2 - [..P2V2 = RT2,P,V,= RTJ
R = Cp - C, (4.5)
4.13 PROCESS
A process is a change in the state of a gas as a result of flow of energy. The

change in one or more properties takes place during the process as a result of
flow of energy. The properties are pressure, volume, temperature, internal
energy, heat, and work.
The following are the important thermodynamic processes:
(a) constant volume process or isochoric process
(b) constant pressure process or isobaric process
(c) isothermal process or constant temperature process

(d) adiabatic process or isentropic process
(e) polytropic process.
(0 throttling process
(g) free expansion process.
(h) hyperbolic process.
Constant Volume Process

A process in which the volume of the gas remains
constant before and after heating is known as con-
stant volume process.
Due to heating, the pressure and temperature will
rise. As the volume is constant no external work It
will be done by the gas. The heat supplied will be
stored in the gas in the form of internal energy. Volume
Figure 4.5 shows the P—V diagram by a vertical
line. Point 1 represents the state of the gas before
heating, and point 2 represents the state of the gas Fig. 4.5 P—V diagram of
after heating. The area of the curve 1-2 on the vol- the constant
ume axis is zero and , therefore, the work done will volume process
be equal to zero.
v,
(a) The work done during the process = Pdv
v,
v2
But dV = 0. W= pdv = 0
v,
T2
(b) Heat transferred, Q = mCvdT
J T,
Q = mCv(T2 —
Where m is the mass of the gas and C,, is the specific heat at constant volume.
T2
(c) Change in internal energy = mCvdT
J T,
AU = mCv(T2 —
(d) Change in enthalpy, Ah = mCp(T2 —

(e) Relation between, P, V and T: If a gas changes its state from P1 , VI, Ti , to
P2, 1(2, T2 then,
P l y, P 2V2 Pi P2
But VI = V2
T2 T, T2
Constant Pressure Process

A process in which the pressure of the gas
remains constant before and after heating is
cf) 1 2 known as constant pressure process.
Due to heating the volume and temperature
of the gas will increase. In Fig. 4.6, point 1 rep-
resents the state of the gas before heating and
VI point 2 represents the state of the gas after
-4C— V2
heating.
Volume
(a) Work done during this process is given by
Fig. 4.6 P- V diagram y2

for constant W= f Vi
PdV = P (V2 - VI) Nm or joules.
pressure process
T2
(b) Heat transferred, Q = in Cpd T = mC p(T2 -

T
(c) Change in internal energy AU = in Cv (T2 - T1)

(d) Change in enthalpy A h = in C p(T2 -
P2V2
(e) Relation between P, V, and T:
T1 T2
171 V2
—= Si nce PI = P2
T, T2
Constant Temperature Process or a) PI

Isothermal Process PV=C
A process in which the temperature of the gas L T1 = T2

remains constant when heat is supplied to the gas
is known as constant temperature process or iso- t P2 _
thermal process.
V1
The law is PV = constant. V2
The expansion of the gas at constant tempera- Volume
ture from point 1 to point 2 is shown in Fig. 4.7.
The work done will be equal to the area of the
curve 1-2 on the volume axis. Fig. 4.7 P- V diagram for
(a) Work done (W) isothermal process
v,
PdV But PV = C = P
W= fv,
v2 v2 dV 2
W = f —dV=C f — = C log 1.
V, V V, V VI
V2
= PI V, loge — Nm or joules
7-2
(b) Change in internal energy (Au) = f m C„dT
... AU = 0 as dT = 0
(c) Heat transferred = Work done + change in internal energy
2
Q = 131 V, log, 11- joules
(d) Change in enthalpy (Qh)
Ah = m Cp (T2 — T1) But T1 = T2
Ah = 0
(e) Relatior 3etween P, V and T:
P2V2
But T1 = T2 .% PI VI = P2 V2
T2
Adiabatit Process
An adiabatic process is one during which there is no heat transfer between the
system and the surroundings when work is done by the gas or on the gas. During
adiabatic expansion work is done by the gas, and during adiabatic compression
work iS done on the gas.
In practice isentropic operation is not possible because of heat exchange,
between the gas and the cylinder walls, and friction which take place during the
process when the gas is contained in an engine cylinder. It can be shown that the
equation for frictionless adiabatic process for a perfect gas can be written as
PVY = C. where y is the ratio of specific heats C,, and Cs,.
Let us consider unit mass of gas : dQ denotes a small quantity of heat taken
by unit mass of gas and dT and dV are the small increases in temperature and
volume, respectively. Then according to the first law of thermodynamics.
dQ = P dV + C„dT (i)
But for adiabatic operation dQ = 0

CvdT +PdV = 0
We know the gas equation P V = R T
Differentiating we get, P d V+ V d P = R d T
PdV +VdP
or dT =
substituting the value of dT in Eq. (ii)

Cv(PdV +VdP)
+PdV =0
R
or Cv(PdV +VdP)+PRdV = 0 or C„(PdV + VdP)+ PdV(Cp - Cv)= 0
Cp dV •dP
or CpPdV +CydP = 0 or —x —+—=0
C, V P
dV dP
y— +—= 0
V P
Integrating
yloge V + loge P = loge C
PVT = C where C is a constant.

The adiabatic process on P-V diagram is shown in Fig. 4.8.
W= PdV
v,
PIP=C
substituting the value of P

tu PV = C
C xdV f v2 dV
W=
fv, vy C v, vy
_ (v-fy+i _
-r+1‘' 2 2
But C = P, V; = P2/7Z Volume
substituting the value of C Fig. 4.8 Adiabatic process

m P- V diagram
P2V2 - PI VI PI - PY2
W- Nm or joules
1- y y-1
(b) Heat transferred Q = 0.

(c) Change in internal energy MI =mq,(T2 —T1)
(d) Change in enthalpy Ah = mCp(T2 — T1)
(e) Relation between P, V and T:
PV7 = constant (iii)
PV
— = constant (iv)
T
Dividing (iii) by (iv) we get x T = constant
Applying this equation to the initial and final conditions of the gas we get
V;(- x T, = constant, 171- x T2 = constant
V2 - 'T, =1/111T1
T2 VI )7- I
=
T1 V2
PV PYVY
— = constant or — constant (v)
T
Dividing (v) by (iii) we get — = constant
Applying this equation to the initial and final condition of the gas, we have
Pr Pr
T27
7- I
T2 P2 1- I T2 ( P2)
or(— = —
T1 /31 ) T1 PI
Y
P2
Pi 1/1= P2V1
P1 112
Polytropic Process
A process which follows the general law PV" = constant, is known as polytropic
process. Here n is called the index of expansion or compression.
The value of n varies from 0 to c.c.
For constant pressure process n = 0

Constant
For isothermal process =1 pressure
For constant volume process n = oc n—0
4.)
Isothermal
Fot adiabatic process n =y co)
E
Pol tro is
• They main difference in equations of 0.
0 0>
adiObatic and polytropic processes is Adiabatic
that if we replace y by n in the relations
n =co
of adiabatic operation we get the rela-
tions of polytropic process. —I.- Volume
(a) Work done in a reversible poly-
tropic process is given by Fig. 4.9 P- V diagram for polytropic
process
2 P2V2 - Pi VI Pi - P2V2
WI _ 2 = f pdV - = Nm or joule
1 -n n -1
(b) Change in internal energy (AU) is given by
AU = mC,,AT = mc(T2-T1 )
(c) Heat transferred (Q) is given by
Heat supplied = Work-done + change in internal energy
But C" = P = mRTI and P2V2 = mR T2
y-1' ' V'
P7 V2
PI VI
mc(T 2 - =
y-1
P2V2 P2V2 P1 V1 I 1
Q= =(P, VI P2 V2) [
n -1 y- - 1 y-1]
y-n
- y- n xPIVI-
; ' P2Il -y_1 x work done
y- lx n 4 1
Agaitrfor a roversiblek polytropic process with unit mass of gas
Q = AU + I PdV = CAT + R
i AT
C,(y
, 1)AT
- y]-1 -
yn
= C,AT + - CAT[1+ -C., .AT = C„AT
1- n 1 -n ' 1- n
y- n
where C„ = Cv 1 _ n is called the polytropic specific heat.
;d) Change in enthalpy (Ah) is given by

Ah = m Cp (T2 - T1)
(e) Relation between P, V and T.
T2 VI n T2 P2
—= ,
T1 V2 Ti lP1
P2 VI In
PI V2
Comparison of Work Done by a Gas During

Expansion for Various Processes
The initial state of the gas is represented
by the point 1 on the P— V diagram as
shown in Fig. 4.10. The final state is rep-
resented by the point 2, 2', 2", 2"'. The
area bounded by the curve on the volume
axis represents the work done by the gas
during that process. The work done is
maximum for constant pressure process
and minimum for adiabatic process. From
the figure it is obvious that for the same
expansion ratio the work done by the gas
decreases as n increases from zero to y.
Fig. 4.10 P- V diagram for
Throttling Process work done by gas
Throttling expansion occurs when a gas during expansion
or vapour is expanded through a restricted
passage such as a narrow opening or a partly open valve in the line of flow.
During this process the fluid is forced through the narrow aperture by its own
pressure but the frictional resistance between the fluid and the wall reduces the
fluid velocity to a negligible amount. Due to this the fluid escapes with a small
amount of kinetic energy. The friction converts the kinetic energy into heat and
the fluid is raised to its inital temperature. During throttling process no heat is
supplied or rejected, 'no external work is done, and in case of perfect gas there is
no change in temperature. The enthalpy or total heat of the fluid must, therefore,
remain constant.
Free Expansion Process

The free expansion of a gas occurs when a fluid is allowed to expand suddenly
into a vacuum chamber through an orifice of large dimensions. During this pro-
cess no heat is supplied or rejected and no external work is done.
According to the first law of thermodynamics as applied to non-flow process.
dQ = dW + dU
As dQ =0, dW =0
dU = O. i.e. u, = u2
Thus internal energies before and after free expansion are equal.
Hyperbolic Process
A process in which the product of the pressure and volume of a gas remains
constant when a gas expands or compresses is known as hyperbolic process.
Thus for a hyperbolic process
Pressure x Volume = constant, i.e, PV = constant.
This process is the same as isothermal process. The work done and heat
supplied will be the same as in the case of isothermal process.
Rate of Heat Absorption or Rejection Per Unit

Volume
Heat absorbed or rejected during a polytropic process
y— n
Q= x W.
y-1
Where W is the work done during polytropic process in heat units.
If dQ is the small quantity of heat absorbed or rejected during small change of
pressure and volume, then
(Y 11 )
dQ = xPdV
(y— 1)
Rate of heat absorption or rejection per unit volume,
dQ y— n
P
dV y-1
Rate of heat absorption or rejection per second,
dQ _dQ dV _y—n dV
x xp x
at — dV dt y— 1 dt
dv
Where — is the swept volume of the piston per second.
dt
4.14 PROPERTIES OF GAS MIXTURES

If there is a mixture of gases which does not react with one another, then
according to Gibbs—Dalton law, the internal energy, pressure and the entropy of
the mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the respective constituent gases when
each gas has the volume and temperature the same as that of the mixture. In the
study of gas mixtures we use the term mole, which has a mass numerically equal
'Properties of Gases 79
to the molecular weight of the substance. Therefore a kg mole of hydrogen is 2

kg. The molecular weight is a number proportional to the mass of a molecule, so
that a mole of one gas contains the same number of molecules as any and all
other gases. According to Avogadro's law, for all gases at identical pressures,
volumes and temperatures, the number of moles is the same. Thus we see that
mole is a unit of volume. For our analysis we use the term mole fractions. Mole
fraction is defined as the ratio of the moles of a component in a given volume of
the mixture to the total moles of the mixture having the same volume.
Gas mixtures are also described by the use of the gravimetric analysis.
Let us imagine a homogeneous mixture of ideal gases a, b, c etc.
According to Gibbs — Dalton law
P = Pa+ Pb+ Pc+ • • ••
where Pa, Pb and Pc are the partial pressures of the respective gases, and P is the
total pressure of the gas mixture.
Again we have Ta =Tb =Tc =T; Va = Vb = = V and Ea + E„ + Er + = E
As enthalpy is equal to E + P„, the sum of the individual items is equal to that of
the mixture we have
Ha + Hb + Ile + =H
ma + rub + mc + =m
Now let us consider the individual gases of the mixture
For gas a, Pa V = ma RaT
For gas b,Pb V = inb R,T
For gas c ,Pc V = mcRcT
By adding these, we have
(Pa+ Pb+ Pc+ • • .) V = (mak + mbRb nick + • • •)T
or PV = mR„,T
where R„, is the gas constant for the mixture.
Comparing the above equations we have
ma Ra + mb Rb + nick + ma mb me
R„, — — Ra + — Rb + — Re + ..
m m m
ma mb
where —,, — are termed as gravimetric fractions. The sum of all the
m M
gravimetric fractions for the mixture is unity.
ma mb Mc
Let =M 1lb =
ill
=
then R. = p.Ra + [lb Rb + lieRe +

Suppose gas a alone occupies the volume occupied by the mixture. Then the
temperature and pressure of the gas will fall. If the gas is to retain the tempera-
ture and pressure of the mixture, the volume of the gas is to be reduced to Va . If
all the constituent gases are handled in this manner, the sum of all the volumes
and VV will be again V which is the volume of the mixture.
For the constituent gases we have
P Va = ma RaT, PVb = mbRbT,Pvc = mc R,T
Adding we have
P (Va + Vb ...) = (mak+ mb Rb + !tick+ ...)T
For the mixture, PV = m R„,T
P(Va +Vb +K+...)=PV or V=Va i-Vb +Vc +...
vb
1= — + — + — +
V V V
vc
Where — fib, — are termed as mole fractions.
V' V
If xa,xb,xc are the mole fractions of the constituent gases then Ixo = 1
if X represents mole fractions and M represents the respective molecular
weights, we have
M = x„M„ + xbMb + xcitic + = yxama
The partial pressure of the constituent gases are obtained by the equation
Pa = xa P when mole fractions are known.
Ra
Pt, = [ta P .— when gravity fractions are known.
R.
Again the specific heats of the mixture are calculated as follows:

m C, = nta + mbC0b + McCve +
MCp = MaCpa +MbCpb + MeCpc

The density of the mixture
P = Pa + Pb+ +•••
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the molecular volume of all gases at 200 kN/m2 and 25°C.
Solution: P = 200 kN/m2 = 200 x 103 N/m2
Properties of Gases
T = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K
MR = 8.3143 kJ/kg mole K = 8314.3 kJ/kg mol K.
PV = MRT, 200x 103 xV=8314.3 x 298
8314.3 x 298
V= = 12.388 m3
200 x 103
2. A cylinder of 60 litre capacity contains carbon dioxide at 100 bar and 20°C.
Determine : (a) mass of the gas, (b) molecular volume, (c) density of the gas, (d) specific
volume.
Solution: MR = 8.3143 kJ/kg mole K
8.3143
For carbon dioxide M = 44, R= — 0.18896 kJ/kg K
44
P = 100 bar = 100 x 105 N/m2
V = 60 litre = 60 x 10-3 m3
T = 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293 K
PV = mRT
PV 100 x 105 x 60 x 10-3
(a) m= =' — 10.837 kg.
RT 188.96 x 293
T 8314.3 x 293
(b) Molecular volume = 8314.3 x = = 0.2436 m'
P loox los
10.837
(c) Density of the gas = 0.86 = 180.61 kg/m'
1 1
(d) Specific volume — = 0.00553 m3/kg
density of the gas 180.61
3. A steel cylinder contains oxygen at a pressure of 30 bar and temperature 27°C. After using
a quantity of the gas the pressure is found to be 7 bar and 20°C. 800 litres of oxygen was
originally put in the cylinder at N.T.P. Density of oxygen at N.T.P. = 1.43 gm/litre. Deter-
mine the mass of oxygen used.
Solution: Mass of 800 litres of oxygen at N.T.P = 1.43 x 800 = 1144 gm
PV
Now PV = mRT, tn = RT
30x 105 x V
In the first case, m—
R x 300
where V is the volume of the cylinder.
In the second case, Let m' be the mass of oxygen left behind in the cylinder. Then
, 7 x 10'xV
m = (ii)
293 xR
Dividing Eq.(ii) by Eq (i), we get
m' 7 x 10' x 300 7 x 300 x 1144
= 273.31 gm.
m 30x 105x293' in ' — 30 x 293 .
.% Mass of oxygen used = 1144 — 273.31 = 870.69 gm.
4. Nitrogen is to be stored at 140 bar and 30°C in a steel cylinder of 0.5 cu metre capacity.
The cylinder is to be protected against excessive pressure by a fusible plug which will melt
and allow the gas to escape if the temperature rises too high. How many kg of nitrogen will
the cylinder hold at the designed condition? At what temperature must the fusible plug melt
in order to limit the pressure in the receiver to 155 bar? [D.M.E 11-92]
Solution: We know PV = m R T
P = 140 x 105 N/m2, V = 0.5 m3, T = 30 + 273 = 303 K
MR = 8.3143
8.3143
R for N,— = 0.29693 kJ/kg K
28
5 140 x 105x 0.5
140 x 10 x 0.5 = m x 296.93 x 303 m— — 77.8 kg.
296.93 x 303
P, V, P,V2
Now =
T2
P, = 140 x 105 N/m2, P,= 155 x 105 N/m2
V, = 0.5 M3, V2 = 0.5 m3
T,= 303 K, T2 = ?
140x 105 x0.5 155 x 105 x0.5
303 T2
155 x 303
= 335.464 K = 335.464 — 273 =.62.464°C
T2 = 140
5. When the pressure in a car tyre was checked at a temperature of 12°C, the tyre gauge
showed a reading of 1.75 bar. What would be the tyre gauge reading when the temperature
had increased to 45°C, assuming the volume of air in the tyre to be constant. Take the atmo-
spheric pressure to be 1.013 bar. [D.M.E.II-93]
Solution: PI = 1.75 + 1.013 = 2.763 bars absolute
T,= 12 + 273 = 285 K, T2 = 45 + 273 = 318 K

As the volume of air in the tyre is assumed to remain constant then V, = V2
PI P2 n 2.763 x 318
= 3.083 bar absolute
- = T2
F, r 2= 285
Tyre gauge reading at 45°C = 3.083 — 1.013 = 2.07 bar
6. 3 kg of an ideal gas is expanded from a pressure of 7 bar absolute and volume 1.5 m3 to a
pressure 1.4 bar absolute and volume 4.5 m3:The specific heat at constant volume for the gas
is 1 kJ/K and the change in internal energy is 500 kJ; calculate (i) gas constant,
(ii) change in enthalpy, and (iii) initial and final temperature.
Solution: P, = 7 bar = 7 x 105 N/M2, P2 = 1.4 bar = 1.4 X 105 N/m2
V, = 1.5 m3, V2 = 4.5 m3, in = 3 kg

Change in internal energy,
AU = 500 kJ, C„ = 1 kJ/kg K
As the gas expands, there wil be decrease in internal energy and therefore AU will be nega-
tive. AV = —500 id
500
AU = mc(T2 — TO —500 = 3 x 1(T2 — T2 — T, = 3--
By using gas equation PV = m R T for initial and final state of the gas, we have
P,V, = mRT, (i)
P2V2 =mRT2 (ii)

Subtracting Eq. (i) from Eq. (ii), we get
P2V2 — PiVi
P2V2 — P,V, = mR(T2 — TO or R =
m(T2 — T1)
140x4.5 —700x 1.5 630-1050
R = — 0.84 kJ/kg K
3x— T) —500
(ii) Change in enthalpy is given by,
4h = Enthalpy of final state — Enthalpy at initial state.
= (P2V2 + U2)— (P,V,+ (11)=(P2V2 — P,V,)+ (U2-111)
= (140 x 4.5 — 700 x 1.5) — 500 = —920 kJ.

(iii) Let T, = Initial temperature; T2 = Final temperature
Using gas equation PI V, = mRT,
P I V I 700 x 1.5
= 416.666 K.
1.1= mR — 3 x 0.84
P2 V2 140 x 4.5
Similarly, T2 = = — 250 K.
mR 3 x 0.84
7. A spherical vessel of diameter 2 m containing oxygen at 37°C at atmospheric pressure is
evacuated till the vacuum inside the vessel is 740 mm of Hg. Determine the mass of oxygen
pumped out. The vessel is then cooled to 5°C. What is the pressure in the vessel in mm of
Hg?. Take atmospheric pressure = 760 mm of Hg, and R for oxygen = 0.2598 kJ/kg K.
Solution: T1 = 37 + 273 = 310 K, T3 = 5 + 273 = 278 K
The volume of the vessel
4 3 4
=-'Tr =- X1CX 1 3 = 4. 1 8 8 8 mi
3 3
Absolute pressure in the vessel
P2 = 760 —740 = 20 mm of Hg.
Mass of oxygen pumped out = Initial mass — Final mass
P P2 V2 V1
— (P,— P2) as V, = V2 and T, = T2
RT, RT2 RT,
4.1888
=, x (760 — 20) x 133.32 = 5.131 kg.
259.8 x 310
As oxygen is cooled at constant volume
P2
— =P3
—
T2 7'3
T3 278
P3 = — . P2 R).>< 20 = 17.935 mm of Hg.
T2
8. Cold air enters the air heater at a temperature of 27°C through a pipe of 60 cm in diameter.
The temperature of air rises to 750°C at constant pressure in the air heater. Determine the
diameter of the/pipe which carries the heated air away from the heater if the velocity of the air
were to remain the same in both the pipes.
Solution: T,= 27 + 273 = 300 K, T,= 750 + 273 = 1023 K, P, = P,
Let d, = diameter of pipe at inlet to heater = 60 cm = 0.6 m; and d2 = diameter of pipe at
outlet from heater.
P, V, P2V2 Vi V2 V2 T2
We know = or
T, T2 T, T2 17I
rt/44 x Velocity of air T,
or,
71/4 x Velocity of air T1
dz d2 = 1023 x (0.6)2
or, = d2 = 1.107
(I; 2 300
9. A balloon is considered to be a sphere of 10 m in diameter. The balloon is filled with
hydrogen at 25°C and at atmospheric pressure. The temperature of the surrounding air is
20°C. Determine the load which can be lifted by the balloon.
3
Solution: Volume of the balloon = — irr = 3x it x (5)3 = 523.6 m3
3
=8.3143
MR = 8.3143 R — 4.15715 kJ/kg K
Pressure of hydrogen in the balloon = Atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kN/m2

Applying gas equation PV = m R T.
PV = 101.325 x 523.6
Mass of hydrogen in the balloon = = 42.825 kg
RT 4.15715 x (25 + 273)
The volume of air displaced by the balloon = Volume of the balloon = 523.6 m3
The mass of air displaced by the balloon
PV 101.325 x 523.6
— = 630.9 kg
RT 0.287x(20+273)
0.287 x (20 + 273)
The load which can be lifted by the balloon = 630.9 — 42. 825 = 588.075 kg.
10. The values of specific heats at constant volume and pressure for an ideal gas are 0.728
and 0.984 kJ/kg K, respectively. Find the values of the characteristic gas constant and ratio of
specific heats 1 for the gas.
If one kg of this gas is heated at constant pressure from 25°C to 200°C, estimate the heat
added, ideal work done, and change in internal energy. Also calculate the pressure and the
final volume if the initial volume was 2 m3. [A.M.I.E]
Solution: T,= 25 + 273 = 298 K, T2= 200 + 273 = 473 K
R = C ,j — Cy = 0.984 — 0.728 = 0.256 kJ/kg K.

Cp 0.984
Ratio of specific heats 1= = = 1.351
C, 0.728
Heat added = in C,(T2 — TO =1 x 0.984(473 — 298) = 172.2 kJ.
Work done by the gas = P ,(112 — V1) = nzR(T2 —
= 1 x 0.256(473 — 298) = 44.8 kJ

Change in internal energy = mC,(T2 — TO= 1 x 0.728(473 — 298) = 127.4 kJ.

Pressure of the gas, P,
Using the relation P, V, = mRT,
mRT, 1 x 0.256 x 298
= 38.144 kN/m2
Pl= V, = 2
Final volume of the gas, V2

V, V2 T2
Using the relation — = — or V2 = — x V,
T, T2
473
V 2 = 3.175 m3
2 =298x
11. A cylinder containing gas at 25°C is kept at constant pressure by a gas-tight dead weight
piston which is 14 cm from the head of the cylinder.If heat is supplied to the gas, increasing
the temperature to 57°C, how far will the piston move?
Solution: Let D be the diameter of the cylinder
Li = distance of piston from head of the cylinder before heat is supplied = 14 cm = 0.14 in.
L2 = distance of piston from head of the cylinder after heat is supplied
As the pressure remains the same Pi= P2
V,
Using the relation, = V2
T2
Area of cylinder x L, Area of cylinder X L2
T, T2
T2 330 x 0.14
L2 = X = 0.155 m
298
L2 = 15.5 cm.
The piston will move through a distance of (15.5-14) = 1.5 cm = 15 mm.
12. A perfectly insulated system consists of a vertical cylinder fitted with a free piston carry-
ing some dead weight. The system contains 100 litres of hydrogen at 5 bar and 25°C. The
upper part of the piston is exposed to atmospheric pressure. Paddle work is given to hydrogen
at constant pressure until the temperature rises to 67°C. Determine (a) work done, (b) change
in internal energy, (c) change in enthaply and (d) paddle work input.
Take Cp = 14.2 kJ/kg K, C„ = 10.08 kJ/kg K for H2.
Solution: T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K, T2= 67 + 273 = 340 K
R = Cp —c= 14.2— 10.08 = 4.12 kJ/kg K.

As the process is a constant pressure process
V2 V, T2 340
1/2 = T X V, = 2 X 100X le, V2 =0.114 m3.
TZ T, i
Plifi 5X10s x OA
Mass of hydrogen m — — — 0.0407 kg
RT, 4120 x 298
(a) Work done, W = P,(V2 — V1)= 5 x 105(0.114 — 0.1)
W = 7000 J=7 kJ.

(b) change in internal energy,
AU = mCv(T2 — = 0.0407 x 10.08(340 — 298) = 17.23 kJ

(c) change in enthalpy,
Ah = m Cp(T2 — T,) = 0.0407 x 14.2(340 — 298) = 24.273 kJ
(d) Paddle work input = AU + W = 17.23 + 7 = 24.23 KJ.
13. One kg of a gas at 100 kN/m2 and 17°C is compressed isothermally to a pressure of 2500
kN/m2 in a cylinder. The characteristic equation of the gas is given by the equation PV =
260 T per kg where T is in degree Kelvin. Find out (a) the final temperature, (b) final volume,
(c) compression ratio, (d) change in enthalpy and (e) work done on the gas.
Solution: P, = 100 kN/m2 = 1003 x 103 N/m2
T, = 17°C = 17 + 273 = 290 K
P2 = 2500 kN/m2 = 2500 x 103 N/M2
T2 = final temperature
As the gas is compressed isothermally
T,= T2
(a) final temperature = 17°C
Using the relation PV = 260 T for the initial state, we have
260 x 290
P, V, = 260 T„ V, = = 0.754 m3
105
For final state
260 x 290
P2V, = 260 T, V2 = — 0.03016 m3
2500 x 103
(b) Final volume = 0.03016 m3
54
(c) Compression ratio
= = 0.0301 6 = 25
(d) Change in enthalpy = mCp(T2 — =0
V2
(e) Work done = P, V, log, 17
= 105 x 0.754 log, 2 = —242703.24 joule = —242.70324 kJ.

5
The (—)ve sign indicates that work is done on the gas.
14. 1.2 m3 of air at a pressure of 8 bar absolute and temperature 70°C is expanded isother-
mally until the volume becomes 6 m3. Calculate (a) final pressure, (b) work done, (c) change
in internal energy, (d) change in enthalpy and (e) heat transfer.
Solution: V, = 1.2 m3, P, = 8 bar = 8 x 105 N/m2 T,= 70°C, V2 = 6 m3
As the air is expanded isothermally, we have PV = constant
= P2V2
(a) P2 P, 1055N/m2
V2 6
(b) Work done = P,V, loge v = 8 x 105 x 1.2 log, u
= 15.4506 x 105 J = 1545.06 kJ

(c) and (d) as the temperature of the gas remains constant, there is no change in internal
energy or in enthalpy.
... Change in internal energy = 0
Change in enthalpy = 0
(e) Heat transfer = Work done = 1545.06 kJ.
15. 0.15 kg of air at a pressure of 1.1 bar and temperature 20°C is compressed adiabatically to
a pressure of 22 bar. Calculate (a) final temperature of the gas, (b) work done and (c) change
in internal energy.
Take y = 1.4 and C„ = 0.716 kI/kg K
Solution: m = 0.15 kg, P, = 1.1 bar = 1.1 x 105 N/m2
T,= 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293 K
P,= 22 bar = 22 x 105 N/m2'
The relation between temperature and pressure of a gas during adiabatic operation is given by
n, I'l
T2 . (PI '
or 7.2 = T, x (±)
T, P, P,
14-1
( 22 x 105
(a) .. T2 = 293 = 689.589 K = 416.589°C.
1.1 x 105) 14
(c) Change in internal energy = m C,(T2 — TO = 0.15 x 0.716(689.589 — 293) = 42.593 kJ.
(b) For adiabatic operation, work done on the gas is numerically equal to change in internal
energy.
.. Work done on the gas = 42.593 kJ.
16. One kg of air at a pressure of 8 bar and temperature of 100°C is expanded adiabatically to
four times its initial volume. Find the volume and its internal energy, reckoning the internal
energy as zero in the standard state, Also find the final temperature, final pressure and inter-
nal energy.
Solution: m = 1 kg, P, = 8 bar = 8 x 105 N/m2, T, = 100°C = 100 + 273 + 373 K
V, = 4V,
Using the characteristic gas equation of a gas PV = m R T.
Applying this equation to the initial state
P,V,= mRT,
mRT, 1 x 287 x 373 3

— = 0.1338 m
V,= P1 8 x 105
We reckon the internal energy from 0°C
Internal energy of air = 1 x 0.716 x 100 = 71.6 kJ.
To calculate the pressure at the end of expansion we use the equation PV = constant.
(V,J
:. P,V; = P,V,r or P2 = P,x —
V2
(1)1.4
:. P2 = 8 x 105 4 = 114869.84 N/m2
P,V, P2V2
As
T, T2
Pi V2 114869.84 x 4V,
T,= xT,= x 373 = 214.232 K = -58.767°C
pivi 8 x 105 x
Internal energy = -1 x 0.716 x 58.767 = - 42.077 kJ.
17. At the begining of compression a cylinder contains 750 cm' of gas at a pressure of
100 kN/m2 absolute. Compression takes place according to the law PV" = constant until the
pressure is 780 kN/m2 absolute. If the final volume is 1/5 of the initial volume, find the value
of index n. Also determine the work done during compression and the heat rejected during
compression. Take y = 1.4. [D.M.E. II - 93]
Solution: P, = 100 kN/m2, V, = 750 cm' = 750 x 10-6 m'
P2 = 780 kN/m2 V, = x 750 = 150 cm' = 150 x 10-6 m'
We have P,V; = P2 V;
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get
log P, + n log V1 = log P2 + n log V2
or n log V, - n log V2 = log P2 - log P,
V, P2
n log-
v = log—
2
logeP2 logr780
e-.3
or n = v= 750 - 1.277
log 4
t log iso
,
Work done during compression is given by,
P,V,- P2V2 100x 750 x 10-6 - 780 x 150 x 10-6
W= - -0.15 kJ.
n -1 1.277 - 1
Negative sign indicates that work is done on the gas.
I- n 1.4 - 1.277
Heat rejected = x Work done = x 0.15 = 0.046 kJ = 46 Joules.
Y- 1 1.4 -1
18.An internal combustion engine has the following
dimensions — diameter of cylinder 55 cm ; stroke
75 cm; compression ratio 13.5. At the end of the
suction stroke the pressure is 98 kN/m2 and the
temperature is 43°C. The compression follows the
law PV"37 = constant. Determine: (a) the pressure
and temperature at the end of compression, (b) the
mass of the change, (c) the work done during com-
pression and (d) the heat rejected during compres- V2 VI
sion. Volume
Take, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K, C. = 0.718 kJ/kg K
Solution: D = 55 cm = 0.55 m, L = 75 cm = 0.75 m Fig. 4.11
Compression ratio = — = 13.5, P,= 98 kN/m2,

V2
T, =43°C=43-F273= 316 K
(a) Swept volume = V, — V2 = 74 D2 x L = 4 (0.55)2 x 0.75 = 0.178 m3
Using the relation, P, V:32 = P21/1 37
P2 = ('N1 31 x P, = (13.5)131 x 98 = 3465.639 kN/m2
Using the relation

T2 V1Y ( 1/1J-I
or T,= -172 xT,
T2
.% T2 = (13.5)137-1 x 316 = 827.77 K = 554.77°C
V
Now, V, — V2 = 0.178, V = 0.178 V, = 0.192 m3
R =Cp —C„= 1.005 — 0.718 = 0.287 kJ/kg K.

(b) Now using the relation„
Pi Vi 98 x 0.192
Pi Vi =mRT, in = = — 0.2074 kg.
R 0.287 x316
(c) Work done during compression, W
mR(T2 —T1) 0.2074 x 0.287(827.77 — 316)
W— — 82.331 kJ.
n— 1 1.37 —1
(d) Heat rejected during compression
y n „„ 1.4.4 1.
Q= X = '37 x 82.331 = 6.1748 kJ
7— I 1
19. The law of the expansion curve of a gas engine indicator is found to be PV "= constant,
and the ratio of specific heats 1.37. If the piston sweep§ out 2 m3/min when the pressure on
this expansion curve is 1400 kN/m2 absolute, what is the rate of heat reception per second at
this instant?
dV 2 1
Solution: Swept volume =— = 2 m3/min = 6 = — m3/s
dt 0 30
dQ
Let - = Rate of heat reception per second
dt
Using the relation,
dQ y—n PdV 1.37 — 1.3 1

-= -x — x 1400 x = 8.828 kJ.
dt 1-1 dt 1,37-1 0
20. 0.35 cu.m of fuel-air mixture at 140 kN/m2 and 57°C is compressed until the pressure
becomes 1400 kN/m2 and temperature rises to 277°C. The mixture is then ignited at constant
volume and its pressure becomes twice the pressure at the end of compression. Consider the
mixture as a perfect gas and calculate (a) the maximum temperature reached, (b) change in
internal energy and (c) beat transfer during compression process.
Take Cp = 1.071 kJ/kg K, Cv = 0.765 kJ/kg K. 3 V=c

Solution: Figure 4.12 represents the processes on
P—V diagram. 2) 2
Let n= Index of compression. 7 PV n= c
Now using the law PV" = C, we get
T2 (P2 )Op -IWO
—
T, P,
Taking logarithm of both sides 1

T,
T2 n— n I log — T.
I P2 —
loge or Volume
1°g T I = n
n = log4,
550
I log Fig. 4.12
or = 14,30 = 0.2218 :. n = 1.285
n log
1.43
)D T
140 )""85
V2 = VI (76- = = 0.05832 m'.
2 a" 1400)
(a) the maximum temperature reached
P3 2P2
T3 = Tix — = 7.2 X --
D = " 27.2 = 2 x 5550 = 1100 K
P2 1- 2
... T3 = 1100 — 273 = 827°C.
[... = /1111 = 140 x 103 x 0.35 _

m 0.4852 kg
R T, 306 x 330
(b) Change in internal energy

Ali = inC,(T, — Td = 0.4852 x 0.765(1100 — 330) = 285.807 kJ.
(c) Heat transferred during compression process
Q = y— n x w 7—n Pi VI —P2V2 1.4 — 1.285 140 x 0.35 — 1400 x 0.05832
= x — 32.934 kJ.
y-1 y-1 n—1 — 1.4 — 1 x 1.285 — 1
The negative sign indicates that the heat is rejected by the system.
21. A cylinder contains 0.113 m3 of air at 105 kPa and
87°C. The air is compressed to a volume of 0.028 m3,
the final pressure being 600 kPa. Determine (a) the
mass_of air in the cylinder, (b) the value of index n for
the compression process, (c) the increase in internal
energy and (d) the heat received or rejected by air dur-
ing compression.
If after the above process, air is cooled at a constant
V3 V2 VI
pressure to its original temperature of 87°C, find the
Volume
further work of compression required.
Take y= 1.4 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
Solution: (a) V, =0.113 m3, P, = 105 kPa = 105 x 10' N/in2 Fig. 4.13
T, = 87°C = 87 +273 = 360 K,
V2 = 0.028 m3, P2 = 600 kPa = 600 x 103 N/m2
Using the realtion P,V, = mRT,,

P,V, = 105 x 103 x 0.113

m= = 0.1148 kg.
RT, 287 x 360
(b) Using the relation
P2 6®
logi log- 105
n= v„= 0.113 = 1.25
logy] wgo.028
(c) R = C, —
R= C, — 1j= Cv(y — 1)
R 0.28'7
C„ = — 1=1.4 — 1 — 0.7175 kJ/kg K
T2 (P2
Using the relation
= PI )
1.75-1 '
, 4_
600 I 25
T2 = (P, " x7 1 105

x 360 =510.146 K.
Change in internal energy = m 2 — T1) = 0.1148 x 0.7175(510.146 —360) = 12.367 kJ.

(d) Heat received or rejected during compression
y—t: PI V, —P2V2 1.4 —1.25 105 x 0.113 —600 x 0.028
Q= x x = 7.4025 kJ.
y— 1 n—1 1.4 — 1 1.25 — 1
The negative sign indicates that heat is rejected during compression.
The work of compression during constant pressure cooling.
W = mR(T,— T2 ) = 0,1148 x 0.287(360 —510.146) = —4.9469 kJ.
22. 0.2 m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 2000 kPa PV = c
and 327°C is expanded isothermally to 5 times the
initial volume. It is then cooled to 25°C at constant
volume and then compressed back polytropically
to its initial state. Determine (a) network done and
(b) heat transfer during the complete cycle.
Solution: V, = 0.2 m3,
Volume
P,= 2000 kPa = 2000 x 103 N/m2
T,= 327°C = 327 + 273 = 600 K = T2
Fig. 4.14
V2 = 5V, = 5 x 0.2 = 1 m3
T3 = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K
V2 = V3
Considering process 1-2 which is isothermal P,V, = P2V2
P, V, 2000 103
P2 — — 5 = 400 x 103 N/m2.
v2
=T2
—
Considering process 2 — 3 which is constant volume process P2
P3
T3 298
or P3 = T, X P2 = 6730 X 400 x 103 = 198.666 x 103 N/m2.
2
As the process 3-1 is polytropic
P3V3 = P, V,,'
log P3 00
2000
log ,va 6,„
= = . — = 1.434
v3
log 17 1°g 5
Work done during isothermal expansion

V2
W, = P,V, loge — = 2000 x 0.2100 = 643.775 kJ
V
Work done during constant volume process
W2 = 0
Work done during polytropic process
P3 V3 — Pi VI 198.666x 1 — 2000 x 0.2
= — — 463.903 kJ.
n— 1 1.434 — 1
(a) Network done W, + W2 + W3 = 643.755 + 0-463.903 = 179.871 kJ.
(b) Heat transfer during the complete cycle
As OW =4)Q = 179.871 kJ.
23. 0.15 m3 of air at a pressure of 900 kPa and 300°C is
expanded at constant pressure to 3 times its initial vol-
ume. It is then expanded polytropically following the
law P V" = C and finally compressed back to initial
state isothermally. Calculate (a) heat received, (b) heat
rejected, (c) efficiency of the cycle.
Solution: V, = 0.15 m3, P, = 900 kPa, T, = 300°C
Volume
= 300 + 273 = 573 K = T,
V2 = 3V, = 3 x 0.15 = 0.45 m3.
P, V, 900 x 0.15
ni = = — 0.82 kg. Fig. 4.15
RTI 0.287 x 573
Considering process 1-2 which is constant pressure process

Vi V2 V2
—=— T2 = — xT,=3x573= 1719 K
T, T2
Heat received during process 1-2
Q, = mCp(T2 — = 0.82 x 1.005(1719 — 573) = 944.418 kJ.
Heat transfer during process 2-3
Q 2 = Au + Pd V
m R(T2 — T3) n —v
= m CAT3 — T,) + = mC — (T —T )
n— 1 n— 1 3 2
1.5-1.4
= 0.82 x 0.718x 15 _ 1 (573-1719)=-134.943 kJ.
Heat transfer during process 3-1

V, V, 1
(23 = P3V, loge - 1/ = 0.82 x 0.287 x 573 log,W = —444.443 kJ
1/3= mRT3log —
3
1.5
p3 ( r3r , 513 )33 (1)3 1
[/ 2
7 T2 0719) j) 27
(a) .% Heat received by the cycle, Q, = 944.418 kJ.
(b) Heat rejected in the cycle, Q2 + Q3 = 134.943 + 444.443 = 579.386 kJ.
Q2 + Q3 - 1 579.386 — 0.3865 or 38.65 %
(c) Efficiency of the cycle, r1= 1—
Qi 944.418
24. 0.25 m3 of gas at 800 kPa and 157°C expands adiabatically until the pressure becomes
300 kPa. It is then compressed isothermally to its original volume. Find the final temperature
and pressure of the gas. Also determine the change in internal energy.
Take C, = lklikg K, C,. = 0.714 kJ/kg K
Solution: V1 = 0.25 m3, P, = 800 kPa,
T, = 157°C = 157 + 273 = 430 K
P2 = 300 kPa, V3 =
Cp 1
y= — —A1 CO
0.714
Temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion is given
by,
p )(V- 1)/v
T2 P2r - I" 2
or T, xT,
1
-77. = 7
/ t)
( 300)" 4-nn 4 VI = V3 V2
T2 x 430 = 324.91 K
= 800 ) ---).- Volume
Since the compression is isothermal from 2-3. Therefore
T3 = T2 = 324.91K= 51.91°C
Let P3= final pressure of the gas. Fig. 4.16
As V3 = V,
P3 PI . T3
— Or P3 = P,
T3
324.91
P, = 430 x 800 = 604.483 kPa.
The gas constant R is given by,

R = C — Cy = 1 — 0.714 = 0.286 kJ/kg K.
Pi V, 800 x 10.25
Using the relation, P,V,= m RT, m= — = 1.626 kg.
RT, 0.286 x 430
Change in internal energy during process 1-2
AU, = m Cv(T,— 7'1)= 1.626 x 0.714(324.91— 430) = —122.026 kJ.
Change in internal energy during isothermal compression AU, = 0.
Total change in internal energy
AU = AU, + AU, = —122.026 kJ.
Volume -BCD
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.17
25. A perfect gas whose ratio of specific heats is K, executes a cycle consisting of the fol-
lowing three processes, each of which is reversible. State 1 to state 2; constant volume pres7
sure rise; state 2 to state 3; isentropic expansion to r times the initial volume; and state 3 to
state 1: constant pressure decrease in volume. Sketch the cycle on P—V and T —0 diagrams.
_
X(}
Show that the efficiency of the cycle is icyde = 1 — I
r- I
Find out the cycle efficiency if K and r = 7
Solution: Heat supplied during constant volume process 1-2
Q1-2 = M Cv(T2 T1)
Heat transferred during isentropic process 2-3
Q2 _ 3 = 0
Heat rejected during constant pressure process 3-1
Q3 _, = mC,(T,— T,)
Efficiency of the cycle is given by,
Heat rejected 1 mCp(T3 — T1)
r1cYde = Heat supplied — mC,(7.2 —
T3 T3
KTI( — 1)— KG.-)
,
= - 1
Considering constant volume process 1-2

PI P2 P2 T2 T2
= or = P2 = 7,X Pi
T2 Pi Ti
Now, P3 = PI, V3=
Considering isentropic expansion process 2-3

P2V2K = P3V3K
T2
x P I x VI =P I x(rV 1 ) K
T2 K
=r
T,
Considering constant pressure process 3-1
V3 Vi T3 V3 T3 rV,
or = ==r
Ti V,' T, V,
K(r —1)
tcycle — 1
rx_
4.2
when K=- and r = 7
3
, 1.4(7 — 1)
1lLycle = — 1 0.5896 = 0.4103 or 41.03%.
7•—1
26. A closed vessel of 0.46 m3 capacity contained air at 100 kN/m2 and 27°C. Hydrogen was •
added and the total in the vessel was thereby raised to 102 kN/m2 at the same temperature.
Find the final masses of oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the vessel and their respective
partial pressures. Air contains 77% of nitrogen on mass basis. Take R for air as 0.287 kJ/kg K
and for hydrogen 4.124 kJ/kg K.
Solution: The mass of 0.46 m3 of air at 100 kN/m2 and 27°C is given by
PV 100 x 0.46
m° RT — 0.287(273 + 27) 0.5342 kg
The mass of oxygen, m02 = 0.5342 x 0.23 = 0.1228 kg.
and the mass of Nitrogen m,,,2 = 0.5342 x 0.77 = 0.4133 kg.
The mass of Hydrogen
m _ PV _ 2 x 0.46 — 0.000743 kg.
H2 RT 4.124(273 + 27)
Partial pressure of Hydrogen = 102-100 = 2 kN/rn2

mo2R T 0.1228 x 0.2598 x 300
Partial pressure of 03 = v — — 20.8 kN/m2
0.46
Partial pressure of N2 = 100 — 20.8 = 79.2 kN/m2
27. The volumetric analysis of a gaseous fuel is given bleow:
CH4 = 20%; H, = 52%, CO = 16%; qH4 = 2%; CO2 = 4%.
and the rest nitrogen.
Calculate the apparent molecular weight of the gas, the characteristic gas constant and the
density of the mixture at N.T.P. Also calculate the partial pressures of the constituent gases if
the pressure of tho mixture is 100 kN/m2.
Solution: Apparent molecular weight m = X,x4A/c,
Constituent gas Volumetric Mole fraction Molecular Gas constant R

composition % x weight M (8.31431
)
I\
CH, 20 0.2 16 0.5196
H2 52 0.52 2 4.1571
CO 16 0.16 28 0.2969
C,H, 2 0.02 28 0.2969
CO, 4 0.04 44 0.1889
N2 6 0.06 28 0.2969
= 0.2 x 16 + 0.52 x 2+0.16x 28+0.02 x 28+0.04 x44+0.06x28 =12.72

Since the mole volume of gas at N.T.P. is 22.4 m3 the density of the mixture at N.T.P.
12.72
= - 0.5678 kg/cu.meter .
22.4
8.3143
The gas constant of the mixture = 12.72 - 0.6536 kJ/kg K.
The partial pressures of the constituent gases are proportional to mole fraction. The numerical
value of the partial pressure of the constituent gases will be equal to the value of the mole
fraction.
Partial pressure of methane = 20 kN/m2
Partial pressure of hydrogen = 52 kN/m2
Partial pressure of carbon monoxide = 16 kN/m2 and so on.
EXERCISES

1. What do you mean by a perfect gas? Enunciate the laws of perfect gas.
2. What is the difference between characteristic gas constant and universal gas constant?
3. What is an adiabatic process? Prove that for an adiabatic process P VY = constant.
4. Derive an expression for the work done during the adiabatic process of an ideal gas.
5. Prove that case of polytropic expansion of an ideal gas, the ratio of heat supplied and
work done is given by
Q y -n
W 'y-1
6. 2.5 kg of gas with an initial volume 1.2 m3 is expanded at constant pressure of
700 kN/m2. The temperature at the end of expansion is 287°C. Determine
(a) the change in internal energy
(b) the change in enthalpy
(c) the heat transferred
(d) the work done
Take R = 0.32 kJ/kg K and Ci, = 1.16 kJ/kg K .
7. One kg of air at 177°C expands adiabatically to three times its original volume and the
temperature falls to 17°C. 60 kJ of work is done during the process. Determine the two
specific heats.
8. 1.5 kg of a gas at 90 kl\l/m2 and 27°C is compressed according to the law PI/13 = C. The
heat transferred is —70 kJ. Calculate (a) the final temperature and pressure, (b) the
change in internal energy, (c) change in enthalpy, and (d) the work done
Take y = 1.4, and Cv = 0.712 kJ/kg K for the gas.
9. One kg of gas at pressure 825 kN/m2 and temperature 327°C expands to pressure
90 kN/m2 until the volume becomes 5 times the initial volume according to the law
PV" = C. Determine (a) the value of index n, (b) the work done, (c) the heat transferred
Take C„ = 0.71 kJ/kgK and 1= 1.41
10. 15 litres of air at a temperature of 190°C and pressure 16 bar is expanded at constant
pressure until the volume becomes 45 litres. The air is then expanded adiabatically to a
volume of 90 litres. Calculate (a) temperature at the end of constant pressure expansion,
(b) temperature and pressure at the end of adiabatic expansion, (c) the heat supplied and
work done in each stage.
11. A diesel engine has a compression ratio of 15 : 1. The pressure of the charge at the
begining of compression is 100 kN/m2 and. temperature 100°C. The pressure at the end
of compression is 30 bar. Determine (a) the probable law of compression, (b) the heat
interchanged between the cylinder walls.
Take C,, = 1.005 kJ/kg K, C, = 0.718 kJ/kg K, volume of charge at 0°C and 100 kN/m2
is 0.35 m3.
12. A gas engine has a cylinder of diameter of 30 cm and stroke 45 cm. The clearance vol-
ume is one quarter of the swept volume. The pressure at the begining of the working
stroke is 15 bar. The expansion follows the law PV" = C. Determine the work done
during the working stroke.
13. The diameter of a cylinder is 25 cm and stroke 35 cm contains air at
200 kN/m2 and 27°C. The air is compressed to 1/5 th of the original volume. Heat is
then added at constant volume until the pressure becomes twice the pressure at the end
of compression. The compression follows the law PVI.3 = C. Determine (a) the final
pressure, (b) change in internal energy.
14. A perfect gas whose ratio of specific heats is K, executes a cycle consisting •of the fol-
lowing three processes, each of which is reversible: state 1 to state 2 — isothermal
expansion from pressure P, and temperature T, to pressure xP,; state 2 to state
3—adiabatic process whose path of the T —4) diagram is a straight line.
K-i
(1K
show that (i) T3 = T,
X
K -IIK]
and cycle efficiency, ri = 1 +
2 X
15. A piston and cylinder device contains 1 kg of air, initially, v = 0.8 m3/kg and T= 298 K.
The air is compressed in a slow frictionless process to a specific volume of 0.2 m3/kg
and a temperature of 580 K according to the equation P V' 3 = 0.75 (Pin bar Vin m3/kg).
If C, of air is 0.718 kJ/kg determine (a) work and (b) heat transfer (both in kJ).
FIVE
Entropy of Gases
5.1 ENTROPY
The term entropy is a Greek word which means transformation. It is an impor-
tant thermodynamic quantity and is denoted by 4) or S.
Entropy of a substance is a thermodynamic property which increases with
the addition of heat and decreases with the removal of heat. Entropy itself can;
not be defined, but change of entropy can be defined. Mathematically, in a
reversible process, the quantity of heat received or rejected divided by the
absolute temperature of the substance measures the change of entropy.
Let under reversible conditions a small amount of heat dQ be added to a gas
causing the entropy to increase by d4) and let T be the absolute temperature at
this instant. Then from the above definition of entropy, we have
di)=— (5.1)
T
The total change in entropy from state 1 to state 2 is given by
di)= Td 79
Jr,
Where
4), = initial entropy, 4)2 = final entropy, T, = initial absolute temperature, and
T2 = final absolute temperature
If the total quantity of heat Q be added to a substance at constant temperature T,
then the increase in entropy due to the addition of heat is given by
Q or = (5.2)
di)=— (1)2 - (*I
From Eq. 5.1, we get

dQ =TO
Total heat added may be obtained by integrating the above equation as
Q c2 42
dQ = Td4) or Q= f Td4) (5.3)
4),
Entropy of Gases 99
5.2 TEMPERATURE ENTROPY DIAGRAM
The temperature entropy diagram shows

the change of entropy with temperature.
In the diagram temperature is plotted
vertically and entropy is plotted horizon-
tally as shown in Fig. 5.1.
Consider a certain mass of gas
represented by point 1 on T —y diagram,
receiving heat in some manner. As the 1:Di 1'1(-
4 02
heating proceeds the absolute tempera-
Entropy (43)
ture and entropy increases. The final
condition is represented by point 2. The
curve 1-2 shows the manner by which
heat is added to a gas. Fig. 5.1 Temperature entropy
diagram
Considering any point P on the curve. A small amount of heat dQ be added

to the gas under reversible conditions, which increases the entropy by d4. If T is
the absolute temperature at this instant, then according to the mathematical
definition of entropy, we get
dQ
dy =— or, dQ=Txdy
But T xchl) is the area under the curve during the change of entropy d4.
T2
fO Area under the curve 1-2
Q = T= (5.4)
Thus for any reversible heating and expansion of gas, the area.under the curve in
T —0 diagram gives the total heat absorbed.
5.3 ENTROPY IS A POINT FUNCTION/UNIT OF

ENTROPY
Entropy is a point function, i.e, it has got one and only one value for each point
(temperature, pressure and volume). In a thermodynamic process, the change in
entropy during the process depends only on the initial and final conditions and
not on the path in which the final conditions are reached. Entropy is a definite
property of the substance. In solving problems we are concerned with the
change in values in entropy and not in its absolute value. So it is arbitrarily
assumed that the entropy of all substances is zero at the ice-point. In other words
entropy is positive if the temperature is above 0°C and negative if the temper-
Heat
ature is below 0°C . The unit of entropy has the dimension mass, temperature
which is also the unit of specific heat of substances. Entropy is expressed as

kJ/kg K. Entropy is independent of temperature scales.
We have instruments to measure temperature, pressure etc. but we have no
such instruments as yet to measure entropy.
5.4 ENTROPY OF REVERSIBLE CYCLIC PROCESS

IS ZERO
Clausius, who introduced the idea of entropy, also observed that if an amount of
heat Q, is added reversibly at temperature T, to a substance and an amount of
heat Q2 is rejected reversibly at temperature T2, then we have
QI Q2 n
(5.5)
T1 T2
Regarding the addition of heat as positive and rejection of heat as negative, we

can state that the algebraic addition of QIT or
= 0 for a reversible process (5.6)
The Carnot cycle is a reversible Adiabatic

one. Any reversible cycle may Isothermal
be split up into a large number of
elementary reversible Carnot
cycles working between the
same temperature limits by
drawing adiabatic expansion
lines ad , bb' close to one
another.
If dQ, be the heat received
from the source and dQ2 be the
heat rejected to the sink by an
elementary Carnot cycle, then Volume
the change in entropy during the
cycle will be given by.
f d4)= f q =0 (5.7) Fig. 5.2

e, rev
Thus in any reversible cyclic process there is no change of entropy.

Entropy of Gases 101
5.5 GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR CHANGE OF

ENTROPY OF A PERFECT GAS
Let m kg of gas at a pressure P I, volume V,, absolute temperature T, and entropy

4), be heated in any general manner such that its final pressure, volume, absolute
temperature and entropy be P2, V2, T2 and 4)2 respectively.
Now from the law of conservation of energy, we have
dQ =dW+dU
Now dW = PdV and d U = mCvdT
dQ=PdV+mcdT
dQ dT
Dividing throughout by T, —T =—
T dV+mCv
dQ dT
But— =d4 d(1)=— dV+mCv—
T T T
P mR
But PV =mRT
T V
dV dT
d4) =mR—v +mC„—T
Integrating the above equation between states 1 and 2, we get

2 2 dV 2 dT
d(ti =mR —+mCv
J V T
V2 T2
- 4)1 = mR log,— + m Cv log, —
V,
But R=Cp —Cv
V2 T2
- (1)1 = M (Cp — C v) log, — + m Cv log, (5.8)
v, T,
Equation 5.8 represents the change of entropy-in terms of volume and tempera-
ture.
The change of entropy can be represented in terms of pressure and volume as
given below.
Applying gas equation, we have
PI VI P2 V2 T2 P2 V2
or =
T2 Ti P, V,
T2
Putting the value of in Eq. (5.8), we get
2 2
02 — 01 = M (Cp lOge IL M Cv lOge 11 + M Cv loge V2
V
2 2 2
4)2 — = M C p lOge — M loge IL M Cv loge P2 + M C, loge IL
PI
V2 P2
4)2 — 4)i = M Cp loge — + m C, loge — (5.9)
Equation (5.9) represents the change of entropy in terms of volume and pres-
sure.
The change of entropy can also be represented in terms of pressure and tem-
perature as given below:
Applying gas equation, we have
P, V, P2 V2 V2 T2 P1
Or = X
T2 V i P2
V2
putting the value of in Eq. 5.8, we get
4)2 — = M (Cp — Cv) loge

T2
- m (cp - Cv) loge P2 + m C„ loge T2
T2 2
4)2 — 4)I = M Cp loge — — m (Cp — Cv) loge 11 (5.10)
5.6 CHANGE OF ENTROPY OF A PERFECT GAS

DURING VARIOUS THERMODYNAMIC
PROCESSES

In case of constant volume process, V, = V2. Substituting this value in Eq. (5.8).
we get the change of entropy as
V2 T2
4)2 — 4)I = nt(Cp — Cv) loge — + tri Cv loge --.-
T2
= M Cv log2— (... loge 1 = 0) (5.11)
T,
The temperature entropy diagram is shown in Fig. 5.3.

In case of constant pressure process PI = P2 T2
Substituting this value in Eq. (5.10) we get
the change of entropy as
T2 2
4)2 — 4)1 = M Cp loge --m (Cp — Cy) loge 11
PI
T2
M Cp loge ( • P2 = PI, loge 1 = 0)
(132
(5.12) Fig. 5.3 Temperature entropy

The temperature entropy diagram is shown in diagram for constant
Figs 5.4 (a) and (b). volume process
T2 T2
1I orD 2 cto 2 (132'
(a)
Fig. 5.4 Tempeiature entropy diagram for constant pressure process
Isothermal Process
In case of isothermal process, T, = T2.
T=c
From Eq. (5.8). T1= T2
V2 T2
4)2 — 4)1 = rn(Cp — loge + m C, loge
2
= m (C, — Cy)loge t± + M C, log, 1
V,
V2
= nz(C, — Cy)loge — (:. loge 1 =0) cl cD 2
,
(5.13)
The temperature entropy diagram is shown Fig. 5.5 Temperature entropy

in Fig. 5.5. diagram from isothermal
process
Reversible Adiabatic Process

During this process the heat supplied or 2
rejected is zero. We know
Adiabatic
dQ process
d = But dQ =0
1
0
d4)=— =0
T
(1) 1=crt 2
or 4)=C. (5.14)
The temperature entropy diagram is shown in Fig. 5.6 Temperature entropy

Fig 5.6. diagram for reversible
adiabatic process
Polytropic Process
The change of entropy for any process is given by Eq. (5.8) as
V2
4)2 — 4)1 = M (Cp — Cr) loge + nt Cv loge T2 (i)
Now for polytropic process, we have
Pi (V2 f
Pi = P2V2n or — = —
P2 VI
Again we know the relation between temperature and volume
-I
Ti (112 f -1 V2 Ti
Or
T2 V1 VI T2
V2
Putting the value of — in Eq. (i) we have
(Cp — CO T1 2
4)2 — 1)1 =m log — + m C log 1'
n —1 T2 v e TI
T2 M (Cp Cv) T2
= MC, loge loge
n— 1
[ _ M(Cp — T2
mcv log
n —1 e Ti
MCv [1 log —
n—1 e T1
n 2
lloge (5.15)
=rnC,,( n —1 T1
The change of entropy in a polytropic process can also be expressed in terms of

pressure and volume by using characteristic equations.
4)2 — (1), = m C,,(n I log .1-12 (5.16)

n ePi
V2
(01 = M n ) loge -7-
1 (5.17)
1
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A constant volume chamber 0.3 m3 capacity contains 2 kg of gas at 5°C. Heat is added to
the gas until the temperature becomes 100°C. Determine (a) the work done, (b) the heat
transferred, (c) change in internal energy and (d) change in entropy.
Take C,, = 1.967 kJ/kg K, C„ = 1.507 kJ/kg K.
Solution: The process is constant volume
V, = V2 = 0.3 tn3.
in = 2 kg,T, = 5°C = 5 + 273 = 278 K
T2 = 100°C = 100 + 273 = 373 K
(a) the work done = 0.
(b) the heat supplied is given by,
Q =W+dU =0+ 286.33 = 286.33 kJ.
(c) change in internal energy is given by
d U = In C,, (T2 — TO= 2 x 1.507 (373 — 278) = 286.33 kJ.
(d) change in entropy is given by
T2 373
(1)2 — 4)1 = M C, log, - = 2 x 1.507 loge -
278 = 0.8856 kJ/K.
2. 2.5 kg of air is expanded at constant pressure to four times its initial volume. The initial
temperature of the air is 400°C. Calculate the change in entropy.
T2
Solution: Change of entropy is given by, 62 — 6I = log, T,
Here, in = 2.5 kg, T,= 400°C = 400 + 273 = 673 K, V2 = 4V,
P,V, P2 V2
Applying gas equation,
T, T2
P2 V2 V2
or D X X T, = 4 xT, :. P2 = P,
T2 = — =4 =4 x673=269 K.
r, V,
2692
— = 2.5 x 1.005 loge 673 = 3.484 kJ/K.
3. 3.5 kg of air at 900 kN/m2 absolute and temperature 457°C expands isothermally to three
times its initial volume. Determine (a) initial volume, (b) final pressure, (c) change in
entropy.
Solution: in = 3.5 kg, P, = 900 kN/m2, T, = 457°C = 457 + 273 = 730 K, V2 = 3V,
(a) Using gas equation P,V, = m RT,
mRT, 3.5 x 0.287 x 730

V, — = 0.814 m3
pi 900
(b) Using the relation P,V,= P2V2
1), V, 900
.. 2- v - = 300 kN/m2
2
V2 V2
(c) Change of entropy is given by 4)2 - 4/1 = M (Cp - C) log, v = mR log, Ti
t
= 3.5 x 0.287 x log, 3 = 1.1035 kJ/K.
4. An ideal gas of mass 0.25 kg has a pressure of 400 kN/m2„ a temperature of 80°C and vol-
ume of 0.07 m3. The gas undergoes an irreversible adiabatic process to a final pressure of
300 kN/m2 and a final volume of 0.1 m3, during which the work done on the gas is 25 kJ. Find
Cp and C, of the gas and increase in entropy of the gas.
Solution: in = 0.25 kg, P,= 400 kN/m2
T,= 80°C = 80 + 273 = 353 K, V, = 0.07 m3
P2 = 300 kN/m2, V2 =0.1 m3
Work done on the gas = —25 kJ.

Using the gas equation P,V, = mRT,
PI VI 400 x 0.07
R= = — 0.317 kJ/kg K.
mT, 0.25 x 353
P2V2 = mR T2
P2 V2 300 x 0.1 =
378.548 K.
T2 = mR = 0.25 x0.317
Applying law of conservation of energy, we get
Q=W+dU
0 = —25 + m C,(T2 — T1)
0 = —25 + 0.25C,(378.548 — 353)
C, = 3.9142 kJ/kg K
We know R = C, — Cv
C,, =R +C, = 0.317 + 3.9142 = 4.2312 kJ/kg K
Change of entropy is gives by

V2 T2
$z -$, = MR log, TT +
0.1 37 8.548
= 0.25 x 0.317 log + 0.25 x 3.9142 log,
0.07 353
= 0.09664 kJ/K .
5. 2.5 kg of air at 27°C and 1000 kN/m2 is expanded to 5 times its initial volume. The law of
expansion being PV C = C. Find the change in entropy.
Solution: m = 2.5 kg, T, = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
P, = 1000 kN/m2, V, = 5V,
T2 I
Using the relation
T, V2
VT I (11.3-,
T, = xT, 3 x 300 = 185.11 K
The change in entropy is given by

n -1 T2
- = M Cv lo y,
(n - 1 g'
(1.3 1.4)i 185.11

= 2.5 x 0.718 loge = 0.2889 kJ/K.
1.3 - 300
6. 0.25 kg of a perfect gas is heated from 100°C to 325°C at a constant pressure of 300 kN/m2.
It is then cooled 'at constant volume to the initial temperature. Find the overall change in
entropy. Take C,. = 1.005 kJ/kg K and C, = 0.718 kJ/kg K.
Solution: in = 0.25 kg, T, = I00°C = 100+ 273 = 373 K
T2 = 325°C = 325 + 273 = 598 K, P = 300 kN/m2
T3 = 100°C = 100+ 273 = 373 K.

Change of entropy during constant pressure heating is given by,
T2 598
(1), - (1), = C, log — = 0.25 x 1.005 log, — = 0.1185 kJ/K
T, 373
Change of entropy during constant volume cooling is given by,
T, 373
- = in C, loge— = 0.25 x 0.718 log, -5- = -0.0847 kJ/K.
T2 98
overall change of entropy = 0.1185 - 0.0847 = 0.03377 kJ/K.
7. 4.5 kg of air at 200 kN/m2 and 17°C is compressed to 2500 kN/m2 according to the law
P V" = C. It is then cooled at constant volume to 20°C. Calculate the change of entropy dur-
ing compression and during constant volume cooling.
Solution: m = 4.5 kg, P, = 200 kN/m2, T, = 17°C = 17 + 273 = 290 K
P,= 2500 kN/m2, T,= 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293 K.

Applying gas equation P,V, = mRT, P2

mRT, 4.5 x 0.287 x 290
V, — 1, — 1.872 m3 a.
1 200
Using the relation
P,V; 3 = P2113
p in 3
i 200 )"' 3
Or V2 4T- X V, 4 x 1.872 V2 = V3 V1
2500)
V
= 0.2682 m3.
Now using the relation Fig. 5.7
T2 (P21n IV4 (250113-1)11.3
= 1.791
= T31 200
T2 = 1.791 x290=519.434 K.
Change of entropy during compression is given by
412 -0, =mq

n —v) log T2 =4 5x0.718(1.3-1.4 519A34 —°.6277 kJ/K
n-1 T, 1.3 — 1 òg` 290
Change of entropy during constant volume cooling is given by,
7'3 23
9
4)3 — = mC„Iog,T,= 4.5 x 0.718 log, 1.8499 kJ/K.
519.434
8. A petrol engine has a cylinder diameter of 10 cm and stroke 15 cm. The compression ratio
is 8:1. At the begining of compression the temperature and pressure are 67°C and 100 kN/m2
respectively. The compression index is 1.35. Determine the change of entropy. Take
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K, C„ = 0.718 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Stroke volume, V5 =4 x (.1)2 x (.15) = 0.0001767 m3
V, Vs + V2
Compression ratio = =
V2 V2
0.0001767 + V2
8=
V2
V2 = 0.0000252 m3.
. Total volume V, = V5 + V2 = 0.0001767 + 0.0000252 = 0.0002019 m3.
Using the relation
P,V, = tnRT,
m = PIRT,VI 100
=
x 0.0002019
0.287 x (273 +67)
— 0.000206 kg.
T2 ( V,)133-1 035
Now,
T, =()
V; = (8)
T, = (8)0.33 x T1= (8)" x 340 = 703.98 K
R = C,, — Cv C,. = 0.287 + 0.718 = 1.005- kl/kg K.

C,, 1.005=1.4
... =
Cv 0.718
Change of entropy
1.35 — 1.4 ior, 703.98
4)2 -4), = m Cy(n —1 loge T2 = 0.000206 x 0.718 340 =-0.00001537 kJ/K.
n —1 T, 1.35 —1 5`
9. The gain in entropy of a gas during heating at constant volume between absolute tempera-
ture T, and T2 will be the same as that during, expansion according to the law PV" = C,
between the same temperature. Show that the value of index n = 2 (y+ 1).
Solution: Considering one kg of gas, the general equation for entropy during a process is
given by,
P2 V2
4)2 — 4)1 = Cv 104— + Cp loge
P V,
During constant volume process from 1 to 2,
V, = V2 and • P2 T2
Pi T,
P2
. 41,2 - (1)1 = T)
C„loge(=)= C„logeP
P, T,
For polytropic process from 2 to 3
Py; = Py;
7,3 ( p2I vn P3 (T3)41(4 "
and = =
T3 P3 P2 T2
V, (T3 )141')
Also —= —
V2 T2
The change in entropy during polytropic process from 2 to 3
P3 V3)
4)3 — 4)2 = Cv log e(172) + C,, loge(172
T -n
n Cp T2
= Cv loge(P) + Cp loge(i) = Cv— + —log —
1logeT2
n Cy T2 Cp T2 Cp n Cv 7.3
= log log = log
n —I 'T3 n — 1 e T3 n —1 e T,
But according to the problem
$2 -41= (03 4)2
T2 Cp — n Cy T2
Cv log, = loge T3
n
But it is given that T, = T3
T2 T2
so that y,- =
1
Cp—nCv
C— n-1
or nCv —Cv =Cp —nCv or 2nCv —Cv = Cp
C, + Cv 1
or 2nCv = Cp + Cv or n = = (y+ 1)
2Cv 2
10. Show that the change in entropy of one kg of gas when compressed according to the law
PV" =C in terms of temperatures Ti and T2 before and after compression is
1-b a —61 T2
. log -+K(T2 -7'1 )
L n T,
The value of specific heat is of the form
Cp = a + KT and Cv = b +KT
where a, b and k are constants.
Solution: From the law of thermodynamics
dQ =PdV+dU
Dividing throughout by T
dQ PdV dU PdV CvdT
T =T + T =T +
PdV bdT
or d(1)=—+—+KdT
T T
From the equation PV =RT m 1 kg]
we have PdV+VdP =RdT
Again PV" = C
nPdV =—VdP
RdT
PdV —nPdV =RdT PdV =
1n
dT dT = b R dT +KdT
Therefore =b— +KdT + R
T 1n• T n—1T
Integrating, we have
— = [b --R i] loge p +„(T,_T,)

n i
But R= Cv = a +KT —b —KT =a —b
a —11 Li
• (I)2 — (61=[b -- logeT, +K(T2-
n —1
11. One kg of air at 37°C is compressed in a cylinder with a compression ratio of 15 accord-
ing to the law PV' 3 = C. Find the change in entropy of the air. Find the percentage error if the
change in entropy is calculated by the approximate method. Take C,. = 1.005kJ/kg K,
and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K.
T, ( V,
Solution: Using the relation = v-
T2 = (15)13-1 X (273 + 37) = 698.53 K.

Change in entropy for a polytropic process is given by

n -y T2 1.3 -1.4
412 - 4l = M Cv -loge -= 1 x 0.718 698.53 - -0.1944 kJ/K.
n- 1 Tt 1.3 - 1 log` 310
Heat transferred during polytropic process in given by
y- n
Q n=- -1
mCv(Ti-T2)
1.4 -1.3
= x 1 x 0.718(310 - 698.53) = -92.988 kJ.
1.3 - 1
By approximate method heat transferred is given by Q = Change in entropy x average tem-
perature
(T, + T2) (310 + 698.53)
-92.988 = (4)2 -0 x = (4)2-40
2 2
4)2 -4)I = -0.1844 kW
Percentage error = 0.1944-0.1844x 100 =5.132%

0.1944
EXERCISES

1. For reversible process =
2. For irreversible process =

3. Entropy is a of system
4. Entropy with the addition of heat.
5. Entropy remains constant during process.
6. The unit of entropy is
1. Discuss briefly the concept of entropy. Derive an expression for the increase in entropy
of a gas when heated in any general form.
2. 0.3 m3 of gas at a pressure of 10 bar and temperature of 537°C is expanded at a constant
pressure to a volume of 0.35 m3. Determine the change of entropy assuming
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K, = 0.718 kJ/kg K.
3. A certain quantity of gas occupies 0.6 m3 at 387°C and 30 bar. Calculate the gain in
entropy if it is expanded isothermally to a final volume of 3 m3. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg
K.
4. Determine the change of entropy when 0.15 kg of gas at 167°C expands with a volume
ratio of 5.5 according to the law P V" = C. Take y = 1.4, R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
5. Air at 100 kN/m2 and 100°C occupies a volume of 0.135 m3. It is compressed to a vol-
ume of 0.015 m3 at a pressure of 3500 kN/m2. Heat is then added at constant volume till
the pressure becomes 5500 kN/m2 Calculate the change in entropy during each
operation and overall change in entropy.
6. One kg of compressed air at 45 bartiand 600°C redtives heat at constant pressure until
the temperature reaches 1517°C. It is then expanded to 8 times its original volume
according to the law PV"5 = constant. Determine the change of entropy.
7. The work done by 0.07 kg of air when it expands according to PV" = constant is 7.6 kJ.
The temperature of air falls from an initial value of 107°C to a final value of 15°C dur-
ing the process. Determine
(a) The value of index n.
(b) The change of entropy.
8. In a gas engine the pressure at the begining of compression is 100 kN/m2 and tempera-
ture 107°C. The compression ratio is 6 and maximum pressure reached is 2800 kN/m2.
The compression follows the law P V" = constant. Assuming that combustion takes
place at constant volume, determine the change of entropy during (a) compression
stroke (b) combustion. Take y= 1.4 and Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg K .
9. 3.5 kg of a perfect gas is heated from 40°C to 240°C at a constant pressure of
250 kN/m2. The gas is then cooled to 40°C at constant volume. Find the overall change
in entropy. Draw the P—V and T —4) diagram. Take C, = 1.005 kJ/kg K , and
= 0.718 kJ/kg K.
Properties of Steam
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter we have seen that during thermodynamic processes, the
perfect gases do not undergo any change of phase. In other words, the gas
remains in the gaseous state even after the process ends. There are certain sub-
stances which when subjected to a thermodynamic process, may change their
state. These substances are called vapours. Examples of vapours empolyed in
engineering practice are steam, ammonia, freon, mercury etc. In this chapter, we
shall discuss the formation of steam and its properties. Steam is the most
important working fluid used in the operation of steam turbines and steam
engines.
6.2 PHASE TRANSFORMATION

The transformation of unit mass of ice into unit mass of superheated steam at
constant pressure is shown in Fig. 6.1.
Tsui).
Temperature (T)
Ts Vaporisation
4
2 Melting
Enthalpy kJ/kg.
Fig. 6.1 Transformation of ice into superheated steam at constant pressure

Consider unit mass of ice below the freezing point temperature before heat is
supplied at constant pressure of one atmosphere.
If heat is supplied keeping the pressure constant, the temperature of ice
increases till the freezing temperature (or melting temperature) is reached
which is 0°C. The process of heating is shown in Fig. 6.1 by the line 1-2. When
further heat is added, the ice begins to melt into water till all the ice melts at
constant temperature.
The amount of heat required to convert all the ice into water is called the
!atent heat of fission. This process is shown by the line 2-3. In this process there
is a decrease in specific volume. For all pure substances except water, there is
an increase in volume during this change of phase, i.e., melting. Further addition
of heat causes the temperature of water to rise till the water reaches the boiling
point temperature which is 100°C. This process of heating is shown by the line
3-4. Further addition of heat at point 4 does not increase the temperature but the
water begins to boil and gets vaporized. Change of phase at constant tempera-
ture and pressure takes place from liquid to gas. The amount of heat required to
vaporize one kg of water to steam is known as latent heat of vaporization. The
temperature at which boiling starts is called saturation temperature. The point 5
represents the saturated condition of steam. During this process the specific
volume increases. Further, heating after point 5 increases the temperature of
steam and the steam is called superheated steam.
6.3 EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON BOILING POINT

The temperature at which water boils depends upon the pressure. As the pres-
sure increases the boiling temperature of water increases. For every pressure
there is a definite temperature at which water begins to boil. The boiling
temperature of water at a particular pressure is known as saturation
temperature and the corresponding pressure
is known as saturation pressure. At pressure
Saturation pressure
Supercritical
220.9 bar. The change of volume is zero and condition
at this point liquid directly converts to steam Critical
condition
without going through the phase of evapora- Liquid
tion. This point is called the critical point. region
The critical temperature for steam. is Vapour

condition
374.15°C and the critical pressure is 220.9
bar the variation of saturation temperature of
water with respect to pressure is shown in Saturation temp.
Fig. 6.2.
Above the critical pressure there is no
difference between the liquid and gaseous
phase. The enthalpy of evaporation is zero. Fig..6.2 Variation of saturation
temperature and
pressure of water
6.4 GENERATION OF STEAM

Steam is generated from water at a certain pressure which is mostly higher than
Properties of Steam 115
atmospheric pressure. Let one kg of water at 0°C be heated in a cylinder fitted

with a frictionless piston. Let a load W be placed on the piston, so that heating
takes place at constant pressure P. This is shown in Fig. 6.3(a).
As heat is supplied to water, the temperature of water increases until it
reaches a temperature equal to the saturation temperature at pressure P. This is
shown in Fig. 6.3(b). The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
water from 0°C to T,°C s given by
hw = Cp„,(T, — 0) (6.1)
Where hw = enthalpy of saturated water
= Specific heat of water.
On further heating, heat is used to change the phase from liquid state to vapour
state. This process continues until all the water gets evaporated into steam as
shown in Fig. 6.3(c). It is seen that there is no increase in temperature and the
piston is pushed in the upward direction.
If heating is further continued, the temperature and volume of steam will
start increasing as shown in Fig. 6.3(d). This can be continued up to any tem-
perature. This steam is known as superheated steam.
Super-
heated
Dry steam steam
Wet steam Ts Tsup
0°C Ts
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 6.3
The graphs 1-2-3-4 between the temperature and heat absorbed during the
steam formation at constant pressure P is shown in Fig. 6.4. Point 1 corresponds
to water at 0°C. Point 2 corresponds to saturation temperature. Point 3 corre-
sponds to dry saturated steam and Point 4 corresponds to superheated steam. If
the pressure is increased to P,, then the saturation temperature increases to Ts,,
and the graph curve will become 1 —2 — —4. Similarly by increasing the pres-
sure the graph curves can be plotted as shown in Fig. 6.4.
Saturation liquid line: The curve joining-the points 2, 2', 2", 2"' is known as
saturation liquid line.
Saturated vapour line: The curve joining the points 3, 3', 3", 3"' is known as
saturated vapour line.
Critical point
// _rc`\%.
/ P3 \ 5
2"'/— — — — -\c`,1
P2— \•o
2"1o.)— — —
2'l PI \
Ts1
4
E Ts u p \ co
2/
Ts
3\I
I `,1
I 1\
I I
Sensible Latent heat ,-- Heat of

heat superheat
Total heat of
dry saturated steam
Total heat of
superheated steam
--)o- Heat absorbed
Fig. 6.4
6.5 CONDITIONS OF STEAM

The steam may be in anyone of the following three conditions:
(a) Saturated steam which may be either wet or dry.
(b) Superheated steam.
(c) Supersaturated steam.
Saturated Steam
Steam which is formed in contact with water is known as saturated steam. If
heat is supplied to the saturated vapour and to the liquid with which it is in con-
tact, more liquid evaporates but the temperature remains the same. Similarly if
heat is removed, more of the vapour condenses but the temperature will remain
the same.
(a) If saturated steam contains liquid particles, then it is known as wet steam.
(b) If saturated steam does not contain any liquid particles, then it is known as
dry saturated steam.
Superheated Steam
If the temperature of steam is greater than the boiling point temperature
corresponding to the pressure of steam generation, then it is called superheated

steam. The temperature above saturation temperature T, is known as super-
heated temperature Tsui,. The quantity of heat required to increase the tempera-
ture from T, to Tsup at constant pressure is known as superheat and (71„,— Ts) is
known as degree of superheat.
Supersaturated Steam
When at a particular saturation pressure, the temperature is less and the density
is greater than the corresponding values given in steam tables, the steam is
known as supersaturated steam. This condition is obtained when it is cooled by
its own expansion until it contains less heat energy than that of the saturated
steam under the same conditions. This state of steam occurs when it is expanded
in a nozzle, but it is very unstable and the steam soon resumes the saturated
condition.
6.6 DRYNESS FRACTION OF SATURATED STEAM
The ratio of the weight of actual dry steam to the weight of wet steam contain-
ing it, is called the dryness fraction. It is denoted by the letter X.
Let Ws = Weight of actual dry steam contained in a sample of steam
W = Weight of water particles in suspension in the sample of steam.
Weight of wet steam = Weight of dry steam + weight of water particles in
suspension in steam.
Ws + W
Actual weight of dry steam W5
X—
Weight of wet steam W5 + W
If the steam is fully dry, then W = 0.
Ws
X = ;; =1
6.7 USE OF STEAM TABLES

The different properties of steam, i.e., saturation temperature, specific volume,
sensible heat, latent heat, total heat and entropy corresponding to various pres-
sures can be obtained by performing experiments. The value of these properties
is gathered in a tabular form and is known as steam tables. These properties
may be tabulated either on pressure or on temperature basis and correspond to
1 kg of dry and saturated steam.
Sensible Heat (h)

The quantity of heat required in kJ to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from
0°C to the boiling point temperature corresponding to the given pressure, is
known as sensible heat of water. It is denoted by the letter h and is also called
total heat (or enthalpy) of water.
Latent Heat of Vaporization (L)

The quantity of heat required in kJ to convert 1 kg of water at its saturation
temperature for a given pressure, to 1 kg of dry saturated steam is known as
latent heat of vaporization. It is denoted by the letter L.
Total Heat of Wet Steam (11„„)

The quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into wet steam at
constant pressure is known as total heat dry (or enthalpy) of wet steam. It is
denoted by Ike,.
Hy,e( = h +xL
where h = Sensible heat in kJ/kg
L = Latent heat in kJ/kg.
Total Heat of Dry Saturated Steam (He)

The quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into dry saturated
steam at constant pressure is known as total heat of dry saturated steam. It is
denoted by the letter Hs
Hs =h+L
Total Heat of Superheated Steam (Hsud

The quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C at constant pres-
sure into superheated steam is known as total heat of superheated steam. It is
denoted by the letter 1-1,„p.
lisup = h +L + Cp(Tsup — Ts)
Where h = Sensible heat in kJ/kg
L = Latent heat in kJ/kg
c = Specific heat of superheated steam in kJ/kg K
Tsup = Temperature of superheated steam
T Saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of steam
s
generation.
The average value of C,, for superheated steam is 2.0934 kJ/kg K.
Specific Volume of Steam

Dry steam
The volume of one kg of dry steam at a given pressure is known as specific vol-
ume of dry steam. It is denoted by the letter V,. Its values corresponding to dif-
ferent pressures are given in steam tables. The value of V5 decreases with
increase in pressure.
1
Density of dry steam = — kg/m3.
,
Wet steam
The volume of one kg of wet steam is equal to the volume of dry portion of
steam plus the volume of water in suspension. It is denoted by the letter V,,,e,.
Let x = dryness fraction of wet steam
One kg of wet steam will consist of x kg of dry steam and (1 — x) kg of water in
suspension.
Specific volume of wet steam = Volume of dry steam + Volume of water in
suspension
= x V, + (1 —
Where V, = Specific volume of dry steam
V„, = Specific volume of water
As the volume of water at low pressure is very small, the term (1 —x)V,
can be neglected.
Specific volume of wet steam = x Vs m3/kg
1
Density of wet steam = — kg/m3.
x V,
Superheated steam
The volume of superheated steam may be found out on the assumption that
superheated steam behaves as a perfect gas as soon as the process of superheat-
ing begins, i.e, from dry saturated condition.
By applying gas law to steam at the begining of superheating and at the end
of superheating, we have
Psat x Vsat Psup X Vsup

Tsai Tsup
But Psat = Psup

Vsat Vsup
Tss, Tsup
Ts„p
Vsup = Tcx V sat
6.8 INTERNAL ENERGY OF STEAM

The acutal heat energy above the freezing point of water stored in the steam is
known as internal energy of steam. It is denoted by the letter U.
Internal Energy of Dry Saturated Steam is Given by

P V,
U =H — kJ/kg.
thY s 103
where P = Pressure of steam in N/m2

V, = Specific volume of dry steam m3/kg.
H, = Total heat of dry steam in kJ/kg.
Internal Energy of Wet Steam is Given by

P x Vwe,
Uwet = Hwet kJ/kg
103
where P = Pressure of steam in N/m2

Vviet Specific volume of wet steam in m3/kg.
Hwet Total heat of wet steam in kJ/kg.
Internal Energy of Superheated Steam is Given by

P x //sup
p= Hsup kJ/kg
103
where P = Pressure of steam in kJ/kg

1/5„p = Specific volume of superheated steam in m3/kg.
= Total heat of superheated steam in kJ/kg.
6.9 ENTROPY
The entropy of water at 0°C is taken as zero. The water is heated and evaporated
at constant pressure. The steam is also superheated at constant pressure in
superheaters. For this reason the entropy of steam can be calculated from the
formula for the change of entropy at constant pressure. The entropy of water,
wet steam, dry steam, and superheated steam is obtained as given below:
Entropy of Water (CO

The entropy of water is represented by the letter 4)„. Let one kg of water be
heated from 0°C to saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of
steam generation. Then, heat supplied dQ = Cpc1T.
where Cp = specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg K
dQ C dT dT
But by definition, d4 = — P —
-C
T P T
Integrating the above equation from initial condition 1 to final condition 2, we
get
2
1. CRI) = C
p
dT
1, T
TZ
or, 4)2 — (1), = Cp loge (i)
At 0°C (1), = 0 and T1 = 273 K

Thus we can write Eq. (i) as
T
Ow = Cp loge
273
Where Ow = Entropy of water above freezing point of water at absolute temper-
ature T. If the water is heated up to saturation temperature 7'„ the equation can
be written as
T,
4)„,=Cp loge
273
Entropy of Evaporation NO
When the water reaches its saturation temperature, any further addition of heat
does not increase the temperature of water but changes its state. During this
change, temperature remains constant. The process of evaporation is repre-
sented by a horizontal line on the temperature entropy diagram. The quantity of
heat supplied during evaporation will be xL, if the steam is wet at the end of heat
supply, and will be L if the steam is dry saturated at the end of heat supply. The
heat supply takes place at constant temperature T,.
For wet steam
Change of entropy of evaporation = —
Ts T
For dry steam

L
Change of entropy of evaporation
7-3
Entropy of Wet Steam (Cvet)
Consider 1 kg of wet steam with dryness fraction x. The entropy of wet steam
reckoned above the freezing point of water (0°) is given by,
= Entropy of water + change of entropy during evaporation.
xL
4wet = Pw T,
Owe( = x (4), —
where 4 = entropy of dry saturated steam.
Entropy of Dry Steam (C)

Consider 1 kg of dry saturated steam. The entropy of dry saturated steam reck-
oned above the freezing point of water (0°C) is given by,
= Entropy of water + change of entropy during evaporation.
Ww ±
Ts
The value of C may also be obtained directly from the steam table.
Entropy of Superheated Steam (Cu)

Consider 1 kg of dry saturated steam. The steam is superheated at constant
pressure.
Let Ts = Saturation temperature of dry saturated steam.
Tsup = Temperature of superheated steam.
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam at constant pressure.
Then the change of entropy during superheating
T.
= C, loge —7
Thus the total entropy of superheated steam reckoned above the freezing point
of water (0°C) is given by,
Cup = Entropy of water + change of entropy during complete evaporation +
change of entropy during superheating
L Tsup
= Cp to
sup +
Ts Ts
Tsup
= 4), + Cp log —
e Ts
Specific heat of superheated steam varies with the pressure and with the degree
of superheating. The value of C,, varies between 2 kJ/kg K and 2.3 kJ/kg K.
6.10 TEMPERATURE—ENTROPY DIAGRAM OF

STEAM
Figure 6.5 shows the temperature—entropy diagram when one kg of water

is heated at constant pressure until the water is converted into superheated
steam. The absolute temperature is plotted vertically and the entropy is plotted
horizontally. The diagram has three regions. These are represented by two
lines—water line or liquid line, and saturation line. These two lines meet at a
point which is known as the critical point. The temperature corresponding to
this point is 374°C and 220.7 bar.
F—Critical point
647 K
L.. T
-sup -/
••••61r
/
/ Evaporation \ \`7.
¢
-°
4
273 K Wet steam
-1(-1:13w—)+E— Coe
-4( is
.4( tsup
Entropy
Fig. 6.5 Temperature—entropy diagram of steam
6.11 ENTHALPY-ENTROPY CHART FOR STEAM

(MOLLIER DIAGRAM FOR STEAM)
Enthalpy-entropy chart (H -4)) chart is also known as Mollier diagram. This

chart is commonly used by engineers. In this diagram the ordinate represents the
enthalpy (H) and the base represents the entropy (4)). The diagram is shown in
Fig. 6.6.
6.12 VAPOUR PROCESSES

A partially evaporated liquid is called a vapour and completely evaporated is
called a gas. Thus vapour is a mix-
ture of gas and liquid particles in
suspension. Vapour does not obey
gas laws. The following are the n.
important processes of vapour:
(a) Constant volume process
(b) Constant pressure process
(c) Constant temperature (or
Isothermal) process
(d) Reversible adiabatic or
Isentropic or constant -to- Entropy
entropy process.
(e) Polytropic process
(f) Throttling process.
Fig. 6.6 Moffier diagram

Consider one kg of wet steam of pressure P, and dryness of fraction x,, being
heated at constant volume to final pressure P2. Let x2 be the final dryness frac-
tion of the steam.
Volume of steam before heating = Volume of steam after heating.
xl Vs, = x2Vs2
Xi VS1
X2 =
V S2
The initial internal energy of steam is given by
x, Vs,
= H, — kJ.
103
The final internal energy of steam is given by

P2.X2. VS2
U2 = H1 kJ.
103
where P, and P2 are in N/m2; H1 and H2 are in kJ/kg.

Change in internal energy

(a) AU = U,
(b) As the volume remains constant, the work done is zero
(c) By applying law of conservation of energy, heat supplied Q = W + (U2 — U1)
= 0 + (U2 — U1) = U2 — U1 kJ/kg

Consider 1 kg of wet steam being heated at constant pressure. As the pressure of
steam remains constant its specific volume will also remain constant.
Let P = Pressure of steam in N/m2
xi = Initial dryness fraction of steam
x2 = Final dryness fraction of steam
(a) External work done during the process is given by,
W = P x Change in volume
P .115(x2 — x1)
= P (x217, — P.VS (x2 x1) Nm or J = kJ.
103
(b) Initial internal energy of steam is given by
P • x1 • V,
U1 = Ht kJ
103
Final internal energy of steam is given by
P
U2 — H2 kJ.
103
Change in internal energy

P .Vs(x2 — x1)
AU = U2 — = (H2 — Hi) kJ
1 03
(c) Heat supplied
P 1s(x2 — x1) 13 •Vs(x2 — x1)
Q = W + (U2 — U1) = + (H2— H1)- = (H2— 11,) kJ.
103 103
Isothermal Process or Constant Temperature

Process
The isothermal process of wet steam will be the same as the constant pressure
process. But when the steam is superheated it will behave like a gas and will
follow the law PV = constant. Thus the process will be hyperbolic. Therefore,
for superheated steam, the isothermal and hyperbolic processes will be identi-
cal, whereas for wet steam the isothermal and constant pressure processes will
oe identical.
Consider 1 kg of wet steam being heated hyperbolically.
P1 = Initial pressure of steam in N/m2

v5 = Specific volume of steam at pressure Pi in m3/kg
xi = Initial dryness of fraction of steam.
P2, Vs2, x2 are the corresponding values for the final condition.
Initial volume of steam, V, = x1 Vs,
Final volume of steam, V2 = x2Vs2
As PV = constant, P1 V,=P2V2
PIX VS1
or P1 x, Vs, = P2 X2VS2
• P2 VS2
The value of x2 gives the final condition of steam.

(a) If the value of x2 is less than one, then the steam is wet.
(b) If the value of x2 is equal to one, then the steam is dry saturated
(c) If the value of x2 is greater than one, then the steam is superheated.
In case of superheated steam the volume
V2 2X T
= VS
Tsu
Thus Pl• x I' Vs 1 = P2 VS2' P (i)
T.
From Eq. (i) the value of Tsup can be calculated.

Initial internal energy of steam is given by
P1 V,
= H,
103 kJ

P2 V2
U2 = 112 — 103 kJ.
(a) Change in internal energy
P2 V2 PI VI
AU = U2 — U1 = (H2 — H1) — — 2 — H1 kJ. [... P1 V, = P2V2 ]
103 103 = H
(b) Work done during hyperbolic process is given by

2 PII
V V2
W Pi VI log, -17-- Nm or J - log, —
103 VI
• Vsi x2Vs2
log, kJ (For wet steam)
- 1 03 Vsi
• Vsi Vs
Vs22
loge kJ (For dry steam)
103 v si
/Dix' Vsi V
log, "P Id (For superheated steam)
103 xi Vsi
(c) By applying the law of conservation of energy, the heat transferred during
the process is given by,
Q = W + (U2 - U1)
Pi.Xi. VS1 V2
log,— + H2 - HI kJ.
103
Isentropic Process or Constant Entropy Process or
Reversible Adiabatic Process
The process in which entropy is constant is known as isentropic or reversible
adiabatic process. There is no heat transfer during this process. As the entropy
is constant,
Owl + (01 - Owl) = 04:1w2 + x2(02 - 4Yiv2)
from which x2 may be calculated. By applying the law of conservation of energy
we get
Q=W +AU =W +U2-U p as Q=O.
W = 1.11 -
where
P1 V1
= HI kJ
103
U2 = H2 -P2V32kJ.
10
Polytropic Process
The polytropic process follows the law PIP' = constant. Consider 1 kg of wet
steam expanding polytropically to its final state.
Let P, = Initial pressure of steam in N/m2

Vs, = Specific volume of steam at pressure P, in m3/kg
= Initial dryness fraction of steam.
P2, Vs2, x2, = Corresponding values for the final condition.
Initial volume of steam
= xl Vs,
Final volume of steam
V2 = x2Vs2
But PI V; = P2V; or Pl(xl Vst)n =P2(x2Vsji
Xt VS1
'• = p .
X2 x
2 Vs2
from which the value of x2 can be calculated. If the value of x2 is more than one,
then the steam will be superheated. In that case
(Vs2T,„1"
PI(XI VSir = P2
T,
PI " x lVsiTs
Tsup = X
CP 2J Vs2
Now H, = h, + x,L, kJ
H2 = h2 x2L2 kJ •if the steam is wet after expansion.
H2 = h2 + L2 kJ if the steam is dry after expansion
H2 = h2 + L2 + Cp (Tsup—T) kJ if the steam is superheated after
expansion.
Initial internal energy of steam is given by
P1 x, Vs,
= kJ
103

P2 x2Vs2
U2 = H2 kJ (For wet steam)
103
PVS
2 2
U2 = H2 — kJ (For dry steam)
103
P2Vs2 (7
T7P)
P Vsup
U2 = H2 — — H2 kJ. (For superheated steam)
103 103
(a) Change in internal energy

AU = U2 -
(b) The work done during expansion is given by
Pi - P2 V2 PIX1 VS1 — P2 X2VS2

= kJ (For wet steam)
103(n — 1) 103(n — 1)
Pixi Vsi — P2Vs2

W— kJ (For dry saturated steam)
103(n-1)
Pixi Vs — P2 Vs2( T;P-)

W— s kJ (For superheated steam.)
103(n-1)
By applying law of conservation of energy,
(c) Heat transferred,
Q = W + (U2 — U1) kJ
Throttling of Steam
When steam is made to flow adiabatically through a contracted area, its pressure
falls and thereby the steam expands. There is no transfer of heat and no shaft
work. This process is called throttling or wire drawing.
Thus we see that throttling is an irreversible steady flow adiabatic process
during which no work is done. So putting U = 0 and Q = 0 in the steady flow
energy equation we have
= H2
Thus we see that throttling is also constant enthalpy process. Throttling process
is used to determine the dryness fraction of wet steam.
Throttling and separating calorimeter
The apparatus that is used to determine the dryness fraction of steam in a pipe is
called the throttling calorimeter. Figure 6.7 shows a sketch of a throttling and
separating calorimeter which is used along with a throttling calorimeter when
the steam is too wet. Throttling calorimeter consists of a sampling pipe which is
inserted in a vertical pipe carrying the steam. The sampling pipe has a series of
perforations which face the steam only. The end of the sampling pipe is closed.
The steam enters the main body of the throttling calorimeter through an orifice.
The temperature of steam is measured by inserting a thermometer and the pres-
sure is measured with a manometer attached to the calorimeter. The moist steam
in the pipe when throttled into the calorimeter becomes superheated. By
measuring the temperature and pressure we calculate the total heat of- super-
heated steam and equating this with the total heat of the steam in the pipe, the
dryness fraction of steam is measured.
Enthalpy of wet steam before throttling at pressure P, = Enthalpy of super-

heated steam after throttling at pressure P2.
Sampling pipe
7— Pressure
gauge ,—Thermometer
( 0000 —7
Control
valve p-
Main —\ 7 Throttle
pipe _ill valve Y
Oil bath
Water level
indicator Water
Separating
ty
Throttling manometer
calorimeter
Separator calorimeter
Water out
Drain valve Water in
*—Condenser
Hot well
Condensate
Fig. 6.7 Throttling and separating calorimeter
h1 +XILI = h2 + L2 + Cp(TSUp2 TS2)
h2 + L2 + Cp(Tsup2 — T„) — h
=
Li
where temperature of superheated steam after throttling at

Tsup, =
pressure P2.
= Saturation temperature- of steam corresponding to pressure
P2 from steam table.
C, = Specific heat of superheated steam generally taken as
2.1 kJ/kg K.
The throttling calorimeter is only able to measure the dryness fraction of steam
if the steam becomes superheated after throttling. If the initial dryness fraction
of steam is too low, the steam will not be superheated after throttling. In this
case the dryness fraction of steam cannot be found out with the help of throttling
calorimeter alone. In such a case the dryness fraction of steam can be found out
by using the separating and throttling calorimeter combined. The separating
calorimeter is shown in Fig. 6.7. Most of the moisture from the incoming steam
is deposited in the separating calorimeter because of sudden change of direction
of flow, and the steam from the separating calorimeter then enters the throttling
calorimeter through the orifice. The water from the separating calorimeter can
be withdrawn by turning the stopcock and weighed. A constant level of water in
the separating calorimeter should be maintained during the experiment. The
steam coming out from the throttling calorimeter is condensed in a condenser
and mass of condensate is recorded.
Let M = Mass of steam condensed and collected from condenser.
m = Mass of water collected from separating calorimeter.
x = Actual dryness fraction of steam in main steam pipe.
x2 = Apparent dryness fraction of steam assuming that the steam com-
ing out from the separating calorimeter is completely dry. Then
M
x2 - m " •
= Actual dryness fraction of steam entering into the throttling calo-
rimeter which can be calculated as discussed above.
Amount of water in the sample = (1 — x) (M + m)
Amount of water separated by the separating calorimeter = (1 —x2) (M +m)
Amount of water carried by steam into the throttling calorimeter = (1 —x,)M
(1 —x)(M +m)= (1 —x2)(M +m)+ (1 —xl)M
(1 —xi )M
(1 —x) = (1 —x2)+
M +m
M
But = x2
M +M
(1 -x)= (1 -x2)+ (i -x l ) x2
1 —x = 1 — x2 + x2 — xlx2
X = XiX2.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. 1.25 kg of water is in suspension with 85 kg of dry steam. Determine the dryness fraction
of steam.
Solution: Weight of dry steam = 85 kg. Weight of water in suspension = 1.25 kg.
Total weight of wet steam = 85 + 1.25 = 86.25 kg.
Thus in 86.25 kg of wet steam, the weight of dry steam is 85 kg.
Weight of dry steam 85
Dryness fraction = = 0.985.
Weight of total wet steam 86.25
2. State the conditions of steam in the following cases:
(a) At a pressure of 10 bar, total heat is 2646 kJ/kg.
(b) At a pressure of 15 bar, temperature is 197.4°C
(c) At a pressure of 20 bar, temperature is 225°C
;32 Thermal Engineering
(d) At a pressure of 7 bar, specific volume is 0.26 m3

(e) At a pressure of 5 bar, specific volume is 0.45 m3
(f) At a pressure of 8 bar, total heat is 2805 kJ/kg. [D.M.E. II '93]
Solution: (a) At a pressure of 10 bar, total heat of dry saturated steam from steam table is
2778.1 kJ/kg. But the given total heat is 2646 kJ/kg. Therefore, the steam is wet.
(b) At a pressure of 15 bar the saturation temperature is 198.32°C. But the given temperature
is 197.4°C, which is less than the saturation temperature. Therefore, the steam is wet.
(c) At a pressure of 20 bar the saturation temperature is 212.42°C. But the given temperature
is 225°C which is more than the saturation temperature. Therefore, the steam is superheated.
(d) At a pressure of 7 bar the specific volume of dry steam from the steam table is
0.2729 m3/kg. But the given specific volume is 0.26 m3 which is less than the above specific
volume. Therefore, the steam is wet.
(e) At a pressure of 5 bar the specific volume of dry steam from the steam table is
0.3749 m3/kg. But the given specific volume is 0.45 m3 which is more than the above specific
volume. Therefore the steam is superheated.
(f) At a pressure of 8 bar the total heat of dry saturated steam from the steam table is 2769.1
kJ/kg. But the given total heat is 2805 kJ/kg, which is more than the above total heat. There-
fore, the steam is superheated.
3. Find out the specific volume of steam when its pressure is 7 bar when the condition of
steam is (a) wet having dryness fraction 0.9 (b) dry and (c) superheated, the temperature of
steam being 250°C. The volume of 1 kg of water may be taken as 1 litre. [D.M.E. II '93]
Solution: (a) When the steam is wet:
Specific volume of wet steam = (1 —x)V,„ +x V,
where x is the dryness fraction of steam, V„, is the specific volume of water and V, is the spe-
cific volume of dry saturated steam.
x = 0.9, V„, = 0.001 m3, V,=0.2729 m3
Specific volume of wet steam
= (1 — 0.9) x 0.001 + 0.9 x 0.2729 = 0.24571 m3
(b) When the steam is dry:
The specific volume of dry saturated steam at a pressure of 7 bar is 0.2729 m3 (from the
steam table)
(c) When the steam is superheated:
The specific volume of superheated steam is given by
= T—
T"P x
V, = 0.2729 m3, T, = 164.97 + 273 = 437.97 K
523 x 0.2729 3
Tsup 250°C = 250 + 273 = 523 K, Vs„ = = 0.32588 m .
P 437.97
4. The pressure of steam in a condenser is 12 kN/m2 and the dryness fraction is 0.88. How
many heat units must be abstracted from the steam in order to condense (a) 1 kg
(b)1 m3? (D.M.E - II ' 92)
Solution: To condense the steam, its latent heat is to be abstracted.
The latent heat at 12 kN/m2 from the steam table is 2384.1 kJ/kg.
Heat to be removed per kg = 0.88 x 2384.1 = 2098 kJ/kg.
The specific volume of dry saturated steam at a pressure of 12 kN/m2 from steam table =
12.361 m3,
Specific volume of steam at 0.88 dryness fraction.
= 0.88 x 12.361 = 10.8776 in3
2098
Heat to be extracted per m3 of steam = — 192.87 kJ.
10.8776
5. Steam is supplied from a boiler at a pressure of 18 bar and 99 per cent dry, to a steam
engine. It is found that the steam loses 16.75 kJ/kg as it flows through the pipe line, pressure
remaining constant. Determine the dryness fraction and temperature of steam at the engine
end of the pipe line. (L.M.E., W.B)
Solution: Total heat of wet steam at the boiler end is given by
H,= h,+ x,L, kJ/kg
Total heat of wet steam at the engine end is given by
H2 = h2+ x, L2
where
h, and h2 = Sensible heat of water corresponding to pressure 18 bar.
LI and L2 = Latent heat of water corresponding to pressure 18 bar.
x, = dryness fraction of steam at the boiler end = 0.99
x2 = dryness fraction of steam at the engine end.
From the steam table, at pressure 18 bar
h,= h2 = 884.79 32 kJ; L, = L2 = 1912.4 kJ; T, = 207.15°C
.% Hi = 884.79 + 0.99 x 1912.4 = 2778.066 kJ/kg
According to the condition of the problem
H,— 16.75 = H2
2778.066 — 16.75 = 884.79 + x2 x 1912.4
.% x2 =0.981
The temperature of steam at the engine end = 207.15°C.
6. In a heating arrangement by steam it is required to supply 37680 kJ per hour. What mass of
superheated steam must be supplied to the heater if the pressure of steam entering the heater
is 60 kN/m2 and temperature of steam is 140°C. The condensed steam leaves the heater at
80°C. Take specific heat of superheated steam as 2.093 kJ/kg K.
Solution: From the steam table corresponding to pressure 60 IN/m2
h = 359.86 kJ, L = 2293.6 ld, T, = 85.94°C.
Total heat of one kg of superheated steam is given by
H.up = h + L + C,,(T,„p —T,)
= 359.86 + 2293.6 + 2.093 (413-358.94) = 2766.6 kJ
Temperature of condensed steam = 80°C
Heat content in one kg of condensed steam at 80°C = 334.9 kJ.
Heat extracted in the heater for one kg of steam
= 2766.6-334.9 = 2431.71d.
Let the required mass of superheated steam be m.
.*. According to the condition of the problem

m x 2431.7 = 37680 in = 15.495 kg.
7. Steam is generated at 8 bar from water at 32°C. Determine the heat required to produce one
kg of steam (a) when the dryness fraction is 0.85, (b) when steam is dry saturated and
(c) when the steam is superheated and the temperature of steam is 305°C. The specific heat of
superheated steam may be taken as 2.093 kJ/kg K.
Solution: (a) When the steam is wet:
Total heat of wet steam is given by
H„„= h + xL
Where h is the sensible heat, x is the dryness fraction of steam and L is the latent heat of
steam.
x = 0.85.
From steam table at pressure 8 bar, h = 721.11 kJ/kg, L = 2048 kJ/kg, T, = 170.43°C.
Total heat of one kg of wet steam having dryness fraction.
0.85 = 721.11 + 0.85 x 2048 = 2461.91 Id
Total heat of 1 kg of water at 32°C = 134 kJ
Heat required to produce 1 kg of wet steam from water at 32°C having dryness fraction
0.85 = 2461.91 — 134 = 2327.91 kJ.
(b) When the steam is dry saturated:
Total heat of one kg of dry steam at pressure 8 bar is given by
HdrY = h + L = 721.11 + 2048 = 2769.11 kJ.
Heat required to produce 1 kg of dry steam from water at
32°C = 2769.11 —134 = 2635.11 kJ.
(c) When the steam is superheated:
Total heat of 1 kg of superheated steam at pressure 8 bar is given by
H,, = h +L + C,,(Tw -7',.)= 721.11 + 2048 + 2.093(578 — 443.43) = 3050.765 kJ.
Heat required to produce 1 kg of superheated steam at a temperature of 305°C from water at
32°C at a pressure 8 bar = 3050.765-134 = 2916.765 kJ.
8. Steam enters a surface condenser at 32°C at the rate of 3000 kg per hour. The dryness
fraction of steam is 0.9. Determine the rate at which cooling water is to be supplied to the
condenser if the rise in temperature of cooling water is 10°C. Take specific heat of water as
4.187 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Mass of steam in, = 3000 kg/hour
Dryness fraction of steam x = 0.9
From steam table at 32°C, h = 134 kJ/kg, L = 2425.8 kJ/kg
Heat lost by steam = m, (11 + xL) = 3000(134 + 0.9 x 2425.8) = 6951660 kJ/hour.
Let the mass of cooling water required = m w kg.
Heat g7:ned by cooling water = x 4.187 x 10 kJ/hour.
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by cooling water.
6951660
6951660 = mw x 41.87, m= = 166029.62 kg/hr.
41.87
9. Find the internal energy of 1 kg of steam at 20 bar absolute when (a) it is superheated, its
temperature being 400°C (b) it is wet, its dryness fraction being 0.9. Assume superheated
steam to behave as a perfect gas from the moment it becomes superheated and thus obeys
charles' law C,, for steam = 2.093.
Solution: (a) m = 1 kg, P = 20 bar, T,„p = 400°C = 400 + 273 = 673 K, CI. = 2.093 kJ/kgK
From steam tables for 1 kg of steam corresponding to pressure 20 bar, we get
Saturation temperature, T, = 212.4°C = 212.4 + 273 = 485.4 K
V, = 0.09957 m3 h = 909 kJ/kg, L= 1890 kJ/kg, H = 2799 kJ/kg.
Total heat of 1 kg of superheated steam is given by
Hiup = H + Cp(T,,,p — Ts)
= 2799 + 2.093(673 — 485.4) = 3191.646 kJ/kg.

Internal energy of one kg of superheated steam is given by,
P x V,
Usup = uP Id (i)
103
where P = Pressure of steam in N/m2 = 20 x 105 N/m2.
V„,p = Volume of 1 kg of superheated steam and this is given as
T,„ 673
V — x0 09957 =0.1380 m3.
485.4
Putting the values in Eq. (i) we get
5 x 0.138
Um, 3191.646 20x 1003
= = 2915.646 kJ
1
(b) The steam is wet with dryness fraction, x = 0.9
Total heat of 1 kg of wet steam is given by
= h + xL = 909 + 0.9 x 1890 = 2610 kJ/kg.
Internal energy of 1 kg of wet steam is given by
P x Vw„ 20 x 105 x 0.9 x 0.09957
Uwe,= H„ kJ/kg. = 2610 = 2430.774 kJ.
103 103
10. One kg of saturated water at 100°C is converted into dry saturated steam at the same
temperature. Determine the percentage of energy supplied that goes to increase the internal
energy of steam. How is the remaining energy utilised?
Solution: Let us take the atmospheric pressure as the pressure of steam generation.
P = 1.01325 bar.
Amount of heat required to convert one kg of water at 100°C to one kg of dry saturated steam
at the same temperature is the latent heat corresponding to atmospheric pressure 1.01325 bar
= 2257 kJ.
Total heat of 1 kg of dry steam at pressure 1.01325 bar from steam table is given by
= 2676.1 kJ/kg.
Specific volume of dry saturated steam at pressure 1.01325 bar V, = 1.6729 m3
Internal energy of 1 kg of dry saturated steam
P x V, 1.01325 x 105 x 1.6729
U,„ = — 2676.1— — 2506.59 kJ.
103
Internal energy of one kg of water at 100°C
= 1x4.187(100-0)=418.7 Id.
Change in internal energy = 2506.59-418.7 = 2087.89 Id
2087.89
Percentage of energy supplied to increase the internal energy - 2257 x 100 = 92.5%
The remaining 7.5% of energy is utilised to expand the steam and to do external work.
11. A pressure cooker contains 1.75 kg of steam at a pressure of 500 kN/m2 and 0.89 dry.
Determine the quantity of heat which must be rejected so that the quality of steam becomes
0.55 dry.
Solution: As it is a constant volume process therefore work done W = 0,
Q = 0+AU= U2 -U,
Initial internal energy
P, 500 x 103 x .89 x .3747
U, = tn(h,+x,L,- )- 1.75(640.1 + 0.89 x 2107.4 - 4110.02 kJ
103 10'
As it is a constant volume process
= V2
x, Vs, = x2 Vs2 or 0.89 x 0.3747 = 0.55 x Vs2
Vs2 = 0.6063 m3/kg.
The corresponding pressure at this volume 0.6063 m3/kg from the steam table is 3 bar.
P2 X X2 VS2)
U2 =1+2+X2L2
103
3 x 105 x 0.55 x 0.6063)
= 1.75(561.47 + 0.55 x 2163.8 = 2890.16 kJ
103
Total heat lost Q = U2 - U1 = 2890.16 -4110.02 = -1219.85 kJ.
The (-)ve sign indicates that heat is rejected from the system.
12. 0.003 m3 of water is boiling at 27°C. The water is heated until the pressure becomes 7 bar
and dryness 0.85. Determine.
(a) the amount of heat added before evaporation begins at 7 bar.
(b) the increase in internal energy of water up to the begining of evaporation
(c) the increase in internal energy and external work done.
Solution: From steam table at 27°C
P, = 0.03564 bar, h, = 113.1 kJ/kg, specific volume of water V„. = 0.001 m3
V 0.003
Mass of boiling water = = = 3 kg.
V„, 0.001
When the water is at a pressure of 7 bar
T., = 164.97°C, = 0.001108 m3/kg, V,z = 0.2729 m3/kg,
h2 = 697.22 kJ/kg, L2 = 2066.3 kJ/kg.

(a) Heat added before evaporation begins at 7 bar = 3 x 4.187(437.97 - 300) = 1733.04 kJ.
(b) Initial internal energy
P, „, 3564 x 0.001
U,=h,- I = 113.1 - 113.096 kJ/kg
1 03 103
Final internal energy
PZV 7 x 103 x 0.001108
U2 = h2 - 103 - 697.22 - 696444 kJ/kg
10'
Increase in internal energy

U,- U1 = 3(696.444 - 113.096) = 1750.045 kJ.
(c) For steam at a pressure of 7 bar and 0.85 dryness, U3 = U„
U3 = 696.44 + 0.85(2572.5 - 696.44) = 2291.091 kJ/kg
Increase in internal energy during evaporation
U,-U,= 3(2291.091- 696.444) = 4783.941 kJ.
External work done
mP3(V3 - V2) in P3(x x Vs2 - Vw2)
103 103
3 x 7 x 105(0.85 x 0.2729 - .001108)

= 484.7994 kJ.
103
13. A boiler produces 250 kg of steam per minute at a pressure of 800 kN/m2 and 0.95 dry.
The steam then passes through the superheater and comes out from the superheater at a tem-
perature of 250°C. Determine (a) the amount of heat supplied by the superheater per kg of
steam and per minute and (b) the change in specific volume and internal energy when it
passes through the superheater.
For superheated steam Cp = 2.093
Neglect the loss in pressure in the superheater.
Solution: At pressure 800 kN/m2, L = 2048 kJ/kg, T5 = 170.43°C, V, = 0.2404 m3
Amount of heat supplied by the superheater per kg of steam = (1 -x)L +Cp(T,„1,-T,)
= (1 - 0.95)2048 + 2.093(523 - 443.43) = 269.212 kJ/kg = 269.212 x 250 = 67303.025 kJ/min
The volume of steam after superheating is given by
Vsup = 7 'P. x V = 523 x 0.2404 = 0.2835 m3

443.43
Increase in specific volume = S°p V, = 0.2835 - 0.2404 = 0.0431 m3/kg
The internal energy of steam while entering the superheater is givCn by
P, x x, Vs, 800 x 103 x 0.95 x 0.2404
U1 = h, + = 721.11 + 0.95 x 2048 = 2484.006 kJ/kg
103 103
The final internal energy of steam leaving the superheater is given by
x Vsup
U, = h, + L,+ CP sup T5)
103
800 x 10' x 0.2835

= 721.11 + 2048 + 2.093(523 - 443.43) = = 2708.85 kJ/kg.
103
Increase in internal energy is given by
AU = U2 - Ul = 2708.85 - 2484.006 = 224.844 kJ/kg.
14. The volume of a small experimental boiler is 0.17 m3. When under a pressure of
105 kN/m2 at a temperature of 15°C, it contained 1 kg of water, the rest of its volume being
occupied by air. The fire was lighted, and when the temperature inside the boiler had reached
140°C, the stop valve was still closed.
Find the pressure when this temperature was reached.
Neglecting the slight change in the volume of the water and the initial water vapour in the
boiler, find how much heat had been given (a) to the air and (b) to the steam formed.
Take C,, = 1.005 and C, = 0.718 for air.

P,V, P2V2
Solution: We know = Since the volume remains
T, T2
constant the pressure of the air at 140°C is given by
Pi X T2 105 x (140 + 273)
P2 - = 150.572 kN/m2
T, (15 + 273)
At temperature 140°C, P = 3.62 bar = 362 kN/m2
Total pressure = 150.572 + 362 = 512.572 kN/m2
PV 105 x 0.17
Mass of air, m - - = 0.2159 kg
RT 0.287 x 288
Quantity of heat added to air = 0.2159 x 0.718 (413-288) = 19.377 kJ.
At temperature 140°C, L = 2144.5 kJ/kg V, = 0.5080 m3
0.17
mass of steam formed - 0.508=0.3346 kg
As the water is heated at constant volume, the heat to be added is equal to the change in
internal energy of the steam plus the sensible heat required to heat the remaining water from
15°C to 140°C.
Change of internal energy of steam at 140°C and 362 kN/m2 and water at 15°C
PxV 362 x 103 x 0.508
=h+L- h , =589.4+2144.5 62.9 = 2487.1 IJ/kg
co 103
Change of internal energy for 0.3346 kg = 0.3346 x 2487.1 = 832.185 Id.
Sensible heat added to the rest of the water (1 - 0.3346) kg = 0:6654 x 4.187 (413 - 288) =
348.253 Id.
Heat added to water = 832.185 + 348.253 = 1180.438 Id.
15. A vessel having a capacity of 0.85 m3 contains steam at 1040 kN/m2 and 0.92 dry steam is
blown off until the pressure drops to 520 kN/m2. The valve is then closed and the vessel is
cooled until the pressure is 420 kN/m2. Assuming that the total heat per kg of steam in the
vessel remains constant during the blowing off period, determine
(a) the mass of steam blown off.
(b) the dryness of the steam in the vessel after cooling.
(c) the heat lost by the steam per kg during cooling.
Solution: At pressure P, = 1040 kN/m2 from steam table
h, = 770.38 Id/kg, Li = 2009.2 kJ/kg, Vs, = 0.1873 m3/kg, Ts, = 181.62°C
At pressure P2 = 520 kN/m2 from steam table
h2 = 646.65 kJ/kg, L2 = 2104.8 kJ/kg, Vs, = 0.3613 m3/kg, Ts,= 153.34°C.
H, = h,+ x,L,= 770.38 +0.92 x 2009.2 = 2618.844 kJ/kg.
V, =x, x Vs, = 0.92 x 0.1873 = 0.1723 m3
Mass of initial steam, m1 = 0.85 = 4.932 kg.

0.1723
As the total heat remains constant during blowing-off period, we have
2618.844 = h2 + x2L, = 646.65 +x2 x 2104.8
x, = 0.937
V2 = x2 x Vs2= 0.937 x 0.3613 = 0.3385 m3.
Mass of steam after blowing off,
0.85
m2 = = 2.51 kg.
0.3385
(a) Mass of steam blown off = 4.932-2.51 = 2.422 kg.
At pressure 420 IcN/m2 from steam table
h3 = 612.36 kJ/kg, L3 = 2128.4 kJ/kg
Vs3 = 0.4417 m3/kg, Ts3 = 145.4°C.
(b) The quality x3 of steam after cooling is given by 0.85 = m2 x x3 x Vs3
0.85
X3 = - 0.766
2.51 x 0.4417
(c) The total heat after cooling is given by
H,= h3+ x3L, = 612.36 + 0.766 x 2128.4 = 2242.714 kJ
As the cooling is at constant volume, the heat lost is equal to the difference of internal ener-
gies.
P2 X X2VS2 520 x 103 x 0.937 x 0.3613
U2 = H2 - 2618.844 - 2442.8 id.
103 103
P3 X X3 X Vs3 420 x 103 x 0.766 x 0.4417
U3 = H, = 2242.714 - - 2100.61 kJ.
103 103
Heat lost per kg of steam during cooling
= U2 - U3 = 2442.8 - 2100.61 = 342.189 kJ.
16. A boiler contains water and steam at atmospheric pressure, all air having been expelled
and the stop valve closed. Find the quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water from this
condition into dry saturated steam at this condition into dry saturated steam at pressure 7 bar,
the stop valve being still closed.
When the stop valve is open and the boiler is supplying dry saturated steam at 7 bar, how
much additional heat is required per kg of steam formed, from feed water at 48°C.
Solution: As the stop valve is closed, steam is being formed at constant volume. As work is
zero at constant volume, the heat to be supplied is the difference of internal energies.
In order to expel the air, the water must be heated to 100°C at atmospheric pressure when the
internal energy is
U, = 419.04 kJ
From steam table at pressure 7 bar
h2 = 697.22 kJ/kg, L2 = 2066.3 kJ/kg,
h2 = 2763.5 kJ/kg, Vs2 = 0.2729 m3/kg
P2 X VS2 7x 105 x0.2729
U2 = H,- = 2763.5 - 2572.47 kJ.
103 103
Quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water into dry saturated steam at 7 bar is given
by
U2 U1 = 2572.47 -419.04 =2153.43 kJ.
Heat of the liquid at 48°C, h = 200.9 kJ
When the stop valve is open the heat required is given by

11,- h = 2763.5 - 200.9 = 2562.6 kJ
Additional heat required = 2562.6-2153.43 = 409.17 kJ/kg.
17. A cylinder contains a mixture of wet steam, 0.92 dry, and air at 85°C, the pressure being
1.55 bar. This is compressed to one-sixth of its original volume, the final temperature being
134°C. Find
(a) the pressure in the cylinder
(b) the dryness fraction of the steam after compression.
Solution: Vapour pressure at 85°C = 0.578 bar
Air pressure at 85°C = 1.55 - 0.578 = 0.972 bar.
Vapour pressure at 134°C = 3.04 bar.
The pressure of the air after compression is given by
PI VI T2 0.972 x 6 x (273 + 134)
= 6.63 bar
132= T, V2 = (273 + 85)
Specific volume of vapour at 85°C = 2.828 m3/kg
Specific volume of vapour at 0.92 dry at 85°C = 0.92 x 2.828 = 2.60176 m3
Specific volume of vapour at I34°C = 0.5983 m3/kg.
Quality of vapour when compressed to 1/6th of the original volume is given by
2.60176
x= - 0.7247 = 72.47%.
6 x 0.5983
18. Exhaust steam leaves a high pressure turbine at a pressure of 2.85 bar, 0.97 dry. This
steam is passed through a reheater which it leaves at a pressure of 2.5 bar and a temperature
of 227°C. Calculate the change in entropy and in internal energy of one kg of steam during its
passage through the reheater.
Solution: From steam table at pressure 2.85 bar.
h = 554.02 kJ/kg, L = 2168.9 kJ/kg, V, = 0.6357 m3/kg
4)„. = 1.6535 kJ/kg K, (1), = 7.009 kJ/kg K.

At pressure 2.5 bar
T, = 127.44°C, V, = 0.7187 m3/kg, h = 535.37 kJ/kg,
L = 2181.5 kJ/kg, = 1.6072 kJ/kg K, 4), =.7.0527 kJ/kg K
= (Ow, +x,(04)s, -41w1) = 1.6535 + 0.97(7.009 - 1.6535) = 6.84833 kJ/kg K
10 )2 = 4 2 C,, 7=
7L-
logy 72 7.0527 + 2.1 log, - 7.51899 kJ/kg K
74 -i-273
127.44
Change of entropy = (02 (1)1 = 7.51899 - 6.84833 = 0.67066 kJ/kg K.
Initial internal energy is given by
Pix, Vs, 2.85 x 105 x 0.97 x 0.6357
= h,+ x,L,- = 554.02 + 0.97 x 2168.9 - - 2482.1137 kJ.
103 103
Final internal energy is given by
P2 VS2( 2;
= h2 + L2 + Cp(Tsup - Ts) T.p)
103
°44
2.5 x 105 x 0.7187 x(4:÷
= 535.37 + 2181.5 +2.1(500 -400.44) - 2701.599 kJ
103
Change in internal energy,
1.12-U,= 2701.599 - 2482.1137 = 219.4853 kJ.
19. Steam at 9.2 bar, 96 per cent dry, expands adiabatically to 3.55 bar, after which it is par-
tially condensed at constant volume until the pressure becomes 0.36 bar. Determine the dry-
ness fraction of the steam in its final state.
Solution: At pressure 9.2 bar
= 2.1038 kJ/kg K, 4, = 6.6151 kJ/kg K
At pressure 3.55 bar
11)„, = 1.7327 kJ/kg K, 4, = 6.9358 kJ/kg K, V, = 0.5173 m3/kg.
At pressure 0.36 bar, Vs = 4.408 m3/kg
(1), = (1)„, + - (1)„) = 2.1038 + 0.96(6.6151 - 2.1038) = 6.4346 kJ/kg K.
,
41, =4), or 6.4346 = 1.7327 +x2(6.9358 - 1.7327) or x2 = 0.9036
V2 = x2Vs2 = 0.9036 x 0.5173 = 0.46747 m3.

As the volume remains constant, the quality is given by
0.46747 = x, x 4.408, x, = 0.106
20. Steam at a pressure of 10.6 bar is superheated to 260°C. Find the temperature and pressure
at which it again becomes saturated after adiabatic expansion. What will be its dryness frac-
tion when it reaches a pressure of 2.15 bar. Specific heat of superheated steam = 2.1 kJ/kg K.
T, = 182.46°C, 4W = 2.1634 kJ/kg K, 4s, = 6.5664 kJ/kg K.
T,„p, 260+ 273
Cup' = C p loge Ts = 6.5664 + 2.1 loge 182.46 + 273 - 6.8965 kJ/kg K.
,
Corresponding to 6.8965 kJ/kg K the pressure is 4 bar.

the pressure at which the steam is saturated after adiabatic expansion = 4 bar.
temperature at which the steam is saturated = 143.63°C
(1)„,, = 1.5549 kJ/kgK,C, = 7.103 kJ/kgK.
As the expansion is adiabatic Cupi =
6.8965 = (1),„, +x3(itIrs3 - cliw3)
6.8965 = 1.5549 +x3(7.103 - 1.5549) x, = 0.962.

21. A closed vessel contains 1 kg of steam at a pressure of 6.4 bar and dryness fraction 0.9.
The vessel is cooled until the dryness fraction falls to 0.6. Neglecting the volume of water,
find (a) the final pressure, (b) the quantity of heat extracted.
Solution: Since this is a constant volume process the specific volume of final steam is given
by Vs2
xi Vs,
x, Vs, = x, Vs, or Vs, -
X2
At pressure P, = 6.4 bar from steam table

h, = 681.6 kJ/kg, L,= 2078 kJ/kg, V,1 = 0.297 m3/kg.
0.9 x 0.297
Vs, = - 0.4455 m'/kg
0.6
The corresponding value of pressure at 0.4455 m3 is 4.1627 bar
At pressure 4.1627 bar,
h, = 610.95 kJ/kg, L2= 2129.4 kJ/kg
H, = h,+ x,L,= 681.6 + 0.9 x 2078 = 2551.8 kJ/kg.
P,x, Vs, 6.4 x 105 x 0.9 x 0.297
U,= H,- = 2551.8 - - 2380.728 kJ/kg
103 103
H2 = 112+ x2L2 = 610.95 + 0.6 x 2129.4 = 1888.59 kJ/kg.
P2x2Vs2 4.1627 x 103 x 0.6 x 0.4455
U,= H, -1888.59 - 1777.321 kJfkg.
103 103
The amount of heat transferred in a constant volume process is equal to the change in internal
energy and is given by U2 -
U2 - U, = 1777.321 - 2380.728 = -603.407 kJ/kg.
the amount of heat transferred = 603.407 kJ/kg
22. A boiler is half filled with water at 15°C and 1.038 bar, the remainder of the volume being
occupied by air and the stop valve is closed. The temperature is then raised to 200°C.
Find (a) the pressure which will now be registered by the gauge
(b) the mass of air which will leave the stop valve per kg of 'steam when
the valve is first opened at this pressure.
Solution: Vapour pressure at 15°C = 0.01704 bar
The partial pressure of air
Pai = 1.038 - 0.01704 = 1.02096 bar.
The pressure of air at 200°C is given by Pa,
D (200 + 73) 473
1.02096 x = 1.676785 bar.
P°2= °I x (15 2273) -
At 200°C saturation pressure = 15.6272 bar
V, = 0.12678 m3.
(a) Total pressure = 1.676785 + 15.6272 = 17.30398 bar.
(b) The mass of air leaving per kg of steam is given by
P V 1.676785 x 105 x 0.12678
m= = = 0.15659 kg/kg of steam
RT 0.287 x 103 x (200 + 273)
23. Dry steam enters a steam pipe at a pressure of 10.6 bar. It passes along the pipe with a
pressure drop of 1.1 bar at constant volume. It is then throttled at constant total heat through a
valve to a pressure of 7.1 bar. Thereafter it is expanded in a cylinder to a final pressure of
1.42 bar according to the law PV = constant . Determine per kg of steam:
(a) the heat lost in passing along the pipe
(b) the change of entropy in passing through the valve
(c) the work done during expansion in the cylinder.
Solution: At pressure P, = 10.6 bar
H1 = 2780.3 kJ/kg, V, = 0.18392 m3/kg.
At pressure P2 = 9.5 bar

h2 = 753.02 kJ/kg, L2 = 2023.1 kJ/kg
Vs2 = 0.20'42 m3/kg, 2 = 2.1172 kJ/kg K

= 6.6041 kJ/kg K.
At pressure P3 = 7.1 bar, h, = 699.72 kJ/kg, L3 = 2064.4 kJ/kg.

Vs3 = 0.2692 m3/kg, 4)„, = 1.9979 kJ/kg K, (130,, = 6.7032 kJ/kg K.
P, 10.6x 105 x1118392

U, = H, = 2780.3 = 2585.3448 kJ/kg.
103 103
The quality of steam at the end of constant volume process is given by x2
Vs, 0.18392 P2x12s2
x2 Vs2 = Vs, or x2= = 0.9006, U2 = h2 x2L2
Vs2 = 0.2042 0V3
9.5 x 105 x 0.9006 x 0.2042

= 753.02 + 0.9006 x 2023.1 = 2400.3165 kJ/kg.
1 03
(a) Quantity of heat lost in passing through the pipe, is given by
Q = U,- U2 = 2585.3448 - 2400.3165 = 185.0283 kJ/kg.
(b) H2 = h2 + x2L2 = 753.02 + 0.9006 x 2023.1 = 2575.0239 kJ/kg.
01)2 = Ow, X2(C2 - Ow) = 2.1172+ 0.9006(6.6041 - 2.1172) = 6.1581 kJ/kg K.
Throttling is a constant enthalpy process.
.*. H2 = h3 + x3L3
2575.0239 = 699.72 +x3 x 2064.4, x, = 0.9084
= = 1.9979 + 0.9084(6.7032 - 1.9979) = 6.2722 kJ/kg K.
Change of entropy in passing through the valve is given by

03 -4)2 = 6.2722 - 6.1581 = 0.1141 kJ/kg K.
(c) The ratio of expansion is given by
V4 P3 7.1
-5
r '113 / 4 - 1.42
Work done during expansion in the cylinder is given by
W = P, x x, x Vs3 log,r = 7.1 x 105 x 0.9084 x 0.2692 log: = 279437.55 J = 279.43755 kJ.
24. Find the internal energy reckoned from water at 0°C of I kg of steam at 16 bar and dryness
0.96. If the steam expands adiabatically in a cylinder to 70 kN/m2, what is its dryness frac-
tion? Also calculate the internal energy of the steam in the second state. How much work is
done by the steam during expansion?
Solution: At pressure 16 bar from steam table
h, = 858.79 kJ/kg, L, = 1935.2 kJ/kg.
Vs, = 0.1238 m3/kg, $w, = 2.3442 kJ/kg K, 0,1 = 6.4218 kJ/kg K.
H, = h, + x,L, = 858.79 + 0.96 x 1935,2 = 2716.582 kJ/kg.

Pix, Vs, 16 x 105 x 0.96 x 0.1238

U, = H, -27 16.582 = 2526.4252 kJ/kg
103 10'
=4)„ +x,(4), - 0„,) = 2.3442 + 0.96(6.4218 - 2.3442) = 6.2587 kJ/kg K.
At pressure 70 kN/m2
h2 = 376.7 kJ/kg, L2 = 2283.3 kJ/kg.
Vs, = 2.365 m3/kg, = 1.1919 kJ/kg K
= 7.4766 kJ/kg K.
As the expansion is adiabatic, the entropy remains constant and the final quality of steam is
given by
6.2587 = 1.1919 + x,(7.4766 - 1.1919) or x, = 0.8062
H2 = h2 + x2L2 = 376.7 + 0.8062 x 2283.3 = 2217.4965 kJ/kg.
P2 X2 70 x 103 x 0.8062 x 2.365
U2 = H2 103 = 2217.4965 = 2084.03 kJ/kg.
103
Work done by the steam during expansion is given by
W = U, - U2 = 2526.4252 -2084.03 = 442.3951 kJ.
25. At a point just after cut-off in a steam engine cylinder the steam pressure was 10.6 bar and
dryness 0.85. After expansion at a point just before release, the pressure was 4.2 bar and dry-
ness 0.8. Assuming that expansion obeys a law PIP' = constant, determine the heat exchange
per kg between the steam and the cylinder walls, and state whether it is a gain or loss by the
steam.
h. = 774.08 kJ/kg, L, =2006.2 kJ/kg, Vs = 0.18392 m3/kg.
H, = h, + x,L, = 774.08 + 0.85 x 2006.2 = 2479.35 kJ/kg.
V, = x, Vs = 0.85 x 0.18392 = 0.156332 m3
P, V, 10.6 x 105 x 0.156332

U, = H, = 2479.35 = 2313.638 kJ/kg.
103 103
At pressure 4.2 bar
/12 = 612.36 kJ/kg, L2 = 2128.4 kJ/kg, Vs, = 0.4417 m3/kg
H2 = h2+ x2L2 = 612.36 + 0.8 x 2128.4 = 2315.08 kJ/kg.
V2 = x2 Vs, = 0.8 x 0.4417 = 0.35336 m'
P21'2 4.2 x 105 x 0.35336

U2 = 2 = 2315.08 = 2166.668 kJ/kg.
103 10'
Change in internal energy is given by
U2 - U, = 2166.668 -2313.638 = -146.97 kJ/kg.
The value of the index n is found as follows:
log7 10.6
2 1°gZ-
n v2 = 0.35336 - 1.135
log= 1°g 0.156332
vi
PiV1 - P2V2 10.6 x 105 x 0.156332 - 4.2 x 105 x 0.35336

Work done W = = 128.153 kJ per kg.
n-1 103(1.135-1)
The heat exchange, Q = W + U,- U, = 128.153 - 146.97 = -18.817 kJ per kg.
As Q comes out to be negative, the steam loses heat.
26. In a boiler trial, where steam is generated at 10.6 bar, a throttling calorimeter is fitted to
the delivery pipe. The calorimeter discharges its steam into a chamber where the pressure is
1.15 bar. What is the maximum degree of wetness that the calorimeter can indicate.
h,= 774.08 kJ/kg, L, = 2006.2 kJ/kg
At pressure 1.15 bar, H2 = 2681.7 kJ/kg.
The maximum degree of wetness will be obtained when the steam is dry saturated at 1.15 bar.
Therefore, we have
H2 = h, + x,L, or 2681.7 = 774.08 +x, x 2006.2
x, = 0.9508.
27. In a combined separating and wire drawing calorimeter the following observations were
taken - total quantity of steam passed through the diaphragm, 23.4 kg; water drained from
the separator 1.2 kg; steam pressure before wire drawing 8.4 bar; temperature of steam on
leaving 112°C; steam pressure on leaving atmospheric.
Find the dryness fraction of steam on entry.
h,= 730.04 kJ/kg, L,= 2041.1 kJ/kg.
H2 = 2676.1 kJ/kg, T,2 = 100°C.
The quality of steam before entering the wire drawing calorimeter is given by
h,+x,L,= H2+ C,,(T,up2-T,2)
730.04 +x, x 2041.1 = 2676.1 + 2.1(385 - 373) or x, = 0.9657
xiM 0.9657 x 23.4
The dryness fraction of the steam on entry is given by x = = 0.9185.
M +m 23.4+ 1.2
28. An engine, is supplied with steam from a boiler through a long pipe line. The steam leav-
ing the boiler is at 14.2 bar and 205°C. Some of the steam at the engine end of the pipe line is
bled off and passed through a throttling calorimeter. The steam temperature entering the
calorimeter is 194.4°C, while the pressure and temperature of the steam after passing through
the calorimeter are 1.05 bar and 115.5°C. respectively.
Determine (a) the heat loss per kg of steam during passage through the pipe, (b) the steam
dryness at the engine and (c) the change in volume per kg of the steam during passage
through the pipe.
Solution: At pressure 14.2 bar, T, = 195.74°C, H = 2790.5 kJ/kg, h = 833.28 kJ/kg
L = 1957.2 kJ/kg, V, = 0.13893 m3/kg.
Degree of superheat = 205 - 195.74 = 9.26°C.
H, = H,„p = 2790.5 + 2.1 x 9.26 = 2809.946 kJ/kg.
At pressure 1.05 bar, T, = 101°C, H = 2677.6 kJ/kg.
H2 = 11,,, p2 = 2677.6 + 2.1(388.5 - 374) = 2708.05 kJ/kg.
The total heat of the steam bled off at the engine end must be equal to 2708.05 kJ/kg.
(a) As there is no pressure drop in the pipe line the heat transferred
Q = H2 - H, = 2708.05 - 2809.946 = -101.896 kJ/kg.
The negative sign indicates that there is a loss of heat.
(b) The dryness fraction of the steam at the engine end is given by
2708.05 = h +xL = 833.28 +x x 1957.2 or x = 0.9578
The volume V, of the superheated steam at the boiler end is given by
(0 + 273)
V, =7::x V, x 0.13893 = 0.14167 m3.
=095.74 + 273)
Volume V2 of the wet steam at the engine end is given by
V2 = X V = 0.9578 x 0.13893 = 0.13306 m3.
(c) Change in volume = 0.14167 - 0.13306 = 0.0086 m3 per kg less .
EXERCISES

1. Steam is a
2. Saturation temperature is at different pressure.
3. Saturation temperature with increase in pressure.
4. Latent heat with increase in pressure.
5. Latent heat is zero at pressure.
6. The value of dryness fraction is than unity.
7. The value of critical temperature is
8. Superheated steam behaves like a
9. The critical pressure is
10. During adiabatic expansion the dryness fraction of steam
Answers
1. vapour 2. different 3. increases
4. decreases 5. critical 6. less
7. 374°C 8. perfect gas 9. 220.9 bar
10. decreases
1. Steam is generated at 800 kN/m2 from feed water at 32°C. Find the heat required to
produce 1 kg of steam (a) when the dryness fraction is 0.8 (b) when the steam is dry
saturated; and (c) when the steam is superheated and temperature of steam is 300°C.
Specific heat of superheated steam may be taken as 2.093 kJ/kg K.
2. The internal energy of 2 kg of steam at a pressure of 8 bar is 4000 kJ. Calculate thy.;
dryness fraction of this steam. Find the increase in internal energy if this steam is
superheated at constant pressure to a temperature of 300°C. Take Cp = 2.1 kJ/kg K.
3. A closed vessel of 0.25 m3 capacity contains steam at a pressure of 9 bar and at 257°C.
Now the vessel is cooled until the pressure falls to 3 bar. Determine
(a) the final quality of steam
(b) the final temperature
(c) the change in internal energy
(d) the heat transferred during the process
Take C, for superheated steam as 2.093 kJ/kg K.
4. The internal energy of 1 kg of steam at 14 bar is 2450 kJ. Find the volume and dryness
fraction of steam. The steam is expanded hyperbolically to a pressure of 5 bar. Deter-
mine its final condition and heat supplied during expansion.
5. Exhaust steam enters a surface condenser at the rate of 300 kg/hr. The pressure in the
condenser is 0.14 bar. The temperature of water in the hot well is 40°C. The cooling
water flows at the rate of 6000 kg/hour. The rise in temperature of cooling water is
18°C. Calculate the dryness fraction of steam entering the condenser. Take specific heat
of water as 4.186 kJ/kg K.
6. Calculate the entropy of steam reckoned above 0°C at a pressure of 11 bar when
(a) the steam is wet, having dryness fraction 0.95, (b) the steam is dry saturated, and
(c) the steam is superheated, the temperature of steam being 210°C.
Take specific heat of superheated steam as 2.3 kJ/kg K.
7. In a combined separating and throttling calorimeter the following observations were
taken:
Pressure before throttling = 11.4 bars
Pressure after throttling = 1.2 bars
Temperature after throttling = 115°C
Mass of water collected in the separator = 0.4 kg
Mass of steam condensed after throttling = 8 kg
Calculate the dryness fraction of steam entering the apparatus if C. = 2 kJ/kg K.
8. Calculate the internal energy of 1 kg of steam at 1 bar and dryness 0.9. If this steam is
compresed to 9 bar according to the law 13 03 = constant, calculate the final dryness
fraction of steam and the change in internal energy.
9. One kg of steam at a pressure of 1.6 MPa and 0.9 dry expands according to the law
PV = constant until its pressure is 0.6 bar. Calculate (a) the final condition of steam,
(b) the change of in enthalpy, (c) the change in internal energy, (d) the work done dur-
ing the process, and (e) the interchange of heat between the steam and the cylinder
walls.
Take Cp = 2.1 kJ/kg K
10. One kg of steam at 17 bar and 245°C is expanded isentropically to 3 bar. Calculate the
final condition and volume of steam at the end of isentropic expansion. Take
Cp = 2.1 kJ/kg K.
11. One kg of steam at a pressure of 8.6 bar and 0.92 dry expands adiabatically at 1 bar and
is then cooled at constant volume to a pressure of 0.14 bar. Calculate the dryness frac-
tion of steam in the final state.
12. The temperature and pressure of steam in the pipe are 315°C and 10 bar. Before the
steam enters the engine cylinder it is throttled down to 6.6 bar. The steam is then
expanded isentropically to 1.4 bar. Determine (a) the condition of steam before isen-
tropic expansion and (b) the condition of steam after isentropic expansion.
Take C,, = 2.1 kJ/kg K.
13. Steam at a pressure of 13.6 bar and 104°C of superheated expands isentropically to
3 bar. The steam is throttled until it is dry saturated. The steam is then heated at con-
stant pressure until the degree of superheat is 55°C. Lastly, the steam is expanded isen-
tropically to 0.08 bar. Determine (a) the final dryness fraction, (b) the heat supplied
during constant pressure heating process, and (c) the available work per kg of steam.
Take C,, of superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/kg K.
14. Steam at 14 bar and 302°C expands isentropically to 3 bar. The steam is throttled until it
is dry saturated. The steam is then heated at constant pressure until the degree of super-
heat is 55°C. Lastly, the steam is expanded isentropically to 0.08 bar. Determine (a) the
final dryness fraction, (b) the heat supplied during constant pressure heating process,
(c) the available work per kg of steam. Take C, of superheated steam as
2.1 kJ/kg K.
SEVEN
Steam Boilers, Boiler

Mountings and
Accessories
7.1 FUNCTION OF A BOILER

A steam boiler or generator is a closed vessel made of steel whose function is to
transfer heat produced by the combustion of fuel to water to produce steam.
The steam so produced may be supplied:
(a) to a steam engine or steam turbine
(b) for industrial process work in sugar factories, cotton mills etc.
(c) for heating installations.
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS

Boilers are generally classified as follows:
(a) Fire tube and water tube boilers
(b) Horizontal, vertical and inclined
(c) Externally fired and internally fired
(d) Locomotive, marine, stationary and portable
(e) Natural circulation and forced circulation.
Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers

The boilers in which the hot gases from the furnace pass through the tubes sur-
rounded by water are known as fire tube boilers. These boilers are not able to
produce steam at high pressure. Due to their simplicity and because of the small
capacity requirements of individual users, these boilers are very popular and are
used in industries. The examples of this type of boilers are Lancashire boiler,
Cochran boiler, Cornish boiler, Nestler boiler, Velcon boiler.
The boilers in which water is circulated through a large number of smaller
diameter tubes surrounded by hot gases are known as water tube. The examples
of this type of boilers are Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, LaMont
boiler, Volex boiler and Benson boiler.
Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined Boilers

Horizontal, vertical and inclined boilers are classified according to the principal
axis of the boiler such as horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Externally Fixed and Internally Fixed Boilers

Externally fixed and internally fixed boilers are classified according to the
position of the furnace.
When the furnace is located outside the boiler shell, then it is known as an
externally fired boiler, example: Babcock and Wilcox boiler. When the furnace
is located inside the boiler shell, then it is known as an internally fixed boiler
example : Lancashire boiler.
Locomotive, Marine, Stationary and Portable Boilers

Locomotive, marine, stationary and portable boilers are classified according to
their use as locomotive, marine, stationary and portable.
Natural Circulation and Forced Circulation Boilers

In case of natural circulation, the circulation of water in the boiler takes place
due to natural convection currents produced by the application of heat as in
Lancashire, Locomotive, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
In case of forced circulation, the circulation of water is achieved by means of
a centrifugal pump. Forced circulation is employed in high pressure boilers i.e.,
LaMont boiler, Benson boiler, Volex boiler.
7.3 TERMS COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN

CONNECTION WITH BOILERS
(a) Boiler shell: It consists of one or more steel plates bent into cylindrical
form and rivetted or welded together. The ends of the shell are closed by means
of flat or curved plates which are called heads. The shell together with the heads
is called the drum. The separate cylindric.al ring is called the course. The shell is
made up of two or more courses.
(b) Setting: It is constructed by brick work. It forms the walls of the furnace
and the combustion chamber. It confines the heat to the boiler and forms a pas-
sage through which the gases pass. The settings provide support for the boilers
as in a Lancashire boilers.
(c) Grate: It consists of cast iron bars upon which fuel is burnt. The cast iron
bars are spaced apart so that air can pass through them for the combustion of
fuel and allow the ashes to fall down. The area upon which the fire rests is called
the grate area and is usually measured in square metres.
(d) Furnace: It is the space above the grate and below the boiler shell in which
the fuel is burnt.
Steam Boilers, Boiler Mountings and Accessories 151
(e) Water space: It is the volume of the shell that is occupied by water.
(f) Steam space: It is the entire volume of the shell, less that occupied by
water and tubes.
(g) It is that surface of the boiler which is exposed to hot
Heating surface:
gases on one side and to water on the other side.
7.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN WATER TUBE AND

FIRE TUBE BOILERS
Table 7.1
Water tube boiler Fire tube boiler

(a) It can generate steam at high pressure (a) It can generate steam up to a pressure
(up to 162 bars abs.) of 24 bars abs.
(b) The rate of steam production is up to (b) The rate of steam production is up to
45 x 104 kg/hr. 9000 kg/hr.
(c) It can produce steam up to a tempera- (c) It can produce steam up to a tempera-
ture of 560°C. ture of 340°C.
(d) The water circulation is good. (d) The water circulation is poor.
(e) The area required for this type of boiler (e) The area required for this type of
is less. (about 5 m2 per 1000 kg/hr.) boiler is more. (about 8 m2 per 1000
kg/hr.)
(f) It is used in large power plants and (f) It is not used in large power plants.
ships.
(g) Operating cost is more. (g) Operating cost is less.
(h) Its transportation and erection is easy. (h) Its transportation and erection is diffi-
cult.
(i) Its overall efficiency with economiser (i) Its overall efficiency with economiser
is about 90 per cent. is about 75 per cent.
7.5 COCHRAN BOILER

Manhole
Chimney
The Cochran boiler is one of the
most popular type of vertical, multi- Shell
tubular, fire tube boiler's. Figure 7.1
shows the Cochran boiler which is
made in sizes up to 2.75 metre
Combustion
diameter and 5.78 metre height. It chamber
has an evaporative capacity of 3640
kg of steam per hour when burning
568 kg of coal per hour, for working Smoke
pressure of 20 bar. Ashpit box
The boiler consists of a vertical Grate
cylindrical shell with a top of hemi-
spherical shape. It has a hemispheri-
cal furnace. It is constructed in one Fig. 7.1 Cochran boiler
piece and has no joints. The fire grate is arranged in the furnace and the ashpit is
below the grate. The hot products of combustion from the firebox enter into the
combustion chamber C through a short flue pipe B. These gases pass through a
number of horizontal flue tubes. The gases then pass to the smoke box S and
then to the uptake or chimney. The back plate of the combustion chamber is
lined with fire bricks. A number of hand holes are provided around the outer
shell for cleaning purposes. These boilers have the advantage of taking up a
comparatively small floor space and are used where space is limited. The boiler
is self-contained, therefore, it does not require any setttings.
7.6 LOCOMOTIVE BOILER

The locomotive boiler is a horizontal fire tube boiler having an internal firebox
(Fig. 7.2).
Steam pipe Safety valve
Chimney
A/ Regulator \ Whistle
Header
0
0
7:1
0
Fr
U
Blast pipe
Barrel Fire bridge
arc
Doors Door
Ash pan
Fig. 7.2 Locomotive boiler
It consists of a cylindrical shell having a rectangular firebox at one end and a

smoke box at the other end. The firebox forms the chamber within which the
fuel is burnt on the grate which is supported in the firebox at the bottom. The
firebox is connected to the smoke box by a number of horizontal smoke tubes.
The hot gasses from the furnace pass through these tubes into the smoke box
and are then discharged from the short chimney. The grate of the boiler is
inclined. A steam dome is placed on the top of the shell and in front of the fire-
box. A stop valve called the regulator is placed in the steam dome. The steam is
taken from the elevated dome to the engine cylinder so that it contains as few
water particles as possible. The steam pipe from the regulator leads to a super-
heater placed in the smoke box and from the superheater, the steam is sent to the
cylinder by pipes passing out from the smoke box to the cylinder. The necessary
draught is obtained by the steam exhausted from the engine cylinder which i:;
discharged through the blast pipe placed in the smoke box to the chimney. A
movable cap is attached to the mouth of blast orifice. A steam blower is also
provided for use when the steam supply to the engine is shut-off.
Advantages of Locomotive boilers
(a) Compactness
(b) High steaming capacity
(c) Portability
(d) Fair economy
Disadvantages of Locomotive boilers
(a) Large flat surface requires sufficient supporting.
(b) Corrosion in the water legs
(c) It is difficult to clean inside.
Specifications of a Locomotive boiler manufactured by Chittaranjan Locomo-
tive works
Length of barrel = 5.21 m
Mean diameter of barrel = 2.1 m
Diameter of ordinary tubes = 5.72 cm
Diameter of superheating tubes = 14 cm
Number of ordinary tubes = 116
Number of superheating tubes = 38
Working pressure = 1.42 MN/m2
Grate area = 4.3 m2
Evaporative Capacity at normal load = 9350 kg per hour at 1.42 MN/m2 and
366 K at the rate of 1750 kg of coal per hour.
7.7 LANCASHIRE BOILER

The Lancashire boiler is a modified form of the cornish boiler. It differs from
the cornish boiler in having two internal fire tubes instead of one. The Lanca-
shire boiler is a fire tube type, internally fired, natural circulation, horizontal
boiler. It has a cylindrical shell of 2 to 3 metres in diameter and 8 to 9.5 metres
long. Main features of the Lancashire boiler and its brick work settings are
shown in Fig. 7.3. It consists of a cylindrical shell with flat ends. The two fur-
nace tubes pass through this. There are two side flues and one bottom flue
formed by brick work setting.
The hot products of combustion pass over the bridge B and travel along the
fire tubes to the back of the boiler where they dip into the bottom flue BF. The
hot gases travel to the front of the boiler through the bottom flue. Here the gases
divide into two parts and travel to the back of the boiler again, through the side
flues (SF). After this these gases enter into the main flue (MF), from where
these are led to the chimney. The dampers are provided to regulate the rate of
BF G))
SF
•=c
1 SF -3,'" -FD
Fig. 7.3 Lancashire boiler
flow of air through the furnace and therefore enable the rate of steam generation
to be controlled. The various mountings fitted on the boiler are — water level
indicator, pressure gauge, stop valve, high steam and low water safety valve,
fusible plug, blow off cock and anti-priming pipe. Manholes are also provided
for cleaning and repairing the boiler. It has an evaporative capacity up to 8500
kg per hour and can operate with working pressure up to 1.47 MN/m2 This
boiler is still used in industry, on account of its simplicity of design, reliability
and freedom from maintenance costs for repairs and tube renewals.
7.8 BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER
This is a water tube boiler made with one or more horizontal drums. The drum is
connected to a series of front end and back end headers by short tubes. These
headers are connected by a large number of water tubes, about 10 cm bore and
about 1 cm thick. These tubes are inclined at an angle of about 15° with the
horizontal. A mud boat is provided at the bottom of the back end header. A hand
hole is also provided in the header, in front of each tube.
The hot gases from the furnace are forced to move upwards between the
water tubes by fire brick baffles. These gases then move downwards between
the tubes and then to the chimney. The movement of gases in this manner facil-
itates the heat transfer to the highest part of the tubes. The draught is regulated
by means of a damper. When the water in the tubes gets heated, it starts rising
into the upper header and enters the boiler. Cold water from the boiler flows to
the lower header to take the place of water which has already entered the boiler.
In this way the circulation of water is produced. The steam, formed is
PG
Fig. 7.4 Babcock and Wilcox boiler
separated out in the drum. The superheater is placed in the combustion chamber
just under the steam and the water drums. It consists of a number of U-tubes
secured at each end to horizontal boxes. Steam formed in the boiler is led to th.;
upper box of the superheater by a vertical T-tube placed in the steam space of
the drum. The T-tube is perforated and acts as an antipriming pipe. The steam
from the upper box passes through U-tubes reaching high temperature, and then
enters the lower connecting box from where it is directed to the main steam
pipe. The diameter of the drum varies from 1 metre to 2 metre and length from 6
metre to 9 metre. Its evaporative capacity varies from 20000 to 40000 kg per
hour and its operating pressure can be obtained up to 1.76 MN/m2.
7.9 BOILER MOUNTINGS
The components which are fitted on the surface of the boiler for complete con-
trol and safety of steam generation process are known as boiler mountings.
The important boiler mountings are: (a) water level indicators, (b) safety
valves, (c) fusible plug, (d) pressure gauge, (e) steam stop valve, (f) feed check
valve, and (g) blow off cock.
Water Level Indicator

Water level indicator is an apparatus whose function is to indicate the level of
water in the boiler.
The water level indicator is

Upper hollow shown in Fig. 7.5. It consists of
casing
a strong glass tube, the ends of
which pass through stuffing
boxes formed in the hollow
Boiler
plate castings which are flanged and
bolted to the boiler. It has two
cocks which control the pas-
sages between the boiler and
the glass tube. It has another
cock known as drain cock or
Stuffing
blow through cock. For proper
box functioning of the indicator in
the working boiler, the drain
cock remains closed and the
other two cocks are kept open
by keeping their handles in ver-
Lower tical position as shown in
casing
Fig. 7.5. Under this condition
Drain
cock the level of water in the glass
tube gives the level of water in
the boiler.
Fig. 7.5 Water level indicator The upper and lower cast-
ings are connected by a vertical
metal tube in which two balls are provided. It provides an alternative arrange-
ment in case the glass tube is broken. During normal working conditions, the
two balls are in position as shown in the figure. When the glass tube is broken,
these balls are forced out to close the passage of water and steam, to the glass
tube. The operator can then easily shut the cocks and replace the glass tube. The
glass tube in guarded with tough glass covers to protect the operator from any
flying pieces of broken glass. It is also provided with plugs for cleaning pur-
poses. Each boiler is provided with two water level indicators.
Safety Valves
Safety valve is an automatic operating valve which does not allow the pressure
of steam in a boiler to exceed the pre-determined maximum working pressure.
It blows off the steam when its pressure in the boiler exceeds the maximum
working pressure.
There are four types of safety valves:
(a) Dead weight safety valve
(b) Lever loaded safety valve
(c) Spring loaded safety valve
(d) High steam and low water safety valve.
Dead weight safety valve

This type of safety valve is illustrated in Fig. 7.6.
Case
Stud Valve
r
Discharge
)7 pipe
I
Steam pipe
Fig. 7.6 Dead weight safety valve
The valve is made of gun metal and rests on a gun-metal sheet secured on the
top of a vertical cast steel pipe bolted to the mounting block which is rivetted to
the top of the boiler shell. The •weights are in the form of cylindrical cast iron
discs. The top land of the valve carries the weight carrier on which the weight
discs can be loaded. A cover is also provided over the weight carrier as shown in
Fig. 7.6. Thus the total load on the valve is the sum of the weight of the carrier,
weight of the cover, and weight of the discs. There is a discharge casing pro-
vided between the steel pipe and weight carrier.
When the steam pressure below the valve exceeds the pre-determined limit,
the valve is lifted up from its seat and the steam escapes to the enclosed dis-
charge pipe which is connected to the discharge casing from where it is directed
outside the boiler house. The valve and its load is prevented from being blown
away, by means of stop ring cast on the inside of weight carrier and stop screw
fitted on the discharge casing.
The dead weight safety valve is suitable for stationary boilers and not for
marine boilers. The disadvantage of the dead weight safety valve in marine
practice is the large weight which has to be carried and reduction in effective
weight when the ship is on the slope of the wave.
Lever loaded safety valve
A lever loaded safety valve is shown in Fig. 7.7.
Lever Load
Fulcrum
3i r 1 Valve
Valve seat
Casing
Fig. 7.7 Lever loaded safety valve
It consists of a cast iron casing secured to the top of the boiler shell. It has a gun
metal valve and a valve seat. The valve is secured inside the casing, and is
loaded with a mild steel lever loaded with a weight at one end and a fulcrum at
the other. The weight is firmly secured to the lever by a pin and is locked so
that no unauthorised person can tamper with it. When the pressure of steam
exceeds the predetermined limit, the valve is lifted off from its seat and the
steam escapes.
Spring loaded safety valve
A spring loaded safety valve, is loaded by means of a spring, instead of dead
weights. The springs used are helical in form with round or square wires. The
spring is made of steel. Figure 7.8 shows a Ramsbottom safety valve which is
mostly used in locomotives.
It consists of a cast iron casing having two valve chests. There are two valves
resting on their valve seats which are mounted on the upper ends of two hollow
valve chests. The two chests are connected by a bridge and a base. The base is
bolted to a mounting block placed on the top of the boiler cover of the firebox.
The valves are kept in position on their seats by a helical spring and a lever. The
lower ends of the two valve chests have a common passage which is connected
to the boiler. The lever has two pivots, one is pinned to the lever while the other
i forged on to it. These pivots rest on the centre of the valves. The lever is
pulled downward by the spring. The lower end of the spring is fixed to a shackle
which is secured to the bridge by a nut. The valves are generally made of gun
metal. In order to test the working of the valves the right end of the lever may be
pressed down. A link is also provided which connects the lever to the bridge. It
prevents the lever being blown off in case of failure or breakage of the spring.
Lever
Valve
Seat
Spring
Block
Body
Steam
Fig. 7.8 Spring loaded safety valve

High steam and low water safety valve
This type of valve is used in Lancashire and Cornish boilers. This valve was
introduced by MIS Hopkinsons Ltd., UK in 1852.
It consists of a lever which is pivoted inside the boiler shell above the water
level. The lever has a balance weight at one end and a float at its other end
which is immersed in water. As long as the float is immersed in water, the lever
is balanced by balance weights. When the water level falls down, the float is
uncovered and the balance weight is no longer sufficient to balance the lever.
Thus the right end of the lever dips down. This operation pushes the rod in the
upward direction, the valve is lifted from its seat and steam escapes with a loud
noise. This acts as a warning for the boiler attendant, to inject water into the
boiler to prevent damage to the furnace tubes due to overheating. When the
pressure inside the boiler exceeds the working pressure, then the lever type
safety valve will operate through the main valve.
Fusible Plug
A fusible plug is fitted in the crown plate of the furnace and helps in extin-
guishing the fire when the water level in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit
thereby preventing an explosion which may take place due to overheating of the
furnace plate.
N.N\-:Ny \;
'///
Dead
loads
Fig. 7.9 High steam and low water safety valve
There are many designs of the

Fusible Hexagonal fusible plug. The fusible plug
metal flange generally used in Lancashire and
other boilers is shown in
Fig. 7.10. It consists of a hollow
gun metal plug B and a hollow
gun metal conical plug C. Similar
grooves are cut on the outer sur-
face of C and on the inner surface
of B. When the fusible metal is
poured in the annular space
between B and C, they are locked
together. Then the assembly of B
and C is screwed on a hollow gun
metal body A. The gun metal
body is screwed on the crown
Fig. 7.10 Fusible plug plate of the furnace. When the
working level of water in the
boiler is normal, the fusible plug is covered with water. When the water level
falls too low in the boiler, the upper part of the plug gets uncovered. The heat of
the furnace heats the plug and the fusible metal melts, so that the inner plug C
falls down creating a hole. The water and steam from the boiler then rushes in
the furnace and the fire is extinguished. Before starting the boiler again a new
fusible plug should be used in place of the old one.
Pressure Gauge
An instrument which measures pressure is known as pressure , gauge. Figure
7.11 shows a Bourdon pressure gauge.
Pointer
Pinion
Spring tube
Toothed sector
Fig. 7.11 Pressure gauge
It consists of a curved bronze tube of elliptical section. One end of the tube is
pluged while the other end is secured to a hollow block threaded at the bottom
where it is connected to the siphon pipe The siphon pipe contains water which
fills the Bourdon tube. The pressure of steam acting through the water, makes
the section circular. This action moves the free end of the tube outward. The
free end of the tube is connected to a lever of the toothed arc, through a link.
The toothed arc meshes with a pinion on the spindle on which a pointer is
mounted. The pointer indicates the pressure on the dial. The siphon is filled with
water to prevent the contact of hot steam with the Bourdon tube, otherwise due
to overheating of the tube its accuracy will be permanently affected.
Steam Stop Valve

The function of the steam stop valve is to stop or allow the flow of steam from
the boiler to the main steam pipe. This valve can be operated manually or auto-
matically.
The valve is placed on the highest Hand wheel

part of the steam space of the boiler
and is connected to a steam pipe which
supplies steam to a prime-mover. It
consists of a gun metal valve con-
nected to the lower end of the spindle
in such a way that with the rotation of
the spindle, the valve will not rotate
but will move up and down depending
upon the direction of rotation. The
spindle has a hand wheel at the top for
rotation. The valve seat is secured to
the cast iron main body. The quantity
of steam supplied can be regulated by
the rotation of the spindle through the
hand wheel.
Feed Check Valve
The feed check valve is placed in the
feed pipe to control the flow of water
into the boiler. It is a non-return valve
which permits the flow of water in one Fig. 7.12 Steam stop valve
direction only and automatically pre-
Hand wheel
vents the back flow of water from the
boiler when the feed water pump is not
working. One design of feed check
valve is shown in Fig. 7.13.
It consists of a valve whose lift can I—
he controlled by the lower end of the
spindle. The lower end of the spindle To
boiler
can be raised or lowered by the rota- L
tion of the hand wheel. The water will
continue to flow through the valve to
the boiler as long as the pressure of the
water inside is less than the pump
pressure. In case of pump failure or
stoppage, the valve acts as a check
valve and closes against its seat auto-
matically due to pressure difference.
Thus, the back flow of water from the
Water from
boiler is prevented. feed pump
Fig. 7.13 Feed check valve

Blow Off Cock

A blow off cock is fitted at the lowest part of the boiler for the purpose of emp-
tying the boiler when necessary and to periodically remove the sediments col-
lected at the bottom of the boiler. By opening the blow off cock the sediments
can be removed by discharging a portion of the water.
Guard
Yoke Shank
imm urn
RES Sum
Gland il PLacking
I Ita
rm
=VW
ranber" Plug Set Valve
screw body
Fig. 7.14 A blow off cock
It consists of a conical plug having a rectangular opening. The plug fits and
can be rotated in a body having a through hole in it. When the hole in the plug is
brought in line with hole in the body, by rotating the plug, the water will start
flowing through it. The flow of water can be stopped by rotating the plug, so
that the solid portion of the plug comes in front of the opening in the body. A
stuffing box is provided to prevent the leakage of water. The plug can be rotated
by means of a box spanner.
7.10 BOILER ACCESSORIES

The appliances installed to increase the efficiency of the boiler are known as
boiler accessories.
The important boiler accessories are: (a) economiser, (b) superheater, (c) air
preheater, (d) feed pump, and (e) injector.
Economiser
An economiser or feed water heater is an appliance in which the feed water is
heated before it is supplied to the boiler. Economiser is placed between the
boiler and the chimney.
Green's vertical tube economiser is shown in Fig. 7.15.
Worm wheel
Pulley
Hot
water
Safety
valve
Scraper
Soot chamber
Fig. 7.15 Green's vertical tube economiser
It consists of a large number of vertical tubes of cast iron 2.75 m long 1 cm

thick and with an external diameter of 11.5 cm. These tubes are connected at the
top and bottom by two horizontal pipes and are placed in the main flue between
the boiler and the chimney. The water is pumped to the lower horizontal pipe
which then flows through the vertical tubes. The water becomes heated by
absorbing heat from the flue gas which passes over the tubes. The hot water
enters the upper horizontal pipe and is fed to the boiler. To remove the deposits
of soot from the surface of the tubes, scrapers are provided which are connected
by means of a chain passing over the pulleys. Otherwise the efficiency of the
economiser will decrease. Each group of two scrapers is controlled by one
chain. These scrapers move up and down slowly with a speed of about 1.25 cm
per second over the surfaces of the tubes. Each tube is tested separately before
assembly. The two ends of the tubes taper in opposite direction so that all the
tubes in a section may be pressed into top and bottom headers in one operation.
The completed section is subjected to a pressure test and thorough examination.
By pass arrangements for the furnace gases and feed water must always be
provided so that the economiser may be put out of action when necessary.
Superheater
A superheater is one of the most important accessories of the boiler. The func-
tion of the superheater is to increase the temperature of saturated steam without
increasing its pressure. It is an integral part of the boiler. A superheater is
located in the path of the hot furnace gases. Figure 7.16 shows a Sudgen's
superheater. This type of superheater is used in most of the low pressure boilers
especially Lancashire and Cornish boilers.
Main steam
pipe
B
Water
level
Bottom flue Down take

Damper
Fig. 7.16 Sudgen's superheater
Sudgen's superheater consists of two mild steel boxes known as headers

which are connected by a number of steel U-tubes. The ends of these tubes are
expanded into the headers. When the superheater is in operation the valve A is
closed. The wet steam from the boiler enters the right header through the valve
C. The steam flows through the nest of U-tubes where it receives heat from the
hot flue gases and becomes superheated. The superheated steam then passes to
the discharge header and then to the main steam pipe connected to one end of
the discharge header through the valve B.
The overheating of the superheater tubes is prevented by using a damper
which is controlled by the handle H. It controls the flow of flue gases to the
superheater chamber. When the- damper is horizontal the hot flue gases pass
round the superheater tubes, but when the damper is vertical, the hot flue gases
pass directly to the bottom flue. If the damper is placed in an intermediate posi-
tion, some of the flue gases will pass over the superheater tubes and the
remainder will pass directly to the bottom flue. Thus, the required degree of heat
for superheating may be obtained by changing the position of damper. The

superheater is placed at the back of the boiler where the temperature is not less
than 500°C. When the boiler is initially fired, there is no steam in the tubes. In
that case either the tubes are filled with water or the damper is kept closed to
avoid overheating.
Air Preheater
Flue gas inlet
Air preheater is an appliance which recov-
Air
ers heat from the flue gases and transfers outlet
the same to the air before it passes into the
furnace for combustion. It is placed
between the economiser and chimney. The
overall efficiency of the plant may be
increased by 10 per cent by its use. Air
inlet
There are two types of air preheaters —
To
(a) recuperative and (b) regenerative chimney
In a recuperative air preheater, the heat Flue gas
outlet
from the flue gases is transferred to air
through a metallic medium. In a regenera- Soot
tive air perheater, air and flue gases are hopper
made to pass alternatively through the
matrix. When the hot gases pass through Soot
the matrix it receives heat from the hot
gases and transfers it to the cold air. The
preheating of air helps the burning of low Fig. 7.17 Air preheater
grade fuel, thus permitting a reduction in
excess air and thereby increasing the efficiency.
Feed Pump
A feed pump is an appliance used to deliver the feed water to the boiler. Feed
pumps may be either reciprocating or rotary type. Rotary pumps are usually
high speed centrifugal pumps. The reciprocating pumps may be either single
acting or double acting.
Duplex feed pump

The duplex feed pump is a double acting independent reciprocating feed pump.
In this pump there are two simple steam engine cylinders placed side by side.
The pressure of steam acts directly on the piston to move the water. Each pump
has one steam and one water cylinder. A D-slide valve is used to control the
admission and exhaust of steam. The slide valve in each cylinder steam chest is
operated by the crosshead on the piston rod of the opposite cylinder through an
arrangement of rods and rocker arms. The pumps work alternately. This system
gives continuous supply of feed water.
Delivery Air cock

valves
Steam
Suction
valves
Steam
cylinder Drain Stufftng Crosshead
box Water
cock Piston Drain
cylinder
rod plug
Fig. 7.18 Feed pump
Injector
An injector is an appliance used to feed water into vertical and locomotive boil-
ers using live steam from the same boiler. It consists of three jets — steam jet,
suction jet, combining and delivery jet.
The steam expands in the steam nozzle where its pressure drops but its
velocity increases. As the steam passes across space between steam and suction
nozzles a vacuum is developed in the suction chamber. The water is drawn into
the suction chamber from the feed tank. The high speed steam jet forces the
water along with the steam into the combining and delivery jet. Here the steam
is condensed and the delivery jet receives the water and the condensate. The
delivery jet is so designed that a considerable amount of kinetic energy of the jet
changes into pressure energy which is sufficient to force the water in the boiler.
In the begining water and steam escapes out through the overflow valve as long
as sufficient pressure is not developed in the discharge jet. There will be no
overflow when the steam and water are in proper ratio. For the injector to act
properly there is a definite relation between the quantity of steam and water
entering the injector. When the ratio of steam to water is greater, the pressure of
steam is lower. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.19.
Steam
pipe
Spring
Steam
chamber Valve
Nozzle
Mixing tube
Suction (Water supply)
Nonreturn
valve
Mixing
chamber
Divergent
tube
Overflow
Nonreturn
valve
Delivery
Fig. 7.19 Steam injector

EIGHT
Draught
8.1 DEFINITION OF DRAUGHT

Draught may be defined as the small difference of pressure which causes a flow
of gas in order to maintain the continuous flow of fresh air into the combustion
chamber.
8.2 OBJECTS OF PRODUCING DRAUGHT IN A

BOILER
Draught is produced in a boiler to:
(a) Supply sufficient quantity of air for the complete combustion of fuel.
(b) Exhaust the gases of combustion from the combustion chamber.
(c) Exhaust the products of combustion to the atmosphere through the
chimney.
8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF DRAUGHT

The following flow chart gives the classification of draughts:
Draught
Natural draught Artificial draught
Steam jet Mechanical draught (fan draught)
Induced Forced draught

draught (turbine draught)
Induced fan Balanced Forced fan
draught draught draught
Natural Draught
Natural draught is produced by the use of chimney and therefore it is also
known as chimney draught. It is produced due to the difference of densities
between the column of hot gases inside the chimney and the cold atmospheric
air outside the chimney.
Determination of the height and diameter of the chimney
Let m = mass of air supplied per kg of fuel.
Tg = Average absolute temperature of chimney gases in K
Tu = Absolute temperature of the air outside the chimney in K
Therefore the mass of the flue gases formed = (rn + 1) kg per kg of fuel burnt.
Since the volume of solid or liquid fuel burnt is small as compared to the
volume of air supplied, it may be neglected. The volume of chimney gases pro-
duced may be taken as equal to the volume of air supplied.
One kg of air occupies 0.7734 m3 at N.T.P.
Since the volume of gas is proportionate to its absolute temperature (by
Charles' law), volume of chimney gases at
0.7734 nt x Tg
TK=
273 m3/kg of fuel burnt.
The density of the chimney gases at
(m + 1) (m + 1) 273 3
Tg K = x kg/m .
0.7734 m x 273 03734 m Tg
353 m 1
= x kg/m3
Tg m
Similarly, the density of atmospheric air at
1 273 3
TaK x kg/m
0.7734 Ta
0.7734 m x 7`71-3-
353 3
= kg/m
Ta
Let H be the height of the chimney in metres measured from the grate level, h be
the draught pressure in mm of water, and A be the area of the furnace grate in m2
Pressure exerted by a column of hot chimney gas of H metre height
pgAH 2
= —pgH N/m
A
= density x 9.81 H NIm2

Draught 171
Fig. 8.1 Chimney draught

273
x x 9.81 H N/m2
= 0.7734 m Tg
Similarly, pressure exerted by a column of cold outside air of the same area and
H metre height
1 273 2
x x 9.81 H N/m
0.7734 T
Let P = Pressure causing the draught in N/m2.
As the pressure causing the draught is due to the pressure difference due to col-
umn of hot gases inside the chimney and the pressure due to an equal column of
outside cold air,
1 x 273 m + 1 273
P x 1 x 9.81 H
[ 0.7734 To 0.7734 m Tg
273 x 9.81H[ 1 m +1 1
x N/m2 (8.1)
0.7734 To m Tg
Again P= pg h =1000 x 9.81 x h — 9.81h N/m2

1000
Putting the value of P in Eq. (8.1)
273 x 9.81H[ 1 m +1 1
9.81h = x
03734 To m Tg
[1 m+1 1
h = 353H x mm of water (8.2)
m Tg
Equation (8.2) can be modified to express the draught in terms of column of hot
gases. Let hg be the height of column of hot gases which will produce the pres-
sure P.
Pressure exerted by this column of hot gases,
P = density x 9.81 xhg
m +1 273
x x 9.81 xhg (8.3)
0.7734 m Tg
Equating Eqs (8.3) and (8.1),
m +1 273 273 x9.81H[ 1 m+1 1
x x 9.81 xhg = x
0.7734m Tg 0.7734 Ta Tg
m
hg = H[
4. i x 7, 1 (8.4)
m
The velocity of the gases passing through the chimney is given by

V =-\2,sig assuming there is no loss.
If the pressure loss in the chimney is equivalent to a hot gas column of h, metre,
then
h
V = \12g (hg — hi ) = 4.43- \I AI 1 — h'= (8.5)
g
where K = 4.43 1 ---

8
K = 0.825 for brick chimney

K = 1.1 for steel chimney.
The mass of gases flowing through any cross section of the chimney is given by
mg =A xVxpg kg/s
D2 xV xpg = mg
4
D =1.128'\l mg (8.6)
i V .pg
where D is the diameter at any cross section of the chimney.
Condition for maximum discharge through the chimney
mT
V = -42.g .hg when h1 = 0 = "N 2g H x g —1
m +1 Ta
Draught 173
As the density of flue gases is proportional to -77-, the mass of the hot gas dis-
charged per second is given by
K m T Tg
M=— 2g I-1( x 1)
g Tg m +1 Ta
where K is a constant of proportionality.
The above equation may be written as
C M T2
M =T X
Mg x —1
g m +l Ta
where C is another constant.
m 1 1
mg =-N
C x
m +1 Ta.Tg Tg
Differentiating M8 with respect to Tg for maximum discharge we get,
m 1 2
,
dMg m+• Ta.T8 Tg
=CXX
Tg 2 ..\1 m 1 1
m + I X Ta.Tg T 2
g
dMg _
For maximum discharge, 0
dTg — .
Therefore, the numerator of the above expression is zero.

m 1 2 m 1 2
... x = x —
m + 1 Ta.T; T.: m+l Ta Tg
m +1 m+1
Tg = 2x xTa Tg =2Ta x (8.7)
m m
Putting the value of Tg in Eq. (8.4) we get,
[ m 2 x÷
m I xT„
x 1= H(2 —1) = H metres.
m+1 Ta
Therefore, when maximum discharge takes place the height of the column of
hot gas which would produce a draught will be equal to the height of the chim-
ney. Putting the value of Tg in Eq. (8.2) we get
176.5H
h— (8.8)
Ta
Efficiency of a chimney
A certain minimum temperature is required to produce a given draught with a
given height of the chimney. The temperature of the flue gases leaving a chim-
ney in case of natural draught is higher than in case of artificial draught. There-
fore, the heat carried away by the flue gases is more in case of natural draught.
This leads to a reduction in the boiler efficiency.
Let T1 = Absolute temperature of the flue gases leaving the chimney in the
natural draught system.
T2 = Absolute temperature of the flue gases leaving the chimney in the
artificial draught system.
C, = Mean specific heat of the flue gases.
The extra heat carried away by 1 kg of flue gas due to higher temperature
required to produce the natural draught =1 x Cp(T,— T2) kJ.
The draught pressure produced by the natural draught system in metre of hot
gases
hg = x —1
m +1 Ta
The maximum energy this lead would give to 1 kg of flue gas

Tm
m.g.hg =9.81xlit x; 1) Nm.
m+i
9.81 xH( m T8
x k j.
1000 m +1 To
Efficiency of the chimney
9.81 x H [ m Tg
1000 m +1 XT.- - 1
(8.9)
Cp(T,— T2)
Draught losses
The draught losses occur due to the following reasons:
(a) The frictional resistance offered by the flues and gas passages during
the flow of gas (1 mm of water).
(b) Bends in the gas flow circuit (1.25 mm of water).
(c) The friction head in different equipments as grate, economiser, super-
heater.
(d) Part of the total draught is used to impart velocity to the flue gases.
The draught losses in some boilers and their equipments are given below:
Lancashire or Locomotive boiler = 6.5 to 7.5 mm of water
Babcock and Wilcox boiler = 5 to 9 mm of water
Stirling boiler = 13 mm of water
Draught 175
Superheater = 3.8 mm of water

Economiser = 13 to 40 mm of water
Air preheater = 25 to 50 mm of water
The drop in draught in the fuel bed depends upon the kind, size and amount of
coal burnt per hour and the design of the furnace. The drop in draught is zero for
gas, oil or pulverised fuel.
The total draught loss in a chimney is 20% of the total draught produced by
it. Hence, available draught is about 80% of the total static draught.
Artifical Draught
Natural draught is dependent on the climatic conditions and it becomes less
when the air temperature outside is high. In large steam power plants the
draught required is high (300 mm of water). In most of the modern power
plants, the draught used must be independent of the atmospheric conditions. To
meet the desired high draught requirements, which is independent of the cli-
metic conditions, an artificial draught is created. If the draught is produced by a
fan, then it is known as fan (mechanical) draught and if it is produced by steam
jet, then it is known as steam jet draught.
For small installations and in locomotives, steam jet draught is used, while
mechanical draught is used in central power stations.
Steam jet draught
It is an artifical draught. It may be of forced type or induced type.
A induced steam jet draught is shown in Fig 8.2. It is used in a locomotive
boiler. The exhaust steam from the non-condensing engine is passed through the
nozzle which is located near the smoke box. It induces a flow of gases through
the tubes, ash pit, grate and flues creating a pressure below that of the atmo-
sphere in the smoke box.
Smoke Stack
box
.1(
Hot
gases
Steam -a<
nozzle
Exhaust steam
from steam engine
Fig. 8.2 Induced type steam jet draught used for locomotive boilers
Advantages of steam jet draught

(a) It is simple and economical.
(b) With this system many classes of low grade fuels can be used.
(c) It occupies minimum space.
(d)• It requires little attention.
(e) Its maintenance cost is nil.
(f) With this system the draught is automatically adjusted to suit the boiler
requirements.
Disadvantage of steam jet draught
It cannot be started until high pressure steam is available.
Forced draught In a forced draught system, a fan or blower is installed near or
at the base of the boiler grate. The fan delivers air to the furnace under pressure
varying from 2.5 cm to about 7.5 cm of water. This draught system is known as
positive draught system or forced draught system because the pressure of air
throughtout the system is above the atmospheric pressure.
Induced draught If the fan is placed near or at the base of the chimney then the
system is known as induced draught system. The pressure over the fuel bed is
reduced to a level below the atmospheric pressure by the fan. By creating a par-
tial vacuum in the furnace the products of combustion are drawn from the main
flue and they go up the chimney.
This draught is used when air preheaters and economisers are provided with
the boiler.
Comparison between forced draught and induced draught The following are
the advantages of the forced draught system over the induced draught system.
(a) The power required by the forced draught fan is less than that required
by the induced draught fan as the former handles only cold air.
(b) A forced draught fan does not require water cooled bearings.
(c) In a forced draught system there is no chance of air leakage into the
furnace because the pressure inside the furnace is above the atmo-
spheric pressure.
(d) When the doors are opened for firing in case of forced draught, there is
no heat loss due to inrush of cold air through the furnace doors.
Mechanical draughts
Mechanical draught is a draught induced by a fan or other mechanical means.
Advantages of mechanical draught
(a) It increases the evaporative power of the boiler.
(b) It is more economical.
(c) Low grade fuel can be used.
(d) Easy control of combustion and evaporation.
(e) It produces more draught.
(f) The flow of air through the grate and furnace is uniform.
Draught 177
It prevents the formation of smoke as complete combustion is possible.

It increases the efficiency of the plant.
It reduces the height of the chimney.
It is not affected by the atmospheric temperature.
It reduces the fuel consumption. About 15% of fuel is saved for the
same amount of work.
Disadvantages of mechanical draught
(a) Its initial capital cost is high.
(b) Its running cost is also high.
(c) Its maintenance cost is high.
Balanced draught It is the combination of induced draught system and forced

draught system. In this system the forced draught fan overcomes the resistance
in the air preheater and chain grate stoker while the induced draught fan over-
comes draught losses through boiler, economiser, air preheater and connecting
flues.
Power required to drive a draught fan
Let P = Draught pressure in bar
V = Volume of air or gas handled by the fan per second in m3
= Efficiency of the fan
x 1135 x 17
Power required to drive the fan = kW (8.10)
x 1000
In case of forced draught fan the volume of air handled can be calculated as
follows.
Let in = mass of air supplied per kg of fuel burnt
M = mass of fuel burnt
Amount of air supplied per second = m x M kg.
Let V, = Volume of one kg of air at N.T.P
( 7734m 3)
T0 = Absolute temperature of air at N.T.P (273 K)

Ta = Absolute temperature of outside cold air
To 3
V = in x M x Vo x — m per second
To
Putting the value of V in Eq. (8.10),

Power required to drive a forced draught fan or Brake power of motor
Px105 xm xMxVo xT„
kW (8.11)
rix To x 1000
In case of induced draught fan the volume V is calculated as follows:

The mass of the flue gases formed per kg of fuel = (m + 1) kg.
Thus, for M kg of fuel burnt per second, the mass of the flue gases handled by
the induced draught fan per second = M (m + 1) kg.
If Tg be the absolute temperature of the flue gases then
T
V -= M07/ + 1) X Vo X m3 per/second
To
Putting this value of Vin Eq. (8.10).
Power required to drive an induced draught fan or Brake power of motor
.px105 xM(m +1)x Vo xT,

kW (8.12)
1 X To
Power required to drive induced draught fan in + 1 Tg

.. x (8.13)
Power required to drive forced draught fan Ta
where Tg = Absolute temperature of flue gas handled by induced draught fan

Ta = Absolute temperature of air handled by forced draught fan
m = Amount of air used to burn 1 kg of fuel.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A 30 m high chimney is full of hot gases at a temperature of 300°C. The air supplied for the
complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel is 18 kg. If the temperature of the outside air is 25°C,
find the draught (a) in terms of water column and (b) in terms of column of hot gases.
Solution: Given, H = 30 m, Tg = 300°C = 300 + 273 = 573 K
in = 18 kg, To = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K

(a) The draught in mm of water column is given by
1 m+1 1 1 18+1 • 1
" = 35311[77 m x T5 = 353 x 3° [ 298 18 x 573)
= 16.028 mm of water column.

(b) The draught in terms of column of hot gases is given by
[ T [ 18 573
=H —1 = 30 1 = 24.648 metres of hot gas column.
m m+ 1 x T,a 18 +1x 298
2. Estimate the height of a chimney to produce a static draught of 20 mm of water if the mean
temperature of flue gases in the chimney is 250°C and the temperature of outside air is 20°C.
The densities of atmospheric air and flue gases at NTP are 1.293 and 1.34 kg/cu. meter
respectively. [D.M.E.IF 86%92]
1.293 x 273
Solution: Density of air at 20°C = — 1.206 kg/m'
(20 + 273)
1.34 x 273
Density of flue gases at 250°C — 0.7 kg/m'.
(250 + 273)
Draught 179
Pressure difference is given by P = 9.81H(pa,r — pg) N/m2
But P= 9.81 H N/m2 = 9.81 x 20 N/m2.
9.81 x 20 = 9.81H(1.206 — 0.7) H = l.206_0,7 _396 m.
3. What should be the height of chimney if a static draught of 20 mm of water is to be pro-

duced. The mean flue gas temperature in the chimney is 270°C and the temperature of atmo-
spheric air is 20°C. The barometer reads 760 mm Hg. The characteristic gas constant R for air
is 0.287 kJ/kg K and for chimney gas it is 0.255 kJ/kg K. [D.M.E—II'85]
Solution: Density of air at 20°C is given by
1 P 1.01325 x 102
Pair - = 1.2049 kg/m3
V RT 0.287 x (20 + 273)
1.01325 x 102
Density of flue gases at 270°C is given by pg = = 0.7317 kg/m'
0.255 x (273 + 270)
Pressure difference is given by P = 9.81 H (p,,,— pg) Wm'
But P = 9.81 h. NIm2 = 9.81 x 20 N/m2
9.81 x 20 = 9.81 H (1.2049 — 0.7317)
20
H= = 42.265 metres.
0.4732
4. A boiler is equipped with a 25 m high chimney. The ambient temperature is 26°C and the
temperature of the flue gases in the chimney is 310°C. The quantity of air supplied to the
boiler is 19 kg per kg of fuel burnt. Determine
(a) the theoretical draught produced in cm of water.
(b) the velocity of the flue gases in the chimney if 55% of the theoretical draught is lost in
friction at the grate and passage.
Solution: Given, H = 25 m, Ta = 26°C = (26 + 273) = 299 K
Tg = 310°C= (310+ 273)= 583 K
to = 19 kg
(a) The theoretical draught in mm of water is given by
[1 + 1 1 = 353 x 25 [ 1 19 + 1 1
h = 353H x x
To In Tg 299 19 583
= 13.581 mm of water = 1.3581 cm of water.

The draught produced in terms of height of a column of hot gas in metre is given by
Iig =H[ x—
+ 1 71,
19 583
= 25 [ x — 1]= 21.308 m of hot gas column.
19 + 1 299
As 55% draught is lost in friction, the available draught is h„, = 21.308(1 — 0.55) = 9.588 m.
Let V be the velocity of the flue gases in m/s
. V = 42 x 9.81 x9.588 = 13.716 m/s.
5. Find the draught produced in mm of water by a chimney 40 m high and discharging 20 kg

of flue gases per kg of fuel burnt in the combustion chamber. The temperature of the flue
gases and ambient air are 270°C and 23°C respectively. Assuming that the diameter of the
chimney is 1.5 m and 30% of the theoretical draught is lost in friction, find the mass of the
flue gases passing through the chimney per minute. la M.E-11 '84]
Solution: Given, H = 40 m, m = 19 kg, Tg = 270°C, T„ = 23°C
The draught produced in mm of water is given by

1 m+1 1 1
Ii = 353 H [ — ]— 353 x 40 [- x = 20.33 mm of water
m xT g 296 19 543
m Tg 19 543
= l x 11= 40 ko x — = 29.709 m
H[m Ta
As 30% draught is lost in friction, the available draught is h:, = 29.709(1 — 0.3) = 20.796 m
The velocity of the flue gases is given by V = ArfiC= x 9.81 x 20.796 = 20.199 m/s
353 in + 1 353
The density of the flue gas is given by p9 = T x 543 x 19
20 = 0.684 kg/m3
m
Mass of the flue gases flowing through the chimney is given by
mg =A x V x p9 x 60 kg/min = i
i(1.5)2 x 20.199x 0.684 x 60 = 1464.9055 kg/min.
6. Calculate the static draught produced by a chimney of 35 m height when the mean gas
temperature is such as to cause the weight of these gases discharged in a given time to be
maximum. The temperature of the atmospheric air is 25°C. 15 kg of air per kg of coal is
required for complete combustion. [D.M.E-II'93]
Solution: Given, H = 35 m, = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K, m = 15 kg.
+1
For maximum discharge Ts = 27'a x — 2 x 298 x 15 + 1 = 635.733 K.
15
The draught in mm of water column is given by
[l m +1 1
h= 353 H x
m
1 15 + 1 1
= 353 x 35 [ — 20.729 mm of water.
298 15 x 635.733
Total static draught produced in a column of hot gases is equal to the height of the chimney
which is 35 m,
7. The draught produced by a 32 m high chimney is 16 mm of water. The temperature of the
flue gases and air is 300°C and 30°C respectively.
The coal burnt in the combustion chamber contains 82% carbon, 5% moisture and the rest ,
is ash. Neglecting losses and assuming that the volume of burnt products of combustion is
equivalent to the volume of air supplied and that complete combustion of fuel takes place,
calculate the amount of excess air supplied.
Solution: Given, H = 32 m, h = 14 mm of water, T9, = 300°C = 300 + 273 = 573 K
To = 30°C = 30 + 273 = 303 K

1 m+ 1 1
h = 353H [ y,---”7-XT,
Draught 181
1 in+1 x 1
16 = 353 x 32 [
303 in 573
in +1 [ 1
- 573 1x6 32 - 1.079
303 353
m = 12.582 kg/kg of coal.

C+02 =CO2 12+32=44
32 8 8 100
1 kg of carbon requires —
12 = 3- kg of oxygen and 3- x —
3 = 11.594 kg of air. One kg of
coal contains 0.82 carbon. Therefore the air required for complete combustion
= 11.594 x 0.82 = 9.507 kg/kg of coal.
12.582 - 9.507
Amount of excess air supplied - x 100 = 32.34%
9.507
8. A chimney of 45 m height is discharging the hot flue gases at 325°C. The amount of air
supplied is 18 kg per kg of fuel burnt. The temperature of the outside air is 27°C. Calculate
(a) the draught produced in mm of water column, (b) the efficiency of the chimney if the
maximum temperature of artificial draught is 155°C (take the specific heat of flue gas as
1.005 kJ/kg K), (c) the percentage heat spent in natural draught system, and (d) the tempera-
ture of the flue gases for maximum discharge and the corresponding draught produced.
The calorific value of fuel is 30000 kJ/kg.
Solution: Given, H = 45 m, T, = 325°C = 325 + 273 = 598 K
m = 18 kg, Tr, = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K.
[1 m +1 I
(a) h = 353H x
T, in Tg
[ 1 18 + 1
= 353 x 45 x 1 - 24.91 mm of water.
300 18 598
Draught produced in terms of height of a column of hot gas is given by
T., - 18 598
ii, = H[ m . l x T
in + 1 =45[ 1 x TOT' - 1] = 39'978 m.
The maximum energy which total static head of 39.978 metre will impart to 1 kg of flue
1 x 9.81 x 39.978
gas = ni.g.hg . = 0.3921 kJ
1000
Extra heat carried away-by one kg of flue gas due to higher temperature required to produce
the natural draught = 1 x 1.005(598 -428) kJ= 170.85 kJ.
0.3921,
(b) The efficiency of the :'• -*+^ = 170.85 x 100 = 0.229%
(c) Extra heat carried -Way by the flue gases per kg of coal = 19 x 170.85 = 3246.15 IJ
3246.15
Percentage heat smut in natural draught system = 100 = 10.14%
32000 x
(d) For maxim: discharge the temperature of flue gases is given by
m +1. 18 ,
Tg = 2 7
. .,X
2x 300 x --
= = 633.3.s K - 3,•6.13°C.
ni 11
The corresponding draught produced

(1 +1x 1 )
h = 353 x 45 = 26.47 mm ,of water.
300 1818 633.33
The corresponding height of column of hot gases
18 633.33
hg =
45 [ 18+1 x 300 1] = 45 m
This is a check, since under maximum discharge condition height of column of hot gases
producing the draught is equal to the height of the chimney.
9. A steam power plant developing 1700 kW has a chimney of 50 m height. The coal con-
sumption is 3 kg,/kW hr. The amount of air supplied is 18 kg per kg of coal burnt. Assuming
that the air temperature is 27°C and discharge through the chimney is maximum, determine
the diameter of the chimney.
Solution: Given, H = 50 m, m = 18 kg, L = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Power developed = 1700 kW, Coal consumption = 3 kg/kW.hr.
Total coal consumption per hour = 1700 x 3 = 5100 kg.
For maximum discharge condition
8+1
Tg = 2To x + 1 — 2 x 300 x 118 = 633.333 K
and hg =H = 50 m.
Total mass of flue gas is given by
96900
mg = (18 + 1) x 5100 = 96900 kg/hour = 3600 =26.916 kg/s
The velocity of the flue gas is given by V = 42g hg = I2 x 9.81 x 50 = 31.32 m/s
The density of the flue gas is given by
353 m + 1 353 18+1
pg =— — 633.33y< 18 — 0.588 kg/m3
Fg m
Let d be the diameter of the chimney
mg =A xVx pg = 26.916 = ilc12 x 31.32x 0.588 d = 1.364 m.

10. In a steam power plant a chimney of 40 m height produces a natural draught equivalent to
32 m column of hot gases. The mass of flue gas produced per kg of fuel burnt is 20 kg and the
ambient air temperature is 30°C. Calculate
(a) temperature of the flue gases leaving the chimney.
(b) extra heat carried away by the flue gases if the flue gas temperature could be reduced to
125°C by artificial draught which is the limit imposed due to condensation of water
vapour.The mean specific heat of the flue gases is 1.05 kJ/kg K.
(c) the efficiency of the chimney.
(d) percentage of heat of the fuel used for creating the draught.
(e) temperature of the chimney gases and the corresponding draught for maximum discharge
condition.
Take calorific value of fuel = 30000 kJ/kg
Solution: Given, H = 40 m, hg = 32 m, in = 19 kg, L = 30°C = 30 + 273 = 303 K
(a) h = H[ "1 Ts 1] 32=40[ -

20x-1
19
in +1'71, 303A
Tg = 574.1 K = 301.1°C.
Draught 183
(b) Since the flue gas temperature is higher in natural draught system, the extra heat carried
away by 1 kg of flue gas = 1 x 1.05 x (574.1 - 398) = 184.905 kJ.
The maximum energy which total static head of 32 metre column of hot gas will impart to
1 x 9.81 x 32
1 kg of flue gas = m .g .1zc = = 0.3139 kJ
1000
0.3139
(c) The efficiency of the chimney = x 100 = 0.1697%
184.905
Extra heat carried away for producing draught = 20 x 1.05 (574.1 - 398) = 3698.1 kJ.
(d) Percentage heat of the fuel used for creating draught = 3698.1 12.32%
30000 x 100 =
m+1 20
(e) For maximum discharge condition 7'g = x = 2 x 303 x19- = 637.89 K = 364.89°C
m
The draught in terms of column of hot gases for maximum discharge condition equals the
height of the chimney.
hg (maximum discharge) = 40 m. of gas column.
11. Calculate the power required to drive a fan to maintain a draught of 48 mm of water under
the following conditions for (a) induced draught fan (b) forced draught fan. The temperature
of the flue gases in the chimney of boiler in each case is 205°C and of the air in the boiler
house is 20°C. The amount of air supplied per kg of fuel in each case is 18 kg and the boiler
consumes 1800 kg of coal per hour. Assume the efficiency of the fan to be 82%. Volume of
1 kg of air at 0°C and 760 mm of Hg may be taken as 0.7734 m3.
Solution: (a) Induced draught fan
Mass of flue gases handled by the induced draught fan per second = 1800(18 + 1) = 9.5 kg.
3600
The volume of gas at N.T.P = 9.5 x 0.7734 = 7.3473 m3/s
The volume of the flue gases handled by the induced draught fan at 205°C
478
V = 7.3473 x - = 12.8645 m3/s.
273
1
Draught pressure, P = 0.0047 bar.
48x 750
Power required to drive induced draught fan having efficiency of 82%
P x105 x V - 0.0047 x 105 x 12.8645 - 7.3735 kW
-
fl x 1000 kW 0.82 x 1000
(b) Forced draught fan.
1800x 18
Mass of air supplied by the fan per second = = 9 kg.
3600
The volume of this air supplied at 0°C and 760 mm of Hg = 9 x 0.7734 = 6.9606 m3/s
The volume of this air supplied at 20°C
V = 6.9606 x 293 = 7.4705 m3/s
Draught pressure P = 0.0047 bar

P x 105 x V
Power required to drive forced draught fan having efficiency of 82% = kW
fl x 1000
0.0047 x 105 x 7.4705
kW = 4.281 kW.
0.82 x 1000
EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by draught?. What are the various methods for producing
draught?
2 Prove that the draught produced, in mm of water by a chimney, is given by
[ m+l I]
h= 353H x
Ta Tg
3. Prove that the discharge will be maximum a given height of the chimney when
m + 1)
2Tal -
Tg = hi a(
in
4. Define chimney efficiency and derive the expression for the same.
5. Derive an expression for the power required to drive a draught fan.
6. What are the advantages of forced draught system over induced draught system?
7. What is meant by balanced draught?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of mechanical draught?
8. What do you understand by steam jet draught ? What are its advantages and disadvan-
tages?
9. Calculate the draught in mm of water column produced by a chimney 35 metre high,
when the average temperature of hot gases is 250°C and the temperature of outside air is
20°C. The quantity of air supplied is 18 kg per kg of fuel.
10. Estimate the height of a chimney required to produce a static draught of 18 mm of water
if the mean temperature of the flue gases in the chimney is 260°C and the temperature
of outside air is 25°C. The densities of atmospheric air and flue gases at N.T.P are 1.293
and 1.34 kg/cu. m respectively.
11. A boiler is equipped with a 30 m high chimney. The temperature of the flue gases
passing through the chimney is 250°C and the temperature of outside air is 25°C. The
amount of air supplied is 18 kg per kg of fuel. Calculate.
(a) the theoretical draught in mm of water.
(b) the velocity of the flue gases passing through the chimney of 60% of the theoretical
draught is lost in friction at the grate and passage.
12. Determine the temperature of the flue gases required to produce a draught of 14 mm of
water. The height of the chimney is 40 m and the A : F ratio required in the combustion
chamber is 20. The temperature of the outside air is 25°C.
13. A chimney has a height of 40 m . The temperature of the outside air is 20°C. Calculate
the draught in mm of water when the mean temperature of the chimney gases is such as
to cause the mass of these flue gases discharged in a given time to be maximum.
14. The draught produced by a chimney of height H metre is 20 mm of water. The temper-
ature of the flue gases passing through the chimney is 300°C and the temperature of
outside air is 25°C. The flue gases formed per kg of fuel burnt is 19.5 kg. Find the
height of the chimney. Assuming the diameter of the chimney is 1.9 m and neglecting
losses, find the mass of the flue gases flowing through the chimney.
Draught 185
15. A boiler plant consumes 9000 kg of coal per hour, producing 19 kg of dry flue gases per
kg of coal burnt. The mean temperature of flue gases in the chimney is 297°C and out-
side air temperature is 25°C. Determine the dimensions of the chimney if 50% of the
draught is lost in friction at the grate and passage. The theoretical draught produced is
19 mm of water.
16. The draught lost through the grate is 20 cm of water column. A forced draught fail
delivers air at 18 rids against this draught. The amount of air supplied is 14 kg per kg of
coal and the amount of coal burnt is 10000 kg per hour. The pressure and temperature
of atmospheric air are 1.01325 bar and 20°C respectively. Find the power a c'ollired to
drive the fan taking mechanical efficiency as 85%.
NINE
Performance of Boilers
9.1 EVAPORATION
Evaporation is frequently termed as the capacity of the boiler. The amount of
steam generated by the boiler in kg per hour at full load is known as evaporative
capacity of the boiler. The evaporation rate is expressed on the basis of fuel
burned or grate area or furnace volume.
Total steam produced m,
Evaporation rate = = kg/kg of fuel.
Total fuel burned ntf
Total steam produced m, 2

or Evaporation rate = kg/m /hr.
Grate area A
Total steam produced m,

or Evaporation rate = kg/m3 /hr.
Furnace volume 1/1
The evaporative capacity of the boiler is required for the design of the grate,
furnace, heating surface and other necessary components.
9.2 EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION

By keeping the parameters mentioned in Section 9.1 constant, the quantity of
water evaporated by a boiler further depends upon the following:
(a) the pressure and temperature at which the boiler is operating
(b) quality of steam
(c) the feed water temperature
Thus, the mass of water evaporated in kg per hour is not an exact measure of the
performance of the boiler. Comparison between any two boilers is possible only
when they use the same fuel, the same feed water temperature and have work-
ing pressure. So it is necessary to take standard reference feed water tempera-
ture and working pressure. The feed temperature is taken as 100°C and working
pressure as 1.013325 bar. When water evaporates under these conditions, it
requires 2256.7 kJ/kg. This quantity is known as standard evaporation unit.
Performance of Boilers 187
Equivalent evaporation of water is defined as the amount of water evaporated

from feed water at 100°C and converted into dry saturated steam at the same
temperature and standard atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar. It is generally
written as "from and at 100°C.
Under the actual working conditions of the boiler,
Let ma = mass of water actually evaporated into steam in kg per kg of coal
burnt under actual working conditions.
H Enthalpy of one kg of steam produced under actual working
condition in kJ.
h' = Enthalpy of one kg of feed water entering into the boiler in kJ.
L = Enthalpy of evaporation of one kg of steam at 100°C(2256.7 kJ)
me = Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C
Heat required to produce ma kg of steam = ma (H — h) kJ.
The equivalent evaporation from the definition is obtained as
ma(H — h') mn(H — h')
= kg (9.1)
L 2256.7
ma(H„,,— h')
For wet steam, kg
me — 2256.7
(H — h')
In Eq. (9.1) the factor L is always greater than unity and is known
as factor of evaporation or generation factor.
The factor of evaporation may be defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by
1 kg of feed water under observed conditions to that absorbed by 1 kg of water
from and at 100°C. (Standard conditions.)
9.3 BOILER EFFICIENCY OR THERMAL

EFFICIENCY
Boiler efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat utilised by feed water for con-
version into steam to the heat released by the complete combustion of the fuel in
the same time. It is also known as thermal efficiency of the boiler.
Boiler efficiency = ma (9.2)

C. V.
where, ma = actual evaporation in kg per kg of fuel burnt
H = Enthalpy of 1 kg of steam in kJ
h' = Enthalpy of 1 kg of feed water entering the boiler in kJ.
C V = Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg.
If the boiler is equipped with an economiser and a superheater, then the effi-
ciency of the unit is known as overall efficiency of the boiler plant. Each of
these elements have their own efficiency.
9.4 ECONOMISER EFFICIENCY
Heat absorbed by feed water in the economiser

Economiser efficiency =
Heat in the flue gases entering the economiser
9.5 BOILER POWER
According to American society of Mechanical Engineers
Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per hour

Boiler power —
21.296
9.6 HEAT LOSS IN A BOILER PLANT
Heat Lost to Flue Gases

The flue gases contain (a) dry products of combustion, and (b) steam formed
due to the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel.
Heat lost to dry flue gases per kg of fuel burnt
= g X CPg(tg - t 0) kJ (9.3)
where m8 = Mass of gases formed per kg of fuel
CpgSpecific heat of flue gases in kJ/kg K.
= Temperature of the flue gases in °C leaving the boiler
To = Temperature of the boiler room in °C.
Now mass of steam formed per kg of fuel burnt = 9H2 + m
where m is mass of moisture per kg of fuel.
Assuming that the steam is in superheated state in the flue gases at atmospheric
pressure and at flue gas temperature.
Heat lost to steam in the flue gases per kg of fuel burnt
= (9H2 + )(Hsup — h i)
= (9H2+ m)x [2676.1 + Cp(tg — 100) — h']kJ (9.4)
where Hsup = Enthalpy of 1 kg of superheated steam at atmospheric pressure

(1.01325 bar) and flue gas temperature in kJ.
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam in kJ/kg K
= Enthalpy of 1 kg of water at boiler room temperature in kJ.
m = mass of moisture present in one kg of fuel.
H2 = mass of hydrogen present in one kg of fuel.
Heat Lost Due to Incomplete Combustion

If there is burning of carbon to CO instead of CO2, then it is known as incom-
plete combustion. 1 kg of carbon burnt to CO releases 10130 kJ and when burnt
to CO2, it releases 33830 Id of heat. The heat lost due to incomplete combustion
of one kg of carbon is 33830-10130 = 23700 kJ. Therefore, the presence of CO
in the flue gases is a loss due to incomplete combustion.
If the percentage of CO2 and CO by volume in the flue gases are known, then
mass of carbon burnt to CO is given by
CO x C
Mass of carbon burnt to CO — (9.5)
CO2 + CO
where CO = Percentage by volume in flue gas
CO2 = Percentage by volume in flue gas
C = Fraction of carbon in one kg of fuel.
Heat lost due to incomplete combustion of carbon per kg of fuel
CO x C
x C. V. kJ/kg of fuel.
CO2 + CO
Heat Lost Due to Unburnt Fuel

Some of the small particles of carbon fall through the grate bars and ar; lost
with ash. The heat lost due to unburnt fuel is given by
Q5 = MA X C.V. (9.6)
where Infi is the mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel used.
Convection and Radiation Losses

The asbestos covering of the boiler surface which is exposed to atmosphere is
necessary to reduce the heat loss to a minimum. This loss of heat cannot be cal-
culated by any measurement. The total of the heat losses given by Eqs 9.4, 9.5,
9.6 and the heat gained by the steam per kg of fuel is deducted from the heat
released per kg of fuel. This difference is the heat loss by convection and radi-
ation.
9.7 BOILER TRIAL

Boiler trial is made (i) to determine the thermal efficiency of the plant, (ii) to
determine and check the generating capacity of the boiler when working at full
load, and (iii) to make up the heat balance sheet so that suitable measures may
be taken to improve the efficiency.
9.8 HEAT BALANCE SHEET

Table 9.1
Heat kJ % Heat utilised kJ %

supplied
Heat Q = mfx C.V. 100% (a) Heat utilised to Q,
supplied generate steam.
by fuel
(b) Heat carried away Q2
by dry flue gases.
(c) Heat carried by Q3
steam in flue gases.
(d) Heat lost due to inco- Q4
mplete combustion.
(e) Heat lost due to Q5
unburnt fuel.
(0 Unaccounted heat Q -(Qt+ Q2
loss. +Q2+Q.
+Q2)
Total Q 100% Total Q 100%
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A boiler evaporates 8 kg of water per kg of coal fired from feed water at 46°C when work-
ing at 10 bar absolute. Determine the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per kg of coal
fired when the steam produced is (a) 0.92 dry, (b) dry saturated and (c) superheated to 250°C.
Solution: At pressure 10 bar
T, = 179.91°C, h = 762.81 kJ/kg, L = 2015.3 kJ/kg
H = 2778.1 kJ/kg, At 46°C, h' = 192.5 kJ/kg

(a) When the steam is wet having dryness fraction 0.92.
Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C is given by
ma(Hwet -10 8(h + xL -h')
m` - 2256.7 - 2256.7
8(762.81 + 0.92 x 2015.3 - 192.5)
- - 8.594 kg per kg of coal
2256.7
(b) When the steam produced is dry saturated
ma(Hdry - h') 8(2778.1 - 192.5)
= 9.166 kg per kg of coal
me = 2256.7 - 2256.7
(c) When the steam is superheated to 250°C.
mr,(11,„,- h') mr,{H + Cp(T,up-T5)- h' }

m, = 2256.7 2256.7
8{2778.1 + 2.1(523 - 452.91) - 192.5}

2256.7
2. A steam generator evaporates 18150 kg of water per hour from feed water temperature of
95°C to dry saturated steam at 13 bar. Find the capacity of the boiler and its efficiency if 2100
kg of coal of calorific value 30400 kJ/kg are burnt per hour.
Solution: At pressure 13 bar, H = 2787.6 kJ/kg
At temperature 95°C, h' = 398 kJ/kg
The capacity of the boiler is given by
ni„(H - h') = 18150(2787.6 - 398)
- 19218.877 kg/hour
= 2256.7 2256.7
nia(H - h') 18150(2787.6 - 398)
Thermal efficiency of the boiler = x 100 per cent = 67.93%
C. V. 2100 x 30400
3. A boiler produces 2500 kg of steam per hour at a pressure of 12 bar absolute from feed
water at 30°C. The coal having a calorific value of 30400 kJ/kg is used at the rate of
275 kg/hr. This steam is sampled by means of a throttling calorimeter in which the pressure is
1.05 bar absolute and the temperature after throttling is 110°C. Determine the efficiency of
the boiler.
Solution: At pressure 12 bar, h = 798.65 kJ/kg, L = 1986.2 kJ/kg.
At pressure 1.05 bar, T, = 101°C, H = 2677.6 kJ/kg.
After throttling, the steam is in superheated condition as the temperature of steam is 110°C,
which is greater than the saturation temperature T, = 101°C at 1.05 bar.
We know, that
Total heat before throttling = Total heat after throttling.
h + xL = H + C p(T.p-T1)
798.65 +x x 1986.2 = 2677.6 + 2.1(383 - 374)
or x = 0.955.
Therefore the dryness fraction of steam produced in the boiler, x = 0.955
ma(11w,- h') 2500(798.65 + 0.955 x 1986.2-- 125.7)
Efficiency of the boiler =
C.V. 275 x 30400
= 0.7687 or 76.87%
4. A coal fired boiler plant consumes 400 kg of coal per hour. The boiler evaporates 3200 kg
of water at 44.5°C into superheated steam at a pressure of 12.2 bar absolute and 274.5°C. If
the calorific value of the fuel is 32660 kJ/kg of coal, determine (a) equivalent evaporation
from and at 100°C and, (b) thermal efficiency of the boiler. [D.M.E IF87]
Solution: At pressure 12,2 bar, H = 2785.4 kJ/kg, T, = 188.74°C
At temperature 44.5°C, h' = 186.275 kJ/kg.
h')
(a) Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C =
2256.7
ma(H + Cp(Tsup - T5 )- h') 3200[2785.4 + 2.1(547.5 - 461.74) - 186.275)]

2256.7 400 x 2256.7
8(2965.496 - 186.275)
- - 9.852 kg per kg of coal
2256.7
nt„(H„p-h')
(b) Thermal efficiency of the boiler
C.V.
3200(2965.496 - 186.275)
= 0.6807 or 68.07%
400 x 32660
5. The equivalent evaporation of a boiler is found to be 22700 kg per hour. Steam is produced
at a pressure of 20 bar and 250°C from feed water at 40°C. Coal having a calorific value of
32400 kJ/kg is consumed at the rate of 1850 kg per hour.
Estimate (a) actual evaporation of the boiler in kg/hr and (b) efficiency of the boiler.
[D.E.E.II'97]
Solution: At pressure 20 bar, T, = 212.42°C, H = 2799.5 kJ/kg.
But the temperature of steam produced = 250°C
Therefore, the steam is superheated.
h')
The equivalent evaporation is given by = in, = 2256.7
22700 ma [H + Cp(T,u „- T5 )- h'] %[2799.5 + 2.1(523 - 485.42) - 167.5]

or 12.27 =
1850 2256.7 2256.7
m„(2878.418 - 167.5)
12.27 = = = 10.214 kg per kg of coal.
2256.7
(a) Actual evaporation of the boiler = 10.214 x 1850 = 18895.9 kg/hr.
ina(kp- h') 10.214(2878.418- 167.5)
(b) Efficiency of the boiler = - 0.8546 or 85.46%
C.V 32400
6. The following observations were taken during a test on a steam boiler.
Quantity of coal burnt/hour = 750 kg
Feed water supplied/hour = 7000 kg
Calorific value of coal fired = 33910 kJ/kg.
Steam pressure = 9.8 bar
Feed water temperature entering economiser = 25°C
Feed water temperature leaving economiser steam pressure = 80°C
Dryness fraction of steam leaving boiler drum = 0.95
Temperature of steam leaving superheater = 250°C
Determine thermal efficiency of the plant; also calculate the heat absorbed by feed water in
economiser, boiler drum and superheater as a percentage of the total heat absorbed.
[D.M.E.II-'84]
Solution: Heat absorbed by one kg of feed water in the economiser
= (334.9 - 104.8) = 230.1 kJ/kg.
Heat absorbed by one kg of feed water in the boiler drum H„,,= h + xL
At pressure 9.8 bar -
T, = 179.03°C, h = 758.94 kJ/kg, L = 2018.4 kJ/kg
At 80°C, h' = 334.9 kJ/kg
Therefore, Hy,,= h + xL - h' = 758.94 + 0.95 x 2018.4 - 334.9
= 2676.42 - 334.9 = 2341.52 kJ/kg.

At 9.8 bar and 250°C, lisup = 2940 kJ/kg.
Therefore heat absorbed in superheater = 1-1,op - (h + xL)
= 2940 - (758.94 + 0.95 x 2018.4) = 2940 - 2676.42 = 263.58 kJ/kg
Thus total heat absorbed by one kg of feed water = 230.1 + 2341.52 + 263.58 = 2835.2 kJ/kg.
Therefore, percentage of heat absorbed in economiser - 230.1 x 100 = 8.11%
2835.2
2341.52
Percentage of heat absorbed in the boiler drum = 2 x 100 = 82.58%
28 5.
263.58
Percentage of heat absorbed in the superheater = x 100 = 9.29%
2835.2
7000
Steam produced per kg of coal fired = 750 = 9.333 kg of steam per kg of coal.
9.333 x 2835.2
Thermal efficiency of the boiler = - 0.7803 or 78.03%
33910
7. The following particulars were obtained during the trial of a boiler:
Duration of trial 10 hours, total grate area 3 m2 steam pressure 14.8 bar, total coal burnt
6000 kg, total weight of water evaporated 50,000 kg, feed water temperature 40°C, quality of
steam dry saturated, calorific value of coal 29300 kJ/kg.
Determine: (a) amount of coal burnt per m2 of grate area per hour; (b) the amount of water
evaporated per kg of coal burnt under actual condition and (c) the equivalent evaporation
from and at 100°C per kg of coal burnt. (d) thermal efficiency.
6000
Solution: (a) Amount of coal burnt per m2 of grate area per hour = - 200 kg.
3 x 10
50000
(b) Amount of water evaporated per kg of coal burnt under actual condition - 8.333 kg.
6000
(c) Equivalent evaporation is given by
ma(Hthy h') 8.333(2791.7 - 167.5)
- 9.69 kg per kg of coal
jet`2256.7
= - 2256.7
mo(Hary -11') 8.333(2791.7 - 167.5)
(d)Thermal efficiency = - 0.7463 or 74.63%
C.V. - 29300
8. The following data were obtained during a boiler trial:
Feed water used per hour = 650 kg
Coal used per hour = 95 kg
Feed water temperature = 25°C
Steam leaving superheater 250°C
Calorific value of coal = 33500 kJ/kg
Ash and unburnt coal collected in ash pit per hour = 9 kg
Calorific value of ash and unburnt coal collected = 2500 kJ/kg
Quantity of air used per kg of coal burnt = 19 kg
Discharge gas temperature = 350°C
Boiler room temperature = 30°C

Mean specific heat of flue gases = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
Determine (a) equivalent evaporation, (b) actual evaporation per kg of coal, (c) boiler effi-
ciency, (d) percentage of heat loss in Clue gases, (e) percentage of heat loss in ash, and
(f) percentage of heat loss unaccounted for. [D.M.E. —11'89]
Solution: At pressure 9.8 bar, T, = 179.03°C, H = 2777.3 kJ/kg
At temperature 25°C, h' = 104.8 kJ/kg lisup = H + C p(T,„p — T,)
= 2777.3 + 2.093(523 — 452.03) = 2925.84 kJ/kg.

m h')
(a) Equivalent evaporation, m, =
2256.7
650(2925.84 — 104.8)
rn, = — 8.553 kg per kg of coal.
95 x 2256.7
650
—= 6.842 kg
(b) Actual evaporation per kg of coal = 95
h') 650(2925.84 — 104.8)

(c) Boiler efficiency = — x 100 = 57.617%.
C.V. 95 x 33500
Heat carried away by the flue gas is given by Qg = to)
where mg = mass of flue gas formed per kg of coal = (19 + 1) = 20 kg.
tg = temperature of flue gases = 350°C
to = temperature of boiler room = 30°C.
Qg = 20 x 1.005(623 —303) = 6432 kJ per kg of coal.
4 32
(d) Therefore, percentage of heat loss in flue gases = 6 x 100 = 19.2%
3500
Amount of ash and unbumt coal = 9 kg/hr
9 x 2500
(e) Percentage of heat lost in ash = x 100 = 0.707%
95 x 33500
Total heat accouhted for = (57.617 + 19.2 + 0.707) = 77.524%
(f) Percentage of heat loss unaccounted for = (100-77.524)% = 22.476%.
9. The following data were recorded during trial of a boiler.
Duration of trial = 8 hr
Total grate area = 4 m2
Pressure of steam = 11.8 bar
Total amount of coal burnt = 4000 kg
Total amount of water evaporated = 35000 kg
Quality of steam = 96% dry
Determine (a) the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C, (b) thermal efficiency of the
boiler, and, (c) amount of coal burnt per m2 of grate area per hour. [D.M.E. — II' 92]
Solution: At pressure 11.8 bar from steam tables h = 795.28 kJ/kg, L = 1989 kJ/kg
At temperature 28°C, h' = 137.3 kJ/kg.
(a) The equivalent evaporation from and at I 00°C

„(H,,,— h') in,,(12 + .r L — h')
2256.7 2256.7
35000(795.28 + 0.96 x 1989 — 117.3)

4000 x 2256.7
nio(h +xL —h')
(b) Thermal efficiency = x 100
C.V.
35000(795.28 + 0.96 x 1989 — 117.3)

— x 100 = 56.927%
4000 x 39770
4000
(c) Amount of coal burnt per m2 of grate area per hour = = 125 kg
8x'
10. Boiler which originally burned coal is converted so as to burn oil fuel. The following data
are taken before and after conversion.
The equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C = 8 kg when it burns coal
The equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C = 14.4 kg when it burns oil.
How many barrels of 200 litres capacity are equivalent in heat to one tonne of coal?. The
specific gravity of oil fuel is 0.8. If the calorific value of oil fuel is 41860 kJ/kg, find the cal-
orific value of coal. Determine the efficiency of the boiler which is assumed to be the same
before and after conversion. [D.M.E-IF93]
Solution: The efficiency of the boiler remains the same. So the calorific values of the fuels
are proportional to the equivalent evaporation.
Here the calorific value of oil fuel is 41860 kJ and the equivalent evaporation is 14.4 kg .
The equivalent evaporation for the boiler when it burns coal is 8 kg.
41860 x 8
Calorific value of coal = — 23255.556 kJ/kg.
14.4
The equivalent evaporation for the boiler when burning oil fuel is 14.4 kg.
tha(H
Boiler efficiency =
C.V.
nr„(H — ')
But equivalent evaporation in, = or in„(H — h') = m , x 2256.7
2256.7
rn x 2256.7 14.4 x 2256.7
Boiler efficiency = x 100 — x 100 = 77.63%
C..
V 41860
The heat value of one tonne of coal = 1000 x 23255.556 kJ.
1 kg of oil has a heat value of 41860 kJ
One tonne of coal = 1000 x 23255.556= 555.555 kg of fuel

41860
One barrel of oil weighs, 200 x 0.8 = 160 kg
555.555
.•. One tonne of coal = = 3.472 barrel of fuel oil in heat value.
160
11. Calculate the thermal efficiency and equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C of a boiler
from which the following data were obtained during a trial. Steam pressure 10.6 bar, steam
temperature 260°C; feed temperature 38°C; water evaporated 10 kg per kg of coal of calorific
value 33450 kJ/kg.
If this boiler supplies steam to an engine in which the equivalent of the brake work is
300 kJ/kg of steam supplied, what is the overall thermal efficiency of the plant? State con-
cisely the major heat losses which occur (a) in the boiler, and (b) in the engine.
Solution: At pressure 10.6 bar from steam tables
T, = 182.46°C, H = 2780.3 kJ/kg.
degree of superheat = T, = 260 - 182.46 = 77.54°C.
H,„p = H + C,,(T„p- T5) = 2780.3 + 2.093 x 77.54 = 2942.59 kJ/kg.
Heat of feed water per kg at 38°C = 159.1 kJ/kg
m,(H,„ 10(2942.59 - 159.1)
Thermal efficiency = P - h ') x 100 = x 100 = 83.21%
C.V. 33450
m„(H,„,- h') 10(2942.59 - 159.1)
Equivalent evaporation, - 12.334 kg per kg of coal.
m` = 2256.7 - 2256.7
Heat equivalent of brake work
Overall efficiency =
C.V. of coal
10 x 300 x100
- 8.968%
33450
The major heat losses in the
(a) boiler are due to: (i) the hot flue gas, (ii) the presence of moisture, (iii) incomplete
combustion, and (iv) radiation, convection
(b) engine are due to: (i) heat content of exhaust steam, (ii) friction, (iii) initial condensa-
tion, and (iv) radiation.
12. The following data were taken from a boiler trial. Steam conditions 12.4 bar, 0.98 dry;
feed water temperature 95°C; feed water rate 80000 kg per hour; combustion rate 10000 kg of
coal per hour; refuse removed form ash pit 1500 kg per hour. The coal has a calorific value of
30150 kJ/kg and contains 7 per cent ash by analysis. Calculate (a) the efficiency of the boiler
and (b) the approximate heat lost per hour in the refuse.
Solution: At pressure 12.4 bar from steam tables, h = 805.28 kJ/kg, L = 1980.7 kJ/kg
Sensible heat of feed water at 95°C, h ' = 398 kJ/kg, x = 0.98
h + xL = 805.28 + 0.98 x 1980.7 = 2746.366 kJ/kg.
h') 80000 x (2746.366 - 398) x 100
(a) Boiler efficiency = x 100 = - 62.31%
C . V. 10000 x 30150
(b) As there is 7% ash in the coal, the amount of ash in 10000 kg of coal = 0.07 x 10000 =
700 kg.
Amount of unburnt coal = Refuse removed from ash pit-ash = 1500 - 700 = 800 kg per hour.
Heat loss in the refuse = 800 x 30150 = 24120000 kJ/hr.
13. In a boiler trial 1800 kg of coal was consumed in 24 hr. The quantity of water evaporated
was 14400 kg and the mean steam pressure was 7.8 bar. The coal contained 3 per cent of
moisture and 3.9 per cent of ash by analysis. The feed water temperature was 35°C. Calorific
value of one kg of coal is 30200 kJ. The steam generated is dry saturated,
Determine the efficiency of the boiler and the equivalent evaportion (a) per kg of dry coal,
and (b) per kg of combustible.
Solution: At pressure 7.8 bar, H = 2768.1 kJ/kg
Sensible heat of feed water at 35°C, h' = 146.55 kJ/kg.
Now total heat required to evaporate 14400 kg of water from 35°C
= 14400(2768.1 - 146.55) = 14400 x 2621.55 kJ
14400 x 2621.55
Boiler efficiency - x 100 = 69.44%.
1800 x 30200
14400
(a) Water evaporated per kg of dry coal = = 8.25 kg.
1800 x 0.97
ttic,(H -h') 8.25(2768.1 - 146.55)
Equivalent evaporation, in, - 9.583 kg
= 2256.7 - 2256.7
(b) Moisture and ash (3 + 3.9) = 6.9 per cent.
The amount of combustible is only 93.1 per cent of the total coal.
93.1% of 1800 kg coal = 1675.8 kg combustible.
14400
Water evaporated per kg of combustible = = 8.5929 kg
1675.8
8.5929 x 2621.55
Equivalent evaporation, me = 9.982 kg.
= 2256.7
14. A boiler is supplied with 200 kg of coal per hour of calorific value 32000 kJ/kg and an
analysis of C 82%; H2 6%; 02 8%; and ash 4%. 1800 of dry saturated steam is produced per
hour at a pressure of 10 bar from feed water at 32°C. The total air supplied is 1.3 times the
minimum air required. The temperature of the flue gas is 340°C and boiler room temperature
is 25°C. Determine (a) minimum mass of air required, (b) the mass of dry products of
combustion per kg of coal burnt, (c) equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C, (d) the ther-
mal efficiency, and (e) heat carried away by dry flue gases per kg of coal.
Take specific heat of flue gases as 1.005 kJ/kg.
100
Solution: (a) Minimum air required for combustion of 1 kg of coal = - (2.67C + 8H +S - 0)
23
100
= -2-3- (2.67 x 0.82 + 8 x 0.06 - 0.08) = 11.258. kg/kg of coal.
Total (actual) air supplied = 1.3 x 11.258 = 14.635 kg/kg of coal.

Excess air supplied = 14.635-11.258 = 3.377 kg/kg of coal.
The dry flue gas will have
(i) CO2 = C x 3.67 = 0.82 x 3.67 = 3.009 kg.
(ii) 02 = 0.23 x excess air = 0.23 x 3.377 = 0.7767 kg.
(iii) N2 = 037 x actual air = 0.77 x 14.635 = 11.269 kg.
(b) .*. Total mass of dry products per kg of coal tns = 3.009 + 0.7767 + 11.269 = 15.054 kg.
(c) Heat carried away by dry flue gases per kg of coal = me x C pg(ts - to )
= 15.054 x 1.005(340 - 25) = 4765.92 kg/kg of coal.

At pressure 10 bar, H = 2778.1 kJ/kg.
Sensible heat of feed water at 32°C, = 134 kJ/kg
m° (H - h') 1800 x (2778.1 - 134)
(d) Equivalent evaporation ms = = 10.544 kg/kg of coal.
2256.7 200 x 2256.7
m (H - h') 1800 x (2778.1 - 134)
(e) Thermal efficiency of the boiler = x 100 = 74.365%
C .V 200 x 31000
15. The following data were recorded during trial of a boiler.
Steam generated = 550 kgihr
Dryness fraction of steam = 0.95
Steam pressure = 10 bar abs.
Coal used = 70 kg/hr.

Moisture in fuel = 2.5% by mass
Mass of dry flue gases = 8.5 kg/kg of coal
Temperature of flue gases = 350°C
Temperature of boiler room = 30°C
Specific heat of flue gases = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
Draw up a heat balance sheet for the boiler.
Solution: At pressure 10 bar, h = 762.81 kJ/kg, L = 2015.3 kJ/kg.
Sensible heat of feed water at 40°C, li = 167.5 kg/kg.
550 550(h +xL -h')
(a) Heat utilised to generate steam per kg of fuel = - (1-4„,-11')
70 70
550(762.81 + 0.95 x 2015.3 - 167.5)
kJ - 19720.21 kJ
70
(b) Heat carried away by dry flue gas = mg x C,, (tg - i0) = 8.5 x 1.005(350-30) = 2733.6 kJ.
g
(c) Heat carried away by moisture in fuel per kg of fuel = m(2676.1 + C,,(tg - 100)- II') kJ
= 0.025(2676.1 + 2.093(350-100)- 167.5) kJ = 75.79 kJ.
(d) As the moisture in fuel is 0.025 kg per kg of fuel, therefore heat supplied by 1 kg of fuel =
(1-0.025) x 33000 = 32175 kJ
Unaccounted heat loss = 32175-(19720.21 + 2733.6 + 75.79) = 9645.4 kJ
Table 9.2 Heat balance sheet

Heat kJ % Heat utilised kJ %
supplied
Heat 32175 100% 1.Heat utilised to generate steam. 19720.21 61.29

supplied
by fuel
2. Heat carried away by dry flue gas. 2733.6 8.49
3. Heat carried away by moisture in 75.79 0.235
fuel.
4. Unaccounted heat loss. 9645.4 29.985
Total 32175 100% Total 32175 100%
EXERCISES
1. A boiler generates 1000 kg of steam per hour at a pressure of 10.2 bar and 55°C
superheat. It consumes 125 kg of coal per hour. The feed water temperature is 46°C and
the calorific value of coal is 30,500 kJ/kg. Calculate (a) the factor of evaporation,
(b) actual evaporation per kg of coal, (c) equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C, and
(d) the boiler efficiency.
Take specific heat of superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/kg K and specific heat of water as
4.187 kJ/kg K.
2. In a boiler trial of 6 hr duration, 400 kg of coal was burnt and the amount of water
evaporated was 3000 kg. The mean steam pressure was 780 kPa. The feed water tem-
perature was 32°C. The coal contained 2,4% moisture and 3.6% ash on mass basis. The
calorific value of coal is 30500 kJ/kg. The steam generated is dry saturated. Determine
(a) equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per kg of dry coal, (b) equivalent evapo-
ration from and at 100°C per kg of combustible, and (c) the thermal efficiency of the
boiler.
3. The following data were recorded during trial of a boiler:
Feed water = 6000 kg/hr.
Temperature of feed water entering economiser = 30°C
Temperature of feed water leaving economiser = 104°C
Steam pressure = 12 bar
Quality of steam leaving boiler = 0.92
Coal consumed per hour = 600 kg
Specific heat of superheated steam = 2.1 kJ/kg K.
Determine (a) percentage of heat used in the boiler, (b) percentage of heat used in the
economiser, (c) percentage of heat used in superheater, and (d) overall efficiency of the
plant.
4. A boiler generates 1000 kg of wet steam per hour at a pressure of 8 bar having dryness
0.9. The feed water temperature is 15°C. Determine the amount of coal consumed per
hour if the efficiency of the boiler is 74%. The calorific value of coal is 32200 kJ/kg.
5. In a boiler trial the following data were recorded.
Feed water = 640 kg/hr
Temperature of feed water = 30°C
Quality of steam = 0.96 dry
Coal burnt = 75 kg/hr.
Flue gases = 1580 kg/hr
Temperature of flue gases = 305°C
Unburnt coal and ash = 5.5 kg/hr.
Calorific value of ash and unburnt coal = 2900 kJ/kg
Boiler room temperature = 28°C
Specific heat of flue gases = 1.005 kJ/kg K. Determine the boiler efficiency and draw
the heat balance sheet.
6. A steam plant consisting of a boiler, superheater and economiser has the following par-
ticulars:
Fuel used per hour = 1000 kg
Feed water per hour = 9000 kg
Temperature of feed water entering economiser = 40°C
Temperature of feed water leaving economiser = 115°C
Dryness fraction of steam leaving the boiler = 0.9
Calorific value of fuel used = 30000 kJ/kg.
Calculate (a) overall efficiency of the plant and (b) percentage of heat in fuel used in the
boiler, superheater and economiser.
7. The following particulars are obtained during the trial of two marine boilers:
Duration of trial = 10 hr
Mean absolute pressure of steam = 12.5 bar
Total mass of water evaporated = 39000 kg
Total heating surface = 2950 m2
Total grate area = 4 m2
Total coal burnt = 4280 kJ/kg
Quality of steam = 0.95 dry
Determine the (a) mass of water evaporated per kg of coal, (b) mass of coal burnt per
m2 of grate area per hour, (c) equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per kg of coal,
(d) equivalent evaporation per m2 of total heating surface per hour, and (e) efficiency of
the boiler.
,TEN
Fuels and their

Combustion
10.1 FUEL
The main source of heat in all engineering applications is solar energy which is
stored in the form of fuels. The term fuel is applied to any combustible sub-
stance which is sufficiently abundant in nature and is easily available at a low
cost to be used for industrial purposes. The main constituents of all fuels are
carbon and hydrogen.
10.2 TYPES OF FUELS
Fuels are generally of three types — (a) solid fuels (b) liquid fuels, and (c) gas-
eous fuels.
Solid Fuels
The solid fuels are: (a) wood (b) peat (c) lignite or brown coal, (d) bituminous
coal (e) anthracite (f) coke (g) charcoal (h) pulverized coal (i) briquetted coal.
Wood
Wood mainly, consists of carbon and hydrogen. The calorific value of varies
with the type of wood and its water content. It is not considered a commercial
fuel, except in industries, where large amount of wood is available as waste.
The average calorific value of wood is 19675 kJ/kg.
Peat
Peat is a spongy humidified substance found in boggy lands arid may be
regarded as the first stage in the formation of coal. It has a water content of 20
to 30%, and should be dried off before it can be burnt properly. It burns com-
pletely and is smokeless. It is used as a fuel in gas producer plants. The calorific
value of air dried peat is about 14500 kJ/kg.
Lignite or brown coal
It represents the intermediate Stage between peat and bituminous coal. It has a
brown fibrous structure and is very soft containing not less than 60% carbon. It
contains 15 to 20% moisture after drying in air. Being brittle, it can be con-
verted into briquettes which can be easily handled. It burns with a large smoky
flame. The average calorific value of this type of coal after drying is
21000 kJ/kg.
Bituminous coal
It is the next stage after lignite in the formation of coal. It is soft and shiny black
in appearance. It consists of about 70% carbon and 30% volatile matter. This
coal burns with a yellow flame and has an average calorific value of
31500 kJ/kg. The bituminous coal is of two types — (a) caking bituminous
coal, and (b) non-caking bituminous coal.
Caking bituminous coal softens and swells and the parts stick together, form-
ing a pasty mass. It burns with a long smoky flame.
Non-caking bituminous coal burns with little or no smoke, and the parts do not
stick together while burning. Since it is mostly used for steam raising purposes,
it is also known as steam coal.
Anthracite
Anthracite represents the final stage in coal formation. It is hard, brittle and
consists of about 90% carbon and the rest is volatile matter. It is difficult to
ignite and burns without a flame. It is non-caking and does not give any smell
while burning. It has a very low ash content and has a calorific value of 36000
kJ/kg.
Charcoal
It is prepared by the dry distillation of wood. As there is no sulphur content, it is
an excellent but costly fuel. Dry charcoal contains 80 to 90% carbon. The calo-
rific value of dry charcoal is about 28000 kJ/kg.
Coke
It is made from bituminous coal by expelling the volatile elements. It is hard,
brittle and porous and is used for steam raising purposes. It contains 85 to 95%
carbon, and the average calorific value is 32500 kJ/kg.
Pulverized coal
Low grade fuel is efficiently burnt by pulverising it. Coal is reduced to a powder
of such fineness that it can float in air. This method has many advantages such
as flexibility of control, complete combustion with less excess air and high
temperature of flame. Also, the nature of the flame can be easily controlled.
Briquetted coal
It is produced from finely ground coal mixed with a suitable binder and pressed
together into briquettes. This method decreases the loss of fuel in the grate and
increases the heating value of the fuel.
Fuels and their Combustion 203
Liquid Fuels
All the commercial liquid fuels are derived from natural petroleum (crude oil)
which is obtained from oil wells under the earth's crust in some strategic parts
of the world. It consists of hydrogen carbons. By cracking the natural petro-
leum, petrol, kerosene, fuel oils and lubricants are obtained.
Liquid fuels are commonly used in internal combustion engines.
Advantages of liquid fuel
(a) Higher calorific value
(b) Economy in space
(c) Cleanliness
(d) Easy control of consumption
(e) Practically no ashes
(f) Economy in staff
(g) High efficiency
(h) Easy lighting up or shuttling of operation.
Disadvantages of liquid fuel
(a) Higher cost
(b) Greater risk of fire
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas is usually found under the earth's surface. It consists of methane,
ethane, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
The prepared gases are coal gas, producer gas, water gas, blast furnace gas,
coke oven gas etc.
Advantages of gaseous fuels over solid fuels
(a) The supply can be easily and accurately controlled.
(b) They are free from impurities.
(c) There is no smoke and ash.
(d) Greater economy in high temperature work can be achieved.
(e) Complete combustion is possible with minimum air supply.
Disadvantages
(a) They are readily inflammable.
(b) They require large storage capacity.
10.3 COMBUSTION
The chemical combination of the constituents of a fuel with oxygen is known as
combustion and is accompanied by the evolution of heat. In order to produce
burning of a fuel, its temperature must be raised to a certain point which is
called the ignition point of the fuel. The ignition point is different for different
kinds of fuels.
In case of liquid fuels, the temperature at which the liquid begins to give off
inflammable vapour is called the flash point. This is generally lower than the
ignition point.
The following are the requirements of a good fuel.
(a) It should have low ignition point.
(b) It should have high calorific value.
(c) It should burn freely with high efficiency.
(d) It should not produce any harmful gases.
(e) It should not produce any smoke.
(f) It should be economical.
10.4 CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS

The calorific value or heating value of a fuel is defined as the number of heat
units (kJ or MJ) evolved by the complete combustion of one kilogramme of
fuel. For gaseous fuels, the calorific value is generally expressed in kJ per cubic
metre of gas measured at a temperature of 15°C and pressure of 760 mm of
mercury, i.e., at S.T.P.
There are two standard methods of measuring the calorific value of a fuel.
(a) The quantity of heat obtained by the complete combustion of one kilo-
gramme of fuel, when the products of combustion are cooled down to the
temperature of the surrounding air is known as the higher calorific value of
the fuel. In this case any water vapour formed by combustion is condensed
and almost the entire heat of steam is recovered from the products of
combustion.
(b) The quantity of heat obtained by the combustion of one kilogramme of
fuel, when the product of combustion is not sufficiently cooled down to
condense the steam formed during combustion is known as the lower cal-
orific value of the fuel. Such a state exists with all combustions in ordinary
furnaces where the products of combustion escape through the chimney at
a temperature at which condensation of water vapour is not at all possible.
Thus the lower calorific value is less than the higher calorific value by the
amount of the enthalpy of evaporation leaving in the H2O in the products of
combustion.
L.C.V. of fuel = H.C.V. — Enthalpy of evaporation of steam formed.
= H.C.V. — 2442 x steam formed kJ/kg.
10.5 THEORETICAL DETERMINATION OF

CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL
Let the fuel contain C, H 0 and S per cent of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
sulphur respectively. Let us consider 100 kg of fuel.
The quantity of heat evolved due to the combustion of carbon is
C x 35000 kJ when burnt to CO2.
The quantity of heat evolved due to the combustion of hydrogen is

— ())x 143000 kJ. It is assumed that the oxygen in the fuel is in combination
with hydrogen and it is not available in free form.
The quantity of heat evolved due to the combustion of sulphur is S x 9160 kJ
Thus, total heat evolved due to the combustion of 100 kg of fuel
= 35000 C + 143000(H 8) + 9160 S kJ.
35000 C + 143000 + 9160 S

Higher calorific value of fuel —
100
= 350 C+ 14301 H-1 + 91.6 S kJ/kg.
The amount of steam formed is 911--

0.10 kg/kg of fuel because from one kg of
hydrogen 9 kg of water vapour is formed.
3500 C+ 121000 (H- 9i)+ 9160 S

Lower calorific value of fuel —
100
= 350 C + 1210 (1-1— )+91.6 S kJ/kg

8
[... the lower calorific value of hydrogen is 121000 kJ/kg ]
Dulong's Formula for Higher Calorific Value of Fuel
H.C.V = 33800 C + 144500(H — — )+ 9300 S kJ/kg.

8
The general method of getting the lower calorific value is to reduce the higher
calorific value by an amount of the enthalpy of evaporation leaving in the H2O
in the products of combustion.
The specific enthalpy of evaporation per kg of steam which leaves with the
products of combustion is taken as 2442 kJ/kg. This is the specific enthalpy of
evaporation of steam at 25°C.
Lower calorific value = {H.C.V. —2442 x steam formed} kJ/kg
= [H.C.V. — 2442 x 9 H] kJ/kg.
10.6 COMBUSTION OF FUELS

The following chemical equations are used to calculate the amount oxygen
required and the amount of gases produced by the combustion of fuel.
(a) C+02 =CO2
12 +2 x 16 =12 +2 x 16
'12 + 32 = 44
Carbon + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide
1
lkg +3 kg = kg
3
1 kg + 2.67 kg = 3.67 kg
(b) 2C + 02 = 2C0
24 + 32 = 56
Carbon + Oxygen = Carbon monoxide
4
1 kg +- kg = -kg
7
3 3
(c) 2C0 + 02 = 2CO2
56 + 32 = 88
Carbon monoxide + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide
lkg + kg = -kg
7
(d) 2H2 + 02 = 2H20
4 + 32 = 36
Hydrogen + Oxygen = Water vapour
1 kg + 8 kg = 9 kg
(e) S + 02 = SO2
32 + 32 = 64
Sulphur + Oxygen = Sulphur dioxide
lkg + lkg = 2kg
(0 CH4 + 202 = CO2 + 2H20
(12+1 x4)+2(16 x 2)= (12 +16 x2)+2(1 x2+16)

1Vol + 2Vol = 1Vol + 2Vol
11 9
1+4= 4 +
4
(g) C2H4 + 302 = 2CO2 + H2O
(12x2+1 x4)+3(16 x2)=2(12+16 x 2)+2(1 x2+16)
1+3.43 = 3.14+1.29
(h) 2C2H2 + 502 = 4CO2 + H2O
2(12x2+1 x 2)+5(16 x2)=4(12+16 x2)+2(1 x2+16)
1 + 3.08 = 3.39 + 0.69.
10.7 DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM AIR

REQUIRED FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION
OF 1 kg OF SOLID OR LIQUID FUELS
Let us consider 1 kg of fuel in which there is C kg of carbon, 1 kg of hydrogen,
0 kg of oxygen and S kg of sulphur.
It will be seen from the chemical equations that 1 kg of carbon requires
2.67 kg of oxygen for its complete combustion. Therefore, C kg of carbon will
require 2.67 C kg of oxygen.
1 kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg of oxygen, therefore H kg of hydrogen
requires 8 H kg of oxygen.
1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of oxygen, therefore S kg of sulphur requires S
kg of oxygen.
Total quantity of oxygen required for combustion of 1 kg of fuel = (2.67 C +
8 H + S) kg.
The fuel contains 0 kg of oxygen
Oxygen required from air for the complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel
= (2.67C + 811+S —0) kg

Since air contains 23% of oxygen on the basis of mass (the remaining 77%)
considered as nitrogen), 1 kg of oxygen is contained in ; kg of air.
Minimum air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel
100
= (2.67 C + 8 H + S — 0) kg el 0.1)
23
10.8 CONVERSION OF VOLUMETRIC

COMPOSITION ON MASS BASIS
Let the exhaust gases contain C,%, of CO, C2% of CO2, 0% of 02, and N% of N2
by volume. Then these volume percentages can be converted into mass percent-
ages as shown in the following table.
Table 10.1
Constituent Volume in Molecular Proportional Mass per kg Percentage

one m3 of weight mass in kg of flue gas mass (e)
flue gas (a) (b) (c) = (a) x (b) (c)
(d) =
E(c)
C2 44 C2 44 C2
CO2 44
100 100 100 I (01
C, 28 C, 28 C,
CO 28
100 100 100 F, (c)
02 0 32 0 32 0
100 32 100 100 E (c)
N2 N 28 N 28 N
28
100 100 100 E (c)
Total 1 — E(C)= 1 100
where E (C) = 2 + 28C1 + 320 + 28N ]

100 [44C
10.9 CONVERSION OF COMPOSITION ON MASS

BASIS TO COMPOSITION BY VOLUME
The process of conversion of analysis on mass basis to volutnetric analysis is
shown in the following table.
Table 10.2
Constituent % mass analy- Molecular Relative volume Percentage volumetric

sis in kg (a) weight (b) i \ (a) analysis
‘ci = (b) (c)
(d) = x 100
I (c)
CO2 44
CO 28
02 32
N2 28
Total 100 E(c)= 100
10.10 DETERMINATION OF AIR SUPPLIED PER

kg OF FUEL WHEN THE VOLUMETRIC
ANALYSIS OF DRY FLUE GASES AND
PERCENTAGE OF CARBON BY MASS
IN FUEL IS GIVEN
44 C2
As shown above, 1 kg of flue gas contains kg of CO2
100E(C)
12 kg of carbon when burnt gives 44 kg of carbon dioxide
44C2 44C2 12 12C2
Amount of carbon in kg of CO2= x—
100 E (C) looy,(c) 44 100E (C)
28C1
1 kg of flue gas contains kg of CO
100 E (c)
12 kg of carbon when burnt gives 28 kg of carbon monoxide.
28C1 28C1
12 12C1
Amount of carbon in kg of CO = x—
100 (C) 100 E (C) 28 100 E (C)
Therefore, total mass of carbon in one kg of flue gas
12C2 12C1 12 (CI + C2)
+ kg of carbon per kg of flue gas.
100 E (c) 100E(C) 100 E (C)
Assume that the percentage of carbon by mass in the fuel is C per cent and that
the fuel does not contain any nitrogen.
After combustion, the carbon in the fuel completely goes into the flue gas.
Let the mass of gas formed per kg of fuel burnt be mg, then
Mass of carbon in fuel = Mass of carbon in the flue gas.
C 12 [Co-C2
mg
100 100 E (C) x
C (C)
The mass of gas formed per kg of fuel is mg — (10.2)
12(C1 + C2)
The amount of nitrogen carried with the air is also carried with the flue gases.
One kg of air contains kg of nitrogen

00
0
28N
One kg of flue gas contains kg of nitrogen
100E(C)
28N 100
Therefore the air supplied per kg of flue gas — x kg
100 E (C) 77
Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel = Mass of air supplied per kg of flue gas x
Mass of the flue gas formed per kg of fuel.
28N 100 C E (C) NC
(10.3)
ma 100 E (C) x 77 x 12(C, + C2) - 13(C I + C2)
10.11 DETERMINATION OF EXCESS AIR

SUPPLIED PER kg OF FUEL
28C1 320
One kg of flue gas contains kg of CO and kg of oxygen.
100E(C) 100E(C)
28 C1
If kg of CO burns to CO2, the amount of oxygen required for this
100(C)
28C, 4 16C,
x
100E(C) 7 100E(C)
Excess oxygen available per kg of flue gas formed
320 16C, 16
— (20 — C,)
100E(C) looy,(c) 100E(C)
Excess oxygen supplied per kg of fuel = nig x excess oxygen per kg of flue gas
C E(C) 16 4C 20—C,
x (20- CI) =
12(C, + C2) 100 y(C) 300 C1 + C2
Excess air supplied per kg of fuel
4C (20 — 100 4C (20 — CI )

= x (10.4)
300 C, + C2 23 69 C, + C2
10.12 DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE OF

CARBON IN FUEL BURNING TO CO2 AND
CO FROM THE VOLUMETRIC COMPOSITION
OF DRY FLUE GAS
Percentage of carbon burning to CO2
Mass of carbon in CO2 per kg of flue gas
x 100
Mass of carbon in one kg of flue gas
44C2 12
100/(C) X 44
= 44C2 12 28C1 12 x 100
X +
looy(c) 44 100E(C) 28
C2
X 100 (10.5)
C1 + C2
where C, and C2 are the percentage of CO and CO2 in flue gas by volume.
C,
Similarly, percentage of carbon burning to CO — x 100 (10.6)
C + C2
10.13 DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM QUANTITY

OF AIR REQUIRED FOR THE COMPLETE
COMBUSTION OF ONE CUBIC METER OF
GASEOUS FUEL WITH A GIVEN
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS OF GASEOUS
FUEL
Generally the main constituents of a gaseous fuel are hydrogen, carbon monox-
ide and methane, which is also known as marsh gas.
Chemical equations of combustion of gaseous fuels are:
(a) 2H2 + 02 = 2H20
2Vol + 1 Vol = 2Vol

1
...1Vol+- Vol = 1Vol
(b) 2C0 + 02 = 2CO2
2Vol + 1Vol = 2Vol
1Vol +- Vol = 1Vol

2
(c) CH4 + 202 = 2112 + CO2
1Vol + 2Vol = 2Vol + 1Vol

Let the percentage analysis of a gaseous fuel be as follows:
Hydrogen = H% Carbon dioxide = CO2%
Carbon monoxide = CO% Nitrogen = N%
Methane = CH4%
Let us consider 100 m3 of the above gas.
3
Quantity of oxygen required for complete combustion of hydrogen = — m
2
Quantity of oxygen required for complete combustion of CO = -

CO m3
2
Quantity of oxygen required for complete combustion of methane = 2 CH4 m3
Total quantity of oxygen required for complete combustion of 100 m3of gas
H CO
= — + — +2 CH4 m3
2 2
H CO
+—
2 + 2CH4 3
3 2
Oxygen required for complete combustion of 1m of gas = m
100
Air contains 21% 02 by volume so from 1 m3 of air we get 0.21 m3 of oxygen.
Quantity of air required for complete combustion of 1 m3of gaseous fuel
H CO
++ 2044 H + CO + 4CH4 3
In (10.7)
100 x.0.21 42
10.14 DETERMINATION OF EXCESS AIR

SUPPLIED IN m3 PER m3 OF GASEOUS
FUEL WHEN THE VOLUMETRIC
PERCENTAGES OF FUEL GAS AND
DRY FLUE GASES ARE GIVEN
Let V = Volume of flue gas produced in m3 per m3 of fuel gas when minimum
quantity of air is supplied for complete combustion.
Vi = Amount of air supplied in m3 per m3 of gas in excess of that required
for complete combustion.
Total volume of dry flue gas formed per m3 of gaseous fuel = V + V1
Volume of air left in actual products of combustion Vi

Total volume of actual products of combustion V+
Let 0 be the quantity of oxygen in m3 per m3 of exhaust gas, then the excess
quantity of air which will contain this volume of oxygen will be 42( m3
0 OV 3
+ VI) = 21 VI , OV = V1(21 0), .= m
21 = V +' 21 0
(10.8)
10.15 FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

The apparatus used for the volumetric analysis of dry flue gas is known as Orsat
apparatus (Fig. 10.1).
It consists of a measuring burette surrounded by a water filled jacket to
maintain a constant, temperature during the experiment, and three absorption
flasks — A, B and C — each containing different chemicals for absorbing CO2,
02 and CO. For CO2, the flask A contains 1 part of caustic soda (Na0H) or
caustic potash (KOH) in 2 parts of water by mass. For 02, the flask B contains 1
part of pyrogallic acid in three parts of water, and 24 parts of either caustic soda
or potash in 16 parts of water by mass. For CO, the flask C contains a solution
of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid, which is prepared by disolving copper
oxide (CuO) in about twenty times the mass of strong hydrochloric acid till it
becomes colourless. A levelling bottle D is connected to the lower end of the
measuring burette. Each flask at its upper end is connected to a capillary tube T
headers and these headers are inter connected by means of a manifold having
cocks. This manifold is connected to the measuring burette. A measured volume
(generally 100 cm3) of the flue gas is sucked in the tube (T) and in the measur-
ing burette at atmospheric pressure by lowering the flask D.
The stopcock in T is then
closed and the stopcock No. 1 is
opened. The flask A absorbs
CO2. As CO2 is absorbed, the
level of water in the measuring
burette rises. When the level of
water does not rise further, indi-
cating complete absorption of
CO2, the stopcock No. 1 is
closed and the flask D is raised
until the water level in the flask
D and in the measuring burette is
the same. The difference in vol-
ume gives the volume of CO2
in 100 cm3. Stopcock No. 2 is
now opened and the above pro- Fig. 10.1 Orsat apparatus
cedure is repeated. The further
diminution in volume gives the volume of 02 in 100 cm3 of the flue gas. The
volume of CO in 100 cm3 of the sample is determined by opening the stopcock
No. 3 and following the procedure described above. The volume that is left is
N2. Thus we get the percentages of CO2, 02, CO and N; by volume in the flue
gas.
The analysis is to be carried out as indicated because if flask B is opened
first, it will absorb both 02 and CO2 as it also contains caustic soda. It must be
noted that cuprous chloride can also absorb 02. This apparatus gives the analy-
sis on the basis of dry flue gas because water vapour if any, does not show up.
When the volume of the constituents are known, the percentages of the
constituents can be determined easily.
10.16 BOMB CALORIMETER

The bomb calorimeter is used to determine the calorific values of solid and liq-
uid fuels (Fig. 10.2). It consists of a strong steel shell known as bomb. It con-
sists of a base which supports the platinum crucible and is screwed to the body
of the bomb. The top of the bomb carries an oxygen supply connection and a
valve to release the product. One gram of powdered sample coal is taken for the
test and the calorimeter is filled with 2000 cm3 of water. The sample is placed in
the platinum crucible. The iron fuse wire which surrounds the sample of coal, is
connected to the lower end of the two electrodes. The electrodes extend through
the base of the bomb and connect the fuse wire to an electric circuit. The coal
can be ignited by closing the electric circuit.
The bomb is placed inside a copper vessel which contains water. There is a
stirring device for agitating the water within the calorimeter. The calorimeter
containing the bomb is placed in another container which acts as a heat insula-
tor. The temperature of water in the calorimeter is measured by a thermometer.
Thermometer The oxygen cylinder is coupled to
the bomb and oxygen is admitted to
Oxygen valve
the bomb through the valve until the
pressure gauge in the cylinder indi-
Calorimeter
cates a pressure of 25 atmospheres.
The fuel is ignited by passing a
Fuse wire current through the fuse wire. The
Crucible temperature of both starts increasing
Bomb
and the readings on the thermometer
Leads to are taken at one minute intervals for
fuse wire
10 minutes, after the maximum tem-
perature is reached. Thereafter the
temperature starts falling slowly.
When the temperature fall shows a
steady rate, the readings are taken at
Fig. 10.2 Bomb calorimeter regular intervals for an additional
five minutes.
Let Mi = Mass of sample of coal burnt in the bomb in gram.
M = Mass of water filled in the calorimeter in gram.
in = Water equivalent of the apparatus in gram (M + in gives the equiva-
lent mass of water in gram).
ti = Temperature of water before starting the experiment in °C
t2 = Maximum temperature of water during experiment in °C
S = Specific heat of water
H.C.V = Higher calorific value of coal sample in J/g or kJ/kg
= Mass of fuse wire in gram.
C. V = Calorific value of fuse wire.
Heat given by the combustion of coal + Heat given by the combustion of fuse
wire = Heat taken by the water and calorimeter.
Mt x H.C.V. + x C.V. = (M + in) x S(t2 -11)
M x H.C.V. = (M + m) x S(t2 — ti) — Mi x C.V.
(M +m)xS(t2 — t1)—Mi x C.V. •

H.C.V. — J/g or.kJ/kg. (10.9)
M1
10.17 BOY'S GAS CALORIMETER

Boy's gas calorimeter is used for determining the calorific value of gaseous
fuel. It consists of a burner, a chimney and radiator coils. A regulator is used in
the gas supply line to damp down any pressure fluctuations which would affect
the result. The cooling water is supplied to the cooling coil from a tank of con-
stant head. The flue gas moves up and then flows down from the top of the
container. The steam .formed due to the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel
condenses around the cooling coil. The overflow of the condensate is taken out
as shown in Fig. 10.3.
Outer casing
Cooling water out
\44,
Cooling coil
Condensate
Condensate overflow
Cooling Flow meter
water in .Thermometer
II
Gas
Burned supply
gases
iii / / /
Manometer
Fig. 10.3 Boy's gas calorimeter

The following readings are taken during the test.
(a) The pressure and temperature of the gas supply.
(b) Volume of gas consumed
(c) Mass of water consumed
(d) Rise in temperature of water
(e) Mass of condensate collected
(f) Barometer reading
(g) Time of run.
Let Vg' = Volume of gas consumed in m3
m„, = Mass of water circulated in kg.
(AT)„, = Rise in temperature of water circulated.
h„, = Pressure of the gas in cm of water above atmosphere
hb = Barometer reading in cm of Hg.
T8 = Temperature of gas supply.
The volume of the gas at N.T.P.
273 ( hb +6)
1‘.
1/8 = V
g T8 760
V8 x H.C.V. = m„,(AT),v .
m„,(AT)„, 3
H.C.V. = kJ/m at N.T.P. (10.10)
V8
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A sample of coal has the following composition by mass: Carbon 80%, hydrogen 5%,
oxygen 6%, nitrogen 2.5%, sulphur 1.5%, and ash 5%. Find its higher and lower caloi-ific
values per kg of coal.
Solution: Higher calorific value of coal is given by
0 1
H.C.V. = [35000 C+ 1430001 H— ) + 9160 x —
8 100
= 35000 x 0.8 + 143000(0.05 — 0 06 )1- 9160 x 0.015 = 34214.9 k.1/kg.
Lower calorific value of coal is given by

L.C.V. = [H.C.V. — 2442 x 9H] = [34214.9 — 2442 x 9 x 0.06] = 32896.22 kJ/kg.
Alternatively using Dulong's formula
0 0
H.C.V. = 33800 C + 144500(H -- + 9300 S = 33800 x 0.8 + 144500 0.05 — ° 6) + 9300 x 0.015
8 8
= 33320/75 kJ/kg.
= 33320".75 —9 x 0.051x 2442 = 32221.85 kJ/kg.
2. Calculate the theoretical higher and lower calorific values of a fuel oil having the following
analysis by mass: Carbon 86%, Hydrogen 12%, and Oxygen 2%. Take C.V. for hydrogen =
144500 kJ/kg, and C.V. fcir carbon = 33800 kJ/kg. The enthalpy of evaporation of steam may
be taken as 2257 kJ/kg at atmospheric pressure.
Solution: Assume that any oxygen if present in the fuel is already combined with some of the
hydrogen so that the heat released from this part hydrogen is not available.
1 kg of hydrogen combines with 8 kg of oxygen to produce 9 kg of water vapour.
0.02
0.02 kg of 02 will combine with — = 0.0025 kg of H2
8
Hydrogen available for heat release = 0.12-0.0025 = 0.1175 kg.
Heat released from the combustion of 0.1175 kg of H2 = 144500 x 0.1175 = 16978.75 kJ.
Carbon C = 86% = 0.86 kg in one kg of fuel.
Heat released from the combustion of 0.86 kg of C = 33800 x 0.86 = 29068 kJ.
H.C.V. of fuel = 16978.75 + 290.68 = 46046.75 kJ/kg.
3. In an experimental determination of the calorific value of an oil having a hydrogen content
of 14% the following data were obtained.
Mass of oil = 0.579 g
Mass of water = 1400 g
Water equivalent of calorimeter = 500 g
Rise in temperature of water = 2.912°C

Cooling correction = 0.058°C
Mass of cotton used in igniting oil = 0.005 g
Calorific value of cotton = 16750 kJ/kg.
Find the higher and lower calorific values of the fuel. Take specific heat of water as
4.187 kJ/kg. [D.M.E. 11 ' 921
Solution: Corrected temperature rise = 2.192 + 0.058 = 2.97°C
Equivalent mass of water = 1400 + 500 = 1900 g = 1.9 kg
Heat received by water = 1.9 x 4.187 x 2.97 = 23.627 kJ
Heat given out by combustion of cotton = 0.005 x 10-3 x 16750 = 0.08375 kJ.
Heat given out by the combustion of liquid fuel = 23.627-0.08375 = 23.54325 kJ.
Mass of oil = 0.579 g = 0.579 x le kg.
23.54325
Higher calorific value of oil = = 40661.917 kJ/kg
0.579 x 10'
Steam formed during combustion of 1 kg of fuel = 0.14 x 9 = 1.26 kg.
Lower calorific value = 40661.917 — 1.26 x 2442 = 37584.997 kJ/kg
4. A bomb calorimeter was used to determine the calorific value of a sample of coal and the
following readings were obtained.
The sample of coal contains 6% hydrogen.
Mass of the sample of coal = 0.85 g
Mass of the fuse wire = 0.03 g
Mass of water in the calorimeter = 2000
Water equivalent of calorimeter = 350 g
Calorific value of fuse wire = 6800 J/g
Observed temperature rise of water = 3°C
Cooling correction = +0.017°C
Specific heat of water = 4.187 x 103 J/kg K. (4.187 J/g)
Find the higher and lower calorific values of the coal. Take enthalpy of evaporation as
2257 kJ/kg at atmospheric pressure.
Solution: Equivalent mass of water = 2000 + 350 = 2350 g
Observed temperature rise = 3°C
Cooling correction = +0.017°C.
Corrected temperature rise of water = 3 +0.017 = 3.017°C
Heat absorbed by equivalent mass of water = Equivalent mass of water x Specific heat of
water x corrected temperature rise of water.
=2350x4.187x3.017=29685'.621 J
Heat received by this mass of water from coal
= 29685.621 — heat from fuse wire = 29685.621 — 0.03 x 6800 = 29481.621 J

Mass of sample.of coal = 0.85 g.
29481.621
Higher calorific value of coal = — 34684.26 J/g = 34684.26 kJ/kg
0.85
1 kg of hydrogen combines with 8 kg of oxygen to produce 9 kg of steam. Thus, steam pro-
duced during combustion of one kg of fuel = 9 H = 9 x 0.06 = 0.54 kg.
Assuming steam pressure as atmospheric, enthalpy of evaporation of 0.54 kg of stean, at
100°C = 0.54 x 2257 = 1218.78 kJ.
Lower calorific value of coal = H.C.V. — Enthalpy of evaporation of steam pro-

duced = 34684.26-1218.78 = 33465.48 kJ/kg.
5. The following results were recorded during a test of a sample of gas in a gas calorimeter:
Gas burnt = 0,03 m3
Gas pressure = 85 mm of water above atmospheric
Temperature of gas = 25°C
Barometric pressure = 750 mm of Hg.
Mass of water passing through the calorimeter = 9.5 kg
Inlet temperature of circulating water = 25°C
Outlet temperature of circulating water = 37°C
Steam condensed during the test = 30 gm
Temperature of steam condensed during the test = 33°C
Calculate the higher and lower calorific values of the gas per m3 at S.T.P. (i.e., at 15°C and
760 mm of Hg). Take enthalpy of evaporation of steam as 2257 kJ/kg at atmospheric pres-
sure and specific heat of water as 4.187 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Let P1, 1/1, T1 be the absolute pressure, volume and temperature of the gas at the
meter and P2, V2, T2 be the absolute pressure, volume and temperature at 15°C and 760 mm
of Hg. (S.T.P)
py, P2V2 p, VI T2
=.*. V2 = — D X -,.1,.7
-
T1 T2 I- 2 ,
Here, V, = 0.03 m3, P, = 750 + 13 = 756.25 mm of Hg, T, = 25 + 273 = 298 K.

.6
P2 = 760 mm of Hg, T,= 15 + 273 = 288 K
Volume of gas burned at S.T.P
756.25 x 0.03 x 288
V2 = — 0.02885 m3
760 x 298
Heat absorbed to raise the temperature of 9.5 kg of water from 25°C to 37°C
= 9.5 x 4.187 x (37 — 25) = 477.318 kJ.

477.318
Higher calorific value of the gas = = 16544.818 kJ/m3at S.T.P.
0.02885
Amount of heat given out by 1 kg of steam on condensing and further cooling down to 33°C.
= 2257 + 1 x 4.187 x (100-33) = 2257 + 280.529 = 2537.529 kJ/kg.
Therefore, 0.03 kg of steam on condensing and cooling down to 33°C, gives out heat =
0.03 x 2537.529 = 76.125 kJ.
Therefore, actual heat absorbed by water passing through the calorimeter from combus-
tion of gas = 477.318-76.125 = 401.192 kJ.
40 1 .192
Lower calorific value of the gas at S.T.P. = = 13906 kJ/m3.
0.02 885
6. A sample of coal contains 81% carbon, 6%, hydrogen and the remainder ash on mass basis.
Find (a) minimum mass of air required to burn 1 kg of coal and (b) the mass of products of
combustion.
Solution: Given, Mass of carbon is 1 kg of coal, C = 81% = 0.81 kg
Mass of hydrogen in 1 kg of coal, H = 6% = 0.06 kg.
(a) Minimum mass of air required to burn 1 kg of coal

100 100
=-(2.67C+8H+S-0)= - (2.67 x 0.81+8 x 0.06+0-0)= 11.49 kg.
23 23
(b) The chemical equations of carbon and hydrogen with oxygen are
(i) C + 0, = CO,
(ii) 2H2 + 0, = 2H,0
We know that 1 kg of carbon produces kg of carbon dioxide and 1 kg of hydrogen produces

9 kg of water.
Mass of products of combustion, CO, = 13 x C = 3

1 x 0.81 = 2.97 kg
H20 = 9 H = 9 x 0.06 = 0.54 kg

Total mass of products of combustion = 2.97 + 0.54 = 3.51 kg
7. A sample of coal contains 78% carbon, 6% hydrogen, 1.2% nitrogen, 7.8% oxygen, 3%
sulphur and 4% incombustibles. Find (a) minimum quantity of air required for complete
combustion of 1 kg of coal and (b) the total mass of products of combustion.
Solution: Given, Mass of carbon in 1 kg of coal, C = 78% = 0.78 kg
Mass of hydrogen in 1 kg of coal, H = 6% = 0.06 kg
Mass of sulphur in 1 kg of coal, S = 3% = 0.03 kg
Mass of oxygen in 1 kg of coal, 0 = 7.8% = 0.078 .kg
Mass of nitrogen in 1 kg of coal Jul = 1.2% = 0.012 kg
(a) Minimum quantity of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of coal
100
= -(2.67C + 8H +S -0)
23
100
= (2.67 x 0.78 + 8 x 0.06 + 0.03 - 0.078) = 10.933 kg
3
(b) The chemical equations of the constituents are
(i) C + 02 = CO2
(ii) 2H2 + 02 = 2H20
(iii) S 02 = S02.
11C
(c) Total mass of products of constituents = - + 9H + 2S + N
11
= x 0.78 + 9 x 0.06 + 2 x 0.03 + 0.012 = 3.472 kg.
3
8. A certain town gas has the following composition by volume: hydrogen 46%, methane
40.75%, ethylene 2.55%, carbon monoxide 7.5% and nitrogen 3.2%. Calculate (a) the mini-
mum amount of air required for complete combustion, and (b) the volume of dry products of
combustion and its composition.
Solution:
(a) Since 1.159 m3 of oxygen is required for combustion, air necessary to supply this
amount of oxygen is
100
1.159 x- = 5.519 m3 per m3 of fuel.
1
(b) This air contains 5.519-1.159 = 4.36 m3 of nitrogen. Therefore, the total volume of dry
products of combustion is
0,5335 m3 of CO2 + (0.032 + 4.36) m' of N2 = 4.9255 m3.

Percentage composition by volume of the dry products of combustion:
0.5335 x 100 4.392 x 100 .
CO, = = 10.83%,N, - 89.17%.
4.9255 4,9255 =
Table 10.3
Constituent m3 of constituent Combustion m3 of 02 Products of
gas in 1 m3 of gas equation required combustion i i m3
CO2 N, H2O
H2 0.46 2H2 + 02 = 2H20 0.23 0.46

CH, 0,4075 CH, + 202 = 0.815 0.4075 - 0.815
CO2 + 2H20
C2H 4 0.0255 C2H, + 302 = 0.0765 0.051 0.0765
2CO2 + 3H20
CO 0.075 2C0 +02 = 2CO2 0.0375 0.075
N 0,032 0.032
1.000 Total 02 required 1.159 0.5335 0.032 1.3515
9. The percentage composition of a sample of anthracite coal is C, 90%, H2 3.5%, 02 3%,

N2 1%, S 0.5%, the remainder being ash. Estimate the minimum mass of air required for the
combustion of 1 kg of this fuel, and the composition of the dry products of combustion by
volume, if 50% excess air is supplied.
Solution:
Table 10.4
Consti- Mass Combu- 02 Mass of Mass of Mass of Excess Total
in
tent 1 kg of stion eq- required CO 2 SO2 N2 02 N2 N2 in

fuel uation in kg in kg in kg in kg in kg in kg kg.
C 0.9 C + 02 2 3.3 kg
=CO2
x09
12 •
= 2.4
H2 0.035 2H2+02 8x0.035
= 2H20 = 0.28
S 0.005 S + 02 0.005 0,01
= SO2
2 0.03 2.685-0.03 1.3275
= 2.655
N2 0.01 0.01+ 4.45 8.9+
8.89 4.45
=8.9 =
13.35
77 77
-x 2.655 = 8.8° and - x 1.3275 = 4.45
23 23
100
2 x 2,655 = 11.55 kg per kg of fu ;1.
Minimum mass of air required is given by ma = 7s-
Actual mass of air = 11.55 x 1.5 = 17.325 kg per kg of fuel.
'-
44'x100
% CO2 = 13.35 1.3275 3.3 0.01 (Art.10.9)
28 + 32 + 44 + 64
- 0.075 x 100 7.5

= 12.64%.
0.4767 + 0.0415 + 0.075 + 0.0001565 0.5933
0.4767 x 100
% N2 = = 80.34%
0.5933
0.0415 x 100
% 2= 0.5933 = 6.93%
0.0001563 x 100
% SO2 0.5933 = 0.026%.
10. The volume analysis of a producer gas is: H2, 14%; CH4, 2%; CO, 22%; CO, 5%; 02 2%;
and N2, 55%. If 40% excess air is supplied, find the volume analysis of the dry products. Air
contains 21 parts by volume of 02.
Solution:
Table 10.5
Consti- Volume Combustion 02 Volume Volume Excess
tuents in 1 m3 equation requi- of CO2 of H2O 02 in m3 N2 in
of fuel red in m3 in m3 in m3 m3
H2 0.14 2H2 + 02 = 2H20 0.07 - 0.14
CH4 0.02 CH4+202 = CO, + 2H20 0.04 0.02 0.04
CO 0.22 2C0 + 02 = 2CO2 0.11 0.22
CO, 0.05 0.05
02 0.02 -0.02 0.08 0.55
N2
+
1.053
0.2 cu.m. 0.29 0.08 1.603
40% of 0.2 = 0.08 m3 of excess 02

0.79
Excess N2 = x(0.2 + 0.08) = 1.053 m3
0.21
Total volume of dry gas = 0.29 + 0.08 + 1.603 = 1.973 m3.
0.29 x 100
.'. CO, by volume = 1.973 - 14.7%
1.603 x 100
N2 - 1.973 - 81.246%
0 _ 0.08 x 100 A ,107,,

2 - 1.973
11. The sample of coal fired in a boiler trial contained 88% by mass of carbon and the ash in
it was 3.6%. The flue gas analysis by volume was CO2, 10.9%; CO, 1.0%; 02, 7.1%; and N2,
81%. Find the proportion of carbon burnt to carbon monoxide and the amount of air required
per kg of fuel for the combustion as it occurred, and also the mass of gases per kg of fuel
burned.
I x 100
Solution: Proportion of carbon burnt to CO = c x 100 = = 8.4%.
2 10.9 + 1
NC ) = 81 x 88
The amount of air per kg of fuel is given by, ma
= 33(C, + C2 33(1 + 10.9)
= 18.15 kg per kg of fuel.

Mass of flue gas = mass of air + mass of fuel = 18.15 + (1-0.036) where 0.036 = mass of ash.
= 19.114 kg per kg of fuel.
12. A producer gas used for firing gas retorts had the following percentage volumetric analy-
sis: H2, 14; CH4, 3; CO, 24; CO2, 6; 02, 2; and N2, 50.3.
The percentage volumetric analysis of the dry flue gases was reported to be CO2, 15;
02, 4.7; N2, 80.3.
Calculate the excess air supplied per 100 m3 of producer gas.
Solution:
Table 10.6
Consti- m3 .in 1 Combustion 02 Products
tuent m3 of gas equation required m3 CO2 m3 H2O m3 N2 m3
H2 0.14 2H2 + 02 = 2H20 0.07 0.14
CH4 0.03 CH4 + 202 = CO2 + 0.06 0.03 0.06
2H20
CO 0.24 2C0 + 02 = 2CO2 0.12 0.24
CO2 0.06 0.06
02 0.02 -0.02
N2 0.503 0.503
associated with min. 02 0.865
required.
0.23 0.33 1.368
As air contains 21% of 02 by volume, the volume of N2 associated with it is given by
x 0.23 = 0.865 m3
9
21
The volume of dry flue gas per m3 of producer gas is given by
V FD = CO2 + N2 + Excess air = 0.33 + 1.368 + x
The percentage of CO2 in the flue gas is given, therefore, we have
0.33 0.33
0.15 = or 1.698 +x = = 2.2, x = 2.2 - 1.698 = 0.502 m3.
0.33 + 1 .368 +x 0.15
Excess air supplied per 100 m3 of producer gas = 0.502 x 100 = 50.2 m3.
13. The volumetric analysis of the gas supplied to a gas engine is CH4, 32%; H2, 44%;
CO, 9%; 02, 4% and N2, 11%. Determine the volumetric composition of the resulting dry
exhaust gas, assuming that the volume of the air supplied is 5.2 times that of the gas, and that
combustion is complete. Air contains 20.9% of oxygen by volume.
Solution:
Table 10.7
Constituent m3 Combustion 02 CO2 in Excess
equation required m3 02 in m3 N2 in m3
in m3
CH4 0.32 CH4 + 202 = CO, + 0,64 0.32
2H20
CO 0.09 2C0 + 02 = 2CO2 0.045 0.09
H2 0.44 2H2 + 02 = 2H20 0.22 1.088
02 0,04 -0.04 -0.865
N2 =0.223
0.865 4.112
0:41 0.223 4.112
m3 of 02 in 5.2 m3 of air = 5.2 x 0.209 = 1.088 m3.
Volume of dry exhaust gas = 0.41 + 0.223. + 4.112 = 4.855 m3.
0.41 x 100 0.223 x 00 4.112 x 100
% CO, = 8.44%, % 0 2 = 4.59%, % N2 =
4.855 = 4.85: 4.855 87%
14. When petrol, having an analysis of C, 85% and H, 15%, on mass basis, is used in an
engine, the air supply is 85% of that theoretically required for complete combustion. Assum-
ing that all the hydrogen is burnt and that carbon burns to carbon monoxide and carbon diox-
ide so that there is no free carbon left, determine the percentage volumetric analysis of dry
exhaust gases and the percentage of the gross calorific value of the fuel lost due to incomplete
combustion.
Take gross C. V. as C to CO2 = 33900 kJ/kg.
C to CO = 10000 kJ/kg, H2 to H2O = 144500 kJ/kg.
Solution:
The quantity of air required for the complete combustion of petrol = -(2.67C
100 + 8H + S -0)
23
100
= --27 (2.67 x 0.85 + 8 x 0.15) = 15.08 kg per kg of petrol.
3
Actual air supplied = 15.08 x 0.85 = 12.82 kg per kg of fuel.
Deficiency of air supplied = 226 kg per kg of fuel.
4 100
When carbon burns to CO, the air supplied per kg of carbon = 3x 2 kg.
3
Reduction in the quantity of air required for combustion when carbon burns to CO instead of
100(8 4
CO, = = 5.8 kg per kg of carbon.
2.26
Therefore = 0.3896 kg of carbon burns to CO.
.'. Carbon burned to CO, = 0.85 - 0.3896 = 0.4604 kg/kg of fuel.

28
Carbon monoxide formed = 0.3896 x - = 0.909 kg/kg of fuel.
12
Carbon dioxide formed = 0.4604 x 3 = 1,688 kg/kg of fuel.
N2 from air = 15.08 x 0.85 x 0.77 = 9.87 kg/ kg of fuel.

Table 10.8
Constituent Mass of gas Molecular Proportional volume Percentage by volume
formed per kg weight (b) a c
(c) = ;
1 (d) = x 100
of fitel (a) E (c)
CO2 1.688 44 0.0383 9.07%
CO 0.909 28 0.0313 7.41%
N2 9.87 28 0.3525 83.51%
Total E (c) = 0.4221 100%
Gross calorific value of fuel = 0.85 x 33900 + 0.15 x 144500 = 50490 kJ/kg.
0.3896(33900 - 10000)
Percentage heat loss due to incomplete combustion = x 100 = 18.44%.
50490
15. A boiler burns coal, the percentage analysis of which, for dry coal is C, 84 and H2, 4.5, the
remainder being ash. The coal when fired contains 6% moisture. The percentage volumetric
analysis of the dry flue gases is CO2, 13.9; CO, 0.3; 02, 4.9. The water evaporated is 14 kg
per kg of coal .as fired. The flue gases pass to an economiser at a temperature of 4006C and
leave at 235°C. They then pass to an air preheater where the temperature of the flue gases is
further reduced to 120°C.
Estimate the rise in temperature of the feed water in the economiser and the temperature
of the air on leaving the preheater.
Specific heat of air = 1.005 kJ/kg K, specific heat of dry products of combustion =
1.09 kJ/kg K, specific heat of superheated steam = 2.01 kJ/kg K, Efficiency of heat transmis-
sion in economiser = 70% and in preheater = 80%. Air contains 23.1% oxygen on mass basis.
Solution: First the percentage of C in coal as fired is to be found out. From the data we know
that 94 kg dry coal is present in 100 kg coal as fired.
l00 x 100
100 kg dry coal is present in kg coal as fired.
94
1 kg dry coal contains 0.84 kg C.
1 kg coal as fired contains 0.84 x 0.94 = 0.79 kg C per kg of coal.
1 kg dry coal contains 0.045 kg H2.
1 kg coal as fired contains 0.045 x 0.94 = 0.0423 kg H2.
Mass of water formed from H2 = 9 H2 = 9 x 0.0423 = 0.3807 kg.
Mass of water present in coal = 0.06
Total H2O per kg of coal = 0.3807 + 0.06 = 0.4407
The percentage of N2 in the flue gas is not given. It is found by subtraction, assuming that the
rest is N2. Therefore, we have,
% N2 = 100 - % CO2 - % CO - % 0, = 100 - 13.9 - 0.3 - 4.9 = 100 - 19.1 = 80.9%.
Mass of dry flue gas is given by
C E (C) C(44 CO2 + 28 CO + 32 02 + 28 N2)
- 12(C1 + C2) 12(CO + CO2)
_ 0.79(44x 13.9 +28 x 0.3 + 32 x 4.9 + 28 x 80.9)

12(0.3 + 13.9)
- 0.79 x 3042
- 14.1 kg per kg of coal.
170.4
Mass of air supplied is given by

NC 79 x 8.9
0
0.3) = 13.63 kg per kg of coal.
ma = 33(C, + C2) 33(13.9 +
Heat given up by flue gas = Heat given up by dry flue gas + Heat given up by water vapour to
feed the feed water heater.
= 14.1 x 1.09 (400-235) + 0.4407 x 2.01 (400-235) = 2682.04 kJ per kg of coal.
Heat actually used in heating the feed water = 0.7 x 2682.04 = 1877. 43 kJ per kg of coal.
1877.43
Temperature rise of feed water - = 32.02°C.
4.187 x 14
Heat given up by the wet flue gas to the preheater
= 14.1 x 1.09(235 - 120) + 0.4407 x 2.01 x (235 -120) = 1869.30 kJ per kg of coal.
Heat actually used in preheating air = 0.8 x 1869.3 = 1495.44 kJ per kg of coal.
1495.44
Temperature rise of air - = 109.17°C.
1.005 x 1163
16. In a gas engine producer plant the volumetric analysis of the producer gas and of the
engine exhaust gas were as follows:
CO H2 CH4 C2H4 CO2 02 N2
Producer gas% 20.5 12.5 3 0.5 7.5 0.2 55.8
Exhaust gas% 10.7 8.3 81
Find (i) the chemically correct volumetric air fuel ratio for the producer gas, and (ii) the
percentage of excess air supplied to the gas engine. Air contains 21% oxygen by volume.
Solution:
Table 10.9
Constituent Volume Combustion equation 02 requ- CO2 H2O N2
in m3 ired in m3 in m3 in m3 in m3
CO 0.205 , 2C0 + 02 = 2CO2 0.1025 0.205
H2 0.125 2H2 + 02 = 2H20 0.0625 0.125
CH4 0.03 CH4 + 202 = CO2 + 2H20 0.06 0.03 0.06
C2H4 -0.005 C2H4 + 302 = 2CO2 + 2H20 0.015 0.01 0.01
02 -0.002
N2 0.558
CO2 0.075 0.8954
0.238 0.32 1.4534
of 02 = 0.23:x 79
N2 associated with 0138 m3 0.8954 m3
i
Volume of air supplied = 0.238 + 0.8954 = 1.1334 in3
(i) Air-fuel ratio = 1.1334 : 1.
(ii) Let x m3 be the excess air per 1 m3 of fuel. Then from the volumetric analysis of CO2,
we have
0.32 0.32
0.017 = or 0.32 + 1.453 +x -
0.32 + 1A53 + x , 0.107
or x = 2.99 - 1.773 = 1.217 m3
1.217 x 100
Percentage excess of air = = 107.2%
1.1334
17. A sample of boiler coal has the following percentage composition : C, 88; H2, 3.6 ;
02, 4.8; and the remainder being ash. The air is at 15°C and the temperature of the gases
leaving the boiler is 343°C. If the air taken in is 60% in excess of the theoretical, estimate the
heat carried away per kg of coal by (a) the products of combustion, and (b) the excess of air.
Specifi6 heat of products of combustion is 1.09 kJ/kg K, specific heat of steam is 1.863 kJ/kg,
and specific heat of air is 1.005 kJ/kg K.
77
Mass of N2 with 2.59 kg, 02 = x 2.59 = 8.68 kg
Mass of CO2 and N2 = 3.23 + 8.68 = 11.91 kg.

Heat carried away by CO2 and N2 = 11.91 x 1.09 x (343-15) = 4258.06 kJ/kg of coal.
Table 10.10
Constituent Mass of Combustion equa- 02 required, kg Mass of Mass of H2O
fuel, kg Lion CO2, kg kg
C 0.88 C+02 =CO2 33 3.23
12 x 0.88 = 2.35
H2 0.036 21-12 + 02 = 2 H2O 0.036 x 8 = 0.288 0.324
02 0.048 - 0.048
2.59 kg
Heat carried away by moisture
= 0.324[2676.1 + 1.863(343 -100) -15 x 4.187] = 993.385 kJ per kg of coal.
(a) Heat carried away by products of combustion = 4258.06 + 993.385 = 5251.44 kJ per
kg of coal.
(b) Excess mass of 02 = 0.6 x 2.59 = 1.554 kg.
100
Mass of excess air = - x 1.554 = 6.756 kg.
23
Heat carried away by excess air = 6.756 x 1.005 x (343 -15) = 2227.047 Id per kg of coal.
18. The following results were obtained during a test on a suction gas producer and gas
engine plant:
Coal consumption: 22 kg per hour of calorific value 32820 kJ/kg; Volumetric composi-
tion of gas: CO = 18, H2 = 10, CH4 = 3.3, N2 = 68.7; volume ratio of air to gas is 1.5 to 1,
indicated m.e.p. is 4.8 bar; explosions per minute: 120. The engine is single acting with a
bore of 35 cm and stroke 52.5 cm and works on four stroke cycle.
Calorific values of CO, H2 and CH4 are 13330, 13550, 40100 Id per standard m3.
Assume a volumetric efficiency of 0.8 for the engine based on S.T.P. conditions and cal-
culate.
(a) volume of gas per kg of fuel, (b) thermal efficiency of producer,and (c) thermal effi-
ciency of engine.
Solution:
22 x 32820
Heat input to the producer per min = - 12034 kJ/min.
60
Calorific value of gas = 0.18 x 13330 + 0.1 x 13550 + 0.033 x 40100 = 5077.7 kJ/m3at N.T.P.
Piston displacement = 4x (0.35)2 x 0.525 = 0.0505 m3.
As the volumetric efficiency is 80 per cent, the amount of air gas-mixture sucked in per min =
0.0505 x 0.8 x 120 = 4.849 m3 per min at N.T.P.
4.849
Volume of gas sucked in per min = — 1.9396 cu. m. per min. at N.T.P.
1.5 + 1
22
1.9396 m3of gas are produced by = — = 0.3666 kg of coal.
60
1.9396 x 60
(a) The volume of gas produced per kg of fuel = = 5.29 m3per kg of coal.
22
1.9396 x 5077.7
(b) Thermal efficiency of producer = x 100 = 81.84%
12034
4.8 x 100 x 0.525 x It x (0.35)2 x 120
Work done by the engine = P„,LAN = = 2909.429 k]/min.
4
2909.429
Thermal efficiency of the engine — x 100 = 29.54%.
1.9396 x 5077.7
ELEVEN
Thermodynamic
Vapour Cycles
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In a vapour cycle steam is the working substance. The heat engine cycles which
make use of steam as the working substance are Carnot cycle and Rankine
cycle. In this chapter the Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle and modified Rankine
cycle will be discussed.
11.2 CARNOT CYCLE

The principle of the reversible cycle was put forward by a French Engineer,
N.L. Sadi Carnot, in 1824.
Carnot cycle is a theoretical cycle and is used as an ideal cycle for compari-
doh in the case of both gas power and vapour power cycles. The cycle is shown
In Figs 11.1 (a) & (b) on P—V and T — diagram.
Saturated
Isothermal liquid line
expansion
2
Saturated
vapour line
4 3
Isothermal
compression
Volume ( V ) Entropy (' (13 )
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.1 Carnot cycle on (a) P-V diagram, and (b) T -4) diagram
Thermodynamic Vapour Cycles 229
Operations
It consists of the following four operations—two isothermal operations (1-2) and
(3-4) and two frictionless adiabatic operations (2-3) and (4-1).
isothermal expansion
Heat is supplied at a constant temperature T, and a constant pressure P1 where
1 kg of water at its saturation temperature T1 is heated to form dry steam. This
operation is represented by (1-2).
Adiabatic expansion
The steam is expanded adiabatically to temperature T2 and pressure P2. The
condition of steam after expansion is represented by the point 3. This operation
is represented by (2-3).
Isothermal compression
Heat is rejected at a constant pressure P2 and constant temperature T2. Steam
becomes wet as it is exhausted and cooled from (3-4). This operation is repre-
sented by (3-4).
Adiabatic compression
The wet steam at point 4 is compressed adiabatically till steam comes to its ini-
tial state of temperature T1 and pressure P,. This operation is represented by
(4-1). As there is no heat exchange during (2-3) and (4-1),
Work done during the cycle = Heat supplied during operation (1-2)—Heat
rejected during operation (3-4)
— T 1(02 01) T03 — T 1(02 (i)i) T202. 01) ( • (I)2 (1).1)
= (02 — (1)1) (T1 — T2)

Work done
Efficiency of the Carnot cycle =
Heat supplied
(02 — 01) (T1 T2)

tic— T1(02 — 01)
— T2 T2
TIC = —1 .
7-1
Shaft Work
The work done by the adiabatic expansion of steam is known as shaft work. It is
equal to (H2 —H3), where H2 = enthalpy of dry saturated steam at pressure P1 and
H3 = enthalpy of wet steam at pressure P2 at point 3.
Work Input to Compressor

The work done on the steam during adiabatic compression is known as work
to compressor.
input
Work input to compressor = H1 — H4
Where, H = enthalpy of saturated water at point 1 at pressure P1
H4 = enthalpy of steam at point 4 at pressure P2.
Network
Out of the shaft work, some work is spent in the process of compression from 4
to 1. The difference of shaft work and compressor work is known as network
done by the steam.
Work Ratio
The ratio of network done to shaft work is known as work ratio.
Network
Work ratio =
shaft work
Specific Fuel Consumption

Heat equivalent of one kW-hour in kJ
Specific fuel consumption =
Work done per kg of steam in kJ
3600
Work done per kg of steam in kJ
11.3 APPLICATION OF CARNOT CYCLE

The Carnot cycle is not considered as a standard reference for steam power
plants because of the following difficulties.
(a) The condensation is stopped at point 4 before saturated liquid .condi-
tion is reached.
(b) This is necessary in order to reach saturated liquid condition after
compression so that expansion may be started from 1.
(c) The compressor has to deal with both water and vapour which do not
form a homogeneous mixture. Specific volume of the vapour is very
large and therefore the compressor is large in size and work input has
to be large.
(d) The higher power requirement on comptession reduces the plant effi-
ciency and work ratio.
(e) The plant size for the specified power is large as the specific steam
consumption is higher.
11.4 RANKINE CYCLE

Rankine cycle is actually a modification of the Carnot cycle. It is an ideal cycle
on which a steam engine works. In this cycle, the condensation of steam is
continued until all the steam is converted into water, i.e. up to point 3 as shown
in Fig. 11.2. The pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams of Ran-
kine cycle are shown in Figs 11.2(a) and (b). Let us consider one kg of water at
a temperature T2 and at a pressure P,. The condition of water is represented by
point 3. The cycle is completed by the operations.
to)
Volume ( V ) Entropy ( 1)
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.2
Operations
Operation 3-3'
At condenser pressure P2 and the corresponding saturation temperature, the liq-
uid enters the feed pump at point 3. During process 3-3' the water is fed to the
boiler. At point 3' the liquid has a pressure equal to the boiler pressure but its
temperature is lower than the saturation temperature for the boiler pressure P1.
Operation 3'-4
The feed water is supplied with heat to raise its temperature to saturation tem-
perature corresponding to boiler pressure. The operation 3'-4 may take place
either in economiser or in a special feed heater.
Operation 4-1
During this process the water evaporates into steam.
Operation 1-2
The steam enters the engine or turbine where it expands adiabatically to pres-
sure P2.
Operation 2-3
At point 2 the exhaust steam enters the condenser where it is condensed com-
pletely by circulating water at pressure P2. Here only latent heat is removed.
Thus, the cycle is completed.
Efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be calculated by using the relation,
Qi — Q2
11R —
Q1
where , Q, = Heat supplied to the liquid in the boiler

Q2 = Heat rejected by the liquid in the condenser.
For this cycle, Q, = HI — h„,3 Q2 = H2 —
(H1 — hm., 3') — (H2 — h,v3) (H1 — H2) — (hiv3' — hw3)

11R — H I — hw3
= H I — hw 3
(H, — H2) — (h„,3 — h w 3)

(Hi — h,„3)— (hw; — /2,3)
The pump work (h,„3 —h„,3) is shown hatched on P—V diagram. It is very small
and can be neglected. In that case, the P—V and T— (1) diagram will be as shown
in Figs 11.3 (a) & (b).
1' 1 1"
I ll
I \
•-• \ s)6
•
CL)
2' 2 2" F24
Volume ( V) Entropy ( 43 )
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.3
— H2 H1 H2
Neglecting pump work 11 /2 = Hl (As h,,,3 = h,,,2)
— — h,v2
Note: (a) The R inkine cycle is irreversible, therefore, for the same temper-
ture T, and T2, its efficiency is lower than that of Carnot cycle.
(b) The expansion of steam sometimes follows the law.
n
PV" = constant. Then work done per cycle = (P1 171 - P2V2)
n - 1
(c) The Rankine cycle efficiency of a good steam power plant is in
the range of 35%-45%.
11.5 RANKINE CYCLE APPLIED TO STEAM

ENGINE PLANT
Cooling
water
Hot well
Fig. 11.4 Schematic diagram of a steam engine plant

Figure 11.4 shows a schematic diagram of a steam engine plant. The essential
componets of a steam plant are;
(a) A boiler in which steam is generated at constant pressure.
(b) An engine or turbine in which heat energy is converted into work.
(c) A condenser in which the exhaust steam discharged from the engine is
reconverted into water.
(d) A hot well in which the condensed water from the condenser is collected.
The water from the hot well is again pumped back into boiler by feed
pump.
(e) A feed pump which pumps the water from the hot well into the boiler.
Figures 11.5 (a) and (b) shows the various operations of Rankine cycle on P-V
and T - 4) diagrams respectively, as applied to a steam engine plant.
Operations
Operation 3-3'
Point 3 indicates the condition of water from the condenser. This water is at a
pressure P2 and temperature T2. The pressure of the water is raised to the boiler
pressure P1 by adiabatic compression in the feed pump. Due to compression, the
temperature of feed water is increased and this is represented by 3-3' onthe T -4)
diagram. The equivalent work is represented by the area 3ab 3' on the P-V dia-
gram.
Volume ( V ) Entropy ( 1:13 )

(a) (b)
Fig. 11.5
Operation 3'-4
The feed water is supplied with heat to raise its temperature to saturation tem-
perature corresponding to boiler pressure. The operation 3'-4 may take place
either in an economiser or in a'special feed heater.
Operation 4-1
During this process evaporation of water takes place at constant pressure P1 to
dry saturated steam in the boiler.
Operation 1-2
The steam enters the engine or turbine where it expands adiabatically to pres-
sure P2 up to point 2.
Operation 2-3
At point 2 the exhaust steam enters the condenser where it is condensed com-
pletely by circulating water at pressure P2. Here only latent heat is removed.
Thus, the cycle is completed.
11.6 WORKING FLUID FOR RANKINE CYCLE

The working fluid for Rankine cycle or for any other heat engine cycle should
be cheap, universally available, chemically stable and harmless. From thermo-
dynamic point of view, it should have the following properties.
(a) It should have the highest saturation temperature for a moderate pressure.
This would mean high efficiency due to most of the heat being added at
high temperature without having to deal with high pressure, which creates
mechanical difficulties.
(b) It must have small specific heat of the liquid. This will render the sensible
heat negligible in comparison to heat added for boiling which is added at
the upper temperature.
(c) It should have high density. This will reduce the plant size for a given out-
put.
(d) Its saturated vapour line should be very steep, so that after expansion it has
a high dryness fraction, without recourse to superheating.
(e) The saturation pressure at the exhaust temperature should be slightly
higher than the atmospheric pressure. Because of this, the use of condenser
and the undesirabilities associated with it can be avoided.
Mercury is good from thermodynamic point of view but it is costly and poison-
ous. It is used as a topping fluid in binary plants. Water being harmless and
easily available , is universally adopted. Water has a critical temperature and
pressure of 374°C and 220.725 bar respectively, whereas the corresponding val-
ues for mercury are 1100°C and 1.3734 bar.
11.7 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CARNOT AND

RANKINE CYCLE
(a) In case of Carnot cycle the entire heat addition takes place at constant tem-
perature but in case of Rankine cycle, temperature rises during constant
pressure heat addition to water to bring it to the saturation temperature
corresponding to pressure in the boiler and then during superheating.
(b) Condensation is stopped at such a point in the Carnot cycle that isentropic
compression will return the fluid to its original condition. In the Rankine
cycle condensation is complete. The feed pump raises the pressure and
returns to the original condition.
11.8 METHODS OF INCREASING THE THERMAL

EFFICIENCY OF A RANKINE CYCLE
The Rankine cycle efficiency can be increased by:
(a) Superheating the steam
(b) By increasing the steam supply pressure
(c) By decreasing the exhaust pressure.
11.9 MODIFIED RANKINE CYCLE

The pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagram of a modified Rankine
cycle is shown in Figs 11.6 (a) and (b). In practice it is not economical to
expand the steam up to point 'c' as shown in the P—V diagram. The diagram is
g h
Volume ( V ) Entropy ( (1) )
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.6 Modified Rankine cycle (a) P- V diagram and (b) T -4> diagram
very narrow at the toe. For this reason the expansion is stopped at point 'e' and
the cylinder is connected either to the atmosphere or to the condenser through
an exhaust port. Steam rushes out of the cylinder causing a drop in pressure up
to the exhaust pressure. The expansion of steam is thus completed by the con-
stant volume line ef. The loss of work due to incomplete expansion is repre-
sented by the area cef. In fact the extra work obtained by complete expansion is
not sufficient to overcome the friction of the moving parts of the engine. By
terminating the expansion at point e, the size of the cylinder and stroke length is
considerably reduced. This cycle is used in steam engines.
11.10 EXPRESSION FOR THE EFFICIENCY OF

MODIFIED RANKINE CYCLE
Consider the modified Rankine cycle as shown in Figs 11.6 (a) and (b).
Let PI = Pressure of steam at point b in kPa
= Volume of steam at point b in m3/kg
= Total heat of steam at point b in kJ/kg
E1 = Internal energy of steam at point b in kJ/kg
P2, V2, H2, E2 are the corresponding values of steam at point e.
= Back pressure of steam at point d

P3
h3 Sensible heat of water at point d
=
Work done during the cycle per kg of steam = area Abel' = area abgo + area
P1 V1 — P2 V2
behg — area dfho = + P3 V2.
n —1 —
The work done during isentropic expansion = E — E2

Work done during the cycle per kg of steam = P,V, + (E, — E2) — P 3V 2 kJ.
where P, and P2 are in kPa and V, and V2 are in m3/kg.
Heat supplied per kg of steam = H i — h 3 kJ.
Efficiency of the modified Rankine cycle
Work done in kJ per kg of steam Pi V, + (E, — E2) — P3V2

ri niR — Heat supplied in kJ per kg of steam — H1 — h3
Now, Ei = Ht — Pi V, E2 = H2 — P2V2
Pi V, + H, — P I V, — H2 + P2 V2 — P3 V2 (H1 H2 ) + V2 ( P2 P3)
11m R —
H, - h3 H,—h 3
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. In a Carnot cycle, heat is supplied at

350°C and is rejected at 25°C. The
working fluid is water which while
receiving heat evaporates from liquid
E— at 350°C to steam at 350°C. From the
steam tables, the entropy change for
a T2
this process is 1.4377 kJ/kg k.
a. If the cycle operates on a mass of
1 kg of water, find the heat supplied,
EL) work done and heat rejected per cycle.
What is the pressure of water during
Entropy ( )
heat reception. Show the cycle with
temperature entropy diagram.
Fig. 11.7 [A.M.I.E, Summer 19741
Solution:
Given : Heat is supplied at 350°C. T, = 350°C = 350 + 273 = 623 K
Heat is rejected at 25°C, T 2 = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Entropy change = 1.4377 kJ/kg K .*. $2 - I6= 6

3 - 64 = 1.4377
Heat supplied = TO2 — 01) = 623 x 1.4377 = 895.687 kJ/kg
Heat rejected = T2(03 —4)4) = 298 x 1.4377 = 428.4346 kJ/kg.
Network done = Heat supplied—Heat rejected = 895.687-428.4346 = 467.2524 kJ/kg.

The pressure of water during heat reception is obtained from steam tables corresponding to
saturation temperature 350°C. This is equal to 165.137 bar.
2. In a Carnot cycle, the steam supplied to an engine is dry saturated at 15 bar. The steam
expands isentropically to a pressure of 0.2 bar. If the liquid supplied to the boiler is saturated
at entry to the boiler, calculate (a) heat supplied, (b) heat rejected, (c) cycle efficiency,
(d) shaft work, (e) compressor work, (f) network, and (g) work ratio.
Solution:
Given: Initial pressure, P, = 15 bar,
Saturated
Final pressure, P2 = 0.2 bar. liquid line
The liquid at entrance to the
boiler is saturated. This means that t Ti Saturated
point 1 in Fig. 11.8 lies on the satu- vapour line
rated liquid line. The steam supplied
to the engine is dry saturated. This
means that point 2 lies on the satu- T2
rated vapour line.
From steam tables, at pressure 15
bar, E~
= 198.32°C = 198.32 + 273 =
Entropy ( (13 )
471.32 K
= = 2.3150 kJ/kg K,
(1), = 6.4448 kJ/kg K = 4)2
(a) Heat supplied = Ti(4)2 -4),) Fig. 11.8
= 471.32(6.4448 - 2.3150) = 1946.4533 kJ/kg.

At 0.2 bar T, = 60.06°C = 60.06 + 273 = 333.06 K.
(b) Heat rejected = 3 - 04) = T2(4), - (1),) = 333.06(6.4448 - 2.3150) = 1375.4712 kJ/kg.
- T2 471.32-333.06
(c) Carnot cycle efficiency - - 0.2933 = 0.2933 x 100 = 29.33%
T = 471.32
(d) Shaft work = Hz -
H2 = Enthalpy of dry saturated steam at pressure 15 bar from steam tables is 2792.2 kJ/kg.
H3 = Enthalpy of steam at pressure 0.2 bar.
As process 2-3 is isentropic, 4)2= 03
= 4),2 = 6.4448 kJ/kg.
4)3= 4)„,+x,(4)1 -04

At pressure 0.2 bar, 43 = 0.8320, 4:1, = 7.9085 kJ/kg.
3
6.4448 = 0.8320 +x3(7.9085 - 0.8320)
x3 = 0.7931
113 = h3 +x3L3 = 251.4 + 0.7931 x 2358.3 = 2121.91 kJ/kg.
Shaft work = 2792.2-2121.91 = 670,29 kJ/kg.
(e) Compressor work = Hi -H4
where H, = Enthalpy of saturated water at 15 bar = 844.89 kJ/kg.
H4 = Enthalpy of steam at pressure 0.2 bar.
As process 1-4 is isentropic, 4)1=4)4
where (I)i = Entropy of saturated water at 15 bar = = 2.3150
!
= +4 x44)44 - ON)
2.3150 = 0.8320 + x4(7.9085 0.8320), .. x4 = 0.2095
H4 = h4 + x4L4 = 251.4 + 0.2095 x 2358.3 = 745.62 kJ/kg.
Compressor work or work input to compressor = H, — H4 = 844.89 —745.62 = 99.268 kJ/kg.

(f) Network = Shaft work—Compressor work = 670.29-99.268 = 571.022 kJ/kg.
Network 571.022
(g) Work ratio = = 0.85.
shaft work 670.29
3. A simple Rankine cycle steam power plant operates between the temperature of
260°C and 95°C. The steam is supplied to the turbine at a dry saturated condition. In the tut-
bine it expands in an isentropic manner. Determine the efficiency of the Rankine cycle fol-
lowed by the turbine and the efficiency of the Carnot cycle operating between these two
temperature limits. Draw the T —4) and H — (1) diagrams. [A.M.I.E. 1974 ]
H1
H-)
Entropy ( (1) ) Entropy ( 41. )
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.9
Solution: T, = 260°C = 260 + 273 = 533 K; T2 = 95°C = 95 + 273 = 368 K.

The initial and final conditions of steam are
shown in Fig. 11.9. From H — 41 diagram.
H,= 2800 kJ/kg, H2 = 2170 kJ/kg.
From steam tables at temperature
A 95°C, h„.2 = 398 kJ/kg. Efficiency of Ran-
kine cycle
H, —H2 2800 — 2170
Temperature ( T )
— 0.262 = 26.2%.
2800— 398
Efficiency of Carnot cycle

T,— T2 533 —368
= — 0.3096 = 30.96%.
Tic T1 533
4. Dry saturated steam at 10 bar is supplied

Entropy ( ) to an engine working on Rankine cycle. It is
exhausted at 0.5 bar. Calculate (a) the con-
dition of steam after adiabatic expansion,
Fig. 11.10
(b) Rankine efficiency,(c) efficiency ratio, and (d) specific steam consumption.
Take indicated thermal efficiency as 20%.
Solution: (a) From steam tables at 10 bar, H, = 2776.2 kJ/kg.
As the expansion is adiabatic, 01 = 4)2
=T„, x-2(C, (1)„2)

6.583 = 1.091 +x2 x 6.504, = 0.844
(b) H2 = h 2 + x2L2 = 340.6 + 0.844 x 2305.4 = 2286 kJ/kg.
- H2 2776.2 - 2286
Rankine efficiency = -- = 0.2013 = 20.13%
- 2776.2 - 340.6
Indicated thermal efficiency 0.20
(c) Efficiency ratio = 0.9935
Rankine efficiency 0,2013
(d) Specific steam consumption
300°C
3600 3600
= - 7.344 kg/kW hr.
H,- H2 2776.2 - 2286
5. Steam at 15 bar and 300°C is supplied to

an engine working on Rankine cycle. The
exhaust takes place at 0.8 bar. Calculate
(a) the condition of steam after isentropic
expansion, (b) Rankine cycle efficiency,
(c) the mean effective pressure, (d) the
ideal steam consumption per kW hour,
(e) the actual steam consumption per kW
Entropy ( )
hour.
Take, relative efficiency = 60%, C,, = 2.1
kJ/kg K.
Solution : From steam tables at 15 bar,
Hdry = 2792.2 kJ/kg, 41, = 6.4448 kJ/kg K,
Fig. 11.11
198.32°C. At pressure 0.8 bar, V,2 = 2.087 m3/kg, h„, = 391.66 kJ/kg, L2 = 2274.1 kJ/kg,
(1)„ 2 = 1.2329 kJ/kg K, 41,E = 7.4346 kJ/kg K.

(a) Considering adiabatic expansion from 1-2. Entropy at 1 = Entropy at 2
+ c,,loge() = (Kt +x,(4),, - 0„)
300 + 273 )
6.4448 + 2.1 log - 1.2329 + x2(7.4346 - 1.2329)
'(198.32 + 273
x2 =0.906
(b) H, = 2792.2 + 2.1(300 - 198.32) = 3005.728 kJ/kg.
H2 =12„2 + x21.2 = 391.66 + 0.906 x 2274.1 = 2451.99 kJ/kg
Hi -H2 3005.728 - 2451.99
Rankine efficiency -0.2118 = 0.2118 x 100 = 21.18%
H,-11„2 3005.728-391.66
V2 = x2 x V,1 = 0.906 x 2.087 = 1.8908 m'/kg
Work done H, — H2 3005.728 — 2451.99

Mean effective pressure =
Stroke volume V2 1.8908
= 292.859 kN/m2 = 2.92859 bar.
Ht Saturation line
Entropy ( )
Fig. 11.12
(d) Ideal steam consumption per kW hour
3600 3600 3600

work done HI — H2 553.738
= 6.50 kg/kW hr.

(e) Relative efficiency
Indicated thermal efficiency

Rankine cycle efficiency
Indicated thermal efficiency = 0.6 x 0.2118 = 0.127
3600
M,(H, — h w 2 )
3600
or, 0.127 =
M,(3005.728 — 391.66)
M, = 10.84 kg/kWhr.
6. A steam engine is supplied with dry saturated steam at 15 bar. The pressure at release is 3
bar, and the back pressure is I bar. Determine the efficiency of the modified Rankine cycle.
Solution:
From (H — chart, H, = 2790 kJ/kg, H2 = 2510 kJ/kg, x2 ='().9
From steam tables at pressure 3 bar
Specific volume of steam yr, = 0.6057 m'!kg.
Volume of steam at point 2, V2 =.Y2 x V = 0.9 x 0.6057 = 0.545 m'/kg.
At pressure I bar, k = 417.5 kJ/kg.

(H, - H2) + I 00(P2 - P3) x V2
-h,
H,
(2790 - 2510) + 100(3 - I) x 0.545

2790 -417.5
= 0.164 = 0.164 x 100 = 16.4%.
7. A steam engine takes dry steam at
30 bar and exhausts at 1.2 bar. The pres-
sure at release is 3 bar. Find (a) the
theoretical loss of work per kg of steam
due to incomplete expansion and (b) the
Entropy ( 43 ) loss in Rankine efficiency due to
restricted expansion of steam.
[A.M.1.E. 1983]
Fig. 11.13
Solution: From steam Tables at 30 bar, H, = 2804.2 kJ/kg, 6, = 6.1869 kJ/kg K

Considering adiabatic expansion from 1-2
Entropy at 1 = Entropy at 2
= - 6„,), 6.1869 = 1.6718 +x2(6.9919 - 1.6718)
x, = 0.8486
Volume at point 2, 1/2 = x2 x Vs2 = 0.8486 x 0.6058 = 0.5140 m3/kg.
H, = h„ + X2L2 = 561.47 + 0.8486 x 2163.8 = 2397.67 kJ/kg
Work obtained in modified Rankine cycle = (H1 - H,)+ 100(P 2 - P3) x V2
= (2804.2 - 2397.67) + 100(3 - 1.2)0.5140 = 499.049 kJ/kg.
If the expansion is complete then 6, = 62
At pressure 1.2 bar, h'„, = 439.32 kJ/kg, 6'„, = 1.3608 kJ/kg K
6%, = 7.2981 kJ/kg K, L', = 2244.2 kJ/kg.
•• = C,2 + x'2(4)%2 - C„,)

6.1869 = 1.3608 +x,'(7.2981 - 1.3608) x', = 0.8128
= L', = 439.32 + 0.8128 x 2244.2 = 2263.505 kJ/kg.
Rankine work = H,- Fr, = 2804.2 - 2263.505 = 540.695 kJ/kg.
(a) Loss of work due to incomplete expansion = 540.695-499.049 = 41.646 kJ/kg.
41.646
(b) Loss of Rankine efficiency = 540.695 x 100 = 7.7%.
8. A steam turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 85 bar and 450°C. The steam is
reheated to its original temperature in a reheater at 10 bar. The expansion then takes place at
condenser pressure of 0.08 bar. Find the efficiency of the reheat cycle and work output if the
flow of steam is 1 kg/s. Consider the pump work and assume that the expansion in the turbine
is isentropic.
13
Temperature ( T ) ---)..-
Entropy ( D) Entropy ( D)
(a) b)
Fig. 11.14
Solution: Complete the diagram by locating points, 1,2,3,4 on H — (1) chart according to the
given conditions. The enthalpies at these points are
H 3 = 3275 kJ/kg, H2 = 2760 kJ/kg, H3 = 3370 kJ/kg, 114 = 2390 kJ/kg
At pressure 0.08 bar, h„.5 = 173.88 kJ/kg
Enthalpy at point 6 is given by,
h6 = h,,.5 + V x 100(P, — /34) where pump work W. = V, x 100(P, — P4)
= 173.88 + 0.001 x 100(85 —0.08) = 173.88 + 8.492 = 1'82.372 kJ/kg

Network done, W„ = (H, — H2) + (H3 — H4) — Wp
W„ = (3275 — 2760) + (3370 — 2390)— 8.492 = 1486.508 kJ/kg.
Work output = 1486.508 kW.
Heat supplied per kg of steam, = (H, — h6) + (113 — H2)
= (3275 — 182.372) + (3370 — 2760) = 3092.628 kJ/kg
W„ 1486.508
. The efficiency of the cycle — 0.4806 = 48.06%.
Heat supplied — 3092.628
Temperature ( T ) —).-
9. A steam turbine is supplied with dry sat-

urated steam at 25 bar. The exhaust takes
place at 0.2 bar. For a flow rate of 8 kg/s,
calculate (a) power required to drive the
pump, (b) turbine power, (c) the Rankine
efficiency, (d) the heat flow in the con-
denser, and (e) quality of steam at the end
of expansion.
Solution: From steam tables:
H 3 = 2803.1 kJ/kg
Entropy ( '43 )
at 25 bar, At 0.2 bar h, = 251.4 kJ/kg.
(a) Pump work = in (P, — P3)V„
= 8 x 105(25 — 0.2) x 0.001 = 19840 J/S
Fig. 11.15 = 19.84 kJ/S
The power required to drive the pump = 19.84 kW.

(b) As the expansion is isentropic from 1-2
Entropy at point 1 = Entropy at point 2
=4)2
(1)fi = x2(C, (i)„,)
6.2575 = 0.8320 +x2(7.9025 — 0.8320) x, = 0.767
H2 = h2 +.X2L2 = 251.40+ 0.767 x 2358.3 = 2061.025 kJ/kg.
Turbine power = m(H, — H2) = 8(2803.1 — 2061.025) = 5936.596 kW.
19.84=
Again, h4 = 113 + Pump work = 251.4 + 253.88 kJ/kg
(H1 — H2) + (I14 — h3)

(c) Rankine efficiency
H,— h4
= (2803.1 — 2061.025) + (253.88 — 251.4) 744.555
fle 2549.22 = 0.292 = 0.292 x 100 = 29.2%.
2803.1 —253.88
(d) The heat flow in the condenser = m(11,— h3) = 8(2061.025 — 251.4) = 14477 kJ/S
(e) Quality of steam at the end of expansion = 76.7%.
10. The cylinder of a steam engine is 30 cm in diameter and piston stroke is 58 cm. The steam
at admission is at 10 bar and 30°C. It expands adiabatically to 0.7 bar and is then released at
constant volume to a condenser at 0.3 bar. Determine, (a) modified Rankine efficiency,
(b) the new stroke, if the same amount of steam from the original condition is expanded
adiabatically to condenser pressure, (c) the new Rankine efficiency, and (d) the work done by
the extraction and boiler feed pump per kg of water returned to the boiler.
[A.M.I.E.198 I]
L.
Volume ( V ) Entropy ( )
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.16
Solution: At 10 bar and 300°C, Hb = 3048 kJ/kg, 41s, = 7.1260 kJ/kg

At 0.7 bar, he = 376.70 kJ/kg, Le = 2284 kJ/kg, = 1.1919, 0,, = 7.4766, V, = 2.365
Entropy at b = Entropy at e
7.1260 = 1.1919 + x,(7.4766 - 1.1919), x, = 0.9442
He = he + xe Le = 376.7 + 0.9442 x 2284
= 2533,252 kJ/kg
= x, x = 0.9442 x 2.365 = 2.233 m3/kg

(Hb - H,)+ Vc(P,- P1) (3048 - 2533.252) + 2.233 x 100(.7 - .3)
Modified Rankine 'n =
Hb hd 3048 -289.23
604.068
- = 0.2189 = 21.89%.
2758.77
At 0.3 bar, = 0.9439, gr., = 7.7686, Vse = 5.229 m3/kg
Entropy at b = Entropy at c
7.1260 = 0.9439 +x,(7.7686 - 0.9439)
x„ = 0.9058
V = Volume of cylinder =:(0.3)2 x 0.58 = 0.041 m3
0.041
Mass of steam at e = = 0.01836 kg/stroke
2.233
Volume at c = in x xc x 1/5c = 0.01836 x 0.9058 x 5.229 = 0.08696 rn3
Let L be the new stroke length
V=7I (.3)2 xL 0.08696 = ilx 0.09xL
(b) L = 1.23 m = 123 cm.

(c) Rankine efficiency
_ Hb - H, 3048 - 2405.27
Hb - h, 3048-289.23
= .2329 = 23.29%
H, = he + xeLe = 289.23 + 0.9058 x 2336.1 = 2405.27 kJ/kg.
(d) Work is done by extraction and boiler feed pump in raising the pressure from 0.3 bar to
10 bar.
Work done by pump per kg of water =(10-0.3)x 105 x 0.001 = 970 J = 0.97 kJ
EXERCISES

1. The efficiency of a Carnot cycle is given by
2. In a theoretical Rankine cycle expansion is assumed to be
3. The expression for thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given by
4. Rankine cycle efficiency of a good steam power plant is in the range of
5. Modified Rankine cycle is used in
6. The efficiency of the Camot cycle is than that of Rankine cycle.

7. Rankine efficiency of steam power plant in winter as compared to that in
summer.
Answers
T, - T2 - H2
I. 2. Adiabatic 3.
T, H,- h2
4. 35%-45% 5. Steam engine 6. Greater
7. Improves
1. Why is Camot cycle not used as a standard reference for steam power plants? Derive an
expression for the efficiency of a Rankine cycle.
2. What are the properties of working fluid for Rankine cycle?
3. What is a Rankine cycle ? Draw it on P-V and T -41diagrams and describe its different
processes.
4. What are the essential differences between Camot and Rankine steam engine cycles?
5. Why is Rankine cycle modified? Derive an expression for the modified Rankine cycle.
6. What are the methods for increasing the thermal efficiency of a Rankine cycle ?
7. An engine operating on an ideal Camot cycle is supplied with one kg of steam at a
pressure of 8.2 bar and dryness 0.9. If the pressure associated with the isothermal
compression is 0.7 bar, calculate the efficiency. [18.4%] .
8. A Camot cycle engine using steam works between pressure limits of 19.6 bar and 0.5
bar. The vapour is dry saturated at the end of isothermal expansion. The liquid is satu-
rated at the end of isentropic compression. Determine (a) efficiency of the cycle,
(b) work done per kg of steam, (c) steam consumption per kW hour.
[Ans. 27%, 510.79 kJ/kg, 7.1 kg/kW -hr]
9. An engine working on Rankine cycle is supplied with steam at a pressure of 9 bar and
dryness 0.9 the exhaust pressure being 0.7 bar. Calculate (a) work done in kJ per kg of
steam and (b) cycle efficiency.
[Ans 385 kJ/kg, 17.6%]
10. A steam power plant operating on Rankine cycle is supplied with dry saturated steam at
4000 kPa. The exhaust takes place at 5. kPa. Determine (a) Rankine cycle efficiency,
(b) work ratio and (c) specific steam consumption.
[Ans: 35.5%. 3.8 kg/kW-hr]
11. A prime mover is supplied with dry saturated steam at 10 bar. The exhaust takes place
at 0.2 bar, Calculate (a) Rankine efficiency, (b) efficiency ratio, and (c) specific steam
consumption if the indicated thermal efficiency is 20%.
Also determine the percentage change in efficiency if the steam is initially 90% dry.
12. A steam engine admits steam at a pressure of 5.5 bar and 0.9 dry. The cut off occurs at
one half stroke and pressure at release is 2.5 bar. The back pressure is 0.98 bar. Find the
modified Rankine efficiency of the engine, assuming that the pressure drop at release
takes place at constant volume. Neglect clearance volume.
[Ans: 10.3%]
13. A 36.8 kW steam engine consumes 284 kg of steam per hour at 17.16 bar. and 250°C. If
condenser pressure is 0.14 bar, determine the final condition of steam, the Rankine
efficiency of the plant, and the relative efficiency of the plant.
[A.M.F.E. 1976 ]
[Ans: 0.812, 28.9%, 17.2%, 59.51%]
14. A steam engine receives steam at 7.85 .bar superheated at 200°C, pressure at release
being 2.75 bar and exhaust at 0.95 bar. Assuming adianatic expansion and consiaiii
volume conditions between release and commencement of exhaust, calculate (a) work
done per kg of steam and (b) cycle efficiency. Compare these values with those for
Rankine cycle between the same pressures and temperature limits.
[Ans: 329.45 kJ, 13.6%, 370.63 kJ 15.3%]
TWELVE
Steam Engine
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The steam engine is one of the oldest type of prime movers. The first recipro-
cating steam engine was invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen and his assis-
tant John calley. A steam engine uses steam as the working medium to convert
its heat energy into mechanical energy. The heat energy contained in the steam
is converted into mechanical work by the reciprocating or to and fro motion of
the piston. Thus, it is called reciprocating steam engine. As the combustion of
the fuel takes place outside the engine cylinder, it is also known as external
combustion engine. Even now steam engines are the most reliable of all power
producers. With units producing more than 550 kW, they cannot compete on the
basis of thermal efficiency, with steam turbines or internal combustion engines.
They are therefore, being displaced to a large extent. But the ability to use cheap
fuel, the low cost of machinery and ease of repair make them useful for marine
propulsion.
12.2 STEAM ENGINE PLANT

A steam engine plant consists of three main units: the boiler, the engine, and the
condenser. The steam from the boiler enters the engine cylinder through a
valve. After expansion in the engine cylinder and doing work on the piston, the
steam is exhausted into a condenser where it is condensed and returned as feed
water to the boiler, thus completing the cycle.
12.3 CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM ENGINE

Steam engines may be classified in the following ways:
(a) According to position of the cylinder
(i) Horizontal steam engine — the axis of the cylinder is horizontal.
(ii) Vertical steam engine — the axis of the cylinder is vertical. Econ-
omy of floor space makes it suitable for marine work.
(b) According to the number of working strokes
(i) Single acting steam engine — Steam is admitted through one side of
the piston and the other side of the piston is open to atmosphere.
Steam Engine 249
(ii) Double acting steam engine — Steam is alternately admitted through

both sides of the piston.
(c) According to the number of cylinders in which the steam expands
(i) Simple steam engine — the expansion of steam takes place in one
cylinder.
(ii) Compound steam engine— the expansion of steam takes place in
more than one cylinder.
(d) According to the method of exhausting steam
(i) Non-condensing engine — the steam is exhausted into the atmo-
sphere.
(ii) Condensing engine — the steam is exhausted in a condenser.
(e) According to the speed of the engine
(i) Slow speed engine (up to 100 r.p.m)
(ii) Medium speed engine (between 100 to 250 r.p.m)
(iii) High speed engine (above 250 r.p.m)
(f) According to the field of application
(i) Stationary engine
(ii) Locomotive engine
(iii) Marine engine.
(g) Expansive or non-expansive engine
If the steam is supplied throughout the stroke, the engine is said to be non-
expansive. If the steam is supplied during part of the stroke and then
allowed to expand, it is said to be expansive engine.
(h) According to the method of governing
(i) Throttling steam engine—The engine speed is controlled by means of
a throttle valve which regulates the pressure of steam to the engine.
(ii) Automatic cut-off steam engine—The engine speed is controlled by
means of an automatic cut-off governor which controls the steam
pressure to the engine.
(i) According to the valve gears used
(i) Slide valve engine
(ii) Corlis valve engine.
12.4 PARTS OF A SIMPLE STEAM ENGINE
The parts of a steam engine are grouped in the following manner:

(a) Stationary parts: (i) engine bed plate (ii) frame (iii) cylinder (iv) steam chest
(v) stuffing box (vi) main bearings (vii) crosshead guides.
(b) Moving parts: (i) piston (ii) piston rod (iii) crosshead (iv) connecting rod
(v) crank (vi) crankshaft, (vii) flywheel (viii) slide valve (ix) valve rod
(x) eccentric (xi) eccentric rod, (xii) governor.
D-slide Steam
valve Crankshaft
Eccentric
Steam Valve Eccentric
chest rod = rod
Steam
port
Cylinder
cover
Piston
rod Crosshead
Piston
Cylinder rings Crosshead Connecting
guide rod
Fig. 12.1 Simple steam engine
12.5 FUNCTION OF THE STEAM ENGINE PARTS

(a) Frame It is a heavy casting usually made of cast iron. It supports and holds
all the stationary and the moving parts of the engine in proper position. It rests
upon a foundation.
(b) Cylinder It is a hollow cylindrical vessel in which the piston moves to and
fro under the pressure of the steam. It is made of cast iron and is bolted to the
frame at one end. The ends of the cylinder are closed by separate covers. One
end is known as cover end and the other end, which carries the stuffing box
through which the piston rod passes, is known as the crank end.
(c) Steam chest It is always cast integral with the cylinder and is closed by a
cover known as steam chest cover which may be of circular or rectangular in
shape depending upon the type of valve used.
(d) Main bearings Bearings are attached to the frame at the ends opposite to the
cylinder. It supports the crankshaft. They are generally made of cast iron and are
lined with babbit metal to form the bearing surface.
(e) Piston It moves to and fro in the cylinder under the action of steam pres-
sure. Its function is to convert the heat energy of steam into mechanical work. It
is made of cast iron. It transmits the force to the crosshead through the piston
rod.
(f) Piston rings They are usually made of cast iron and are located in the cir-
cumferential grooves cut on the piston. Their function is to prevent the leakage
of steam past the piston.
(g) Piston rod It is a circular rod which is connected to the piston on one sick,
and to the crosshead on the other. It is made of mild steel and it transfers motion
from the piston to the crosshead.
Steam Eng►ne 251
(h) Crosshead The crosshead is attached to the connecting rod by means of a

crosshead pin or wrist pin. It guides the motion of the piston rod and prevents it
from bending. The crosshead is made of cast iron.
(i) Stuffing box and gland They are fitted on the crank end cover of the cylinder
and their function is to prevent the leakage of steam from the cylinder. The
stuffing box is made of cast iron and the gland is of gun metal.
( j) Connecting rod The connecting rod helps in converting the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crank. One -of its ends is con-
nected to the crosshead by a gudgeon pin and the other end is connected to the
crank. It is made of forged steel.
(k) Crankshaft The crankshaft is supported on the main bearings and is free to
rotate in them. It is made of mild steel. It carries on it the flywheel and the
eccentric.
(1) Slide valveIt is situated in the steam chest and its function is to admit the
steam from the steam chest to the cylinder and exhaust it from the cylinder at
the correct moment. The valve is made of cast iron.
(m) Eccentric It is fitted on the crankshaft. Its function is to convert the rotary
motion of the crankshaft into reciprocating motion of the slide valve. It is made
of cast iron.
(n) Eccentric rod and valve rod The eccentric rod connects the valve rod and the
eccentric. Its function is to convert the rotary motion of the eccentric into recip-
rocating motion which is transmitted to the valve through the valve rod. The
valve rod is connected to the valve.
(o) Flywheel It is a heavy cast iron or cast steel wheel mounted on the crank-
shaft. It absorbs energy when the supply is greater than the demand and gives it
out when the demand is greater than the supply, thus preventing the fluctuation
of engine speed.
(p) Governer It is a device for maintaining the speed- of the engine at more or
less constant at all loads by controlling either the quantity or the pressure of the
steam supplied to the engine.
12.6 TERMS USED IN STEAM ENGINE

(a) Cylinder bore The inside diameter of the cylinder is called the bore of the
cylinder.
(b) Piston stroke It is the distance travelled by the piston from the cover end to
the crank end of the cylinder. It is denoted by the symbol L.
(c) Crank radus or crank throw It is the distance between the centre of the
crankshaft and the centre of the crankpin. It is equal to half the distance through
which the piston travels.
Crank radius, r = L
2
(d) Dead centre If is the position where the connecting rod and crank are in the
same straight line. These conditions arise for two positions of the piston. In case
of vertical steam engine these positions are known as top dead centre and bot-
tom dead centre. In case of horizontal steam engines these positions are known
as inner dead centre and outer dead centre.
(e) Piston displacement or swept volume It is the volume swept by the piston
while travelling from one dead centre position to another dead centre position. It
is generally denoted by Vs. It is equal to the area of the piston multiplied by its
stroke.
= A x L =5
4D2 x L
(f) Clearance It may be mechanical clearance or volumetric clearance.

(i) Mechanical clearance It is the distance between the dead centre position of
the piston and the nearest cylinder cover. It is always denoted by Le and is
expressed as a percentage of L.
(ii) Volumetric clearance It is the volume between the cylinder cover and the
piston. When the piston is at its dead centre position. It includes the volume of
the steam port for the end considered. It is usually expressed as a percentage of
stroke volume. It is denoted by V.
2
V. = Vp +4 D Lc where Vp = port volume
If port volume is neglectd, then
V. = D2L.
(g) Piston speed It is the linear distance travelled by the piston in one minute.
In one stroke the piston travels a distance equal to the stroke. In one revolution
of the crank, two strokes take place.
Piston speed = 2 L N metre/min. where, L = Length of stroke in metre, and N =
r.p.m of the crank.
(h) Valve travel It is the maximum distance travelled by the valve in one direc-
tion and is equal to twice the throw of the eccentric.
(i) Back pressure In a double acting steam engine, when steam in admitted
from one side of the piston, the steam froms the other side must be exhausted.
The pressure of this exhaust steam acting on the other side of the piston is called
back pressure. It is denoted by Pb.
Steam Engine 253
D-slide Steam
valve i. Crankshaft
Eccentric
Steam Valve Eccentric
chest rod rod
Steam
port
Cylinder
cover
Piston
rod I Crosshead
Piston
Cylinder rings Crosshead Connecting
guide rod
Fig. 12.2'
( j) Size of the engineIt is generally expressed by first stating the diameter of
the cylinder in mm, then the length of piston stroke in mm, and then by stating
the number of revolutions per minute—namely, 300 x 450-250 r.p.m.
Purpose of Providing the Clearance

(a) It prevents the piston from striking the cylinder head.
(b) Clearance allows a little quantity of water to be collected in the cylinder
due to condensation of steam in the cylinder without too much pressure
rise, causing damage to the cylinder head.
(c) It provides the cashioning effect to the piston at the begining of the power
stroke and at the end of the exhaust stroke.
Reasons for Using Expansive Working of Steam in

Steam Engine and Use of Non-expansive Working
If steam is supplied throughout the length of piston stroke, i.e., the cut-off is
unity, the pressure of steam on the piston remains constant, and the work done
per stroke is represented by the area ACEFG. But this method of steam supply
is costly as the weight of steam supplied is increased. The efficiency can be
increased by supplying high pressure steam only during a point of the stroke and
then allowing this steam to expand during the remaining stroke. The work done
by steam when the cut-off is half the stroke is represented by the area ABDEFG.
The weight of steam is half the amount required when the steam is supplied for
the whole length of the stroke. The reduction in work done when the cut-off is at
half the stroke is BCD, which is small. It is thus economical to make use of the
expansive working of the steam.
In boiler feed pumps, rolling mills and hoist engines, non-expansive working
is adopted.
12.7 WORKING OF A STEAM

Half cut-off Full cut-off ENGINE
A
The working of a simple, horizontal,
double-acting, non-condensing steam
engine is described below.
a.
As the piston reaches the inner dead
centre position, the D-slide valve oper-
,,,'
ated by the eccentric moves and the
steam is admitted into the cylinder, by an
opening in the inlet port. This high pres-
Volume ( V ) sure steam pushes the piston forward,
thus performing the forward stroke. The
motion of the piston moves the crank,
crankshaft and the eccentric. The move-
Fig. 12.3 PV diagram ment of the eccentric further opens the
inlet port. Steam continues to enter,
pushing the piston till the eccentric moves the valve to open port and returns to
close it. After this, cut-off takes place and the steam supply into the cylinder is
stopped. Thereafter, the steam in the cylinder expands, pushing the piston till it
reaches the outer dead centre position. During expansion, the volume of steam
increases, the pressure falls, and the steam performs the work. Before the end of
the forward stroke the valve opens the same port to exhaust side and release of
steam takes place. The exhaust steam pressure falls to the back pressure which
is slightly higher than atmospheric pressure in the case of a non-condensing
engine. The back pressure will be slightly higher than condenser pressure in
case of a condensing engine. After reaching the outer dead centre position, the
piston reverses its direction of motion and the return stroke starts. During this
stroke on the head end, steam is exhausted. But steam is admittted on the crank
end of the cylinder. Just before the piston reaches the inner dead centre position
the port is closed by the D-slide valve. The low pressure steam inside the cylin-
der is compressed and acts as a cushion. As the piston reaches the inner dead
centre position, the inlet port opens by the D-slide valve and fresh steam is
admitted into the cylinder and the cycle is repeated. A similar cycle is repeated
on the other end of the cylinder in case of a double acting steam engine. When
admission and expansion take place on the head end side, exhaust and com-
pression take place on the crank end side.
12.8 HYPOTHETICAL OR THEORETICAL

INDICATOR DIAGRAM
The theoretical indicator diagram can be constructed geometrically or by calcu-
Steam Engine 255
lating pressure of steam at different points of the stroke by applying the law
PV = constant for expansive working of steam (Fig. 12.4).
The diagram is constructed after making the following assumptions:
(a) The clearance volume of the cylinder is neglected.
(b) Steam is admitted in the cylinder at constant pressure.
(c) Cut-off takes place instantaneously.
(d) The expansion is hyperbolic.
(e) Release takes place instantaneously.
(f) Exhaust takes place at constant pressure.
(g) There is no compression.
Mean Effective Pressure

In order to calculate the output of the engine we require the mean value of the
pressure throughout the stroke. This value of the pressure is known as mean
effective pressure.
In the Fig. 12.4 abcde shows the hypothetical indicator diagram, and MNde
the equivalent rectangular diagram.
A = Area of the theoretical indicator diagram in cm2.
a
p1
Pb 4,
e
B )1-1
Volume ( V )
Volume ( V )
Fig. 12.4 Hypothetical indicator dia- Fig. 12.5 PV diagram (Theoretical)

gram
B = Base of the diagram in cm.

H = Mean height of the diagram in cm.
A
Then h = — cm.
B
if s is the scale of pressure in N/m2 per cm height, then mean effective pressure
=hxs N/m2.
12.9 WORK DONE IN A STEAM ENGINE CYLINDER

DURING A HYPOTHETICAL CYCLE
Let PI = Admission pressure of steam in N/m2
Pb = Back pressure in N/m2
V, = Volume of steam at cut-off in m3
V2 = Volume of steam at the end of expansion in m3
Work done during admission of steam = P,17, joule.
v2
Work done during expansion of steam = P, V, loge — joule.
Work done during exhaust of steam = Pb V2 joule.

V2
Network done/cycle = P1 1/1 + P, V, log, v — Pb V2 joule.
V2
Let r be the ratio of expansion =
Work done/cycle = V, (1 + log, r) — Pb V2 (i)

If P„,(th) be the mean effective pressure in N/m2 then work done/cycle
= P„,(th) x V2 joule (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii), we get
P m(1h) X V2 = VI (1 + log, r) — Pb X V2
P1 2
P (th) = P 1 — (1 + loge r)— Pb, P (1 + loge r) — Pb N/m .
V2 mow r
The mean effective pressure is not an absolute pressure nor a gauge pressure. It
is merely an effective difference between two pressures.
12.10 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE THEORETICAL

AND ACTUAL INDICATOR DIAGRAM,
DIAGRAM FACTOR
The actual diagram differs from the theoretical diagram due to the following
factors:
(a) A definite clearance has to be provided due to mechanical reasons.
(b) Steam pressure does not remain constant during admission due to pis-
ton acceleration, inertia and friction in steam pipe. It is represented by
a', b'
(c) Cut-off does not take place instantaneously. For this the diagram gets
rounded at b'.
(d) The expansion of steam is not hyperbolic due to condensation of
steam in the engine cylinder. It is represented by b' c'.
Steam Engine 257
(e) The steam port opens to exhaust before the end of the stroke at c' to
allow the pressure to drop before the piston begins its return stroke.
V
rs
Governor PI
drop
ti
c be d
xVs—).1 I
Volume ( V ) Vs
Volume ( V )
Fig. 12.6 Modifications of hypothetical Fig. 12.7 Indicator diagram with

indicator diagram clearance and
compression
(f) The exhaust line is slightly above the theoretical back pressure line. It
is represented by d'e' .
(g) The steam port is cicsed before the end of the return stroke so as to
compress the trapped steam. This provides the cushioning effect.
The ratio between the areas of two diagrams is known as diagram factor.
Area of actual diagram
Diagram factor =
Area of theoretical diagram
Mean effective pressure from actual diagram

Mean effective pressure from theoretical diagram
The value of the diagram factor lies between 0.6 to 0.9.
Determination of Mean Effective Pressure with

Clearance and Compression
Let PI = admission pressure of steam in N/m2
Pb = back pressure in N/m2
VS = volume swept by the piston in one stroke in m3.
c = fractional ratio of clearance volume to swept volume.
x = fractional ratio of the volume between the points of compression and
admission to the swept volume.
= C V, + =V C ) = V3 = C + V, = V,(C + 1 )
rs
V4 = C V + X Vs = Vs(C\+ X), V5 = CVf
Network done per cycle = area a 1 2 3 4 5

= (area a — 1 — b — c)+ (area 1 —2—d — b)— (area 3 —d —e — 4) — (area 4 —5 —c —e)
2 Vet
= P1 x— + P,V loge — — Pb( V3 — V4 ) — Pb V4 10 g
r I VI
V, 1 (c +1) (c + x)
= P,x—+ P,Vs(c +- log, — PbVs(1 — X)— PbVs(C + X)10ge
r r/+ ;)
Work done per cycle

Mean effective pressure —
Swept volume
Pi ( 1) (c + 1) (c + x)
P.=— + c +- loge — Pb(1 — x)— Pb(c + x)loge
r r + ;)
1 (c + 1)1
= 1 F(c +--. )loge ( 1) — Pb[(1 — x)+ (c + x)loge (c + x)]
[T
PI 1 c +; C
If the effect of both clearance and compression is neglected then C = 0 and x = 0

and the above expression becomes
P1
= — [1 +loge — Pb.
r
12.11 DETERMINATION Of INDICATED-POWER
Let
Pm (act) cover = Actual mean effective pressure for cover end side in N/m2.
A = Area of piston for cover end side in m2
L = Length of stroke in m.
N = r.p.m. of the engine.
Force on the piston = Pm(act) cover X A newton
Work done per stroke = Pm(act)cover
xA x L Nm or J
Work done per minute = P m(act) cover xA xL xN Nm/min
Indicated power of the engine for cover end side
Pm(act) cover
xLxA xN
1.P•cover watts.
60
This is also the indicated power for a single acting steam engine.
Steam Engine 259
Let "'(act) crank

= Actual mean effective pressure for crank end side in N/m2
a = Area of piston rod in m2
Indicated power of the engine for crank end side
P mcact) crank xLx(A—a)xN

I•P 'crank — watts.
60
For double acting steam engine
Pm(act)cover XLxA xN P„oco crank X L x (A — a)x N

Indicated power — - watts
60 60
If the mean effective pressure for both ends is equal and the area of piston rod is
neglected, then the indicated power for double acting steam engine.
2P,HocoLAN
I.P. = watts.
60
12.12 DETERMINATION OF BRAKE POWER

The power available at the engine crankshaft is known as brake power. The
device for measuring brake power is known as dynamometer. Dynamometers
are divided into two classes: (a) absorption type, and (b) transmission type.
In absorption type of dynamometer the power developed is absorbed in fric-
tion at the brake. Common types are:
(i) Rope Brake (ii) Prony Brake. Rope
Rope Brake
The rope brake consists of two or more
ropes passed around the brake wheel.
They are evenly spaced by wooden
blocks. The pull on the slack side is Brake
registered by spring balance and the wheel
Dead
pull on the tight side is provided by load
Spring
dead weights. balance
Let, S = Spring balance reading in N,
W = Dead load in N, and R = Effective
D,+d,
radius in m = 2 Fig. 12.8(a) Rope brake
where DI = diameter of brake wheel in metre

di = diameter of rope in metre
Brake torque, T = (W — S) R Nm.

Work done per revolution = (W — S)R27c
Work done per minute = (W —S)R2TEN = (W — S)(D i + Nm/min
(W —S)(Di + d 1)7rN 2itNT
Brake power (B.P) = 60 watts.
60
Prony Brake
It consists of two wooden blocks which embraces the brake drum. One block
carries an arm in which pull can be applied by means of dead load W. The brake
is balanced before the load W is added and this is done by the small counter
balance load P. The load drum is water cooled.
Fig. 12.8(b) Prony brake
Let, F = Frictional resistance at the circumference of the wheel in New-

ton.
W = Net load on the wheel in Newton.
r = Radius of the wheel in metre
R = Length of the brake arm in metre
N = r.p.m. of engine
The frictional torque = F x r Nm.
Work done per minute = F x r x 270/ Nm
Since W and F produces equilibrium and by principle of moments, F x r =
WxR
Work done per minute = W x R x 2mN Nm/min
WxR x 270/ 27cNT
Brake power (B.P.) = — watts.
60 60
where T=WxR
Steam Engine 261
Power lost in overcoming friction

F.P. = I.P. — B.P.
12.13 STEAM CONSUMPTION (Ms)

The steam consumption of an engine may be defined as the amount of steam in
kg taken by the steam engine per hour.
1
Let, r = Expansion ratio, — = cut-off ratio, x = Dryness fraction of admit-
r
ted steam, D = Piston diameter in m, and, N = r.p.m. of engine
TC 2 3
Swept volume = 4 D L m
2 1 3
Volume of steam admitted per cycle = 4 D L- m
n 21 1
Mass of steam admitted per cycle = — D L x kg.
4 r xV,
where VS = Specific volume of dry saturated steam at admission pressure P,
2 1 1
Mass of steam admitted per minute = — D L x x V N x 60 kg/hr.
4 r
For single acting engine
n 2.
Steam consumption, ms = -4 D L.1.. 1 .N x 60 kg/hr.
r xV,
For double acting engine
ic 1 1
Steam consumption ms = 2 x—D2L.- .— .N x 60 kg/hr.
4 r x.V,
Specific steam consumption: The specific steam consumption of a steam engine
is defined as the amount of steam supplied to the engine per hour divided by the
number of power units developed by the engine.
If steam consumption per hour is divided by indicated kW, it is called steam
consumption per indicated kWh, and if it is divided by brake kW, it is called
steam consumption per brake kWh.
12.14 EFFICIENCIES
Brake Power
(a) Mechanical efficiency, limed, —
Indicated Power
Indicated power in kW
(b) Indicated thermal efficiency, II =
ms (H, — h2)
Brake power in kW
(c) Brake thermal efficiency, rib —
ms(1-11 — h2)
where, m, = Steam consumption in kg/s.
H, = Enthalpy of 1 kg of steam supplied in kJ at admission pressure Pi .

h, = Enthalpy of 1 kg of water of exhaust steam ir, kJ at back pressure
Pb.
(d) Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio =
Rankine efficiency
Brake power in kW
(e) Overall efficiency, Bo —
mf x C.V.
where, mf = Fuel consumption in the boiler in kg/s

C.V. = Calorific value of the fuel use in kJ/kg.
12.15 MISSING QUANTITY Missing

quantity
Let MN represent the volume of
steam in the cylinder if the steam
is dry saturated at pressure P, and
MO represent the actual volume
of steam in the cylinder when the a.
pressure is P,. The dryness frac- 0; p2
tion of steam at this point. N _Pc
MO vo
Xi= =
MN ms x vso
Vc Vo
Volume ( V )
When the pressure is P2, the dry-
ness fraction of steam at this point • Missing quantity
xy
X2 = Fig. 12.9
XZ
The volume represented by the horizontal distance between the actual expan-
sion curve and saturation curve is known as missing quantity. It is expressed as
kg stroke or kg/hr. The area between the saturation curve and actual expansion
curve gives the loss of work due to this missing quantity. The causes of missing
quantity are:
(a) condensation of steam, and (b) steam leakage past piston rings.
The missing quantity can be reduced by proper jacketing of the engine cylinder,
by superheating the supply steam and by reducing the temperature range of
steam during working stroke.
Vc
Mass of cushion steam, =
Steam Engine 263
The mass of steam present in the cylinder during expansion, ms = Cylinder feed
per stroke + mass of cushion steam
ins = + m,
Let P1 • = Pressure of steam in bar at point 0
vo = Volume of steam in m3 at 0
vso = Specific volume in m3/kg at pressure P,
vo
Then indicated dry mass of steam at 0 =—
vso
Vo
The dryness fraction of steam at 0 — (m
1+ tne)vso
Missing quantity per stroke at 0 = (In f + nit ) — indicated dry of steam at 0
12.16 STEAM ENGINE INDICATOR

The instrument used for drawing diagram showing pressure-volume relations
within the engine cylinder during one revolution of the engine crank is called
indicator.
The diagram is drawn on a piece of paper. The diagram showing the pressure
volume relations within the engine cylinder is called an indicator diagram.
The length of the diagram represents the length of the stroke to a reduced
scale and its height at any point represents the pressure on the piston at the cor-
responding point in the stroke.
An indicator consists of two main parts:
(a) a small cylinder and (b) a drum for holding the indicator card.
The indicator card is wrapped round the indicator drum and held against it by
spring clamps. One end of a fine cord is attached to and wrapped several times
around the groove at the base of the drum, and the other end is attached to some
form of reducing motion which in turn is connected to a reciprocating part of the
engine. When the indicator cylinder is put in communication with the engine
cylinder, the lever carrying the pencil point will rise and fall according to the
rise and fall of steam pressure. At the same time the drum will be rotated back
and forth in some proportion to the engine stroke. Now if the pencil point is
pressed against the indicator card, it will trace an indicator diagram on the indi-
cator card.
12.17 GOVERNING OF STEAM ENGINE

The function of a governor is to control the speed of the engine irrespective of
the power it develops.
There are two methods of governing: (a) throttle governing, and (b) cut-off
governing.
Throttle Governing:
Throttle governing is a method of controlling the engine output by varying the
pressure of the intake: steam.
The operation of a throttle governor (f1j,ball governor) is. as follows
The speed of rotation of the governor ball increases with the increase in
speed of the engine. The consequent increase in centrifugal force causes them
to move outwards against the force of gravity and the control spring. Due to
this, the inner end of the arms of governor balls press down the valve spindle
and partly close the valve. This reduces the steam pressure, acting on thelpiston.
due to the throttling at the valve. The power developed is also reduced and the
engine speed drops to the normal value. Similarly a decrease in speed will cause
the weight to be lowered and the valve spindle to be raised. The pressure acting
on the piston then increases which increases the speed the normal value.
Cut-Off Governing
Cut-off governing is a method of controlling the engine output by .varying the
points of cut-off and hence the total volume of steam supplied. In this case the
intake steam pressure remains constant. By making the cut-off smaller, a
smaller quantity of steam is admitted to the cylinder and a smaller amount of
work is done in the cylinder. This is done when the load on the engine is
decreased. Cut-off governing is generally more efficient than throttle governing.
Willans' Line
In case of throttle governing the
vesliog,
cut-off point remains the same cNe .g) w‘e,
and the quantity of steam entering 1° •\.\2.05
NN•
the engine is controlled by regu-
lating the throttle valve.
In case of throttle governed
steam engine Willans experimen-
tally established in 1888 that the No load steam
total consumption of steam bears consumption
a linear relationship with the

indicated power as shown in Fig. Indicated power ( kW )
2.10. The straight line showing
the relationship between the
steam flow and the indicated Fig. 12.10 Relationship between
power is known as Willans'line. the steam consumption
The steam consumption W is then and indicated power .
connected with the indicated
power by the relation, m = a + b P. where, m = steam consumption in kg/hr,
a and b are constants, and P = indi cated power in kW.
Steam Engine 265
12.18 COMPOUND ENGINES

The work done per kg of steam could be considerably increased by allowing the
steam to expand, but in practice it has been found that to avoid a greater loss
from condensation, large stroke of the piston and greater temperature range than
gain from expansion, the expansion ratio per cylinder is strictly limited. Wil-
lans' experiments on steam engines led him to conclude that from an economy
stand point, the ratio of expansion per cylinder should not exceed a certain limit.
This condition, however, does not restrict the total expansion ratio because if
cylinders are arranged in succession so that after expansion in one cylinder the
steam is exhausted to the next and so on, any expansion ratio may be obtained
and yet per cylinder Willans' condition may be satisfied.
This arrangement of cylinders gives rise to what are known as Compound
engines. The cylinder which receives the high pressure steam is known as High
pressure (H.P.) cylinder. The last stage of expansion is carried out in the low
pressure (L.P.) cylinder. Compounding was an invention by Hornblower in
1781.
In triple expansion engines the expansion of steam is carried out in three
cylinders. But it is not uncommon to find tripple expansion engines with five
cylinders, one for the partial expansion of high pressure steam, two intermediate
cylinders and two low pressure cylinders. In quadruple expansion engines the
expansion is carried out in four cylinders — a high pressure cylinder, high
intermediate pressure cylinder, low intermediate pressure cylinder and a low
pressure cylinder. Quadruple expansion engines are not generally used nowa-
days. The capacity of compound engines may be in the range from 40 to 3000
kW.
12.19 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOUNDING

By expanding the steam in two or more cylinders the following improvements
result.
(a) The temperature range per cylinder is reduced, with a corresponding
reduction in condensation.
(b) The loss from cylinder condensation is not cumulative, because re-
evaporation in the early stages of expansion allows the later stages to
expand steam still further. The loss by condensation is therefore restricted
to the L.P.cylinder.
(c) As high pressure steam is admitted to high pressure cylinder, the cylinder
is made strong enough by reducing the weight of the engine. The low
pressure cylinder may be made of cheaper material as it is not subjected to
high pressure.
(d) The leakage past the valves and piston is reduced because the pressure dif-
ference across these components is reduced.
(e) The steam may be reheated after expansion on one cylinder and before
entering the next cylinder. This can further reduce the condensation in the
next cylinder and improve the efficiency of the engine. This method was
introduced by Mr. Weir.
(f) A simple type of valve gear may be used, even with a large total expansion
ratio since the expansion ratio per cylinder may not be more than 3:1. This
advantage is valuable in case of reversible engines as in locomotives.
(g) The forces in the working parts are reduced as the forces are distributed
over more components.
(h) More uniform torque may be obtained in case of compound steam engines.
Therefore, it requires a lighter flywheel as compared to single stage
engines for the same power output.
(i) The engine may start in any position. This is the advantage for engines
used in Marine work, locomotive work and mining work.
( j) More uniform turning moment and better mechanical balancing is obtained
and therefore high speeds are possible. This gives improved thermal effi-
ciency.
(k) By making the cranks and connecting rods identical fewer spare parts need
to be stocked.
(1) In the event of a breakdown, the engine may be modified to continue
working on reduced load. It is advantageous in case of marine propulsion.
(m) The cost of the engine for the same power and economy is less than that of
a simple engine, because of the very heavy scantlings (i.e., connecting
rods, etc.) that would be required if all the work were done in one cylinder.
The main disadvantages of the compound engine are: (a) greater first cost,
(b) greater complexity, and (c) larger floor space.
12.20 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND ENGINES

Compound steam engines are classified as (a) tandem compound steam engines,
and (b) cross compound steam engines.
Cross compound steam engines may be further classified as (a) Woolfe type
of compound steam engines, and (b) receiver type of compound steam engines.
Tandem Compound Steam Engines

In Tandem type of compound steam engines the pistons of both H.P and L.P.
cylinders have a common rod with a common axis and work on the same crank.
It has only one crosshead and one connecting rod. These cylinders may be
regarded as having cranks at zero degree to each other. The steam from the
boiler is admitted to one side of the high pressure cylinder. The exhaust steam
from the H.P. cylinder passes directly into the L.P. cylinder as both the pistons
reach the end of their strokes at the same time. As the cycles of both the cylin-
ders are in phase, the maximum turning moment due to each cylinder will act at
Steam Engine 267
the same time as shown in Fig. 2.11(b). In this type of engine the turning
moment is not uniform. Therefore, it requires a heavier flywheel to overcome
the fluctuations of turning moment. This is the disadvantage of this type of
engine.
L.P.
H.P. cylinder
cylinder -- Combined
- — For H.P.cylinder
For L.P.cylinder
4.)
-.(_ _ 0
T on
t E-
Steam from Crank angle

Exhaust
boiler
(a) Tandem compound engine (b)
Fig. 12.11 Tandem compound engine
Cross Compound Steam Engine

Woolfe type compound steam engine
In this type of engine the cylinders are arranged side by side and their axis is
Steam from boiler -I -- -I F- Exhaust

\, I
,-L.P. cylinder
H.P. cylinder-\
Steam from boiler H Exhaust

'-Piston rod-71'
Connecting rod II I Crosshead

guide
4,1 /41
I I II
Common - I -
crankshaft
Fig. 12.12 Woolfe compound engine

parallel to each other. The cranks of the cylinders are at 180° to each other.
Steam from the boiler is admitted to one side of the H.P. cylinder.
The exhaust steam from this cylinder passes directly into the L.P. cylinder
and therefore, the expansion is continuous during the stroke. As the two cranks
are at 180° to each other, the two cycles are in phase causing a large variation in
the turning moment acting on the crankshaft. This type of compounding also
requires a heavier flywheel.
Receiver
Steam from boiler —31.••• t Exhaust
H.P. cylinder-\ t i
r L.P. cylinder
Steam from boiler —31.- \17-1 —3.- Exhaust

Piston rod
1 f
Connecting rod -\AI Crosshead
gui de
—11
Crankshaft
(a)
Combined
H.P. cylinder L.P. cylinder

E
E \.
bA , ,
\ ,
, .
\.\. , \ ,,,
0 90 180 270 360

Crank angle
(b)
Fig. 12.13
Steam Engine 269
Receiver type of compound steam engine

In this type of engine, H.P and L.P. cylinders have separate piston rods attached
to two different cranks set at 90° to each other. The strokes of the two cylinders
are out of phase and, therefore, steam from the H.P. cylinder cannot exhaust
directly into the L.P. cylinder. To overcome this problem, a receiver is used.
The steam is exhausted from this H.P. cylinder into the receiver while the L.P.
cylinder draws steam from the receiver. The receiver acts as a reservoir and it
should be large enough to maintain the steam pressure fairly constant.
In this method the variation of turning moment is fairly reduced and there-
fore a smaller flywheel is necessary. Due to condensation of steam, there is a
pressure drop in the receiver. This problem can be reduced by steam jacketing
the receiver. The variation in the turning moment is shown in Fig. 2.13(b).
12.21 TERMS USED IN COMPOUND ENGINES

(a) Cylinder volume ratio It is the ratio of the displacement or swept volume
of the L.P. cylinder to that of the H.P. cylinder. Generally the stroke of the
two cylinders is the same and so, their volume ratio may be taken as the
square of the ratio of their diameters. This ratio varies from 2 to 8.
(b) Total ratio of expansion It is the ratio of the final volume of steam in the
L.P. cylinder to its volume at cut-off in the H.P. cylinder.
(c) Free expansion It is the expansion of the steam in the receiver and pas-
sages between cylinders. It is measured by the mean difference between
the pressure along the exhaust line of the H.P. cylinder and that along the
admission line of the L.P. cylinder.
(d) Terminal drop It is the difference in pressure of steam in the H.P. cylinder
at release and the average receiver pressure.
12.22 ESTIMATION OF CYLINDER DIMENSIONS

In estimating cylinder dimensions of a Continuous
expansion
compound engine, the L.P. cylinder can be curve
regarded as capable of developing the total
power of the engine when supplied with
the same quantity of H.P. steam as origi-
nally supplied to H.P.cylinder. Figure
12.14 represents hypothetical indicator
diagram for compound engine with
incomplete expansion in L.P. cylinder. The
combined diagram abcefg can be regarded Volume ( V )
as produced by continuous expansion in
L.P.cylinder so that the volume of L.P.
cylinder at cut-off (dc) is equal to the Fig. 12.14
total swept volume of the H.P. cylinder. The average height of the combined
indicator diagram is known as the mean effective pressure referred to the L.P.
cylinder.
Now we shall consider the different cases with reference to the hypothetical
indicator diagrams in which the receiver pressure is assumed to be constant and
the effect of clearance volume is neglected.
Compound Engine with Full Expansion

In Fig. 12.15 abefa represents the ideal hypothetical pressure volume diagram
for the compound engine, in which steam expands in the cylinder up to the back
pressure. The expansion is assumed to be hyperbolic. But in an actual engine
full expansion of steam in the cylinder is never obtained because of large cylin-
der volume which would be necessary in order to obtain small amount of work
at the toe end of the diagram. In an actual engine the toe is always cut-off as
shown in Fig. 12.16.
b
PV = Constant PV = Constant
2
co)
2
Pb
--)01
VH V3
VL .4( V2 — V4
Volume ( V ) Volume ( V )
Fig. 12.15 Fig. 12.16
abcda represents PV-diagram for H.P. cylinder and dcefd represents PV-
diagram for L.P cylinder.
Let P1 = Initial steam pressure in bar
P2 = Receiver pressure in bar.
Pb = Back pressure in bar.

v1 = Volume at cut-off in H.P.cylinder in m3
vy = Volume of steam at the end of expansion in H.P cylinder in m3 =
volume of steam at cut-off in L.P. cylinder
= Volume of steam at the end of expansion in the L.P. cylinder in m3
Steam Engine 271
rH = Ratio of expansion in H.P. cylinder

r1, = Ratio of expansion in L.P. cylinder
r = Total ratio of expansion.
VH
Ratio of expansion in H.P. cylinder, rH =—
vi
VL
Ratio of expansion in L.P. cylinder, rL = —
vH
VL V L
Total ratio of expansion, r = — = —.—
V1 V II V 1
r = cylinder volume ratio x rH

Theoretical mean effective pressure in H.P. cylinder
P,
P„,H = — (1+ loge rH)— P2 (i)
rH
Theoretical mean effective pressure in LP. cylinder

P2
P„, L (1 + loge rd— Pb
Theoretical mean effective pressure for the engine

PI
=— (1+ loge r) — Pb (iii)
r
For equal work done in each cylinder
Work done in H.P. cylinder = m.e.p. of H.P. cylinder x Volume of H.P. cylinder
= [ —Pirll (1 + log, rH) — PlVE (iv)
P2
Similarly work done in L.P. cylinder =[ — (1 + loge rd— Pb VL (v)
1-L
By equating the expressions (iv) & (v) for equal work we get,
rH) —P2JVH =LP2 (1+ loge rl)—Pe VL

[ P'(1+loge
rll rL J
But Pi V, = P2VH = PbVL
or, PIV
[ VH
P2Vy
1 (1 + log, rH ) — P21V —[ - (1 + log, r L) — P b]VL
H VL
or, P, VI (1 + log, rH )— P2VH = P2VH(1 + log, rL )— PbVL

1+ loge rH = 1 + loge rz, rH = rL (vi)
Thus the ratio of expansion must be the same in each cylinder.
VH VL
But P, V, = P2VH and P2VH = Pb VL
VH
Pi VII P2 VL
or, — = — or, — = —
P2 VI Pb "H
P, P2
or, P22 = Pi Pb P2= \IP1Pb
P2 PB
For equal initial loads

Let AH = area of the H.P. piston, and AL = area of the L.P piston
Initial load on H.P. piston = (P, — P2) AH
Initial load on L.P. piston = (P2 — Pb) AL
For equal initial loads, we get
P, - P2 AL
(P1 — P2)AH — (P2 — Pb)A L P2
— Pb AH
If the stroke is the same in each cylinder, we get
Pl — P2 VL P2 2
or, PP
P P2 Pb =P 2 — P2P b
,Pb—PP
P2 — Pb VH Pb
or, P2= PiPb, ••• P2= '\IPIPb
Thus if intermediate pressure is given, the value qP,P,, the conditions of equal
work for each cylinder and equal initial loads in H.P and L.P. cylinders will be
achieved theoretically.
Compound Engines with Incomplete Expansion in

L.P. Cylinder
Let V, = Volume at cut-off in H.P. cylinder in m3
V, = V3 = Volume at cut-off in L.P. cylinder in m3
VL = V2 = V4 = Volume of steam at the end of expansion in L.P. cylinder in m3.,
Steam Engine 273
V3
r = Overall ratio of expansion = V2 = V2 x
V3 Vi
= Cylinder volume ratio x ratio of expansion in H.P. cylinder.

For equal work done in H.P. and L.P cylinders, we have
PI V, + Pi VI log, rH — P2V3 = P2V3 + P2V3 log, rz,— Pb V2
But P11/1 = P2V3
PI V, loge rll = P2V3 + P2V3 loge Pb V2
Pb V2 Pb
or, loge rll = 1 + loge rL — or, log, rll — log, /I= 1 — P1
—Xr
P1 V1
ry Pb
log,— 1 .r
rL r
V2 V3 1 1 r'112 rli
Again r = — x— = x rt, or, or,
V3 VI r rz, X nil r rz,
Now putting the above value in (ix), we have
rH 2 , Pb rH 2 Pb
log, = .r or, = antilog 1 --.r
Pi PI
2 Ph b
or, rH = rantilog 1 --.r or, rH = r antilog 1 .r
P1 Pi
P1 V3 PI Pb
But P, V1 = P2V3 or, — = — = 111 —= x antilog(1 --.r
P2 VI P2 VV Pi
P1
••• P2 — (x)
Pb
r x antilog(1 —
For equal initial piston loads, we have
(Pi P2)AH = (P2 — Pb)AL
If the stroke is the same for both cylinders, we get
AL AL x L V2 VL VL P1 — 132
= = = =
Ay AyXL V3 V3 Vy rL P2 — Pb
P2
Again r = or, rL =1 = r. —
H P1
Equating (xi) and (xii)
P2 P1 - P
r. = or, r .P22 -- r P2Pb =Pi —P1132
Pi P2 — Pb
or, r P22 — r P2Pb + 131132 — P12 = 0 or, rP22 — P2(rPb —PI )— Pi2 = 0
vPV = Constant
,a
vLost work due (rPb — PI)+q(rPb—P1)2 +4rfq
...i to unresisted P,-
expansion 2r
(xiii)
In this case the intermediate pressure
is entirely different and they are
same if r =-p-.(which is the case
-NE VI--)•-1 when there is full expansion). Thus

V5 = V6 --30-1 we see that it is not possible to fulfil
-I( V3 )1 both conditions of equal work and
V2 — equal initial loads.
Volume ( V )
Fig. 12.17
Compound Engine with Incomplete Expansion in

Both Cylinders
Let, P1 = initial pressure of steam in bar.
P2 = receiver pressure in bar
Pb = condenser pressure or back pressure in bar.
V1 = volume at cut-off in H.P. cylinder in m3
V5 = V6 = V„ = volume of H.P. cylinder in m3
V3 = Volume at cut-off in L.P. cylinder in m3
V2 = V4 = VL = Volume of L.P. cylinder in m3
V6 V4 V4
rH = , rL,= , r = Total ratio of expansion = — = —
v v3 VI VI
4 V2 V', V2 VI = 1
Cylinder volume ratio = V = = rx
V6 V5 V H V1 V5 rH
Steam Engine 275
From above, we get

Overall ratio of expansion = rH x Cylinder volume ratio
For equal work done in each cylinder
Work done in H.P. cylinder = P1 V, P1 V1 loge rH — P2V6
Work done in L.P. cylinder = P2V3 + P2 V3 loge rL — Pb V4

By equating the above expressions for equal work we get,
PI V, + PI VI loge rH — P2 V6 = P2 V3 + P2V3 loge r — Pb Va
or, P1 V1(1 + loge rH) — P2V6 = P2 V3(1 + loge rd — Pb V4

Dividing both sides by V6
PI VI P2V3 Pb1/4
( I + loge rH) — P2= (1 + loge —
V6 V6 V6
P1 V3 V4 V4
— (1 + loge rH) — P2 = P2 —
II X —
II (1 +10ge rd — Pb. —
17
rH v4 Y6 V6
P, V4
-(1 + lOge rH) —P2 = P2 XV4 (1 + log — P b —
e
rH rL V6 V6
V4 [ P2
(1 + loge rH) — P2 = — (1 +10ge rL) — Pb
rH V6 rt.
Pi P2 1/4
or, [— (1 +loge rH) — P21=[— (1 + lOge 11) — P bi —
,/
ii ri, Y6
P1 P2 Vi,
... [— (1 +loge rH) — P21=[— (1 + lOge r L) — P bi —
H ri, VII
Mean effective pressure of H.P. cylinder = Mean effective pressure of L.P.
cylinder x cylinder volume ratio.
For equal initial loads on the two pistons
(Pi — P2)AH = (P2 — Pb)AL
AL P1 — P2 di2 P1 — P2
or, A = n n or,
P2 — b d2 P2 — Pb
dL2 . PI — P2
= cylinder volume rat i o — (xv)
dH2 P2 — Pb
The mean effective pressure referred to the L.P. cylinder may be calculated
from the equation.
[P1
Pm(act) = Df 7.(1 + log, r)— Pt] bar
where DJ = overall diagram factor for the combined indicator diagram.
Indicated power of the double acting engine
Pm(act) x105 x 11 (12L x L

•4
xN x2
kW
60 x 1000
where L = Length of piston stroke in m
N = Speed of the engine in revolution per min.
d2 = Diameter of L.P. cylinder in m.
By using Eqs (xiv) and (xv), the value of cylinder volume ratio can be calcu-
lated. Then dll can be calculated.
Determination of overall diagram factor (DF)
Let Pm, = Theoretical m.e.p.of H.P. cylinder in bar
P = Theoretical m.e.p of L.P. cylinder in bar
PenHL = Theoretical m.e.p of H.P referred to L.P. in bar
Pmn = Theoretical net m.e.p. referred to L.P in bar
Din = Diagram factor of H.P. cylinder
DJL = Diagram factor of L.P. cylinder
DJ = Overall diagram factor.
dH)2
PntHL H dL
Penn Pn:L P HL
Pm(act). D P
•.' D f(13 PmHL) = DJ71 X P +DILXP mL = Pm(act)
p fli X P mHL D fL X PenL

DJ—
ro
r Pnan, r mL
12.23 TRIPLE AND QUADRUPLE EXPANSION

ENGINE
Generally the piston areas of triple and quadruple expansion engines are made
in geometric progression, i.e., the ratio of any two successive piston areas is
constant throughout the engine.
For tripple expansion engine

L.P.cylinder piston area I.P.cylinder piston area
I.P.cylinder piston area H.P. cylinder piston area
Steam Engine 277
Let R = cylinder volume ratio for L.P. to H.P.

H.P. : I.P. : L.P. : : 1:\IT?:R
For quadruple expansion engine
H.P. 1st 1.P. : 2nd I.P.: :-W2 :R.

These are not hard and fast rules, but only a general basis for proportionating the
volumes of cylinders in multiple expansion engines.
12.24 GOVERNING OF COMPOUND ENGINE
The methods of governing compound steam engines are: (a) throttle governing,
(b) cut-off governing on H.P. cylinder, and (c) cut-off governing on L.P. cylin-
der.
Throttle Governing
In throttle governing the steam is throttled
thereby reducing the initial pressure of
steam in the H.P. cylinder. The points of
cut-off in both the cylinders remain unal- g
terned. Due to this, the admission pressure a.
to the L.P. cylinder is lowered. Figure z g
12.18 represents the hypothetical indicator
f
diagram for a two cylinder compound
engine. Due to throttling, the steam supply
pressure to the H.P. cylinder is reduced
Volume ( V )
from Pa to P's. The admission to the H.P.
cylinder is represented by a'b'. As the
point of cut-off remains unaltered the point
b' will be vertically below b. The exhaust Fig. 12.18
on H.P. cylinder will begin at point c'
which is vertically below c. The new indicator diagram for H.P cylinder is
represented by a'b'c'g' and for L.P. cylinder is g'c'd'ef. The result is a diminu-
tion in the power developed by each cylinder, the ratio of the work done in the
L.P. cylinder to that in the H.P. cylinder tending to increase. Further, since the
control is by throttling, the steam consumption of the in kg per min will fallow
Willans' law. The mass of admitted steam is slightly reduced because of
increase in specific volume of steam due to throttling.
Cut-off Governing on H.P.Cylinder

From the relation P,V, = P2V2 we see that if Vi is reduced without any alteration
in V2 or in P1, the pressure P2 must be reduced in proportion to the reduction in
VI. This change in P2 reduces the work done in the L.P. cylinder as shown in
Fig. 12.19 and is represented by g'c'd'ef. Without making a considerable alter-
nation in the power developed by the H.P. cylinder, because the reduction in
H.P. work due to contraction in the volume v, is compensated for by the

increased pressure range P, to P2 . The work done in H.P cylinder is now repre-
sented by the area ab'c'g' as shown in the figure.
b VI
c P2v,
Volume ( V ) Volume ( V )
Fig. 12.19 Fig. 12.20
Cut-off Governing on L.P. Cylinder

The H.P. indicator diagram area is represented by abcg and the L.P. indicator
diagram area is represented by gcdef on the assumption of equal distribution of
work. The total amount of steam passing through the engine remains same
because the cut-off in H.P. cylinder also remains the same. Therefore, the vari-
ation of cut-off in L.P. does not change the total work done. The earlier cut-off
in the L.P. cylinder raises the receiver pressure and the amount of work
represented by g'c'cgg' will be transferred from the H.P. cylinder to the L.P.
cylinder. The later cut-off in the L.P. cylinder decreases the receiver pressure
and also decreases the load on the L.P. cylinder.
The cut-off governing is more efficient.
12.25 UNIFLOW ENGINE
In order to reduce the loss of initial condensation of steam, the improved engine
was constructed by Prof. Johannes Stampf of Berlin. The engine was given the
name uniflow because the steam flows in the cylinder. in one direction only. In
a simple reciprocating steam engine, the steam is admitted and exhausted
through the same port. There is a heavy condensation during the early part of the
power stroke as the hot high pressure steam comes in contact with the cold cyl-
inder walls. The hot steam flows over the port in forward direction during power
stroke and the cooler exhaust steam flows in the backward direction during the
exhaust stroke. The uniflow engine is shown in Fig. 12.21. Through the
mechanically operated valves, the high pressure steam is admitted alternately at
each end of the cylinder and after doing the work is exhausted through the
exhaust ports which are located in the center of the cylinder. The ports are
Steam Engine 279
opened and closed by the Steam inlet valves

engine piston. For this rea-
son the piston is long.
When cut-off is reached,
the valve closes and steam
is allowed to expand for the
rest of the stroke. At the
end of the stroke, the piston
uncovers the exhaust ports. Piston
The release takes place and Exhaust port
the exhaust continues for Exhaust

about 10% of the stroke and
the piston moves forward
till the ports are fully
uncovered. During the Fig. 12.21
return stroke, the exhaust
ports are covered and the remaining steam in the cylinder is compressed. The
temperature of the steam is quite high at the end of compression. The fresh
steam of the next cycle meets this hot steam in the clearance and there is no
condensation. The diagram factor for uniflow engine is higher than that for
compound engine.
Advantages of Uniflow Engines

(a) The condensation losses are very small.
(b) For the given cut-off, the uniflow engine is simple in design as compared
with compound steam engine.
(c) The specific steam consumption is reduced, thereby increasing the thermal
efficiency.
(d) Due to less number of rubbing parts, friction loss is reduced and the engine
has a higher mechanical efficiency.
(e) The engine has a high value of diagram factor due to the absence of
receiver losses.
Disadvantages of Uniflow Engines

(a) Because of single cylinder, there is greater variation in turning moment
which results in more vibration and requires a larger flywheel.
(b) To withstand high initial pressure the cylinder is of a larger size and is
robust in construction. The volume of the cylinder is about two times that
of the single cylinder or the L.P. cylinder of a compound steam engine.
(c) Due to poor mechanical balance, the engine runs at lower speeds than in a
multicylinder engine.
(d) Because of early compression of steam the net output is reduced.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A single cylinder double acting steam engine admits dry saturated steam at 10 bar. The
cylinder diameter is 27.5 cm and stroke 65 cm. Cut-off occurs at 50% of the stroke and the
back pressure is 1.5 bar. Assuming a diagram factor of 0.75, calculate the indicated power of
the engine, if it runs at 300 r.p.m.
Solution: Given: P1 = 10 bar, Pb = 1.5 bar, D = 27.5 cm, L = 65 cm = 0.65 m
1
- = 0.5 ...r = 2, Diagram factor = 0.75,
N = 300 r.p.m.
Pi
P m (h) = -(1+ loge r)- Pb = 10 + loge 2) -1.5 = 6.99 bar
P„, = P„,(0) x diagram factor

wo
= 6.99 x 0.75 = 5.22 bar = 5.22 x 105 N/m2
A = - x (0.275)2 = 0.0594 m2
4
2Pm (act) ] LAN
Indicated power = Watt
60
2 x5.22 x 105 x 0.65 x 0.0594 x 300
60
= 201.5 x 103 Watt = 201.5 kW.

2. The following data pertains to a single cylinder double acting steam engine:
Boiler pressure = 8.5 bar
Back pressure = 1.2 bar
Piston diameter = 25 cm
Piston rod diameter = 4 cm
Stroke length = 25 cm
Cut-off at 25% of the stroke
Diagram factor = 0.73
Mechanical efficiency = 90%
Neglecting clearance, estimate the Brake power developed by the engine if it runs at
300 r.p.m.
Solution: Given: Pi = 8.5 bar, Pb = 1.2 bar
D=25 cm= 0.25 m,d= 4 cm=0.04 m
1
L = 25 cm = 0.25 m, - = 0.25 r=4
r
Diagram factor = 0.73, th„,„ = 0.9, N = 300 r.p.m.
A =D2 =(.25)2 = 0.0491 m2

4 4
2 n
a =-d =- (.04)2 = 0.0013 m2
4
Steam Engine 281
P„,(.
0 = Pm (th) x diagram factor
P,
= r)-
+ loge r)-Pb x0.73
8.5
= -(1 + loge 4) - 1.2} x 0.73
{4
=2.82 bar = 2.82 x 105 N/m2.
P„,(„01_,N(2A -a)
Indicated power =
60
2.82 x 105 x 025 x 300(2 x 0.0491- 0.0013)
60
= 34.16 x 103 Watt.

Brake power = Mechanical effy. x Indicated power
= 0.9 x 34.16 x 103 Watt = 30.74 kW.

3. A brake test of a steam engine gave the following results:
Brake wheel diameter =2m
Speed = 150 r.p.m
Rope diameter = 3 cm
Dead load on brake = 480 N
Spring balance reading = 30 N
Determine the brake power of the engine and the quantity of heat produced per minute due to
friction between rope and the brake.
Solution: Net brake load = W-S = 480 -30 = 450 N
Di+ di 2 + 0.03
Effective brake radius R = = - 1.015 m
2 2
(W -S)R x 211N 450 x 1.015 x 2,/rx 150
Brake power - Watts = - 7171 = 7.171 kW.
60 60
Heat produced at brake per minute = 60 x 7.171 = 430.3 kJ.
4. Dry saturated steam at 900 kN/m2 is supplied to a single cylinder double acting steam
engine developing 22.5 kW running at 240 r.p.m. The exhaust pressure is 140 kN/m 2. Cut-off
takes place at 0.4 of stroke. Assuming a diagram factor of 0.8 and stroke/bore ratio of 1.25,
determine the bore and the stroke of the engine. Also calculate the steam consumption/hr.
Solution: Given : = 900 kN/m2 = 9 x 105 N/m2,
I.P. = 22.5 kW = 22.5 x 103 W, N= 240 r.p.m,
1 L
Pb = 140 IcN/m2 = 1,4 x 105 N/m2, - = 0.4, or, r = 1 = 2.5 d.f = 0.8, -= 1.25
0.4
P„,(aco = Pmoo x D.f ( P' (1+log, r)-P x D.f.

bJ
19 x 105
= (1 + loge 2.5) - 1.4 x 105} x 0.8 = 438.4 x 103 N/m2.
2.5
282
2P„,( „„LAN
2P„,,,,„LAN
Indicated power- =
Indicated power Watts.
Watts.
60
60
2 x438.4
x 438.4xx103
103x 1.25D
1.25DxltD2
x 702 x 240
240
22.5x 103=
22.5x 103=
100x4
100x4 xx1002
1002x60
x 60
D=
D = 18.7
18.7 cm
cmand
andLL == 1.25
1.25xx18.7
18.7==23.4
23.4
cm.cm.
1 1
Steam consumption/hour
Steam consumption/hour =4-=D2 x L xx-x 60
x 60 V x22kg/hr.
x--1x-
--x kg/hr.
4 r x.V,
nx 0,1872
irx 0.1872 0.234
0.234xx0.40.4xx240x
240 x60x60 2x 2
— x =344.3kg.
=344.3 kg.
4 0.2148
0.2148
asxx==1,1,V,V,= =0.2148
as 0.2148 3m
/kg at
m3/kg at 900
900kN/m2
kN/m2 from table.
table.
5. If
5. If in Problem
Problem 4,4,thetheactual
actual steam
steam consumption
consumption is 1.8istimes
1.8 times the theoretical
the theoretical quantity,
quantity, calcu- calcu-
late actualsteam
late actual steam consumption
consumption andand indicated
indicated thermal
thermal efficiency
efficiency of the engine.
of the engine.
Solution: Actualsteam
Solution: Actual steam consumption
consumption = 1.8
= 1.8 x 344.3
x 344.3 = 619.74
= 619.74 kg/hr.kg/hr.
Indicated powerx x6060x 60
Indicated power x 60
Indicated thermalefficiency
Indicated thermal efficiency=—
ms(H,-
nis(H ( —h2)
h2)
22.5
22.5xx103
103 x 60
60 xx 6060
= -—0.0565
0.0565= =5.65%.
5.65%.
619.74(2772.1-458.4)x
619.74(2772.1 - 458,4) x 10310 3
6. The
Thefollowing
followingdata datapertains
pertains to atosingle
a single cylinder
cylinder double
double actingacting
steamsteam
engine:engine:
Area of
Area of indicator
indicatordiagram
diagram forfor cover
cover endend = 14.4
14.4cm2 cm2
Area of
Area of indicator
indicatordiagram
diagram forfor crank
crank endend = 15.8
15.8cm2 cm2
Base
Base ofofindicator
indicatordiagram
diagram 5.25cm
= 5.25 cm
Scale
Scale ofofthe thespring
spring 165kN/cm
= 165 kN/cm
Cylinder diameter
Cylinder diameter = 2525 cm
cm
Stroke
Stroke = 37.5
37.5cm, cm,
Speed
Speed 245r.p.m.
= 245 r.p.m.
Piston
Piston rodroddiameter
diameter =5 5 cm
cm
Circumference
Circumference ofofbrake brake wheel
wheel = 4.7
4.7 mm
Circumferenceofofbrake
Circumference brake rope
rope =8 8 cm
cm
Dead
Dead loadloadononbrakebrake = 33 kN
kN
Springbalance
Spring balancereading
reading = 150
150 N N
Calculate(a)
Calculate (a)indicated
indicated power,
power, (b) (b) brake
brake power
power , and, (c)
and (c) mechanical
mechanical efficiency.
efficiency.
Solution:
Solution:
area
area ofofdiagram
diagram
M.E.P.
M.E.P. for for cover
coverendend- = x Scale
Scaleofofspring
spring
base
base
= 14.4
m(act)cover = 14.4
P .(act) x 165 103 = 4.55
165 xx103 4.55xx105
105 N/m2
5.25
5.25
15.8
M.E.P.
M.E.P. for for crank
crankendend= =- x 165
15.8 165 xx103,103, PP,n(aco.
(Kocr,nkk = 5 x 105 N/m2
.5x105 N/m2
5.25
5.25
Area of
Area of piston -=7-- x 0.252
piston A =1 0.252 = 0.0491 m2
0.0491m2
4
Area of piston
Area of pistonrod
rod a = 4 X 0.052 == 0.001963
x 0.05' 0.001963m2
m2
Steam Engine 283
P„,(„ikose,LAN
Indicated power developed by cover end —
60
4.55 x 105 x 0.375 x 0.0491 x 245

— 34200 Watts.
60
P „,(a,,x.kL (A — a)N
Indicated power developed by crank end =
60
5x 105 x 0.375 x (0.0491 — 0.001963) x 245

= 36061 Watts.
60
Total indicated power of the engine = 34200 + 36061 = 70.261 x 103 Watts = 70.261 kW.
(W — S) (D + 11 )nN (W — S)(rtD,+ MON
Brake power =
60 60
(3000 — 150) (4.7 + 0.08)245

= 55575 Watts = 55.575 kW.
60
Brake power 55.575
Mechanical efficiency 0.7384 = 73.84%.
= Indicated power = 70.261 —
Indicated power = 20 kW
Speed = 300 r.p.m
Stroke = 20 cm
Cut-off at 20% of the stroke
Steam consumption = 222 kg/hr
Steam supplied is dry saturated.
Determine (a) admission pressure, and (b) indicated thermal efficiency.
[A.M.I.E. Summer 89 ]
2P „uoLA N
Solution: Indicated power —
60
2x x 20 x.rt x 0.152 x 300

20 x 103 = P"4""
60 x 100 x 4
P„,wo = 5.56 x 105 N/rn2 = 5.56 bar
Pm(act)
Diagram factor =
Pm(th)
5.56
0.72 = 5.56 P„,00
• = 0.72 = 7.72 bar.
ni(by)
1 20
Cut off = —
r'110
=
P, P,
Again, P = -( 1 + log, r)- Pb 7.72 = - (1 + log, 5) - 0.28
m (h) r 5
P, (7.72 + 0.28) x 5
7.72 = T(1 + 1.6095) - 0.28, E. P, - = 15.33 bar.
2.6095
(a) Admission pressure = 15.33 bar
(b) From steam table at pressure 15.33 bar enthalpy of dry steam H, = 2790.6 kJ/kg.
At back pressure 0.28 bar enthalpy of water
h2 = 282 kJ/kg
Indicated power x 60 x 60
riis(H1 -122)
20x 103 x 60 x 60
= 0.1293 = 12.93%
222(2790.6 - 282) x 10'
8. A steam engine having two double acting cylinders of 20 cm diameter each and 30 cm
stroke is supplied with dry saturated steam at 5.077 bar. The back pressure is 0.633 bar. Cut-off
occurs at 0.45 of the stroke and the engine develops 50 kW at brake at 400 r.p.m. If the engine
has mechanical efficiency 80%, piston rod diameter 4 cm and clearance volume 8% of the
stroke volume, calculate (a) actual indicated mean effective pressure, and (b) diagram factor.
1 ( 1) c+I
Solution: (a) p ,p 1 [-+ c +- loge
r r
i]_
hio) c +;
Here, P1 = 5.077 bar, Pb = 0.633 bar, 1= 0.45, C = 0.0}5
( 0.08 + I )]
P.(thl = 5.077[0.45 + (0.08 + 0.45) log, 0.633 kW
0.08 + 0.45
= 4.2 - 0.633 = 3.567 bar
Brake power 50
Indicated power = - - 62.5 kW
Mech. Efficiency 0.8
2 x Pni(ac,) x Lx (2A - a)x N
Indicated power for two cylinders =
60 x 1000
2 x P„, (a„) x 0.3 (2 x x 0.22 - x 0.042 ) x 400

62.5 =
60 x1000 x 4
= 2.5375 x 105 N/m2 = 2.5375 bar
Pm (act)
(b) Diagram factor = 2.5375 = 0.711.
Pnt(th) 3'567
9. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 12 bar is admitted to a double acting single cylinder
steam engine. The steam supply is cut-off at 40% of the stroke and the exhaust takes place at
1.2 tm. The compression commences at 0.85 of the return stroke and the clearance volume is
10% of the displacement volume. Calculate the mean effective pressure.
The engine develops 32 kW brake power when running at 120 r.p.m. Estimate the cylin-
der dimensions. Assume hyperbolic expansion and take mechanical efficiency = 80%. The
engine has a mean piston speed of 72 m/n.ln.
Steam Engine 285
Solution: The theoretical mean effective pressure taking clearance and compression into
account is given by:
( 1) 1
p =p— [ + c + — loge c+ 1 — Pb (1 —x)+ (c + x ) log c +.1
.(rh) I r r c +7 e c
Here P , = 12 bar, P b = 1.2 bar, c = 0.1, x = (1-0.85) = 0.15,
1=0.4
r
0.1 + 1 0.1+0.151
PNth) = 12{0.4 + (0.1 + 0.4) 2 12[( 15) + (0.1 + 0.15)log,
1°‘-' 0.1 -I- 0.41 * 0.1
= 9.530 — 1.295 = 8.235 bar.

Now, mean piston speed 2 L N = 72 m/min
72
Piston stroke L
=2x120= n—1 In.
Brake power = 32 kW and mechanical efficiency = 0.8
2
Indicated power = u = 40 kW.
2P m N
Indicated power =
60 x 1000 kW
2x8.235x0.3xA x120x105
40 =
60 x 1000
40 x 60 x 1000 = 0.04 m2
orA =
2 x 8.235 x 0.3x 120 x 105
0.04 x 4
Piston diameter d= — 0.2251m = 22.51 cm.
IC
10. The locomotive boiler supplies steam to a two cylinder locomotive at a pressure of 12 bar.
The driving wheels have 2 m diameter. Calculate the diameters of the two cylinders, which
have 60 cm stroke so that a tractive force at 72 km/hr may be 24600 N when the cut-off is at
40% of the stroke. Assuming a mechanical efficiency of 80% and a diagram factor of 0.8,
calculate the indicated power at this speed. Assume hyperbolic expansion and exhaust pres-
sure 1.2 bar.
1
Solution: P, = 12 bar, Pb = 1.2 bar, cut-off =;-:= 0.4, r = 2.5
12
P'n(th) = —(1 + loge r)— P„ = — (1 + loge 2.5)— 1.2 = 8 bar
2.5
P,n(at) = P (th) x Diagram factor = 8 x 0.8 = 6.4 bar
72 x 100
72 km/hr = = 20 m/s.
3600
Work done per revolution of the wheel = Work done per revolution of two cylinders
or tractive effort x distance moved by wheel in one revolution = force on piston x length of
two strokes x No. of cylinders.
TC 2
T xn1) =[- d x Pmt wt) x 2 L x 21 x Mechanical efficiency
4
60
24600 xitx 2 =[—xd 2 x6.4 x2x- xdx0.8 x105
100
24600xnx 2x4x 100
c/-,= _0.16 m2
nx6.4 x2x60x2x 0.8x 105
d = 0.4 m = 40 cm.
Power at the wheel = torque x speed of wheel
= 24600 x 20 Nm/s = 492 kW.
492
Indicated power =0.8
— = 615 kW.
11. A double acting steam engine is supplied with dry saturated steam at 14 bar. The con-
denser pressure is 0.35 bar. The cut-off occurs at 40% of the stroke. Now if the cut-off is
adjusted to occur at 25% of the stroke and the power output remains unchanged, calculate (a)
the ratio of new to original speed, and (b) the percentage saving in steam consumption.
Solution: (a) When the cut-off is at 40% of the stroke
1
= 0A r1 = 2.5
r,
P,
Mean effective pressure —
= (1 + loge r1)-13,
r,
14
P„=(1+ log,2.5)— 0.35 = 10.37 bar
(1.13.)1= 60
When cut-off is at 25% of the stroke
1=0.25 .*. r2 =4
r2
14
P„, = —(1+ loge r2)—P,, = — (1 + loge 4)— 0.35 = 8 bar
2 r2 4
2P„,"„A N2
(LP. )2 = 60
As power output remains the same
(1,P.) . = (1.P.)2
2x 10.37 x105 xLxA xN, 2x8x105 xLxA
60 60
N2 10.37
— 1.296
N, 8
(b) Mass of steam supplied when cut-off is at 40% of stroke
1 1
nisi = ItzID 2 xLx— xN,x60x2-
r, 1/1,
Similarly mass of steam when cut-off is at 25% of stroke
1 1
ins = 4 D 2 xLx- xN x60x 2x-
r2 2 V,,
Steam Engine 287
Percentage saving in steam consumption

(in,- in,,) ins )
= - x 100 = 1-=x 100
in ,, in,,
, , , x 1. ) x 100 = (1 - 1.296 x -2-1-5- )x 100 =19%.

1 -N
=( ,,,, r2 4
12. A boiler generates dry steam at 12.4 bar from feed water at 60°C with an efficiency of
70%. The steam passes at the rate of 1.6 kg per second through the steam pipe to the engine
control valve. After throttling through the valve to a pressure of 9.6 bar, the steam is 1% wet.
The engine exhausts at 0.2 bar and develops 590 kW indicated power. Determine. (a) the heat
loss per minute in the steam pipe, (b) the internal energy per kg of steam at the engine
exhaust, and (c) the thermal efficiency of the plant.
Solution: At pressure P1 = 12.4 bar, H, = 2786 kJ/kg, P2 = 9.6 bar, h2 = 755.01 kJ/kg,
L2 = 2021.5 kJ/kg, (i)„., = 2.1215 kJ/kg K, (1),, = 6.6005 kJ/kg K, P3 = 0.2 bar, h3 = 251.4
kJ/kg, L3 = 2358.3 kJ/kg, (0„., = 0.8320, 4).,, = 7.9085, Vs3 = 7.649 m3/kg.
Weight of steam flowing through the pipe per min = 1.6 x 60 = 96 kg per min.
Enthalpy of 96 kg of steam at pressure 12.4 bar = 96 x 2786 = 267456 kJ.
Enthalpy of 96 kg of steam of dryness fraction x = 0.99 at 9.6 bar = 96 x 755.01 + 96 x 0.99
2021.5 = 264612.96 kJ.
(a) Heat loss per min in the steam pipe = 267456 - 264612.96 = 2843.04 kJ.
(b) Entropy at point 2 = Entropy at point 3
4)2 =11113
1
111
+ x2(, - O.) = 4).3 +x3(4)„ -4).,)
4).3 - 4).3 +x2(4),, - 4).3)
2.1215 - 0.8320 + 0.99(6.6005 - 2.1215)

= 0.81
7.9085 - 0.8320
Internal energy of the exhaust steam
E3 = h 3 + x3 L,- P 3 x 100 x x3 x
= 251.4 + 0.81 x 2358.3 - 0.2 x 100 x 0.81 x 7.649 = 2037.7 kJ/kg.

590 kW = 590 kJ.
Sensible heat of feed water at 60°C = 251.1 kJ/kg.
(c) Heat added in the boiler per min = 96(2786 - 251.1) + 0.70
Output 590 x 0.7 x 60
Thermal efficiency of the plant = - x 100 = 10.182%.
Input 96(2786 - 251.1)
13. A steam locomotive has a two cylinder engine of 45 cm diameter by 600 mm stroke. The
driving wheels are 200 cm in diameter. The steam supply is at 11.6 bar dry and the exhaust
pressure is 1.3 bar. The maximum cut-off value is 0.82 of the stroke and the diagram factor
for this condition is 0.78. Estimate the tractive effort at 10 km/hr with this maximum cut-off.
At 100 km/hr the resistance amounts to 120 N/ton. Determine the total train load that can
be hauled at this speed if the cut-off is then 0.23 of the stroke and the diagram factor is 0.72
1 1
Solution: r = ratio of expansion - cu = 1.22
t- off 0.82
Theoretical mean effective pressure is given by,
P„, (th) = 7{1 + loge r} — P,, = 11.6 x 0.8211 + logy 1.221 — 1.3 = 10.1034 bar.
Actual mean effective pressure, P„,(.0 = P„,(h) x D.f.
Pnvo = 10.1034 x 0.78 = 7.88 bar.
10 x 100
101cm/hr = 60 = 166.666 mumin
The speed of the train = itDN m/min

where D is the diameter of the driving wheel.
rcDN = 166.666
166.666
N = n x 2 = 26.525 r.p.m.
Work done by the engine

= 2P,n*OLAN x 2
= 2 x7.88x 105 x 0.6 x l (0.45)2 x 26.525 x 2

4
= 7978500 Nm/min.
Work done at the wheel = T X ION
where, T = Tractive effort.

Equating the work developed by the engine to the work at the wheel we have
T x TcDN = 7978500
7978500
T= — 47872.487 N = 47.872487 kN.
nx2x 26.525
The theoretical mean effective pressure at 0.23 cut-off is given by,
= P, 1
P III oh) — {1+ loge —Pb = 11.6 x 0.23{1 + log —} —1.3 = 5.289 bar
e 0.23
P wo = P m all) x Diagram factor = 5.289 x 0.72 = 3.808 bar

100x 1000
100 km/hr = = ,666.666 nymin
60
1666.666
nDN = 1666.666, N= x 2 = 265.25 r.p.m.
Work done by the engine = Work done at the wheel

4P LAN =TxicDN
m(.o
4P„4. 0LAN 4 x 3.808 x 105 x 0.6 x it x (0,45)2
or, T —
7113N 4xitx2
T = 23133.6N= 23.1336 kN.

23133.6
The total train load — tons = 192.78 tons.
120
Steam Engine 289
14. A steam engine governed by throttling uses 535 kg of steam per hour when developing
40 kW and 2180 kg/hr when developing 206 kW indicated power. Find the approximate
thermal efficiency of the engine when developing 148 kW indicated power, assuming the
steam supplied is dry and saturated at 12.2 bar and the back pressure is 0.14 bar.
Solution: When the power is varied by throttling only, the steam consumption in kg/hr can be
expressed in terms of indicated power in kW as
= a + b P, where a and b are constants, ni = steam consumption in
kg/hr, and P = indicated power in kW.
Substituting the values of the steam consumption for two loads in the above equation
535 =a +b x40 (i)
2180 =a + b x 206 (ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii) we have b = 9.9096
Substituting the value of b in Eq. (i) we get,
535 = a + 9.9096 x 40 a = 138.6144
To find m at 148 kW
m = a + b P = 138.6144 + 9.9096 x 148 = 1605.235 kg/hr
At pressure P, = 12.2 bar, H1 = 2785.4 kJ/kg, Pb = 0.14 bar, h = 219.99 kJ/kg.
148 x 3600
Thermal efficiency of the engine - x 100 = 12.94%.
1605.235(2785.4 - 219.99)
15. Calculate the dryness fraction of steam and the missing quantity/ hr at 0.8 of the expan-
sion stroke, from the following data:
Piston stroke = 60 cm
r.p.m. = 120
Cut-off 40% of the stroke
Clearance volume = 10% of swept volume
Steam condensed per minute = 50 kg
Pressure of steam at 0.8 of the expansion stroke = 4 bar
Pressure of steam at 0,7 of the return stroke = 1.2 bar
Solution:
Swept volume, Vs = 4 (0.45)2 x 0.6 = 0.0954 m3
Clearance volume, V, = 0.1, V, = 0.00954 m3
Actual indicated volume of steam at A = 0.8 x
+ = 0.8 x 0.0954 +0.00954 = 0.08586 m3
Actual indicated volume of steam at B =
0.3 V, + = 0.3 x 0.0954 + 0.00954 = 0.03816
m3
Specific volume of steam of 1.2 bar =
1.4284 m3/kg.
The mass of cushion steam per stroke (assum-
ing dry saturated)
Actual indicated volume at B
In c - Volume of 1 kg of dry saturated steam
Volume ( V )
0.03816
= - 0.02671 kg.
1.4284
Fig. 12.22
Mass of steam admitted per stroke

Mass of steam condensed per min 50
nit = — 0.20833 kg
Number of strokes per min 2 x 120
The mass of steam in the cylinder during expansion
m, = m f + = 0.20833 + 0.02671 = 0.235 kg
At pressure 4 bar, specific volume = 0.4625 m3/kg.
The volume of steam at A (assuming dry saturated) = 0.235 x 0.4625 = 0.108707 m3.
But from the diagram the actual indicated volume of steam at A = 0.08586
Actual volume at A
Dryness fraction of steam at A =
Volume of dry steam
0.08586
= x 100 = 78.98% dry
0.108707
Actual indicated volume at A
Indicated dry mass of steam at A =
Volume of 1 kg of dry steam
0.08586
= — 0.18564 kg/stroke
0.4625
Missing quantity per stroke at A = 0.235 — 0.18564 = 0.0493 kg/stroke
Missing quantity at A per hour = 0.0493 x 2 x 120 x 60 = 710.784 kg/hr.
Steam supply pressure = 8 bar
Dryness fraction of steam = 0.97
Condenser pressure = 0.1 bar
Mean effective pressure = 2.32 bar
Stroke = 25 cm
Speed = 300 r.p.m.
Brake load = 136 kgf
Diameter of brake wheel = 145 cm
Diameter of brake rope = 5 cm
Steam consumption = 3.36 kg/min
Condenser cooling water = 113 kg/min
Rise in temperature of cooling water = 11 K
Hot well temperature = 311 K
Calculate (a) I.P., (b) B.P., (c) mechancial efficiency, (d) indicated thermal efficiency,
(e) brake specific steam consumption, and (f) draw up an energy balance, taking 0°C as
datum.
Solution:
2PmLAN 2x2.32x 105 x0.25 xitx.22 x 300
(a) I.P. =
60 60 x 4
= 18.22 x 103 Watt = 18.22 kW

Steam Engine 291
20/ x (W - S)R
(b) B.P. - Watt
60
452 .05
2n x 300(136 x 9.81- 90)x'
60
= 14.66 x 103 Watt = 14.66 kW.

B.P 14.66
(c) Mechancial efficiency = = = 0.8046 = 80.46%.
I.P.. 18.22
H, = 721.1 + 0.97 x 2048 = 2707.7 kJ/kg.
h, = 191.8 kJ/kg
I.P. 18.22
(d) Indicated thermal efficiency - = 0.1293 = 12.93 %.
tn ,(H - 112) - -37306- (2707.7 - 191.8)
,
W., 3.36 x 60
(e) Brake specific steam consumption - 13.75 kg/kWh.
B.P - 14.66 =
(f) Energy balance
3.36
Energy supplied = (2707.7) = 151.63 kJ/s.
60
113
Energy to condenser cooling water = - x 4.1868(11) = 86.74 kJ/s.
60
3.36
Energy to hot well = 60 x 4.1868 x 38 = 8.91 kJ/s.
Table 12.1
C,. kW or % Dr kW or kJ/s %
kJ/s
Energy 151.63 100 1.Energy to I.P. 18.2 12,016
supplied
2. Energy in friction 3.56 2.348
3. Energy to B.P. 14.66 9.67
4. Energy to cooling water 86.74 57.21
5. Energy to hot well 8.91 5.88
6. Energy to surrounding 41.32 27.25
(By difference)
Total 151.63 100 151.63 99.9
17. A compound eng'ne is to develop indicated power 370 kW at 120 r.p.m. Initial pressure
8.2 bar, back pressure 0.3 bar, allowable piston speed 150 m/min, ratio of cylinder volume
3.5, diagram factor 9.85, cut-off in H.P. at 0.4 stroke. Estimate the cylinder dimensions. If
cut-off in L.P is at 0.53 stroke determine the approximate L.P. receiver pressure and compare
the initial loads on the piston. Neglect clearance.
Solution: Total ratio of expansion r = Cylinder volume ratio x r
Here, cylinder volume ratio = 3.5
r„ , 1
= 0.4 or,= r, - = L.J
0.4
r = 3.5 x 2.5 = 8.75

Theoretical mean effective pressure for the whole engine referred to L.P.
P,
=-(1+ log, r)-Pb
r
8.2
= 8.75 (1 + log, 8.75)- 0.3
= 2.669856 bar.
Actual mean effective pressure = 2.669856 x 0.85
2.2693776 bar.
2P„uoLAN
Indicated power (kW) -
60 x 100
2.2693776 x 105 x 150 x A
370 = .. A = 0.6521 m2
60 x 1000
C42 = 0 . 6 5 2 1 m2 0.9112, m = 91.12 cm

We know, cylinder volume ratio
d` 0.83028 0.83028
Fig. 12.23 = -d , 3.5 = or, 4, =
3.5
Diameter of H.P. cylinder, di, = 0.487, m = 48.7 cm.

Piston speed = 2LN = 150 m/min
150
2 x 120 = 0,625 m = 62.5 cm
For hyperbolic expansion, P1 = P2V3

P1 V1
P2 = V3
V2 ___
Total ratio of expansion r = = 8.75
V2
. =
8.75
1 V2 1
Again .'. V3 = 0.53 V2
- 0.53 or' 12; = 0.53
8.2 x V2
= 1.768194 bar
iVi -
P2 = PV3 8.75 x 0.53V2
:. Receiver pressure, P2 = 1.768194 bar.
Load on H.P. (PI - P2) V6
x
Load on L.P. - P2 - Pb V4
(Pi -P2) 1 (8,2 -1.768194) 1

= = x - 1.25.
(P2 - Pb) x cylinder volume ratio (1 768194 - 0.3) 3.5
Steam Engine 293
1
18. A compound engine is to develop 95 kW at
110 r.p.m. Steam is supplied at 7.2 bar and the
condenser pressure is 0.2 bar. Assuming hyper-
bolic expansion and an expansion ratio of 15, a
diagram factor of 0.7 and neglecting clearance
and receiver losses, determine the diameter of N
(1.)
cylinders so that they may develop equal powers.
stroke of each piston = L.P. cylinder diameter.
Solution: Theoretical mean effective pressure
referred to L.P. cylinder
P,
= 7(1+ loge r)— Pb (1 +loge 15)-0.2 = 1.58 bar. -4( V3
=5
V2— V4
Actual mean effective pressure referred to L.P.
cylinder Volume ( V )
Pnac) = Diagram factor x 1.58 = 0.7 x 1.58 = 1.106 bar.
Here, I.P. = 95 kW, N= 110 r.p.m, L = dL Fig. 12.24
2P „,(”e,,LA N 2 x1.106 x 105 xd,,x7r4x 110

I.P. = or, 95 —
60 x 1000 4x60 x 1000
95 x4x60x 1000
or = 0.2982 rn3
- 2x 1.106x 105 xrcx110
.•. dL = 0.6681 m = 66.81 cm.
Pi
Work done in H.P. = P,V,+P,V, logeT — /321/3
But P,V,= P2V3

P1
Work done in H.P. = P,V, loge = P,V, loge r,
2
Work done in L.P. = P2 V3 + P2 V3 loge —Pb V2
Equating work done in H.P. cylinder to that done in L.P. cylinder.
P,Vi loge r,=P2V3+ P2V3 loge Pb V,
or, P,V, loge r„= p,V,+ P,V,loge rL —Pb V2

Or, Pb V2 = P,V,(1 + loge rL —loge r,)
PbV2 L
Or, D , —1 = 10g, = logy
rivi
rL Pb V2
Or, = —1
loge P1V,
—PbV2 —I 0.2 x 15
or, log,— = 1 D „ = 0.583
7.2
V3 V2
Again r,=— and r,,=-i7
v3
loge = loge But, v

V2 =15:.V2 = 15V,
rt V2 1
rH ;
loge = loge loge = 0.583
rL 15V; 15V;
3 2
or,15V; = 1.791, k-) = 15 x 1.791 = 26.86
• V3 — 5.183
•• V, —
V,
V2 7, 15
Ratio of L.P. expansion r, = — V3 5.183
V3
r,= 2.894
_ V2
— v — 2.894
V2 7t 2 4 di
Or, Or,
V3 =
2.894 4 dH 2.894
, dL2 0.66812
or, d H- = = .*. d = 0.392 m = 39.2 cm
2.894 2.894
Cylinder diameters are 39.2 cm and 66.81 cm.
19. A four-cylinder compound locomotive gave the following particulars:
Diameter of two H.P. cylinders = 25 cm
Diameter of two L.P. cylinders = 50 cm
Stroke = 65 cm for all cylinders
H.P. cut off at 0.55 stroke
L.P. cut off at 0.35 stroke
r.p.m = 140
Assume hyperbolic expansion and neglect clearance. Determine the Indicated power devel-
oped by the locomotive.
Solution:
H.P. cylinder volume V6 (0.25)2 _ 1
L.P. cylinder volume — V4 — — (0.50)2 4
V6 V5 1
V4 V2
1
Here, — = 0.55 or, / 0.55
rH 15
1 V3
— = 0.35 or,
rL 172 0.35
Steam Engine 295
For hyperbolic expansion.

= P,V,
P,V, = P,V, P2
V3
VI X V2 55 55 V5 55 1
From (i), and (ii) Or, v -- xv = 3x
V5 X V3 - 35 3 35 2 3
.'. P2 = 27.5 x 55 1 = 10.803571 bar.
P1
Theoretical m.e.p. of H.P. cylinder =—(1 + log, r ,,)— P2
ry
= 27.5 x 0.55(1 + log2 1.8181) — 10.803571 = 13.363714 bar

Actual m.e.p. of H.P. = 0.65 x 13.363714
P „qacoll = 8.686414 bar.

P2
Theoretical m.e.p. of L.P. cylinder = + log, r ,)— P,,
= 10.803571 x 0.35(1 + loge 2.8571)— 1.4 = 6.350889 bar

Actual m.e.p. of L.P. = 0.65 x 6.350889
13.0,„L = 4.128078 bar
Indicated power for two H.P. cylinder

2/3.(.coHH.LAHN
60 x 1000 x 2 kW.
2 x8.686414 x 105 x 0.65 xnx(.25)2 x 140x2

= 258.678 kW.
4 x60x 1000
111--)1-1
-E-V5= V6
V3
V2— V4
Volume ( V )
Fig. 12.25 Fig. 12.26

Indicated power for two L.P. cylinder

2 x 4.128078 x 105 x 0.65 xrc(.5)2 x 140 x 2
= 491.7313 kW.
4 x60 x 1000
Power developed by the locomotive = 258.678 + 491.7313 = 750.409 kW.
20. A two cylinder compound steam engine has an expansion ratio of 9 and the stroke of both
the cylinders is the same. The cut-off in the high pressure cylinder takes place at half stroke.
The engine is supplied with steam at 6.8 bar and condenser pressure is 0.14 bar. Assuming a
common hyperbolic expansion curve for two cylinders and neglecting the effect of clearance,
find the percentage cut-off in the low pressure cylinder and the receiver pressure so that the
work shall be equally distributed between the cylinders.
Solution: Given data: V3 = 2V1 , V2 = 91/1 , P1 = 6.8 bar, Pb = 0.14 bar
Considering full expansion in H.P. cylinder.
Work done in H.P. cylinder = P,V, + P, V, log, 2 —P,V,
V2
Work done in L.P. cylinder = /32V, + P2V3log, — P,V,
V3
But P, V, = P21/ 3 = P,V,
V2 P2 1/1 6.8
v-. = 174 and P,=P, xy=--9-- = 0.755555
3
Work done in H.P. cylinder = Work done in L.P. cylinder.
P2
P, V, + P, V, log,2 —P2 V3 = /321/3 + P2 V3 logep--P, V2
P2
P,V,loge 2 = P, x 2V, + P,V, logeT —P, x 9V,
P2
Or, P, log, 2 = 2P, + P, loge 17,- — 9Pb
4
or, P, log, 2 = 2/32 + P, log, /3,— P, log, P4 — 9P,
or, 2P2 + P, P2 = /3, log, 2 + P, log, P4 + 9P,
or, 2/32 + 6.8 log, P2 = 6.8 x 0.6931 + 6.8 x (—.2803)+ 1.26
or, 2P2 + 6.8 loge P2 = 4.067021

By trial P2 is found to be 1.2555 bar.
Receiver pressure = 1.2555 bar.
Cut-off ratio in the low pressure cylinder
V3 P4 0.755555
= = • = 0.6017 = 60.17%.
V2 P2 1.2555
21. The following particulars relate to a compound engine:
H.P. cylinder bore = 38 cm
L.P. cylinder bore = 76 cm
Stroke =1m
Cut-off in H.P. cylinder = 0.55 stroke
Cut-off in L.P. cylinder = 0.35 stroke
Steam Engine 297
Speed = 180 r.p.m.

Diagram factor = 0.65 for each cylinder.
Assume hyperbolic expansion and neglect

clearance.
Estimate (a) the drop of pressure to the L.P.
receiver, and (b) the indicated power Qf each cyl-
inder.
Solution: di/ = 38 cm = 0.38 m, = 76 cm =
0.76 m.
L = 1 m, P, = 15 bar, Pb = 1.4 bar,
1 V,
-=-= 0.55
rH V5
1 V3
- = = 0.35,
r2 V 2
N = 180 r.p.m, Df = 0.65
V, = (4)2 x L =74 (0.38)2 x 1 = 0.11341 m3

Fig. 12.27
V2 = 4(d,,)2 x L = 4(0.76)2 x 1 = 0.45364 m3
V3 = 0.35 x V2 = 0.35 x 0.45364 m3 = 0.158774 m3
V,
= 0.55, V1 = 0.55 x 0.11341 = 0.06237 m3.
5
From the relation P,V, = P3 V5 P2 V3 = P4 V2
We have 133 = P,x - = 15 x 0.55 = 8.25 bar

v5
V5 0.11341
P31/5 = P21/3, P2 = P3 X v = 8.25 x 0.158774
3
P2 = 5.892857 bar.
(a) Drop of pressure to the L.P. cylinder = P3 - P2 = 8.25 - 5.892857 = 2.357142 bar.
(b) Indicated power of H.P. cylinder
2N
= Df.{P,V,(1+ loge r,)-P2V,} x
60 x 1000
105,x 2 x 180
= 0.65{15 x 0.06237(1 + loge 0.55)- 5.892857 x 0.11341} x
60 x 1000 0
= 322.353 kW.
Indicated power of the L.P. cylinder

2N
= Df{P,V3(1 + log, rd- P,V,}
x 60 x 1000 kW.
105x 2 x 180
= 0.65{5.892857 x 0.158774(1 + loge - 1.4 x 0.45364} x
0.35) 60 x 1000
= 500.285 kW.
22. A compound steam engine of cylinder diame-
ters 40 cm and 76 cm and stroke 54 cm is rated at
295 kW indicated power when running at 150
r.p.m taking dry steam at 9,2 bar and exhausting at
0.17 bar. The cut-off in the high pressure cylinder
is at 0.4 and in the low pressure cylinder at 0.5 of
the stroke. Determine the diagram factor allowed
and assuming this applicable to the separate cyl-
inder, compare the powers developed therein.
Solution: dll = 40 cm, di, = 76 cm, L = 54 cm,
-4- VI • I.P. = 295 kW,
-(-V5= V64 N = 150,P, = 9.2 bar, P„= 0.17 bar, 1=0.4,
V3
112- 114 1
- =0.5
Volume ( V ) rL
It
V5 = WO' x L = TI (0.4)2 x 0.54 = 0.067858 m3
Fig. 12.28
=0.4 V,=V, x 0.4 = 0.067858 x 0.4 0.027143 m'.
V5
V2 = 71- (c/d2 x L =71(.7 6)2 x 0.54 = 0.244968 m3,
V = 0.5, V3 = 4/2 X 0.5 = 0.2444968 x .5 = 0.122484 m3.

From the relation, P,V, = P3V5 = P2V3 = P,V,
V,
1,3 =P, X 7,
Y 5
P3 = 9.2 x 0.4 = 3.68 bar
0.027143
P2 = P, X V3 = 9"" 0.122484 - 2.038761 bar.
2N X Di
Now, 295 = 60 x 1000{P,V,(1 + log, rll)-13,V,+ P2V3(1 + log, rd- I', V2}
1x150x Dr
295 = 60 x 1000 {9.2 x 0.027143(1 + log, 2.5) - 2.038761 x 0.067858
+ 2.038761 x 0.122484(1 + log, 2) - 0.17 x 0.244968} 105

Steam Engine 299
295 = 5D1(0.340181 + 0.38116) x 100
D, = 0.8179.
2x 150 x 0.8179
Indicated power of the H.P. cylinder = x 0.340181 x 105 = 139.1204 kW.
60 x 1000
2x 150 x 0.8179
Indicated power of the L.P. cylinder — x 0.38116 x 105 = 155.875 kW.
60 x 1000
Indicated power of H.P. cylinder 139.1204
155.875 = 0.89:1
Indicated power of L.P. cylinder
23. A triple expansion engine is supplied with
steam at 12.3 bar and the condenser pressure is 12.3 bar
1
0.2 bar. The overall expansion ratio is 13. PV=C
Neglecting clearance effects, assuming no pres-
sure drop at release in the high pressure and inter-
mediate pressure cylinders and assuming a.
hyperbolic expansion, determine the ratio of
cylinder volumes, taking the high pressure cylin- HP
der as unity, in order that equal powers may be a. p L.P.
developed in the three cylinders. 0.2 bar
With this arrangement, what would be the
ratios of the initial steam forces on the three pis- Volume ( V )
tons ?
Solution: Work done per stroke = Mean effective
pressure x Volume.
Fig. 12.29
M.E.P = 7 ( t + loge r)—Pb
The back pressure for the H.P. cylinder = P2

The back pressure for the I.P. cylinder = P3
V3
The work done by these cylinders are P, V, log and P1o,ge
21/2 — respectively.
e V2 V2
The total work done by the engine = M.E.P. referred to the L.P. cylinder x V4
P,
=[— (1 + loge —Pd x V,
r
12.3 (1 + loge 13) — 0.2] 105 x V4 =317299.05 x V,

13
=[-
For equal powers
V2 V3 317299.051/4
P,V, loge = P2v2 ioge v2 —
3
But P,V,= P2 V2
V2 V3 317299.05 V4 317299.05 V4
loge 171 = loge 2 =
V 3 x P,V, 3x12.3x105 xV1
V4
log, r„=loge r, = 0.0859889 x (i)
V2 V3
-= i.e. the ratio of expansion r, for the H.P. cylinder is equal to the ratio of expansion
V, V2
r, for the I.P. cylinder.
The total ratio of expansion r =7 = 13 and the relation between rll, r„ r, and r is given by
V2 V
=- ---X -=13.
VI V2 V3
13
(II)
rry
From Eq. (1) log e rn = 0.0859889 x 13 = 1.117
ru = 3.05 r,= 3.05
13
From Eq. (2).r, = 2 1.396
(3.05)
V4 - L.P. Volume
rL = 1.396 -
V3 I.P. Volume
V3
r =-= 3.05 V3 = 3.05 X V2 [Here V2 = I] = 3.05
V2
V4
ri.= - = 1.396 V4 = V3 X 1.396 = 3.05 x 1.396 = 4.2578.
v3
The cylinder volume ratios are : V2 : V,: V4 = 1 : 3.05 : 4.2578
If the cylinders have the same stroke, the areas of the piston will be proportional to the cylin-
der volumes and the ratios of the initial forces on the pistons are given by,
(Pi-P2) x (P2-P3) x 3.05 : (P)-Pb) x 4.2578
Pi 12.3 P2
But P2 = = = 4.0327, P3 = = 1.32219
3.05 3.05 3.05
The ratios of the initial forces on the pistons are
(12.3-4.0327) : (4.0327-1.32219) x 3.05 : (1.32219-0.2) x 4.2578
= 8.2673 : 8.267035 : 4.77806 = 1 : 0.99996 : 0.5779.
24. A double acting compound engine is
required to give 295 kW indicated power at 150
r.p.m with a supply at 12.3 bar and exhaust at
0.28 bar. Take the number of expansion as 8.4,
ratio of cylinder volumes 4.2 : 1, stroke equal to
two-thirds of the L.P. cylinder diameter, and
overall diagram factor 0.66. Assume hyperbolic
N L.P. expansion and neglect clearance.
P4 2 Allowing for a loss of 0.35 bar in the receiver
between the two cylinders, find the piston diarn-
eters, common stroke and L.P. cut-off, if the ini-
tial loads on the two pistons are to be equal.
Volume ( V ) Solution: Here, P, = 12.3 bar, Pb = 0.28 bar,
1/2 1/4 V4 v,
r =- =- =8.4, - =4.2 = -
V, V, V5 V5
Fig. 12.30
Steam Engine 301
Theoretical mean effective pressure referred to L.P. cylinder

P,
= — (1+ log, r)—P„
r
12.3
= 8.4 (1 + loge 8.4) — 0.28 = 4.3 bar
Actual mean effective pressure referred to L.P. cylinder = Diagram factor x 4.3
P„,(„0 = 0.66 x 4.3 = 2.8384 bar.
2P„,(ao x LAN
Indicated power — kW.
60 x 1000
2 x 2.8384 x 105 x n(dL)2 x 3 dL x 150

295 =
4 x 60 x 1000
(dL)3 = 0.397 m3 dL = 0.735 m = 73.5 cm.

dL
Diameter of H.P. cylinder, d, =
4cylinder volume ratio
0.735
d„ — 0.358 m = 35.8 cm.
- 14.2
2
Common stroke, L = 3 x 73.5 = 49 cm.
Let P2 = admission pressure of L.P. cylinder then, (P2 + 0.35) will be exhaust pressure of H.P.
cylinder.
As the initial loads on both pistons are equal
V2
Pi — (P2+ 035) 7 (P2 - Pb)17
,
12.3 — P2 — 0.35 = (P2-0.28) x 4.2
.*. P2 = 2.524 bar.

Vi 12.3
Again P,V, = P,V, P4 = P, x = = 1.464 bar
V2 8.4
Now P21/3 = P41/2
V3 P4 1.464
Cut-off in L.P. cylinder = = =
V2 P2 2.524
= 0.58 of stroke.
25. A triple expansion engine has a steam chest
pressure of 12.3 bar and a condenser pressure of
0.2 bar. The overall expansion ratio is 15. If the
expansion in the H.P. and I.P. cylinders are car-
ried down to the pressure of the next succeeding
cylinder, find the ratio of the cylinder volumes if
the work is to be shared equally between them. Volume ( V )
If, however, the ratio of cylinder volume is
1:2.5:6, estimate the mean effective pressure
referred to L.P. for each cylinder if the cut-off
Fig. 12.31
is 0.45 in the I.P. and 0.7 in the L.P.

Assume hyperbolic expansion and neglect clearance.
Solution: Work done per stroke = mean effective pressure x volume.
P,
M.E.P. = — (1+ log, r)—
r
The back pressure for the H.P. cylinder = P2
The back pressure for the I.P. cylinders = P3
V2 V3
The work done by these cylinders are P; V, log, 1- 7 and P2 V2 loge y respectively.
The total work done by the engine = M.E.P. referred to the L.P. cylinder x V4
= (1 + log, r)—pjX v4
12.3
(1 + log, 15) — 0.2] x 105 x V4 = 284060.12V4.
=[ 15
V2 V3 284060.12V,
For equal powers, P, V, loge— = P2 V2 log, , —
V, r2 3
But P,V,= P2V2
V2 V3 284060.12 V4
log — = log =
e V, e V2 3 x 12.3 x 105 x V,
log, r„= log, r, = 0.076981 x V (1)

4
V2 V3
- -, i.e. the ratio of expansion r,, for the H.P. cylinder is equal to the ratio of expansion
V1 V2
r, for the I.P. cylinder.
The total ratio of expansion r =7 = 15 and the relation between rll, r„ and r is given by
V V3 V4
r = 2 X X =15
1 Y2 3
15
(2)
= rH 2
1.2"
From Eq. (1) log, rll = 0.076981 x 15 = 1.1547
rll = 3.173 =r;

15
From Eq. (2) rL— 1.4897
(3.173)2=
V2
V1 = 11
r =
v = 3.173 [Assuming the cut-off volume in the H.P. cylinder as unity,
..V2 =3.173
V3
Ti — v — 3.173 V3 = 3.173 x 3.173 = 10.0679
2
-173 = 1.4897 V4 = 1.4897 x 10.0679 = 14.998

Steam Engine 303
The cylinder volume ratios are : V2 : V3 : V4 = 3.173 : 10.0679 : 14.998 = 1 : 3.173 : 4.726
Since the overall expansion ratio is 15, the volume at H.P. cut-off is given by
V6
Vi = = s=0.4 and P, V, = 12.3 x 0.4 = 4.92.
As the cut-off in the I.P. cylinder is 0.45, the volume at I.P. cut-off is given by V, = 2.5 x 0.45
= 1.125.
Similarly the volume at L.P. cut-off is given by Vs = 6 x 0.7 = 4.2
4.92
P3113 = 4.92 P3 = - 4.373 bar
1.125
4.92
P,V, = 4.92 Ps= 4.2 = 1.171 bar
1 1
r; = 0.45 = 2.22, r, = -0- 1= 1.428
r" 04 = 2'5'
M.E.P. of the H.P. cylinder = (1 + log, rn)- P,
12.3
= 2.5 (1 + loge 2.5) -4.373 = 5.055 bar
P3
M.E.P.of the I.P. cylinder = - (1+ loge ri)- P,
r,
_ 4.373 (1 + log, 2.22) -1.171 = 2.37 bar

2.22
P,
M.E.P. of the L.P. cylinder= -(1 + loge rd- P,
rL
1.171
= (1 + loge 1.428) - 0.2 = 0.912 bar.
1.428
5.055 x 1
M.E.P. of H.P. cylinder with ref. to L.P. cylinder = = 0.8425 bar.
6
2.37 x 2.5
M.E.P. of I.P. cylinder with ref. to L.P. cylinder - - 0.9875 bar.
6
M.E.P. of L.P. cylinder = 0.912 bar.
26. In a tripple expansion engine, cylinder
diameters are 74 cm, 125 cm, and 214 cm
respectively, stroke is 138 cm, cut-off in all
cylinders is at 0.6 stroke, pressure at stop
valve is 12.7 bar and back pressure in low
pressure cylinder is 0.17 bar. The engines
develops 3020 kW indicated power when
running at 89 r.p.m. Determine the overall
diagram factor and the approximate power
developed in each cylinder. Neglect wire-
drawing and clearance. Compare the maxi- Volume ( V )
mum loads on each piston.
Solution:
Fig. 12.32
V, = 71 (cl)Z x L = (0 . 74 )2 x 1.38 = 0.593 in'
= 1-4C (Cli)2 X L =74 (1.25)2 x 1.38 = 1.693 m3
, It
V6 = - (dL ) x L = 4 (2.14)2 x 1.38 = 4.93 m3
4
V1 -0.6 V, = 0.6 x 0.593 = 0.356 m3

T/2 -
V3
y = 0.6 V3 = 0.6 x 1.693= 1.016 m3
v4
=0.6 V, = 0.6 x 4.963 = 2.978 m3.

165
Now we have P,V, = P2V2 = P3V3 = P4V4 = P,V, = P6V6
.356
P, = P, x v = 12.7 x 0.6 = 7.62 bar, 4.45 bar
P3=PI x V = 123 x 10.016 =
0.356 V, 0.356
P4 = P, x 17 = 12.7 x 1.693 = 2.735 bar, P5 = P, x v = 1.27 x 2.978 - 1.518 bar.
Hypothetical indicated power in the H.P. cylinder

V2 x2xN
[1
: 2- (1 + log, rll)- P3] kW
rH 60 x 1000
5 x 0.593 x 2 x 89
= [12.7 x 0.6(1 x log, 1.666) -4.45] x 10 = 1241.92 kW.
60 x 1000
Hypothetical indicated power in the I.P. cylinder
P3 V4 X2XN
= [ (1+ log, r,)- /35] x kW.
r, 60 x 1000
105 x 1.693 x 2 x 89
= [4.45 x 0.6(1 x log, 1.666) - 1.518] x - 1263.09 kW.
60 x 1000
Hypothetical indicated power in the L.P. cylinder
P5 V6 X2XN
=[-(1 +loge /1) -Pb] x kW.
L 60 x 1000
5 x4.963 x 2 x 89
= [1.518 x 0.6(1 x log, 1.666) - 0.17] x 10 - 1775.21 kW.
60 x 1000
Total indicated power developed by the engine = 1241.92 + 1263.09 + 1775.21 = 4280.22
3020
Overall diagram factor - - 0.7055
4280.22
Indicated power in H.P. cylinder = 0.7055 x 1241.92 = 876.174 kW
Indicated power in I.P. cylinder = 0.7055 x 1263.09 = 891.11 kW
Indicated power in L.P. cylinder = 0.7055 x 1775.21 = 1252.41 kW
Ratio of maximum loads on each piston
All(P,- P3): Ai(P,- : A L(P, - Pb)
= (0.74)2 (12.7 -4.45) : (1.25)2 (4.45 - 1.518) : (2.14)2 (1.518 - 0.17)

= 4.5177 : 4.581: 6.1733 = 1 : 1.014: 1.366.
Steam Engine 305
27. A double acting compound engine is supplied with dry saturated steam at 15 bar. Con-
denser pressure is at 0.3 bar. The diagram factor referred to L.P. cylinder is 0.8. Each cylinder
has equal piston loads. The stroke of the cylinders is 40 cm. The diameter of H.P. and L.P.
cylinders is 25 cm and 35 cm respectively. The engine runs at 250 r.p.m. Assume expansion
in H.P. cylinder is complete, neglect clearance. Determine (a) the intermediate pressure,
(b) the indicated power of the engine, and (c) steam consumption in kg/hr.
Solution: As the initial loads on the piston are equal. Let P2 = Intermediate pressure
(P, - (P2 - PI,)AL (15 -132 )1C

--zt (0.25)2 = (P2 - 0.3)1
7(0.35)2
or, (15 - /32) x 0.0625 = (P2 - 0.3) x 0.1225 P 2 = 5.266 bar
V2
But P,V,= P2V2 =r = 2.87
Vi - P2 5.266
(0.35)2
Cylinder volume ratio = = 1.96
0.25
Number of expansions through the engine
or Total ratio of expansion, r = cylinder volume ratio x rli
r = 1.96 x 2.87 = 5.625
Theoretical M.E.P referred to L.P. cylinder
P, 15
= 7(1 x log, r) Pb = (1 x log, 5.625) - 0.3 = 6.9725 bar.
5.625
Actual m.e.p. = 0.8 x 6.9725 = 5.578 bar.
2Pni(act))x/.xA xN
(b) Indicated power - kW
60 x 1000
2 x 5.578 x x 0.4 x x (.35)2 x 250

178.89 kW.
4 x 60 x 1000
Volume of L.P. cylinder = E

74 x (.35)2 x 0.4 = 0.03848 in'
I, 0.03848
Cut-off volume in H.P. cylinder = V = = 0.00684 m3
r 5.625
Volume of steam admitted per hr = 0.00684 x 250 x 60 x 2 = 205.25 nri3

205.25 205.25
(c) Steam consumption = = = 1557.64 kg/hr.
V, 0.13177
EXERCISES

1. A steam engine works on
2. In a steam engine the connecting rod is connected to by
3. The value of diagram factor lies between and
4. The approximate value of back pressure is from to in a
non-condensing engine.
5. The back pressure in a condensing engine is always than the atmospheric
pressure.
6. The mean effective pressure is absolute pressure.
7. Missing quantity is due to and of steam in the cylinder.

8. Steam engines are generally acting.
9. The ratio of to is known as efficiency ratio.
10. Willans' law gives the relation between and
11. In a compound engine the diameter of low pressure cylinder is made than the
high pressure cylinder.
12. The inverse of the cut-off ratio is known as
13. As the cut-off is increased the thermal efficiency
14. By installing a condenser with the steam engine the indicated power
15. The specific steam consumption is usually expressed as
16. Compound engines range in capacity from to
17. Compound engines are used for
Answers
1. Modified Rankine cycle 2. crosshead, gudgeon pin 3. 0.6, 0.9
4. 0.14, 0.2 bar 5. less 6. not an
7. Leakage, condensation 8. double 9. thermal efficiency,
Rankine efficiency
10. steam consumption, I.P. 11. larger 12. ratio of expansion
13. decreases 14. increases 15. kg/kW-hr.
16. 40 to 3000 kW 17. marine service
1. What is the difference between mechanical and volumetric clearance?
2. State the assumptions made in drawing the hypothetical indicator diagram.
3. What do you understand by mean effective pressure?
4. Define clearly the term diagram factor?
5. How and why does a hypothetical diagram differ from an actual diagram?
6. Define saturation curve and missing quantity.
7. Write short notes on Willan's line.
8. What do you mean by a compound engine? Give reasons for compounding of steam
engines.
9. Explain the working of Receiver type compound engine.
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of compounding steam engine?
11. The diameter of a steam engine cylinder is 100 cm and of the piston rod is 12.5 cm. The
mean effective pressure on the cover end of the piston is 2.736 bar and on the crank end
is 2.873 bar. The stroke of the piston is 1.35 ►n. If the speed is 120 r.p.m, find the
indicated power developed. [Ans:1230.6 kW ]
12. Steam is supplied at 10 bar to a single cylinder double acting steam engine developing
indicated power of 185 kW at 120 r.p.m. The back pressure is 0.2 bar. Cut-off takes
place at 0.4 of the stroke. Taking the diagram factor as 0.85, calculate the cylinder
dimensions. Assume - = 2. [Ans: 35.9 cm, 71.8 cm ]

d
13. A steam engine develops 73.6 kW and uses 500 kg of steam per hour. The steam tem-
perature at the engine stop valve is 310°C, and the steam pressure is 14715 N/m2. The
exhaust and condensate temperatures are both 60°C. Determine the indicated
thermal efficiency of the engine. [Ans: 19% ]
14. Calculate the bore and stroke of a double acting simple steam engine running at
250 r.p.m. to develop 23.55 kW brake power. The steam supply pressure is 966.285
kN/m2 and exhausted at 110.362 kN/m2. Assume mechanical efficiency of 90%, dia-
gram factor of 0.78 and stroke bore ratio of 1.2. Cut-off takes place at 33% of the stroke
and clearance volume is 10% of stroke volume. [Ans: 19 cm, 22.8 cm]
Steam Engine 307
15. Find the volume of the cylinder of a double acting non-condensing engine to give
736 kW indicated power when the speed is 100 r.p.m. from the following data: Boiler
pressure = 10.26 bar pressure at the end of compression = 5.13 bar, ratio of
1
expansion = 3, diagram factor = 0.909, clearance ratio = — [Ans 0.39 m3 ]
9
16. The following data was obtained during a test on a simple double acting single cylinder
steam engine:
Indicated m.e.p = 245: 25 kN/m2
Load on brake = 1471.5 N
Spring balance reading = 49.05 N
Radius of brake wheel = 40 cm
Speed = 300 r.p.m.
Diameter of cylinder = 21 cm
Stroke of piston = 26 cm
Admission pressure of steam = 9.81 bar
Condenser pressure = 19.62 kN/m2
Steam consumption per hour = 216 kg
Calculate (a) mechanical efficiency, (b) brake thermal efficiency, and (c) specific steam
consumption. [Ans. 80.94%, 11.78%, 9.78 kg/kWhr]
17. A compound steam engine has the following particulars:
Condenser pressure = 1.5 bar
Diameter of H.P. cylinder = 40 cm
Diameter of L.P. cylinder = 75 cm
Common stroke =1m
Cut-off in H.P. cylinder = 0.55 stroke
Cut-off in L.P. cylinder = 0.35 stroke
Engine speed = 180 r.p.m.
Diagram factor = 0.65 for each cylinder
Assume hyperbolic expansion and neglect clearance.
Calculate, (a) pressure drop at release in H.P. cylinder, and (b) indicated power of
each cylinder.
[Ans(a)1.55 bar, (6)317.43 kW, 572.56 kW]
18. A double acting compound steam engine running at 150 r.p.m develops 0.45 MW. The
mean piston speed is 240 m/min and both the cylinders have the same piston stroke,
The steam supply pressure is 12.4 bar, condenser pressure is 0.2 bar, overall diagram
factor is 0.8 and the total number of expansions is 12. Assume that the L.P. cylinder
diameter is twice the cylinder diameter. Calculate (a) the common stroke, (b) bore of
each cylinder, and (c) cut-off in H.P. cylinder
[Ans: 0.8 m, 0.363 m, 0.726 m]
19. The following data refer to a triple expansion steam engine which develops 2950 kW
indicated power. Initial steam pressure is 16 bar, condenser pressure is 0.15 bar, cylin-
der volume ratios are 1 : 2.4 : 7.2, total ratio of expansion is 18, piston speed is
220 m/min, and overall diagram factor is 0.6. Assume hyperbolic expansion and
neglect clearance and compression. Initial load on each piston is equal. Determine
(a) cylinder diameter, (b) receiver pressure, and (c) cut-off in each cylinder.
[Ans. 84.6 cm, 131 cm, 227 cm, 1.562 bar, 0.4, 0.458, 0.57]
20. A compound steam engine is supplied with steam at 8 bar. The condenser pressure is
0.29 bar. The engine runs at 120 r.p.m. The mean piston speed is 150 m/minute. Cut-off
takes place at 0.4 of stroke in H.P. cylinder and 0.55 stroke in L.P. cylinder. If the
engine volume ratio is 3.5 and power developed by the engine is 359 kW. Calculate
(a) cylinder bores, (b) common stroke, (c) receiver pressure, and (d) ratio of maximum
loads. Take diagram factor as 0.8.
[Ans. (a) 0.93 m, 0.495 m (b) 0.625 m (c)1.67 bar (d)1.385]
THIRTEEN
Steam Nozzles
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A nozzle is a device of varied cross-sectional area in which the potential energy
of steam is converted into the kinetic energy. The increased velocity of steam
jet at the exit of the nozzle is due to the decrease in enthalpy of steam.
The nozzles are used in the following engineering applications:
(a) Steam and gas turbines
(b) Jet engines
(c) Rocket motors
(d) In flow measurement
(e) In injectors for pumping feed water into the boiler.
(f) In injectors for removing air from condensers.
(g) In water sprinklers.
13.2 TYPES OF STEAM NOZZLES

The following are the three main types of nozzles:
(a) Convergent nozzles (b) Divergent nozzle (c) Convergent-divergent nozzles.
Convergent Nozzle
When the cross-sectional area of the nozzle decreases continuously from
entrance to exit, it is called a convergent nozzle. It is shown in Fig. 13.1(a)
convergent nozzle is used when the back pressure is equal or more than the
critical pressure ratio. It is also used for non-compressible fluids.
Divergent Nozzle
When the cross-sectional area of the nozzle increases continuously from
entrance to exit, it is called a divergent nozzle as shown in Fig. 13.1(b). When
the back pressure is less than critical pressure divergent nozzle is used.
Convergent-divergent Nozzle
When the cross-sectional area of the nozzle first decreases from its entrance to
throat, and then increases from throat to exit, it is called a convergent-divergent
nozzle as shown in Fig. 13.1(c). When the back pressure is less than critical
pressure convergent divergent nozzle is used.
Exit Exit
Entry
Entry
(a) (b)
Exit
1 ...e—Throat
Entry 3
k- Convergent Divergent
part part
(c)
Fig. 13.1
13.3 FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH NOZZLES

The expansion df steam through a nozzle
is considered as adiabatic and as there is
no external work done during the flow of Entry Exit
steam, both the heat transfer and work ).‘
done are zero. Consider the nozzle
shown in Fig. 13.2.
Applying energy equation at
Sections 1 and 2 for a flow of 1 kg/s. Fig. 13.2
— VZ
=H—H
2 x 1000 2
where H, and 1/2 are the enthalpies at Sections 1 and 2 in kJ/kg. V, is the veloc-
ity of steam entering the nozzle at Section 1 and V2 is the velocity of steam at
exit from nozzle at Section 2 in m/s.
V22 = 2000(H, — H2) + 1/ V2 = 42000(Hi H2) +
As the velocity of steam entering the nozzle is very small, V, can be neglected.
V2 = \12000(Hi — H2) = 44.72-4(H, — /-12) m/s (13.1)
If frictional losses are taken into account then
V2 = 44.72-q(H, — H2)1,, m/s

Steam Nozzles 311
If the frictional loss in the nozzle is 20% then ri„ = 80%, where ri„ is the nozzle
efficiency.
For air or gases Eq. (13.1) can be written as
V2 = 44.72-g Cp (T1 — T2) x
13.4 MASS OF STEAM DISCHARGED THROUGH

A NOZZLE
The isentropic flow of steam through the nozzle may be represented by an equ-
tion.
Pv" = constant.
where n = 1.135 for saturated steam = 1.3 for superheated steam.
The above values are approximate as the value of n varies during expansion.
(a) The work done during expansion of steam through the nozzle being
1
(Pivi P2v2)
n— 1
where P, is the pressure of steam at entrance to nozzle
P2 is the pressure of steam at exit form nozzle
v1 is the volume occupied by 1 kg of steam at entrance to nozzle
v2 is the volume occupied by 1 kg of steam at exit from nozzle.
This work done is equal to the change of internal energy.
(b) The flow work done on the steam for driving the steam up to the nozzle
inlet from the boiler is P,v,.
(c) The displacement of the steam from the low pressure zone by an equal
volume discharged from the nozzle. This work amounts to P2v2
The network done for increasing the kinetic energy of steam,
1
W = Ply, + (Plvi— P2v2) — P2v2
n l
141 = (P1 v1 — P2v2)= H,— H2 (13.2)

n-1
The mass of steam discharged through a nozzle in kg/s through a cross-sectional
area A and at a pressure P2 may be written as
A V2
m= where V2 = Velocity of steam at exit form nozzle in m/s.
v2
v2 = Specific volume of steam at pressure P2 in m3/kg.
But, Pivi" = P2v27

PI P2) n
n .Vi = Vi(--
-7-
V2(=)" (13.3)
r2 P,
where v, = specific volume of steam at pressure Pi in m3/kg.

A V2 A
in = = - \12000(Ht — H2) (From Eq. (13.1))
V2 V2
m = A A12000 (Pivi —P2v2) (From Eq. (13.2))

v2 n 1
P2v2)
in = 11"\I 2000n 1314P
1—
2 —1 lv i
Putting the value of v2 from Eq. (13.3).
n -1
A Pla
in = , °\I 2000 nn— 1130)1{1 —(—
P2 ) ^
i
m =A 2000 n x Pl [(13 (P 211 (13.4)

n— 1 1 — p
i
13.5 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE

THROUGH NOZZLE
The nozzle is always designed for maximum discharge.
From Eq. 13.4 the rate of mass flow per unit area is given by
2 n+11
in nn
=1 2000 n x 151 (132f (P2) n.
A — 1 v, p p
The mass flow per unit area will be maximum at the throat because the throat
area is minimum.
It is seen from the above equation that the discharge through a nozzle is a
P2
function of — only, as the expansion index is fixed according to the steam
supplied to the nozzle.

Therefore, 71 is maximum when
2 n +I
n
132ln 11'21 ••
is minimum
CPI) .131)
Steam Nozzles 313
Pt
Differentiating with respect to (7) and equating to zero for maximum discharge
2 n+i
dP
dPi )[(-132
PI f T2) 1
Pi
= °
2 n+I
2 (P2f _n + l(P2) 2 (P2) n +1(11

= 0 or,
n n n Pi n Pi
I 2-n I_ 2-n n-I
nn_
2 n P2 n P2 n 2 P2 P2
or, x = Or, — (—
n n +1 (PI Pi n+1
n-I
P2 ( 2 j
(13.5)
13 1 +1
13.6 CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO
P2
This pressure ratio — is known as critical pressure ratio and depends upon the
Pi
value of index n.
P2
(a) For air n = 1.4 and = 0.528
(b) For wet steam n = 1.113 and P2

= 0.582
(c) For dry saturated steam n = 1.135 and —

153-= 0.578
(d) For superheated or supersaturated steam n = 1.3 and P2

— = 0.546
Pi
Dr. Zeuner's equation for calculating the value of index n is given by
n = 1.035 + 0.1 x where x = Initial dryness fraction of steam.
Critical Pressure
The pressure at which the area is minimum and discharge per unit area is maxi-
mum is known as critical pressure.
Physical significance of critical pressure ratio

Let us consider two vessels A and B as shown in Fig. 13.3. The vessel contains
steam at a high and steady pressure P1 . The pressure in the vessel B may be
a) Max. discharge
Critical
pressure
/I ratio
0 0.75 0.5 0.25
I
Pressure ratio
1
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.3
varied at will. The two vessels are connected by a convergent nozzle as shown
in Fig. 13.3 (a). Let the pressure P2 in vessel B be initially equal to Pi. It will be
observed that in this position, no flow takes place. Now P2 is gradually reduced.
This will cause the discharge through the nozzle to increase gradually as shown
by the curve in Fig. 13.3 (b). As the pressure P2 approaches the critical value the
discharge rate gradually approaches its maximum value. If P2 is now further
reduced below the critical value, the discharge rate will not increase but remains
equal the value at the critical pressure.
The critical pressure gives the velocity of steam at the throat equal to the
velocity of sound (sonic velocity). The flow of steam in the convergent portion
of the nozzle is subsonic. Thus to increase the velocity of steam above sonic
velocity (supersonic), by expanding steam below critical pressure, divergent
portion is necessary.
13.7 AREAS OF THROAT AND EXIT FOR

MAXIMUM DISCHARGE
(a) If the nozzle is convergent, then
throat will be the exit. The throat area
A2 can be calculated as follows.
Let Pi = Entrance pressure
P2 = Exit or throat pressure
t Hi
Enthalpy drop = H, — H2 kJ/kg
X H2
Velocity at throat,
0
V2 = 44.72-q(H1 — H2) m/s. a H3
tLI
Then mass flow, m = A2V2kg/s
X2 Vs2
(if the steam is wet at throat) (13.6) Entropy (t)
where A2 = throat area Fig. 13.4

Steam Nozzles 31i
Vs, = Specific volume of steam at pressure P2 from steam tables.

x2 = dryness fraction of steam at pressure P2.
If the steam is superheated at throat, in = A2V2kg/s.

Vsup
T,„p2)
where Vs u p =
2(
(b) If the nozzle is convergent-divergent, the exit area A3 can be calculated as

follows:
Enthalpy drop = Hi — H3 kJ/kg.
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44.724Enthalpy drop m/s
= 44.724(H1 —H3) m/s
A3 V3
Then, mass flow in = (13.7)
x31/5,
where Vs, = Specific volume at pressure P3
X3 = dryness fraction of steam at pressure P3
13.8 VALUES FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE

2 n+1
m = A # N12000 !jPi [r21 P2r1

n — 1 vi p
P2 2 "-I
we know
n+1
2
Putting the value of 11- in the above equation
P
2 ri
n+1
j)± [ 2 I" -I
nt,„a„ =A 'NI 2000 n 1 x ± 2 "
n J
vl n + 1 n+1
n+1 [
2 n+1
mmax = A '\I2000 n . x Pi x( 2 )" ( 2 r '- i

n I 1)1 ti + 1 ) lo + 1 ) —1
= A '\12000 n x x 2 2 —L
n-1 vi n+1 n +1 )
2 F4 2 -1
=A 2000 n x PI x i
n-1 v1 n +1 n+1
,,-,,
n P i ( 2 ' r n + 11
=A ..NI 2000 x x 1
n-1 v, n+1) L 2
Pt
=A °\I 2000 n x x 2 (n-1)
n-1 n+ 1 2
nil
Pt 2
mm = A 1000n x x ( (13.8)
v, n +1)
where P1 is the initial pressure of steam in kPa and v1 is the specific volume of
steam in m3/kg at the initial pressure.
13.9 SUPERSATURATED OR METASTABLE

FLOW THORUGH NOZZLE
The expansion of superheated steam Supersaturated
\ Saturation
from pressure P, to pressure Pb can be line field
Pt
represented by AB as shown in Fig. 13.5. A
A
The change of phase should start at pres-
sure P2 where the expansion line meets
the saturation line at point C. But 1'
condensation does not occur at point C,.
as the time available is very small (about
0.001s) due to high velocity of steam 0
passing through the nozzle. Thus this 111

phenomenon is delayed and the vapour
continues to expand in dry condition Entropy (0)
even beyond the point C. This is repre-
! mted by CC1 and the condensation is
;uppressed. The vapour between the
pressure P2 and P3 is said to be super- Fig. 13.5
saturated or supercooled and this
type of flow in nozzles is known as supersaturated or metastable flow of steam.
A limit to the supersaturated flow is fixed by Wilson line and the this line is
Steam Nozzles 317
the saturation line for all practical purposes. It is called supercooled flow
because at any pressure between P2 and P3, the temperature of the vapour is
always lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure.
The difference of ,this temperature is known as degree of undercooling. When
the expansion ,aches to C,, the condensation starts at constant enthalpy. This is
represented by C,D. DE represents the normal adiabatic expansion up to the exit
pressure.
13.10 EFFECTS OF SUPERSATURATION

The following are the effects of supersaturation in a nozzle.
(a) The temperature at which the supersaturation occurs will be less than the
saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure. Therefore, the den-
sity of supersaturated steam will be more than that of equilibrium condi-
tion which gives the increase in the mass of steam discharged.
(b) Supersaturation increases the specific volume and entropy of the steam.
(c) Supersaturation reduces the heat drop. Thus the exit velocity of steam is
reduced.
(d) Supersaturation increases the dryness fraction of the steam.
13.11 EFFECT OF FRICTION IN A NOZZLE
Most of the friction occurs in the 7—Saturation

diverging part of a convergent- line
divergent nozzle as the length of
the converging part is very small.
The effect of friction is to reduce
the available enthalpy drop by
Enthalpy.( H )
about 10 to 15 per cent. The

velocity of steam will be then
V2 = 44.724K(H, I/2) where K
is the coefficient which allows for
friction loss. It is also known as
nozzle efficiency (TO Entropy (1)
. V2 = 44.721/(H1 — H2)11n
(13.9) Fig. 13.6
The kinetic energy lost in friction is transformed into heat which makes the
steam dry or superheated. Therefore-, it effects the final condition of steam issu-
ing from the nozzle. The effect is represented on the H —4) diagram as shown in
Fig. 13.6. Let the point A represent the initial condition of steam. The steam
expands from pressure P, to P2. AB is the total enthalpy drop. Enthalpy drop due
to friction is BC.
Actual enthalpy drop AC

K=
Isentropic enthalpy drop AB
If the value of K is known then AC can be obtained from the above relation. The
line CD is drawn horizontally to meet P2 pressure line at D because the expan-
sion must end on the same pressure line P2. Point D represents the final condi-
tion of steam. The value of dryness fraction at D is greater than that at point B.
Therefore, friction partially dries the steam.
Let the steam be initially superheated and be represented by the point E.
The steam is expanded up to pressure P2 and is represented by point F.
Actual enthalpy drop is EG. Here the effect of friction is to further superheat the
steam. Due tc, friction, the velocity of steam is reduced but the dryness fraction
or degree of superheat is increased.
13.12 FLOW OF GASES OR VAPOURS WITH VERY

SMALL PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
When the pressure difference (P,—P2) is very small it is very difficult to calcu-
late (H2 —H,) or to determine the temperature difference (T2 —T,). In such cases
the following equation may be used.
VZ — V, = 2v (Pi — P2) (13.10)
where P1 and P2 = Pressure in N/m2

VI and V2 = Velocity in m/s
VI + V2
v = mean value of the volumes — in m'
m /kg.
2
13.13 UNDEREXPANSION AND

OVER-EXPANSION
There should be different nozzles for different ratios of expansion. If a particu-
lar nozzle is used for a ratio of expansion for which it is not designed, there
would be underexpansion or over-expansion depending upon the ratio of
expansion. The exit section of a nozzle having an area A for the designed pres-
sure in the discharge region, may be either larger or smaller for some different
pressure in the discharge region. If the area is more over-expansion takes place
i.e. the pressure of the steam at the exit is lower than that in the discharge
region. If the area is less, underexpansion takes place, i.e. the pressure of the
steam at the exit is more than that in the discharge region. Both result in irre-
versibility and loss of efficiency of the nozzle but the degree of irreversibility
and loss of efficiency are more for a certain degree of over-expansion than for
the same degree of underexpansion.
Steam Nozzles 319
13.14 LENGTH OF THE NOZZLE

In order to reduce friction the length of the convergent portion of the nozzle
should be short and the length is about 6- mm. In the divergent portion, due to
inertia, high velocity steam has a tendency to flow along the axis in the form of
a circular jet of sectional area equal to throat area. If the divergence is rapid,
steam will not occupy the increased area provided. Therefore the steam may
pass out through the divergent point without drop of pressure. To avoid this,
divergent portion should have sufficient length so that the steam has enough
time to occupy the full cross-sectional area provided, thus resulting in the
desired drop of pressure and increase in kinetic energy. This necessiates the
gradual increase in area. In practice the length of the nozzle from throat to exit is
such that the included cone angle is about 10°.
13.15 STEAM INJECTOR

Steam injector utilises the kinetic energy of steam jet to increase the pressure
and velocity of a quantity of water. Steam injectors are used for forcing the
water into boilers under pressure. Figure 13.7 shows a steam injector.
Boiler Water level
Water supply
----
D Atmospheric pressure t
H2
Ht
j
A E To boiler
Steam
Steam Mixing
nozzle cone Diffuser
Overflow
Fig. 13.7 A steam injector

Steam from the boiler is supplied to the convergent nozzle A and comes out
with high velocity into the mixing cone. Steam is condensed by the cold water
flowing from the feed water tank D. This tank may be above or below the level
of the injector. The mixture of water and condensate has a high velocity at B.
The mixture then enters the delivery pipe at C through a diverging cone or dif-
fuser in which the kinetic energy is reduced and converted into pressure energy.
This pressure energy is sufficient to overcome boiler pressure and to lift the
water through a height H2 and the water enters the boiler. The pressure of water
on leaving the delivery pipe must be about 25 per cent higher than the boiler
pressure in order to overcome all resistances. The gap between the mixing cone
and diverging cone is provided with an outlet through which any excess water
may over flow during the starting of the injector. The pressure in the gap is
nearly atmospheric.
Mass of Water Injected

Let, M„, = Mass of water entering the mixing cone in kg/kg of steam.
V,„ = Velocity of water entering the mixing cone in m/s.
V5 = Velocity of steam leaving the nozzle at A in m/s.
V„, = Velocity of mixture leaving nozzle at B in m/s.
According to the principle of conservation of momentum,
Momentum of steam entering + Momentum of water entering = Momentum of
mixture leaving
Considering one kilogram of steam.
1 x V5 + = (1 + M„,)V„, or, V5 + M„,V,„ = (1 + M„,)V„,
V, — Vn,
or, V5 — V„, = M,,(V„, — V,,), M„, — kg (13.11)
Vm V ,,,
If the water level in the feed tank is below the level of the injector, then
VS — M,„V„, = (1 + MOV„, or, V5 — V„, = M„,(V„, + V,„)
VS — Vin
M, — kg. (13.12)
v V,,, + V,„
Velocity of Steam Leaving the Nozzle

The velocity of steam leaving the nozzle (V5) is found .out by assuming that the
steam expands isentropically (frictionless adiabatic) from the initial condition to
the back pressure P2 by using the relation
V5 = 44.72"fEnthalpy drop
The velocity of water entering the mixing cone is given by the equation,
V,„ = '/2g
Velocity of Mixture Leaving the Nozzle At B

Let, P„, = Pressure of the mixture leaving the nozzle at B in kPa.
w = Density of the mixture at B in kg/m3.
Due to the gap between nozzles B and C, the pressure P,, of the mixture may be
aken as atmospheric, say 101.33 kPa, and the density of the mixture as
)95 kg/m3.
Steam Nozzles 321
Total energy kJ per kilogram of water at B = P„, +

w 2000
This energy must be sufficient to lift the water through a height H, meters at the
delivery end and 'inject it into the boiler. The final pressure on leaving at C must
be somewhat greater than the height H2 plus the boiler pressure. If V is the
velocity in the delivery pipe in m/s.
p V2 g 112
Total energy of 1 kg of water = + +
iv 1000 2000
where P is the absolute pressure of steam in the boiler in kPa.
P„, p gH2 V 2
Then, + + +
W 2000 w 1000 2000
v-
The water finally comes to rest in the boiler and the kinetic energy, —
20(X) is equal
to the pressure energy due to addition of, say 9.3 m to the lift H2, which gives
V = 13.5 m/s.
101.33 P gH2 g
+ = + + x 9.3
2000 995 995 1000 1000
(P — 101.33) + g H2 g ]
V,„ = "\12000 x93 (13.12(a))
_ 955 1000 1000
Nozzle Areas
If M kg of water per second is actually delivered and M, kg of condensed steam
per second,
1)
Then, M + M, =111(1 + m —
,
Let, Ai, = Area of throat at B in cm2
d,, = Diameter of throat at B in cm.
) Ab Vm 1 1
Then, M(1 +-1- = where V = =
114 . 104 x V ' iv 995
11 + A,, x 4
Ab = 104M \ " clh =
995 V TE
Let A„ = Area of throat at A in cm2.

d„ = Diameter of throat at A in cm.
v, = Specific volume of wet steam after expansion in the nozzle A in m3/kg
Ad Vs M 104M x v5
Then, Ms = — , —
104v5 M„, Mw x V,
Heat Balance Per kg of Steam

Let, Hs = Total heat of 1 kg steam entering the injector
t,„ = Temperature of water in feed tank in °C.
h, = Sensible heat per kilogram of water supplied to the injector corre-
sponding to temperature tw.
h„, = Sensible heat per kilogram of water leaving the mixing cone at B
corresponding to temperature t„, in °C.
t„, = Temperature of water leaving the mixing cone at B in °C.
Then,
Heat supplied in steam + Heat supplied in water ± kinetic energy of water =
Heat in mixture at B + kinetic energy of mixture at B.
Mw Vi2; + 1) 2
1 X H5 + M„h„± (M,+1)h„,+ (13.13)
2000 = 2000
From this equation the value of temperature of mixture may be determined by

taking h„, equal to the temperature of mixture multiplied by the specific heat of
water, i.e. 4.187 kJ/kg K.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Steam at a pressure of 10 bar and 210°C is supplied to a convergent divergent nozzle with a
throat area of 15 cm2. The exit is below critical pressure. Find the coefficient of discharge, if
flow is 7200 kg of steam per hour. [A.M.I.E.76]
Solution: From steam table at 10 bar and 210°C, v = 0.2074 m3/kg.
As steam is initially superheated n = 1.3
Now
n +1 1.3+1
am
" ox 1.3x 10x102 2
in = A ..N11000 n x P1 x 2 " 1 — 15 x 10-4 x la I — 2.1977.
VI (n+1) 0.2074 1.3+1
Actual discharge 7200
Co-efficient of discharge = = 0.91
Theoretical discharge — 2.1977 x 3600
2. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 8 bar enters a convergent divergent nozzle and leaves
it at a pressure of 1.5 bar. If the flow is isentropic and if the corresponding expansion index is
1.133, find the ratio of cross-sectional area at exit and throat for maximum discharge.
[A.M.I.E.74]
1.133
41
Solution: Throat pressure P2 = P,( = 8( )II" I — 4.6227 bar.
n 1.133 + 1
At 8 bar, from steam tables 4k,= 6.6628 ki/kg K, H = 2769.1 kl/14
Steam Nozzles 323
At 4.6227 bar, V1 = 0.40366 m3/kg, h = 627.542 kJ/kg

L = 2117.63 kJ/kg, 4)„. 1.8308 kJ/kg K, = 6.8475 kJ/kg K.
At 1.5 bar, V, = 1.1593 m3/kg, h = 467.11 kJ/kg L = 2226.5 kJ/kg, 4„. = 1.4336,
= 7.2233 kJ/kg K.
For throat, entropy before expansion = entropy after expansion
4)1 = 4)2
(1)„ =4)„ , +x2(4),2 -4)„.), 6.6628 = 1.8308 +x2(6.8475 -1.8308)
x2 = 0.963
H2 = h2 +x2L2 = 627.542 + 0.963 x 2117.63 = 2666.8197 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy drop form entry to throat = Hi - H2
Velocity at throat V2 = 44.724111 -H2 = 44.7242769.1 -2666.8197 = 452.27 m/s.
A2V2 M X V2 M X X2 X V32
//I = A2 =
V2 V2 V2
in x 0.963 x 0.40366
A2 = = 0.0008594 m
452.27
For exit, 4), =4)3, 4)„, =4)„,+x3(4)„ -k.,)
6.6628 = 1.4336 + x,(7.2233 -1.4336), x3 = 0.903

.H,= h 3 + x 3L3 = 467.11+ 0.903 x 2226.5 = 2477.64 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy drop from entrance to exit = Hi - 113
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44.724H, -1/3 = 44.7242769.1 -2477.64 = 763.468 m/s.
A3 V3 A3V3
Now, in = =
V3 X3 X V32
M X X3 X Vs /77 X 0.903.x 1.1593

- 0.001371 m
...113= V3 - 763.468
Area at exit A3 0.001371 m
= = - 1.595
Area at throat A2 0.0008594 m
3. In using a venturimeter for measuring the discharge from fan the following particulars
were noted.
At inlet, pressure = 1.12 bar
At throat, pressure = 1 bar
Inlet area = 0.1 m2
Throat area = 0.025 m2
Temperature at inlet = 15°C
Find the theoretical discharge of air in kg/s assuming that Pv = 287 T, Pv" = Constant
[London Univ.]
Solution: Specific volume, v, at the inlet is given by
RT 287(273+ 15)
v, = = - 0.738 m3/k g.
' Pi 1.12 x 105
Specific volume, v2 at the throat is given by,
1.4
p I4 = p 14 V2 (PIT' (1.12X 105
iv 2v , — 1,0843.
VI P2 1 x 105
v2 = 1.0843 v, = 1.0843 x 0.738
v2 = 0.8406 m3/kg.
For continuity of flow, we have
A1 V, A2V2 A, v2
W= = or, V2 = —
, X =X V,
1,2 1.12 VI
0.1
or, V2 = ( ) X 1.0843 x V1 = 4.34 V,
0.025
or, If; = 18.835 V.

From Eq. (3.10) we have
If; — V,2 = 2v (P, —P2)
V1+ V2 0.738 +0.8406
Mean specific volume v = — — 0.7893 m3/kg.
2 2
VZ — V,2 = 2v(P, — P2)
18.835 — V,2 = 2 x 0.7893(1.12 — 1) x 105
V,2(18.835 —1) = 2x 0.7893 x 0.12x 105

, 2 x 0.7893 x 0.12 x 105
= — 1062.136
17.835
.*. V, = 32.59 inis
A l V1
Theoretical discharge, m=
0.1 x 32.59
m — 4.416 kg/s.
= 0.738
4. Air at a pressure of 20 bar and at a temperature of 18°C is supplied to a convergent diver-
gent nozzle having a throat diameter of 1,25 cm and discharging to atmosphere. The adiabatic
index for air is 1.4 and the characteristic constant is 287. Find the weight of air discharged per
minute.
Solution: We known for air, C,, = 0.998.
Given, for air n = 1.4
P2 = ( 2 )"-1
P, +1 )
n-I n n-I
X
2
Again, T
r2 = (P.2i) = )"
T, — (P, ) ^ ( n + 1 n+1'
2
..T2=-
F1xT1-1.4 +1x(273+18)=242.5 K.
P,
For air = 0.528 .•. P2 = 0.528 x 20 = 10.56 bar,
P,
Steam Nozzles 325
R T2
Specific volume at the throat v2 = p2
287 x 242.5
= 0.0659 m3/kg.
2 10.56 x 1'05
Velocity at the throat is given by
V2 = 44.724Cp(T, — T2) =44.7240.998(291 — 242.5) = 311.127 m/s.
Amount of air discharged per min
A2V2x 60 = 0.7854 x(0.0125)2 x 311.127 x 60
m=
v2 0.0659
m = 34.76 kg/min.
5. An impulse turbine is to develop 180 kW with probable steam consumption of 10 kg per
kW-hour is supplied with dry saturated steam at 10 bar. Find the number of nozzles each of
which is 5 mm diameter at the throat and calculate the exact diameters at the throat and exit of
the nozzles. The condenser pressure is 0.15 bar. Neglect friction and n as 1.135.
Solution: Let points 1, 2 and 3 represent the conditions at entrance, throat and exit of the
nozzle.
n 1 135
P2 = ( 2 '7:1 2 '13"
= =0.578
P, n +1 1.135+1
...Throat pressure, P,= 0.578 x P, = 0.578 x 10 = 5.78 bar.
From (H —4)) chart enthalpy drop from entrance to throat = H, — H2 = 122 kJ/kg.
Dryness fraction of steam at throat, from (H —4) chart, x2 = 0.957
..Velocity at throat, V2 = 44.724H, — H2 = 44.72 122 = 494 m/s.
From steam tables at pressure 5.78 bar, v5, = 0.327 m3/kg
Specific volume at throat, V2 = X2 x V.,2 = 0.957 x 0.327 = 0.3129 m3/kg.
A2 V2 = (.5)2 x 494
Now, m = — 0.031 kg/s.
v2 104 x0.3129
180x 10
Steam consumption per second — 3600 = 0.5 kg/s.
0.5
Number of nozzles required — 0.031 = 16.12, say 17
16.12
Exact diameter at throat, d2 = 5 = 4.868 mm.
17
For exit enthalpy drop from entrance to exit = H, — H3
From H —4) chart, H, - H3 = 655 kJ/kg, and dryness fraction of steam at exit, x, = 0.85
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44.724H, — H3 = 44.72 655 = 1145 m/s.
From steam tables at 0.15 bar, v3 = 10.022 m3/kg.

0.5
Mass of steam per nozzle, m = — = 0.0294 kg/s.
17
A3 V3 m X V3 In X X3 X v,, 0.0294 x 0.85 x 10.022 x
rn = or, A3 = — 2.188 cm2 .
V3 V3 V3 1145
2.188 x 4
Diameter at exit, d,= = 1.67 cm = 16.7 mm.
6. Steam expands isentropically form the state of 8 bars, 250°C to 1.5 bars.in a convergent
divergent nozzle. The steam flow rate is 0.75 kg/sec. Find (i) the velocity of steam at exit
from the nozzle and (ii) the exit area of the nozzle. Neglect the inlet velocity of steam.
[A.M.I.E. 93]
Solution: From H - (1) chart, H1 = 2950.5 kJ/kg, H2 = 2623 kJ/kg, v2 = 1.15 m3/kg.
Velocity of steam at exit from the nozzle.
V2 = 44.724H, - H2 = 44.72J2950.5 - 2623 = 809.3 m/s.
A2 V2 m X V2 0.75 x 1.15
(i) m = or,, A 2 = v = 0.001065 m2= 10.65 cm .
V2 2 809.3
7. Dry saturated steam at 11 bar flows through a convergent nozzle of throat area 0.6 cm2.
The pressure at the throat is 6 bar. Determine the velocity at exit and the discharge per sec-
ond, when (a) the flow is isentropic and in thermal equilibrium and (b) the flow is supersatu-
rated. Neglect the inlet velocity to the nozzle and friction. Comment on the discharge.
Solution: Frdm steam tables, at pressure 11 bar.
vs = 0.17753 m3/kg, H, = 2781.7 kJ/kg, (1)„. = 2.1792, 0, = 6.5536.
At pressure 6 bar, vs, = 0.3157 m3/kg, h2 = 670.56 kJ/kg
L 2 = 2086.3 kJ/kg, 4.„.,= 1.9312, 41,, = 6.7600.

(a) As the expansion is isentropic
Entropy at entrance = entropy at throat
4)1= 02
4),,=4),„,+x2(4)„ -4)..)
Ci -4)w, 6.5536 - 1.9312

x = - 0.969.
2 - 4)„.2 6.7600 -1.9312
H2 = /12 + X2L2 = 670.56 + 0.969 x 2086.3 = 2692.18 kJ/kg.
v2 = x2 x = 0.969 x 0.3157 = 0.3059 m3/kg.
Velocity at exit,V2 = 44.72qH, - H2 = 44.7242781.7 - 2692.18 = 423.118 m/s.
A2V2 0.6a 423.118

Discharge, = - 0.083 kg/s.
v2 10x 0.3059
Assuming supersaturated flow according to PI," = const. the exit velocity.
V2 = [2000 n x P,v 1 '2

n -1 I ' - PD1 71 i
1 .3
V2 = [2000X1.3 1 X11 x 102 x 0.1775 1
V2 = 470.8 m/s.
Steam Nozzles 327
Again, P l y," = P21' 3
= (1:415 x V I 11-
= (" " x 0.1775 = 0.2829 m2/kg.
v2
12
A2 X V2 0.6 x 470.8
Discharge, m — = 0.0998 kg/s.
v2 104 x 0.2829
0.0998 — 0.083
% increase in discharge = x 100 = 20.24%.
0.083
8. Steam enters a group of convergent divergent
nozzles at 21 bar and 270°C, the discharge
pressure being 0,07 bar. The expansion is in
equilibrium throughout and the loss of friction
in the converging portion of the nozzle is negli-
gible, but the loss by friction in the divergent t
section of the nozzle is equivalent to 10 per cent
of the enthalpy drop available in that section.
Calculate the throat and exit areas to discharge 0
14 kg/s of steam. Also sketch a total heat- 0
entropy chart and show on it various stages of
the expansion.
[A.M.I.E. 1982 ]
Solution: The steam is initially superheated
P2 Entropy (Q>)
because at 21 bar T1 = 214.9°C. = 0.546
/),= 0.546 x 21 = 11.47 bar.
Enthalpy drop from throat to exit = 770 kJ/kg Fig. 13.8
(from H — 4 chart)
The actual enthalpy drop from throat to exit is (100-10)%, i.e. 90% of the isentropic enthalpy
drop.
Actual enthalpy drop in the divergent section considering friction = 0.9 x 770 = 693 kJ/kg.
Temperature of steam at throat 7'3 = 194°C (from H — I) chart). The steam is superheated
because at 11.47 bar, T5 = 185.95 °C and vs2 = 0.17 m3/kg.
susp 194 + 273

,
Specific volume at throat, v2 = vs x = 0.17 x = 0.173 m3/kg.
2 T 185.95 + 273
Velocity at throat V2 = 44.724H, — H2 = 44.724T40(from H — ci) chart) = 529 m/s.

Here m = 14 kg/s,
A2 V2 A2 X 529
cm = or, 14 —
v2 0.173
.'. The area at throat, A2 = 0.4578 x 10-2m2 = 45.78 cm2.
For exit, actual enthalpy drop = HI — H3 = 833 kJ/kg and dryness fraction x3 = 0.817
At 0.07 bar vs, = 20.53 m3/kg.
Specific volume at exit, v3 = x, x v,3 = 0.817 X 20.53 = 16.773 m3/kg
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44.724H, — H3 = 44.72- 833 = 1291 m/s

A3V3 A3 x1291
Again, in = or, = 14
16.773
14 x 16.773
The area of nozzle at exit, A3 = - 0.1819 m2= 1819 cm2.
1291
9. Dry saturated steam at 25 bar is allowed to discharge through along convergent, nozzle into
the atmosphere at 15 bar. Assuming frictionless adiabatic flow find the dryness of the steam
at discharge and find the mass of steam which should be discharged per second, if the exit
diameter of the nozzle is 0.5 cm.
If the mass actually discharged be 94% of this calculated weight, estimate the percentage
of "heat drop" which is wasted in friction.
Solution: At P1 = 25 bar, H1 = 2803.1 kJ/kg, Osi = 6.2575 kJ/kg K, P2 = 15 bar, /12 = 844.89
kJ/kg, L2 = 1947.3 kJ/kg, VtZ = 0.13177 m3/kg, = 2.3150 kJ/kg K, = 6.4448
As the flow is frictionless adiabatic, the dryness fraction x2 at the end of expansion, is
given by,
91= 02 or, 4, = 9„2 +x2(912 9w2)
or, 6.2575 = 2.3150 + x2(6.4448 - 2.3150)
x, = 0.9546
Total heat at the end of expansion, H2 = h2 + X2L2
H2 = 844.89 + 0.9546 x 1947.3 = 2703.782 kJ/kg.
Isentropic heat drop, H,- H2 = 2803.1 - 2703.782 = 99.317 kJ/kg.
Velocity at the end'of expansion V2 = 44.724H, - H2
V2 = 44.72499.317 = 445.67 m/s.
A2V2
Mass of steam discharged, m=
V2
= 0.7854 x (.0005)2 x 445.67
M = 0.069 kg/s
0.9546 x 0.13177
305°C Actual mass discharged
Lc) Again, = 0.94
4., 25 bar
2
All.
Theoretical mass discharged
= 0.94 x 0.94 [. mor\a-

H]
IL
ell
1 AH -
or, = 1 - 0.8836 or,
AH AH
= 0.1164 = 11.64% wasted in friction.

10. Steam leaves the drum of a water tube boiler
and enters the superheater at 25 bar, 0.98 dry. In
passing through the superheater coils the pres-
Entropy (0) sure falls by 3 bar and the temperature rises to
305°C. The steam is then expanded through
nozzles to the dry state at 6 bar. Determine per
kg of steam, the change of internal energy in the
Fig. 13.9 superheater and the change of entropy in the
Steam Nozzles 329
nozzles. Also calculate the outlet nozzle area required for a flow of 2.5 kg/s.
Solution:
At P, = 25 bar hi = 962.11 kJ/kg, L1 = 1841.00 kJ/kg v1 = 0.07998 m3/kg, x, = 0.98.
P2 = 22 bar H2 = 2801.3 kJ/kg, 4)1, = 6.3056 kJ/kg K Ts, = 217.29°C,
= 0.09073 m3/kg, Cr = 2.1 kJ/kg K.
P3 = 6 bar H3 = 2756.8 kJ/kg, 0,= 6.7600 kJ/kg K, = 1.9912 kJ/kg K, v, = 0.3157
m3/kg
11,„ p2 = H2 + Cp(Tsup, - Ts,) = 2801.3 + 2.1(305 - 217.29) = 2985.49 kJ/kg.
,„p, 305 + 273
Ow, = C2 + clog, 7 = 6.3056 + 2.1 lo4 - 6.6512 kJ/kg K.
217.29 + 273
Internal energy at condition (1) is given by
E, = h,+
=962.11+0.98x 1841-25x 100x0.98x0.07998

= 2570.339 kJ/kg.
Specific volume of steam at condition (2) is given by
305 + 273
v,, = x v1, x 0.09073
p2 = 217.29 + 273
578
- x 0.09073 = 0.10696 m3/kg.
490.29
Internal energy at point (2)
E2 = P2 X = 2985.49 - 22 x 100 x 0.10696 = 2750.178 kJ/kg.
Change of internal energy in the superheater
E2 - E, = 2750.178 - 2570.339 = 179.839 kJ/kg
Change of entropy in the nozzles
413 -4:1),„ p2 = 6.7600 -6.6512 = 0.1088 kJ/kg K.
Velocity at exit is given by V2 = 44.724H,„p,- H3
V2 = 44.7242985.49 - 2756.8 = 676.278 m/s.
A31/3 m x v,
Again m = or, A3 -
V3 V3
2.5 x 0.3157
A3 4 = 11.67 cm2.
- 676.278 x 10
11. A convergent divergent nozzle is supplied with dry saturated steam at 10 bar. The diver-
gent portion of the nozzle is 5 cm long and the throat diameter is 6 mm. Calculate the semi-
cone angle of the divergent part of the nozzle so that the steam leaves the nozzle at 0.5 bar.
Neglect friction.
Solution: Let suffix 1,2,3, represent the conditions at entrance, throat and exit of the nozzle.
As the steam supplied is dry saturated
P2
= 0.578, P2= 0.578 x 10 = 5.78 bar.
From H -11) chart,

H, = 2790 kJ/kg, H2 = 2710 kJ/kg and x2 = 0.97.
Velocity at throat, V2 = 44.724H, -H2 = 44.7242790 - 2710 = 400 m/s.

From steam table at 5.78 bar v,2 = 0.3264 m3/kg
Specific volume at throat v2 = x2 x v,Z = 0.97 x 0.3264 = 0.3166 m2/kg
A2 V2 0.7854 x (.6)2 x 400

Now, m = = - 0.0357 kg/s.
v2 104 x 0.3166
For exit, from H - chart H3 = 2300 kJ/kg, x3 = 0.85
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44.724H, - H3 = 44.72 490 = 989.92 m/s.
From steam table at 0,5 bar v,3 = 3.239 m3/kg.
Specific volume at exit v3 = x, x v, = 0,85 x 3.239 = 2.753 m3/kg.

A3V3 g1XV3
Again in = or, A3 = v
v3 3
n 2 M X V3 47/1 X v,
or, d =- or, d23
4 3 V3 V3 X Tc
4 x 0.0357 x 21.753
d32 - .. d3 = 0.0112 m= 1.12 cm.
989.92 x it
(13-12)
The semicone angle tam = 2
1.12 - .6
tang - 2 x 5 = 0.052
...The semicone angle, a = 2°.58'36".

12. 40 kg of steam per minute is discharged from a convergent divergent nozzle. The pressure
and temperature of the steam supplied to the nozzle is 9.9 bar and 220°C respectively. Deter-
mine the velocity of the steam at the throat, the throat area and the undercooling in degrees at
the throat. The flow is supersaturated.
Solution: At P, = 9.9 bar, T1 = 220°C, 2777.7 kJ/kg, T, = 179.47°C. The steam is
superheated at entrance to the nozzle.
= 2777.7 + 2.1(220 - 179.47) = 2862.81 kJ/kg.
Tsup, (220 + 273)

v, = vs„P = x vs = x 0.1963
(179.47 + 273)
v, = 0.21388 m3/kg
P2
Again, p
-- = 0.546 P2 = 0.546 x P,= 0.546 x 9.9 = 5.4 bar.
T2 = 160°C from chart.

Specific volume at the throat is given by,
Steam Nozzles 331
(P, ;; 9.9)15
v2 = v, x T, = 0.21388 -5---.
4 = 0.3409 m3/kg.
.
In case of supersaturated flow, velocity should not be determined from the drop of heat. It is
to be d'3termined with the formula given below:
= [2000 x x P,v,{ 1 _( 1 2
17, 1I
03
1.3
= [2000 x -x 9.9 x 100 x 0.213841 (515
03 9.9
= 489.43 m/s.
x v2
The throat area is given by, A, =
V2
40 x 0.3409 x 104
A, = 4.64 cm 2
60 x 489.43
Temperature at the throat is given by,
0.1
T, = T, x(1-32) ' = 493(0.546)" = 428.74 K.

P,
T = 155.74°C.
Degree of undercooling = 158 - 155.74 = 2.26 °C.
13. Dry saturated steam with an inital pressure of 11 bar is expanded in a group of convergent
divergent nozzles at the rate of 5 kg/s. The back pressure is 1.5 bar. The nozzle efficiency is
90% and approximate throat section of each nozzle is estimated to be 1 cm2. Design the suit-
able number of nozzles and exact throat and exit areas. Take the index of expansion as 1.119.
[A.M.I.E.1986]
1'
Solution: Throat pressure, P,= P, x (
n+1
1.119
2 ji.n9_.
P2= 114 = 6.4 bar.
1.119 + 1
From (H - (1)) chart
At 11 bar H,= 2781.7 kJ/kg
At 6.4 bar H2 = 2675.00 kJ/kg, = 0,2970 m3/kg, x2 = 0.96
At 1.5 bar H3 = 2445 kJ/kg, x3 = 0.885, v,3 = 1,1593 m3/kg.

Velocity at throat V, = 44.72-4(Hi - F12)
V2 = 44.724(2781.7 - 2675) x .9 = 438.23 m/s.
A.21/2 1 x lex 438.23

in = = - 0.153 kg/s.
0.2970 x 0.96
5
. Number of nozzles = = 32.67 a 33 nozzles.
0.153
A2 V2 5 A2 X 10-4x438.23
Now, m = or,
v2 33 = 0.2970 x 0.96
.% A2 = 0.985 cm2.
Velocity at exit V3 = 44.724(H, - H3)1,
V3 = 44.724(2781.7 -2445) x 0.9 = 778.47 m/s.
A3V3 m x v,
Now, m = or, A, =
v, v3
m xx, x 5 x 0.885 x 1.1593 x 10-4
A, - -1.996 cm2.
V3 778.47 x 33
14. Assuming frictionless adiabatic flow through a convergent divergent nozzle, show that
the velocity of steam at throat for maximum discharge is given by
V, = -\12000 1 Ply, m/s.

n+
where n = Index of expansion
P1 = Initial pressure of steam in kPa.
v, = Specific volume of steam in m3/kg.
Solution: For frictionless adiabatic flow, neglecting initial velocity of steam, and considering
1 kg of steam, the velocity of steam at throat V2 is given by
=111- H2 or, 42000(H, - H2)

2000 V2 ‘=.
Considering Pv"= constant, the above expression V2 may be written as
V2 = "\12000 n (Ply, - P2v2) = 2000 — n P, v, 1- P

P2v2
n 1 n -1
Bu.tn = (P
2„,„,- j"
v,
'l
.% V2 = °\ l 2000 .1 -PiVil (PIn-i
n -1 '— Pi
i
,,-,
P2
For maximum discharge, — = (
P, n + 1)
V2 = '\12000 n (2 lx";;
n- 1 1- n +1
n -1
V2 = ..\12000 - = •\12000 Piv x =\12000 n P v tn/s
n-1 n +1 n-1 I n +1 • n +1 I
Steam Nozz:es 333
15. Dry saturated steam is expanded in a nozzle from pressure 12 bar to a pressure 5 bar. Find
(a) the degree of undercooling, and (b) the degree of supersaturation. Assuming the expan-
sion is supersaturated and -; = constant
(DT
Solution: At 12 bar saturation temperature T3 = 187.99°C.
T, = Ts, = 187.99+ 273 = 460.99 K
Let Ti be the temperature at which supersaturation occurs. Using the relation.

3
5
P1 P2
13 = 13 = T1(11
1 " = 460 99( ) 376.66 K = 103.66°C
12
(TO' (TI) 3
At pressure 5 bar, the saturation temperature 77,,= 151.86°C.
(a) Degree of undercooling = 151.86-103.66 = 48.2°C.

(b) Saturation pressure corresponding to 103.66°C
P2' = 1.16 bar.
P 5
Degree of supersaturation = P, = T = 4.31.
16
16.5 kg/s of steam at 16 bar and 250°C is supplied to a group of six nozzles. The exit pressure
of steam is 3.5 bar. Calculate.
(a) the dimensions of the nozzles which is of rectangular cross section with aspect ratio of
3 : 1. Neglect friction and take the expansion to be metastable.
(b) degree of undercooling and supersaturation.
(c) loss in available heat drop due to irreversibility
(d) increase in entropy
(e) ratio of mass flow rate with metastable expansion to the thermal expansion.
Solution: (a) In case of supersaturated
steam, the index of expansion is taken as
= 1.3.
T
T J,
16 bar and 250°C v, = vsup = TTs x ,
250 °C
Hi
523
= x .1238 = 0.1364 m3/kg.
474.41
Isentropic enthalpy drop 2
n H2
Loss of
n Pi v i x 11 (P;y -11
available
H2= — l x 1000 1 u H3 heat
n
1.3 16 x 0.1364 x I05[ (3.5)

x Entropy (0)
1.3 — 1 1000 1 116)
= 279.764 kJ/kg. Fig. 13.10
Velocity at throat V2 = 44.72 /H1 — H2 = 44.724279.764 = 748 m/s.
Specific volume at throat v2 = vs = vs, 72

(PI
v2 = 0.1364(I-
6 = 0.4390 m3/kg.
111
A2V2 3.5 m x v2 5 x 0.4390
m or, A2 = = 0.002934 m2 = 29.34 cm2.
= v2 v2 748 -
The nozzle section is rectangular with aspect ratio 3. Let breadth of nozzle = b
...Width of nozzle = 3b
A2 = b x3b = 3b 2 6x 3b 2 =29.34, b = 1.276 cm.
.*. Width of nozzle = 3 b = 3.83 cm.
Temperature at point 2 is given by the relation.
Ti 523
T2 - n1
= 03 - 367.8°K = 94.8°C.
(I
T ()1
Saturation temperature at 3.5 bar = 138.88°C.

Degree of undercooling = 138.88-94.8 = 43.4°C
Saturation pressure corresponding to 94.8°C = 0.85 bar
3.5
Degree of supersaturation = = 4.117
0.85
(c) Enthalpy drop for supersaturated flow = 279.764 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy drop for expansion underthermal equilibrium condition from 16 bar 250°C to 3.5
bar
= H,- H, = 288 kJ/kg.
Loss in available heat drop = 288 - 279.764 = 8.36 kJ/kg.
Loss in available heat 8.36
(d) Increase in entropy - = 0.02 kJ/kg K.
Absolute temp. at 3.5 bar 138.88 + 273
(e) The outlet velocity from the nozzle underthermal equilibrium condition.
V, = 44.724H, - H3 = 44.72\ 288 758.92 m/s.
Dryness fraction at point 3 = 0.95
Specific volume of dry saturated steam at 3.5 bar
vs, = 0.5243 m3/kg
v, = x, x vs, = 0.95.x 0.5243 = 0.498 m3/kg.

A x 748
For exit area A, the mass flow undermetastable condition - = 1703.87 A units
0.4390
A x 758.92
For the same area, the mass flow under the thermal equilibrium = 0.498 - 1523.93 A units
Percentage increase in discharge due to supersaturated flow = (1703.87 - 1523.93)A = 11.8%.

1523.93A
Steam Nozzles 335
EXERCISES

1. The isentropic expansion of steam through nozzle for the steam initially superheated at
inlet is approximated by the equation
2. A nozzle converts energy into energy.
3. The ratio of P2/P, when gives maximum discharge is known as
4. The isentropic expansion of steam through nozzle for the steam initially dry saturated is
approximated by the equation
5. The ratio of exit pressure to inlet pressure for maximum mass flow rate per unit area of
steam through a nozzle when it is initially dry saturated is
6. The ratio of exit pressure to inlet pressure for maximum mass flow rate per unit area of
steam through nozzle when the steam is initially superheated is
7. The effect of friction in nozzles is to the velocity of steam from nozzle.
8. The effect of friction in nozzles is to the dryness fraction of exit steam.
Answers
1. Pv" = c 2. Heat, Kinetic 3. Critical pressure ratio,
4. Pvil" = c 5. 0.578 6. 0.546
7. Decrease 8. Increase
Questions and problems
1. Explain the term critical pressure as applied to steam turbine. Discuss the physical sig-
nificance of critical pressure ratio.
2. Prove that maximum discharge in a steam nozzle per unit area at the throat is given by,
II • I] 2
MMI. =[1000n X PI ( ...

vi n +1
ytr -1
where P, = Initial pressure of steam in kPa

v, = Volume of steam in m3/kg at the initial pressure.
n = Index of expansion.
3. Derive the expression for the critical pressure ratio
2 2 "
P, (n + 1)
according to the law Pv"..= c where n is the index of expansion.

4. What is meant by critical pressure ratio?
Assuming a frictionless adiabatic flow find the size of a nozzle to deliver 0.23 kg of
steam per second into a reservoir when the pressure is maintained at 0.18 bar. The
steam is supplied to the nozzle at 7 bar and superheated to a temperature of 250°C.
Assume Pvl 3 = constant.
[A.M.I.E— 1988] [Ans: 4.5cm]
5. What is the function of a nozzle?
Steam at a pressure of 10 bar and 210°C is supplied to a convergent divergent nozzle
with a throat area of 15 cm2. The exit is below critical pressure. Find the coefficient of
discharge of the nozzle if the flow is 7200 kg/hr.
[A.M.I.E.87] [Ans: 0.94]
6. The nozzles of an impulse turbine are supplied with 55 kg/hr of dry saturated steam at a
pressure of 7 bar. The pressure at the outlet is 1 bar. The turbine has two nozzles.
Determine the throat diameter of nozzles. Also find the dryness fraction of steam at the
nozzle outlet. [Ans: 3.2 mm, x2 = 0.9]
(a) Sketch the required shape of a nozzle operating with a back pressure which
is: (i) equal to critical pressure and (ii) less than critical pressure.
7. (b) Discuss the flow of steam through a convergent divergent nozzle and explain the
effect of friction on steam flow rate.
8. (a) What is supersaturated flow? What are the effects of supersaturation in a nozzle?
(b) Steam at 11 bar and 250°C enters a convergent divergent nozzle and is expanded to
I bar. Find the throat and exit areas and the kinetic energy of the leaving steam jet
kJ
for a steam flow of 1 kg/s. [Ans: (b) 6.7cm2, 17cm2, 452.62
9. What is meant by overexpansion and underexpansion ?
A convergent divergent nozzle is required to pass 1 kg/s of steam. Initially the steam
is at 21 bar, and with a dryness fraction of 0.98. The final pressure of steam is 0.7 bar.
Assume that all losses are taking place in the divergent portion and a nozzle efficiency
of 82%. Determine the required (a) throat area, and (b) exit area.
[Ans: 3.5 cm2, 22 cm2]
10. Steam at a pressure of 10 bar having dryness fraction 0.98 is passed through a conver-
gent divergeht nozzle to a back pressure of 0.1 bar. The mass flow rate of steam is
8 kg/kWhr. The power developed is 250 kW. Calchlate (a) pressure at the throat, and
(b) number of nozzles used if each nozzle has a throat of diameter 8 mm. The enthalpy
drop used for heating the steam by friction in the divergent part is 10% of the overall
isentropic drop. [Ans: 5.8 bar, 8]
FOURTEEN'
Steam Turbine
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In steam engines, the pressure energy of steam is utilised. Steam engines can he
operated without any drop in pressure in the cylinder, but the operation of steam
turbine purely depends on the dynamic action of steam.
The first steam turbine was made by
Hero of Alexandria in about 120 BC.
Hollow ball This turbine worked on pure reaction
Nozzle
principle and had no provision for driv-
ing anything. It consisted of a hollow ball
mounted on between the two pivots.
Steam which was produced in a cauldron
placed beneath the turbine was supplied
through one pivot. Two converging
nozzles were provided in the ball. The
Boiler steam was expanded through these
nozzles to the atmosphere which caused
reactive force on the ball and thus initi-
ated rotation.
It has undergone several changes in
its design since. The steam turbine has
been used as a prime mover in all thermal
power stations. Now, single steam tur-
bine of 1000 MW capacity is built in
many countries.
Fig. 14.1 Working of the hero's
turbine
14.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINES

Steam turbines are mainly divided into two groups:
(a) Impulse turbine and (b) impulse reaction turbine (in practice known as reac-
tion turbine).
Impulse Turbine
In impulse turbine, steam coming out at a very high velocity through the fixed
nozzle strikes the blades fixed on the periphery of a rotor. The blades change the
direction of the steam flow without changing its pressure. The force due to
change of momentum causes the rotation of the turbine shaft.
The examples of impulse turbine are De-Laval, Curties and Rateau.
Impulse-Reaction Turbine
In an impulse reaction turbine, steam expands both in fixed and moving blades
continuously as the steam passes over them. The pressure drop occurs continu-
ously over both moving and fixed blades.
The example of such turbine is Parsons's turbine.
14.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPULSE AND

REACTION TURBINE
(a) In an impulse turbine the steam completely expands in the nozzle and its
pressure remains constant during its flow through the blade passages.
In reaction turbines steam expands partially in the nozzle and further
expansion takes place in the rotor blades.
(b) The relative velocity of steam passing over the blade of impulse turbine
remains constant (assuming there is no friction).
The relative velocity of steam passing over the blade of reaction tur-
bine increases as the steam passing over the blade expands.
(c) The impulse turbine blades are symmetrical but the reaction turbine
blades are asymmetrical.
(d) The pressure on both ends of the moving blade, of an impulse turbine is
the same but in a reaction turbine it is different.
(e) The number of stages required for reaction turbine are more compared
with impulse turbine for the same power developed as the pressure drop in
each stage is small.
(f) The blade efficiency curve for the reaction turbine is more flat compared
to that of the impulse turbine.
(g) The steam velocity in a reaction turbine is not very high and therefore the
speed of the turbine is low.
14.4 ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE OVER

RECIPROCATING STEAM ENGINE
(a) The thermal efficiency of the steam turbine is higher than that of a recip-
rocating steam engine.
(b) As there is no reciprocating parts in the steam turbine, perfect balancing is
possible. Therefore heavy foundation is not required.
Steam Turbine 339
(c) Higher and greater range of speed is possible than in case of reciprocating
engine.
(d) The lubrication is simple in steam turbines as there is no rubbing parts.
(e) The power generation in a steam turbine is at a uniform rate, therefore a
flywheel is not required.
(f) The consumpiton of steam in steam turbine is lesser than is reciprocating
steam engine.
(g) Steam turbine is more compact and requires less attention during opera-
tion.
(h) Steam turbine is suitable for large power plants.
(i) The machine is highly simplified in construction and operation as parts
like piston, piston rod, cross head, connecting rod are not required.
Therefore, maintenance cost is reduced.
14.5 SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE
The simple impulse turbine is called De-Laval turbine after the name of its
inventor. It consists of one set of nozzles and a set of moving blades as shown in
Fig. 14.2. The expansion of steam from its initial pressure to final pressure takes
place in one set of nozzles. Due to high drop in pressure in the nozzles the
velocity of the steam increases in the nozzle.
The steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity and strikes the blades
mounted on a wheel with this high velocity. The pressure of the steam when it
moves over the blades remains constant but the velocity decreases.
A
Agg
2225 5 .
v> è!.;1°-).) 4`6) .11
Fig. 14.2 Diagrammatic sketch of a simple impulse turbine
But this turbine is not commonly used due to the following disadvantages.
(a) Since all the kinetic energy of the high velocity steam has to be
absorbed in only one ring of moving blades, so the velocity of the tur-
bine is too high i.e. up to 30,000 r.p.m. for practical purposes.
(b) The veloctiy of steam at exit is sufficiently high which means that there
is a considerable loss of kinetic energy.
14.6 VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR MOVING

BLADES FOR AN IMPULSE TURBINE
Figure 14.3 shows the velocity diagram of a single stage turbine.
= Absolute velocity of steam
at inlet in m/s
►fie a, = Nozzle inlet angle
u = Blade velocity in m/s
V, = Relative velocity of steam at
inlet in m/s
V„ = Tangential velocity of steam
at inlet m/s.
Va = Axial velocity of steam at
inlet in m/s
13, = Blade inlet angle
P2 = Blade outlet angle
= Relative velocity of steam at
outlet in m/s.
1c =
2
Tangential velocity of steam
at outlet in m/s.
Vat = Axial velocity of steam at
outlet in m/s.
V
K = Blade velocity coefficient =
V2 = Absolute velocity of steam

at outlet in m/s.
ay= Angle made by absolute
velocity V2 with the tangent
of the wheel at outlet.
Fig. 14.3 Velocity diagram for moving
blades for an impulse turbine
14.7 COMBINED VELOCITY DIAGRAM

The procedure for drawing the combined velocity diagram is given below:
1. Draw a horizontal line AB equal to blade velocity u to some suitable scale.
2. Draw a line AC at an angle a, with AB. Cut AC =
Steam Turbine 341
vW1
Vat
Fig. 14.4 Combined velocity diagram
3. Join B and C. The line BC represents the relative velocity at inlet. The blade
inlet angle 13, is measured and its value is noted down.
4. From point C draw a perpendicular CE on AB produced. CE represents axial
velocity at inlet and AE represents tangential velocity at inlet.
5. From point B draw a line BD at an angle [32 (the blade outlet angle). Cut
BD = Join A and D. AD represents the absolute velocity at outlet.
The angle a2 is measured and noted down.
6. From point D draw a perpendicular DF on BA.Then AF represents the tan-
gential velocity of steam at outlet and DF represents the axial velocity outlet.
This completes the velocity triangle.
(a) Force in the tangential direction = Rate of change of momentum in the
tangential direction.
= mass per second x change of velocity ± 2)N (14.1)
(b) Force in the axial direction or Axial thrust

= Rate of change of momentum in axial direction
m (Va, — Va2) N (14.2)

(c)
Work done by steam on blades = m(Vw, ± Vw 2)u Nm/s (14.3)
m (V,, ± V,,2)u
(d) Power developed by the turbine = kW (14.4)
1000
Blade efficiency = Work done on the blade/s
(e)
Energy supplied to the blade/s
m (Vivi ± 2u (V„,i ±
11b — 1 2
— (14.5)
ixmx
2 2
(f) Energy lost due to blade friction = 1 — V,.2) Nm/s (14.6)
Work done on the blade/s

(g) Stage efficiency —
Total energy supplied per stage
± V,,,)u V„. )u
'± 2 _ (14.7)
m — H2) Hd
where Hd = H1 — H2 = heat drop in the nozzle ring.
14.8 MAXIMUM WORK AND MAXIMUM DIAGRAM

EFFICIENCY
From the combined velocity diagram, Fig. 14.4
= Vicosal = Vri cos131 + u, 1c =

2
V2cosa2 = cos132 — u
V r2 COSI321
V4, + V4.2 = Vr, cosI3 + Vr2 cosr32 = Vr,r,cos13 I 1 + - VrIcos13,(1 +KC]
V • cosPI
ri
V cos132
r2
where K = — and c —
cos13,
+ VW2 = (VIcosal — u)(1 + KC)
Rate of doing work per kg of steam per second = (VIcosai — u)(1 + KC)u
(Vicosai — u)(1 + KC)2u

Diagram efficiency lb —
VZ
u
Let p =— = Blade speed ratio
TIb = 2(pcosa l — 1)2)(1 + KC) (14.8)
It is obvious from Eq. (14.8) that the value of diagram efficiency depends upon
the following factors:
(i) Nozzle angle al (ii) Blade speed ratio p (iii) Blade angles 0, and 132 (iv) Blade
velocity co-efficient K.
If a,, K and C are assumed to be constant, the diagram efficiency depends upon
the value of p. In order to determine the optimum value of p for maximum dia-
gram efficiency the first differential of the equation.
rib = 2(pcosa, — p2) (1 +KC) be equated to zero
2(1 + KC) (cog; — 2p) = 0

Steam Turbine 343
cosa,
or p — since(1 + KC) is not equal to zero
2
2
COSai COS2Cti COS al
TI
Nmax)
= 2(1 + KC)[ — (1+ KC) (14.9)
2 4 2
Assuming that the blades are symmetrical and friction is absent.

13, = P2, .% C = I , and K =1
11b(max) = cos2oci (14.10)
Rate of doing work per kg of steam per second

= (Vicosoc, — u)(1+KC)u
u cosoc, 2u
D= V, =
2 cosa,
Maximum rate of doing work per kg of steam per second
2u
.cosa, — u (1+1.1)u = 2u 2 (14.11)
cosai
14.9 METHODS OF REDUCING ROTOR SPEED

In case of simple impulse turbine, the steam is expanded from the boiler pres-
sure to the condenser pressure in one stage only. Hence the speed of the rotor
becomes very high for practical purposes. In order to make the rotor speed
practicable compounding of steam turbine is done. Compounding is the method
in which multiple system of rotors are keyed to a common shaft in series and the
steam pressure or jet velocity is absorbed in stages as it flows over the rotor
blades. The rotor speed can be reduced by the following methods of com-
pounding steam turbine.
(a) Velocity compounding
(b) Pressure compounding
(c) Pressure-velocity compounding.
Velocity Compounding
Figure 14.5 (a) shows a section of velocity compounded turbine. It consists of a
set of nozzles and a few rows of moving blades which are fixed to the shaft and
rows of fixed blades which are attached to the casing. In the figure two rows of
moving blades are separated by a row of fixed blades: The steam is expanded
from the boiler pressure to the condenser pressure in the nozzles only. Due to
the decrease in pressure the steam acquires a very high velocity. This high
velocity steam first enters the first row of moving blades, where some portion of
the velocity is absorbed. Then it enters the ring of fixed blades where the direc-
tion of steam is changed to suit the second ring of moving blades. There is no
0111111114, 00111.1111164
011101111k, 0011111111%,
\wow
bA bA
O t)
•-• c,3 1:1
ggr u.?
„ri
att .1) ->)‘
Fig. 14.5(a) Velocity compounding

change in the velocity as the steam passes over the fixed blades.
The steam then passes on to the second row of moving blades where velocity
is further reduced. Thus a fall in velocity occurs everytime when steam passes
over the row of moving blades. Steam thus leaves the turbine with a low veloc-
ity. The variation of pressure and velocity of steam as it passes over the moving
and fixed blades is shown in the figure. It is clear that the pressure drop takes
place only in the nozzle and 'there is no further drop of pressure as the steam
passes over the blades. This method of velocity compounding is used in Curtis
turbine.
Advantages of velocity compounded turbines
(a) The arrangement has less number of stages and hence less initial cost.
(b) The arrangement requires little space.
(c) The system is reliable and easy to operate.
(d) The fall of pressure in the nozzle is considerable, so the turbine itself need
not work in high pressure surroundings and the turbine housing need not be
very strong.
Disadvantages of velocity compounded turbines
(a) Due to very high steam velocity in the nozzles, friction losses are large.
(b) The efficiency is also low because the ratio of blade velocity to steam
velocity is not optimum for all the wheels.
(c) Power developed in the later rows is only a fraction of power developed in
the first row. Still all the stages require same space, material and cost of
fabrication.
Steam Turbine 345
Pressure Compounding
The variation of pressure and velocity of steam is 'shown in Fig. 14.5(b).
It consists of a number of fixed nozzles which are incorporated between the
rings of moving blades. The moving blades are keyed to the shaft. Here the
00111.1116, 00111111\
cd
N
N
0
Fig. 14.5 (b) Pressure compounding
0000%
„dila% „Oft, 00•16,,
• "44 woo
0/11k, 0010114, N 114
\moo vy
\i `RANNI
OD bo
co 0 0 "0 0 0
"cl N > <ll -0
> cti
xca N 0
X0
0
0
z
ttO
4-c . 0
0 ..
t.
A
0
00
.
0 0
4.)
-0 0 73 -
/0 0 6, > p. • .
0- 0
Fig. 14.5 (c) Pressure-velocity compounding

total pressure drop does not take

place in one set of nozzles, but it
is done in a number of stages.
Each stage consists of a set of
nozzles and a ring of moving
blades.
Steam from the boiler passes
1st row of
moving blade through the first set of nozzles
where it expands partially.
Nearly all its velocity is
R2 absorbed when it passes over the
Vr2 first row of the moving blades. It
va2Y R2 further passes to the second set
of fixed nozzle and is partially
1-0(— Vw2 expanded again. It is further
passed on the second row of
Fixed blade moving blades where again the
velocity of steam is almost
absorbed. This process is
repeated till steam leaves at con-
a3 R denser pressure. By reducing the
pressure in stages, the velocity
of steam entering the moving
blades is considerably reduced.
Hence the speed of rotor is
reduced. This method is used in
-2nd row of the Reteau and Zoelly turbines.
moving blade
Pressure-Velocity
Compounding
The variation of pressure and
Va4 Vr4 velocity of steam is shown in
P4 Fig. 14.5 (c). In this method both
11—).-kr—Vw4-)"1 the pressure and velocity com-
pounding methods are utilised.
The total drop in steam pressure
is carried out in two stages and
Fig. 14.5 (d) Velocity diagram for velocity the velocity obtained in each
compounded two stage stage is also compounded. The
turbine rings of nozzles are fixed at the
beginning of each stage and
Steam Turbine 347
pressure remains constant during each stage. This method of compounding is

used in Curtis and More turbines.
Velocity Diagram for Velocity Compounded Turbine

Figures 14.5(d) and (e) shows the velocity diagram for a two stage velocity
compounded turbine.
.0( \An Vw2
Di
Vaz
/ D
/ /
"... / /
N.. ....- / /
•-•.. --•
--.. ...... __. .---- /
N /
/
N /
Fig. 14.5 (e) Velocity diagram for velocity compounded two stage turbine
Given,
u = Blade velocity in m/s
V1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet to blade in m/s.
= Velocity of steam relative to the 1st row of moving blades at
entrance in m/s.
= Nozzle angle at entrance.
R. = Entrance angle to the 1st row of moving blades
= Friction factor
K = Velocity of steam relative to the 1st row of moving blade at exit
in m/s.
= KV r,
P2 = Exit angle from 1st row of moving blades.

V2 = Absolute velocity of steam at exit from 1st row of moving blade
in m/s.
a2 = Entrance angle to the fixed blade.
V3 = Absolute velocity of steam at exit from the fixed blades in m/s =

K V2
= Absolute- velocity of steam entering the second row of moving
blades.
413 = Exit angle from the fixed blades.
= Velocity of steam relative to the second row of moving blades at
entrance in m/s.
133 = Entrance angle to the 2nd row of moving blades.
V r4 = Velocity of steam relative to the second row of moving blades at
exit in m/s.
P4 = Exit angle from 2nd row of moving blades.
V4 = Absolute velocity of steam at exit from 2nd row of moving
blades in m/s.
a4 = Entrance angle to the next row of fixed blades.
±1/4 = C,D, = Tangential velocity or velocity of whirl for the 1st row of
moving blades in m/s.
± yw ) = E,F, = Tangential velocity or velocity of whirl for the 2nd row of
moving blades in m/s.
Val = Axial velocity of steam at entrance to the 1st row of moving
blades in m/s.
Vat = Axial velocity of steam at exit to the 1st row of moving blades in
m/s.
Val = Axial velocity of steam at entrance to the 2nd row of moving
blade in m/s.
V
a4
= Axial velocity of steam at exit to the 2nd row of moving blades
in m/s.
Let AB represent the blade velocity u to any scale. At A draw AC = V, at an
angle a, to AB. Join BC. Then, BC = Vr, and LCBC, = 13,. Mark BD' such that
BD' = KB C = V r2. Draw BD such that LDBA =f202. Join AD; then AD = V2 and
ZDAD,=a2. From C draw perpendicular CC, on AB produced. Then AC,=Vw,
and CC, = Val From D draw perpendicular DD, on BA produced. Then
AD, = Vw2 and DD, = V a2. At B draw AF = V3 = KV2 at an angle a, Join BE.
Then BE = Vr3.
From E draw perpendicular EE, on AB produced. Then EE, = Va3 and
LEBE,=[33- Mark BF' such that BF' = KBE =lir,. Draw BF such that
LF B A = 134 Join AF, then AF = V4. From F draw perpendicular on BA produced.
Then FF,= Va4, AE,= Vw3 and AF,= Vw4.
Steam Turbine 349
Work done from the 1st row of moving blades = m(Vw, ± Vw2)u Nm/s
= m.CIDI.0 Nm/s (14.12)

Work done from the 2nd row of moving blades = m(Vw3 ± Vw4).0 Nm/s
= Nm/s (14.13)
(a) Work done from the two stages = m.C11:00 + m.E1FLu
= m(CID1 + EIF1 ).0 Nm/s or J/s (14.14)

(b) Power developed by a two stage impulse turbine = + E,F1 )W
(CID' + Ei F i )
= m.u. kW (14.15)
1000
(c) Diagram or blade efficiency
u (CID, + Ei Fi) 2u (CPI + EIFI)
Tlb = V2 x 100% (14.16)
v;
2
u (CID' + EIFI )
(d) Stage efficiency — (14.17)
1000 H
where H = H1 — H2 = enthalpy drop in nozzle in kJ/kg.
(e) Total axial thrust = m [(Val — Vat) + (Va3 — Va4)] N (14.18)
In order to have maximum efficiency
of the turbine, the out going absolute
velocity, V4 of the steam should be at
right angles to the blade having no
tangential component i.e. a4 = 90°.
The velocity diagrams at the inlet
and outlets for the different blades are
drawn on the same side as shown in
Fig. 14.5 (f) for frictionless flow and U U U U
symmetrical blading under maximum
efficiency condition.
Vicosa, Vicosa, Fig. 14.50)
V,cosa, = 4u or u —
4 2 x No. of stages
From Fig. 14.5 (f) we find that, V2coscc2 = 2u
Vr4cosP4 = Vr3cos133 = u
Maximum work in the 1st stage = m(V,cosa, + V2cosa2)u = m (4u + 2u )u = m .6u 2
Maximum work in the 2nd stage = m(Vr3cos133 + Vr4cos(34)u = m(u + u)u = m.2u 2
Total work = 6mu2 + 2mu2 = 8mu2
8m u2
Maximum blade efficiency, 1Ibon.) — 1
-m V
2
2 I
8MU 2
lbonax) =
i 2 -- cos a1 (14.19)
I6u
MX 2
cos a,
Thus the velocity compounded turbine has the same maximum efficiency as the
single stage turbine.
14.10 REACTION TURBINE

A turbine in which steam pressure decreases gradually while expanding through
the moving blades as well as through the fixed blades is known as reaction tur-
bine. It consists of a large number of stages, each stage consisting of set of fixed
and moving blades. The heat drop takes place throughout in both fixed and
moving blades. No nozzles are provided in a reaction turbine. The fixed blades
act both as nozzles in which the velocity of steam is increased and direct the
steam to enter the ring of moving blade. As the pressure drop takes place both
in the fixed and moving blades all blades are nozzle shaped. The steam expands
while flowing over the moving blades and thus gives reaction to the moving
blades. Hence the turbine is known as reaction turbine. The fixed blades are
attached with the casing whereas moving blades are fixed with rotor. It is also
called Pearson's Reaction turbine.
The work done per kg of steam in the stage
(Per pair) = u (Vw1 + Vw2) Nm or joules.

Work done by the steam per second per pair = m.u(Vwl +Vw2) N.m/s or J/s
m .0 (Vwi + Vw2)
Power developed per pair = kW (14.20)
1000
where, m = mass of steam flowing over blades in kg/s.
Work done per pair per kg of steam u (Vw1 + Vw2)
Efficiency = (14.21)
Enthalpy drop per pair 1000H
where, H = enthalpy drop per pair in kJ/kg.
Degree of Reaction (13)

The degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of isentropic heat drop in the
moving blades to isentropic heat drop in the entire stage of reaction turbine.
The degree of Reaction R is given by,
Enthalpy drop in the moving blade dH2

R= (14.22)
Enthalpy drop in the stage all + dH2
Steam Turbine 351
17; — VZ
where dH, = enthalpy drop in the fixed blade per kg of steam — 2 kJ/kg.
Vr2—
,2
cifl, = enthalpy drop in the moving blade per kg of steam = Vr I kJ/kg = H2 — H3.
Also, MI + dH2 = enthalpy drop in the stage per kg of steam
= H, — H3 = work done by the steam in the stage.
VII— VII
dH2 = u (Vw, + Vw2) .. R — (14.23)
2u (VVwi + Vw2)
In Parsons Reaction turbine, the degree of reaction is 50%, then sal = 132, C(2 = pi.
Which means that the moving blade and fixed blade have the same shape. When
degree of reaction R = 0, we have the simple impulse turbine. When degree of
reaction R = 1, we have the pure reaction turbine.
For symmetrical triangles, V,2 = V,, Vr, = V2.
Fixed moving
222\
Hi
H2
H3
t.L1
Entropy ( (I)) -- 1-10H241-1
Vr2 > Vet
Fig. 14.6 Reaction turbine stage isentropic expansion

Efficiency of Reaction Turbine
The condition for maximum efficiency is calculated considering the following
assumptions.
(a) The degree of reaction is 50%.
(b) The fixed and moving blades are symmetrical.
The kinetic energy supplied to the fixed blade per kg of steam = 2

17;2 —
The kinetic energy supplied to the moving blade per kg of steam =
2
Iq 17;2 —
Total energy supplied — + (14.24)
2 2
is 17,2 = V1
2
v
2 r1
Total energy supplied =
From velocity triangle, V' = 17,2 + u 2— 2.0 .17,cosoc,
2 + U2— 2.0 .Vicosoci

Total energy supplied = (14.25)
2
The work done per kg of steam is given by, work done = u(17w, + Vw2)
= u (Vicosoc, + Vr2cos(32 — u) = u (2Vicosal — u) As a, =132 and V1 = Vr2

Work done
Diagram efficiency —
Total energy supplied
U VICOSOCI — u) 2u (2171cosoci — u)
2 Vj+ u 2 — 2.0 .Vicosai — u 2 + 2.0 . Vicosai
• 2
u
2u142cosoci — 2. u (2cosal — 1- 7-3
vi
2 U2
V(1 — v, + 2. •i. coscci) (1 — v, 2. „•i
`L .cosal)
2p(2cosoci — p)
(14.26)
(1 — p2 + 2pcosal)
u
where p =— , the blade speed ratio.
The efficiency is maximum when 1 — p2 +2pcosa, is minimum or when its dif-

ferential with respect to p is zero.
For maximum efficiency ±e (1— p2 + 2pcosai) = 0

dp
—2p + 2cosai = 0 or, p = cosa, (14.27)
Putting the value of p in Eq. 14.26.
Steam Turbine 353
2cosal(2cosai cosai) 2cos'a1

Maximum blade efficiency (rib)max — 2
(1 - COS al LCOS2 al ) 2
"
1 + COS al
(14.28)
Mass of Steam Flowing Over the Blades of

A Reaction Turbine
Let D = Drum diameter
h = Height of blades
D„, = Mean diameter of blade ring
= vz = v = Axial velocity of flow.
If the thickness of the blade is neglected then total area of steam flow
=70,,xh =Tc(D +h)xh
Volume of steam flowing through the turbine
= Area x Velocity of flow = TOD + h)x h x
Mass of steam flowing per second
Volume of steam flowing
m—
x. Vs
Tc(D+h)xhxV„
m kg (14.29)
x. Vs
where x = dryness fraction of steam, and V, = specific volume of steam.
14.11 GOVERNING OF TURBINES

The method of maintaining the speed of the turbine constant irrespective of
variation of the load on the turbine is known as governing of turbines. For this
purpose governor is used, which regulates the supply of steam to the turbine in
such a way that the speed of the turbine is maintained as far as possible a con-
stant under varying load conditions. The various methods of governing of steam
turbines are :
(a) Throttle governing, (b) Nozzle control governing, (c) By pass governing,
(d) Combinations of (a) and (b) or (c) and (d).
Throttle Governing of Steam Turbines

The throttle governing of a steam turbine is a method of controlling its speed by
varying the quantity of steam entering the turbine.
The centrifugal governor is driven from the main shaft of the turbine. The
control valve controls the direction of flow of oil either in the pipe AA or BB.
The relay cylinder has a piston whose motion is connected to a spear which
moves inside the nozzle.
Governor Fly balls
Lever
Sleeve Rod
Control
valve
A
Gear pump
Spear
Relay 21,
cylinder
Oil sump 21
From
boiler
(a)
Steam
inlet
V4 v3 v2 Ni1
N4 N1
(b)
Fig. 14.7 (a) Throttle governing of steam turbines and (b) Nozzle control governing
Steam Turbine 355
Let us consider an instant when the load on the turbine increases. As a result
the speed of the turbine decreases. The fly balls of the governor will come
down. The fly balls bring down the sleeve. The downword movement of the
sleeve will raise the control valve rod. The mouth of the pipe AA will open. Now
the oil under pressure will rush from the control valve to the right side of the
piston in the relay cylinder through the pipe AA. This will move the piston and
spear towards the left which will open more area of nozzle. As a result the steam
flow rate into the turbine increases, which inturn brings the speed of the turbine
to the normal range.
Nozzle Control Governing
A diagrammatic arrangement of nozzle control governing is shown in Fig.
14.7(b). In this nozzles are grouped together in 3 to 5 or more groups and each
group of nozzle is supplied steam controlled by valves. The arc of admission is
limited to 180° or less. The nozzle control governing is restricted to the first
stage of the turbine, the nozzle area in other stages remaining constant. It is
suitable for the simple impulse turbine and for larger units which have an
impulse stage followed by an impulse reaction turbine.
Bypass Governing
The high pressure impulse turbines generally have a number of stages of small
mean diameter of wheel. These turbines are generally, designed for maximum
efficiency at an economic load which is about 80 per cent of the maximum con-
tinuous rating. Due to the small heat drop in the first stage nozzle control gov-
erning cannot be efficiently used. Secondly it is desirable to have full admission
into high pressure stage at the rated economic load to eliminate the partial
admission losses.
In such cases bypass governing is used.
In this arrangement for high loads a bypass line is provided for the steam from
the first stage nozzle box into a later stage where work output increases. The
bypass of steam is automatically regulated by the lift of the valve. The bypass
valve is under the control of the speed of the governor for all loads within its
range. In later stages though there is increase in work output, the efficiency is
low due to throttling effect.
14.12 IMPROVEMENT IN TURBINE EFFICIENCY
The different methods for improving the turbine efficiency are: (a) reheating of
steam, (b) regenerative feed heating, and (c) binary vapour plants.
Reheating of Steam
In this system, steam is removed from the turbine when it becomes wet. It is
then reheated at a constant pressure by the flue gases, until it is again in the
superheated state. It is then returned to the next stage in the turbine. The sche-
matic diagram of the process is shown in Fig. 14.8 (a).
The steam enters the turbine in a superheated state at point A. It is then

expanded isentropically through the turbine along the line AB. The steam at
point B is reheated again at a constant pressure to point C. At point C, the steam
is again in the superheated state. It is then expanded isentropically through
Superheater
Pump Condenser
Fig. 14.8 (a) Reheating process of steam
the turbine until the condenser

pressure is reached. The reheat
H
A
cycle is shown on H — 41 diagram
in Fig. 14.8 (b).
HA
Hc
Advantages of reheating
HEI The reheating of steam in a tur-

HD bine has the following advan-
tages:
HE (a) It increases the work done
through the turbine.
(b) It increases the efficiency
(13 of the turbine.
(c) It reduces the wear of the
blades, because of low
Fig. 14.8 (b) Reheating of steam on H-Q moisture contents in low
diagram pressure stages of the tur-
bine.
Steam Turbine 357
Efficiency of the reheat cycle

Consider a steam turbine with a reheating system. The H -4) diagram is shown
in Fig. 14.8 (b).
Let HA, H8, H e and HD be the total heats of steam at points A, B, C and D
respectively and let ht, be the total heat of water (sensible heat) at point D. We
know that the total heat supplied to steam is the sum of the heat at A and the heat
supplied during reheating between B and C.
Total heat supplied = Total heat at A + Heat supplied between B and C = HA
+ (Hc — H8 ) — hp
The work done = Total heat drop = (HA - + (11,- HD )
Work done (HA — HA+ (Tic — Hp)

Efficiency, 1 = =
Total heat supplied HA + (Hc —H8 )— hD
If there is no reheating of steam, the expansion through the turbine is along the
line AE.
In that case
HA — HE
Efficiency, 11 — HA hE (Rankine efficiency)
where, HE = Total heat of steam at E

he = Total heat of water at E
Effect of blade friction (reheat factor)
The effect of friction on
the flow of steam when
passing over the blades is
to decrease the relative H
velocity of steam, the A
energy thus lost is con-
verted into heat which in
turn causes an increase in
entropy and consequently
a slight decrease in heat
drop. The effect of fric-
tion on the adiabatic flow
of steam can be
demonstrated on the
Mollier diagram as
shown in Fig. 14.8(c). Let
Al represent the initial
condition of the steam. In
the first stage the steam Fig. 14.8 (c) Expansion of steam on H -(1) diagram
expands adiabatically from pressure P, to P2. This is represented by the vertical

line A, B1 . Mark off the point C, such that BI C, represents the heat generated
due to blade friction. From C1 draw a horizontal line to meet the back pressure
(P2) line at A2. Then the point A2 represents the final condition of the steam at
exit from the first stage. Then the same process is repeated during the second
stage. The final condition of the steam at the end of second stage is represented
by the point A3 and so on for the remaining stages. If friction is neglected, the
adiabatic expansion of steam through all the stages is represented by the line
A D.
The ratio of the cumulative heat drop to the adiabatic heat drop is known as
reheat factor.
Cumulative heat drop AI B, + A2B2 + A3B3

Reheat factor —
Adiabatic heat drop Ai D
The value of reheat factor depends on the type and efficiency of the turbine, the
average value being 1.05.
Efficiencies of a multistage turbine
(a) Stage efficiency It may be defined as the ratio of useful heat drop in a
stage to the adiabatic heat drop for the same stage.
A1 C1 A2C2 A3C3
Stage efficiency =
A1/31 A2B2 A3 B3
(b) Internal efficiency or Adiabatic efficiency or Turbine efficiency It may be

defined as the ratio of the total work done on the rotor (or total useful heat
drop) to the total adiabatic heat drop.
A I CI +A2C2 +A3C3
Internal efficiency =
AID
(HA, — HO+ (HA2 — HO+ (HA, — HO HAI — I -I c,

H — HD HAI — Hp
Ai
Total useful heat drop

(c) Efficiency ratio
Total adiabatic heat drop
(d) Overall thermal efficiency It may be defined as the ratio of total useful heat
drop to the heat supplied.
+A2C2 + A3C3 HAI — Hc3
Flo = HA ,—ho
— HAI — hp
Adiabatic heat drop HA I — HD

(e) Rankine efficiency TIR =
Heat supplied — HA ,— hp
Steam Turbine 359
Regenerative Cycle
The ideal Rankine cycle, modified to take into account the effect of bleeding is
known as regenerative cycle.
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is less than that of the Carnot cycle. This
is due to the fact that a large amount of additional heat is rejected to the con-
denser, shown by the area DEFG in Fig. 14.9 (a). This rejected heat is not com-
pensated by the additional work represented by the area ADE. If, however the
working fluid enters the boiler at some state, between E and A, the average
temperature of heat supplied is increased. Thus the cycle becomes as efficient as
the Carnot cycle. This is achieved during an ideal regenerative cycle as shown
in Fig. 14.9 (b).
C
Condenser
F G
Entropy ( t)
Fig. 14.9 (a) Fig. 14.9 (b) Ideal regenerative cycle
The condensate, from the condenser is

pumped back and circulated around the tur-
bine casing, in the reverse direction to the
steam flow in the turbine, as shown by EA
in Fig. 14.9 (c). It is thus possible to transfer
heat from the steam to the condensate flow- 64
ing around the turbine, as the temperature 1.4
of the steam and liquid is same at any

section in the turbine. This is shown by the
line BC which is exactly parallel to EA in
Fig. 14.9 (c). Such type of heating is known F G HI
as regenerative feed heating. Entropy (j)
The heat transferred to the liquid (area
EAGF) is equal to the heat transferred from
the steam (area BIHC). The heat is supplied Fig. 14.9 (c) Regenerative cycle
to the working fluid at constant temperature on T — 4 diagram
in the process shown by line AB. This is represented by the area ABIG. The heat
is rejected from the working fluid at constant temperature shown by the line CE.
This is represented by the area CHFE which is equal to the area JIGD. The area
JIGD, represents to some scale the heat rejected in the Carnot cycle. Thus the
ideal regenerative cycle has an efficiency equal to the efficiency of Carnot cycle
with the same heat supply and heat rejection temperatures.
In actual practice, the ideal regenerative cycle is impossible to achieve, due
to the following reasons:
(a) It is not possible to effect the necessary heat transfer from the steam in the
turbine to the liquid feed water.
(b) The moisture content of the steam leaving the turbine considerably
increased as a result of the heat transfer.
Bleeding
The process of draining steam from the turbine at certain points during its
expansion and using this steam for heating the feed water in the feed water
heater and then supplying it to the boiler is known as bleeding.
The effects of bleeding are:
(a) It increases the thermodynamic efficiency of the turbine.
(b) The boiler is supplied with hot water.
(c) A small amount of work is lost by the turbine, which decreases the power
developed.
Feed heating systems
(a) Cascade system or when the bled steam does not mix with feed water.
(b) Drain pump system or when the bled steam is mixed with feed water.
In actual practice, the number of heaters may vary from two to six.
When the bled steam does not mix with feed water or cascade system
Let m and m 2 be the masses of bled steam per kg of feed water heated at points
1 and 2 respectively.
Considering bleeding at point 1.
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by feed water
m1(1/I — h2) = (h1 — h2)
where h2 = enthalpy of the feed water coming from heater no.2 and entering
hl — h2
mi — H1 — h2 kg.
Considering bleeding at point 2

M2(112 h3)+ mi (h2 — h3) = h2 — h3 M2(112 h3) (h2 h3) M I (h2 h3)
(1 — mi ) — h3)
kg.
1- -12 — h3
Steam Turbine 361
1 kg Pt Turbine Exhaust steam

->-
1 2 H3
A 1 kg steam (I -Ini -m2 ) kg
Bled steam W Condenser
Boiler with Cooling water_
superheater mi kg I outlet
I Hi Wm, kg
Feed water Feed water I - Cooling water
heater heater I inlet
Feed No.1 I No.2 I
pump
I Condensate
J -\miLt -Nmi -m2 (1-m1 -m,) kg
1 kg 1 if 2
h3
mikgv h i I * 112 Hot well

L _I tri, kg
Bled steam
condensate
Fig. 14.9 (d) Cascade system

where, h3 = enthalpy of feed water entering heater no. 2
Mass of steam in turbine per kg of feed water between points 1 and 2 = 1 - m,
Mass of steam between point 2 and exhaust = 1 - in, - in,
Work done in turbine per kg of feed water between entrance and point 1 =
H-
Work done between point 1 and point 2 .(1 - (H, - H2)
Work done between point 2 and exhaust = (1 - m, - in2) (H, - H3)
Total heat supplied per kg of feed water = (H - h 1 )
Work done
Efficiency of the plant =
Heat supplied
(H - HO+ (1 - mi)(Hi - H2)+ (1 - m, - m2)(112 -- H3)

H - h,
When bled steam is mixed with feed water or drain pump

system
In bleeding installation mixing the bled steam with the feed water is a common
practice. In this case the bled steam comes in direct contact with the feed water
and the mixture is then supplied direct to the boiler. This system is also known
as drain pump system . A schematic diagram of this type of installation with two
feed water heaters is shown in Fig. 14.9 (e).
1 kg P Turbine P2 Exhaust steam

3P, -314-
1 2 H3
A 1 kg steam (1—m1 —m,) kg
(Bled steam' Condenser

Cooling water
yintkg I outlet
H1 Yrn2 kg
I H2 Cooling water
Heater Heater inlet
No.1 No.2
1 kg A
(1-111-1112 ) kg
(l — ml) kg if
Pump Condensate
< (l-m1-m2)kg
h3
1 kg (1—mi) kg
Fig. 14.9 (e) Mixing of bled steam with feed water

At point 1 the steam pressure is PI and m1 kg of steam is removed and mixed
with the feed water, which is raised to a temperature of t2 by the previous bled
steam. Considering one kg of feed water.
Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained by feed water
m i (1-11 — hi) = (1 —mi )(h, —h2)
or, m1111 — = (h1 — /12)— m 1h1 + mi h2
mi=hi — h2
or, m1(111 -112)=(h1 — h2) H1 — h2
Similarly, for the bled steam at pressure P2,

M2(112 — h2) = (1— — M2) (h2 h3)
(1 — MI)(h2 — h3)
m =
2 H2 — h3
Steam Turbine 363
Binary Vapour Plant

The maximum possible efficiency of any engine is given by the equation,
- T2
—
The value of temperature T2 is fixed by atmospheric conditions, therefore the

thermal efficiency of the plant can only be improved by increasing 7.1 . If T, is
increased the corresponding pressure will also increase which is one of the lim-
iting factors in its design. Thus a substance other than steam, is used in the high
temperature range. By using mercury vapour, in place of steam in the high
temperature range of the cycle, an increase of T, is obtained without any
increase in maximum pressure. The heat rejected by the mercury in condensing
is utilised in raising superheated steam for the low temperature range of the
cycle. A power plant using binary vapour (mercury and steam) is known as
binary vapour plant. A schematic diagram of binary vapour plant is shown in
Fig. 4.9(f). Dry and saturated mercury vapour from mercury boiler enters the
mercury turbine at A, expands to B and condenses to C in condenser. The con-
densate is pumped back to the boiler forming a mercury cycle. The heat rejected
by mercury condenser is used to vaporise water into steam and act as a steam
boiler. The condensing temperature of mercury is sufficiently high than the
boiling temperature of the water and there is no difficulty of heat transfer. The
saturated steam is superheated in a flue gas boiler before it enters the steam tur-
bine at 1 and expands to 2. It condenses to where water is pumped back to the
boiler forming a steam cycle. The cycle on T — (I) diagram is shown in
Fig. 14.9(g).
Mercury Steam
turbine turbine
Superheater
Mercury Mercury
condenser Steam
boiler condenser
steam
generation
Pump
0
Pump
Fig. 14.9 (f) Binary vapour cycle

Let m kg of mercury be used

per kg of water. In the mer-
cury turbine, mercury suf-
fers isentropic expansion
from A to B doing work.
The work in the Hg—turbine
is given by
Temperature ( T )
WHg = MWA
The heat added to Hg is

given by
Q1Hg = M(HA - he)

Entropy ( q)
where the subscripts A, B, C
stand for mercury cycle. The
heat added to water by the Fig. 14.9 (g) Binary vapour cycle on
condensing Hg-vapour and T diagram
in the superheater = H5—h3 +
(H 1 — H5). Of these amount only (H 1 — H5) is being supplied from outside in the
superheater and the balance is an internal exchange. Therefore, the net heat
added to the cycle is given by
Heat added = m (HA —110+ (Hi — H5)
Heat rejected by mercury = Heat gained by water
H5 - h 3
m(HB — hc) = (H5 — h3) m =
HB — hc
Steam turbine work = H1 — H2

• Work done per kg of steam
= Mercury turbine work + Steam turbine work = m (HA — HB) + (HI — H2)
• Overall efficiency of the binary cycle is given by,
Work done m (HA — HB) + H2)

i= Heat supplied m(HA — ht ) + (Hi — H5)
Advantages of mercury steam vapour cycle

(a) Vapour pressure is moderate at high temperature.
(b) Boiler feed pump may be eliminated as Hg may come back in the boiler by
gravity when the Hg condenser is at an elevation and the pressure is not
large.
Steam Turbine 365
(c) Simple turbine can be used as the velocity of Hg leaving the nozzle is
moderate.
(d) There is no danger of scale formation on the tubes. So feed treatment is not
necessary.
(e) The size of mercury condenser-cum-water boiler is moderate.
Disadvantages of mercury steam vapour cycle
(a) High cost of Hg and so investment cost is high.
(b) Difficult supply position
(c) Toxicity
(d) Does not wet tubes resulting in low heat transfer co-efficient.
(e) Difficulties in making mercury-tight joints,
14.13 LOSSES IN STEAM TURBINES
Residual Velocity Loss

The steam leaves the turbine with a certain absolute velocity which results in
loss of some kinetic energy. This loss is about 10 to 12% in a single stage tur-
bine. This loss can be reduced by using multistages.
Losses in Regulating Valves

The steam produced in the boiler has to flow through the stop and regulating
valves before entering to the steam turbine. At these valves the steam gets
throttled and as a result the pressure of steam at entry to the turbine is less than
the boiler pressure.
Loss Due to Steam Friction in Nozzle

Friction occurs both in nozzles and turbine blades. In nozzles the effect of fric-
tion is considered by introducing the factor of nozzle efficiency which is the
ratio of actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop. In turbine blades the
effect is considered by taking a factor known as blade velocity co-efficient. This
loss is about 10%.
Loss Due to Leakage

The leakage occurs between the shaft, bearings and stationary diaphragms car-
rying, the nozzles in case of impulse turbine. In reaction turbines the leakage
may occur at the blade tips. The total leakage loss is about 1 to 2%.
Loss Due to Mechanical Friction

This loss occurs in the bearings and may be reduced by proper lubrication.
Loss Due to Wetness of Steam

In multistage turbine condensation of steam occurs in the last stages, because
water and steam have different velocities and will not form a homogeneous
mixture. The water particles have to be dragged along with the steam and so, a
part of the kinetic energy of the steam is lost.
Radiation Loss
As the turbines are heavily insulated to reduce the heat loss to surroundings by
radiation and so these losses are negligible.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Steam with absolute velocity 360 m/s enters the stage of an impulse turbine provided with
a single row wheel. The nozzles are inclined at 20° to the plane of the wheel. The blade rotor
with diameter 95.5 cm rotates with a speed of 3000 r.p.m. Find (a) suitable inlet and outlet
angle for the moving blade so
Vw2 ).1 that there is no axial thrust on
the blade. It may be assumed
1-4(— u = 150 m/s-).-1
that friction in blade passages
al
is 19% of the kinetic energy
Va tV vat corresponding to relative
velocity at inlet to blades,
(b) Power developed in blading
for a steam flow of 1 kg/s, and
(c) Kinetic energy of steam
finally leaving the stage.
Fig. 14.10 [D.M.E. Part - III, 1986]
Solution: Given, V1 = 360 m/s, a, = 20°, d = 95.5 cm, N = 3000 r.p.m, Vag =
trIN x 0.955 x 3000
Mean blade speed, u = = = 150 m/s
60 60
From the given relation
V,?2 V,?
= (I-1119) T =
Scale of velocity diagram, 1 cm = 50 m/s

From the velocity triangle
(a) Blade inlet angle, 13, = 34°
Blade outlet angle, 112 = 38°
+ V,,2 = 348 m/s
(b) Power output for a steam flow of 1 kg/s

+ V,4, 2)u 348 x 150
' kW. — = 52.2 kW
1000 1000
(c) Absolute velocity of steam at exit, V2 = 126 m/s

Steam Turbinq 367
VI (1 26)2
Kinetic energy of steam finally leaving the stage = = = 7938 Nm/kg.
2
2. The blade speed of a

single ring of an impulse Vwl+ Vw2 31.1
turbine is 300 m/s and the
u = 300 mis
nozzle angle is 20°. The -4(
cc '
isentropic heat drop is
473 kJ/kg and the nozzle Vat
Vat
efficiency is 0.85. Given that
the blade velocity co-
efficient is 0.7 and the blades
are symmetrical, draw the
vector diagrams and calcu-
late for a mass flow of Fig. 14.11
1 kg/s:
(a) axial thrust on the blading.

(b) steam consumption per B.P. hour if the mechanical efficiency is 90 per cent.
(c) blade efficiency, stage efficiency and maximum blade efficiency.
(d) heat equivalent of the friction of blading.
[D.M.E. Part - III, 1987, 19891
Solution: V, = 44.74(H, - H2)tt, = 44.74473 x 0.85 = 900 m/s
Given, a, = 20°, u = 300 m/s, R. = 132, V,.2 = 0.7 Vri
From this data the velocity diagram is drawn and the following results are obtained.
[3, =132 = 29.5°; V,, + VW = 927.5 m/s; - = 92.5 m/s; Vr = 630 rn/s;Vr = 441 m/s
(a) Axial thrust per kg = Va - = 92.5 N
m (V,„ + V„2)u 1 x 927.5 x 300

(b) Power - kW - = 278.25 kW
1000 1000
Brake power = 278.25 x 0.9 = 250.425 kW
3600
Steam consumption per B.P. hour = = 14.33 kg
250.425
2u (V,, + 2x 300 x 927.5
(c) Blade efficiency = ) = 0.688 = 68,8%
VZ (900)2
Maximum blade efficiencya,o.o = cos2ct, = cos220 = 0.88 = 88%
Work done on blade 278.25

Stage efficiency = = = 0.588 = 58.8%
Total energy supplied to blade 473
(d) Energy lost due to blade friction
Vr; - Vt1 (630)2- (441)2
= = 101209.5 J = 101.2095 kJ.
2 - 2
3. The data pertaining to impulse turbine is as follows:
Steam velocity = 500 m/s; Blade speed = 200 m/s; Exit angle of moving blade = 25°; Nozzle
angle = 20°. Neglecting the

effect of friction when passing
through the blade passages, cal-
culate (a) inlet angle of moving
blade, (b) exit velocity and
direction, (c) work done per kg
of steam, (d) axial thrust and
power for a steam flow rate of
5 kg/s, and (e) diagram effi-
ciency.
[D.M.E Part - III 1988] Fig. 14.12
Solution: Given,V, = 500 m/s: u = 200 m/s; p2 = 25°; a, = 20° V,1 = V,2
The following results are obtained from the velocity diagram
(a) Inlet angle of moving blade, 13, = 33°
(b) Exit velocity, V, = 162.5 m/s
Direction of exit velocity, a2 = 56°
(c) + = 555 m/s
Work done per kg of steam = m(V„,+ = 1 x 555 x 200 = 111000 Nm/s
(d) Axial thrust = m(Va - Va) = 5 x 45 = 225 N

5 x 111000
Power = = 555 kW.
1000
2u(V,, + V,„ ) 2 x 200 x 555
(e) Diagram efficiency = = - 0.888 = 88.8%
VZ (500)2
Vwi
-t—u = 165 in/s

1
al
Val
- 315
Fig. 14.13
4. The steam leaves the nozzles of an impulse turbine with a velocity of 375 m/s and the
nozzle angle is 20°. The blade speed is 165 m/s. Find suitable inlet and outlet angles for the
blades in order that the axial thrust is zero. The relative velocity of steam as it flows over the
blades is reduced by 15% by friction. Determine also the power developed for a flow
rate of 10 kg/s. [A.M.I.E. Summer 1986]
Solution: Given,V, = 375m/s; a, = 20°; u = 165 m/s; Vai = Vaz, V,2 = 0.85 Vr ; m = 10 kg/s
The following results are obtained from the velocity diagram:
= 228 m/s; V, = 195 m/s, p, = 34°; fi2.= 41°, - = 320 m/s
Steam Turbine 369
m (V„ — V„,2)u 10 x320 x 165

Power developed = — 528 kW
1000 1000
5. The mean diameter of the blades of an impulse turbine with a single row wheel is 105 cm
and the speed is 3000 r.p.m. The nozzle angle is 18°, the ratio of blade speed to steam speed is
0.42 and the ratio of the relative velocity at outlet from the blades to that at inlet is 0.84. The
outlet angle of the blade is to be made 3° less than the inlet angle. The steam flow is 8 kg per
sec. Draw the velocity diagram for the blades and derive the (a) resultant thrust on the blades,
(b) tangential thrust on the blades, (c) axial thrust on the blades, (d) power developed in
blades, and (e) blading efficiency
[A.M.I.E. Summer1983]
k v,„„i
Va 2
Vat
Fig. 14.14
Solution: Given, d = 105 cm = 1.05 m; N = 3000; a, = 18°
V,2
= 0.42; 17,- = 0.84; 02 = p, - 3°; m = 8 kg/s
N 1.05 x 3000
Blade speed, «= 1T4 — = 165 m/s
60 60
65
Absolute velocity of steam at inlet, V = — = 393 m/s
.42
The velocity diagram is shown in Fig. 14.14.
[3, = 30.2°; V„+ V„.= 389 m/s; Va = 122 m/s; Va = 93 m/s
(a) Resultant thrust = 4(3112)2 + (232)2 = 3120.56 N

(b) Tangential thrust = + V„) = 8 x 389 = 3112 N
(c) Axial thrust = In (V0 — Va) N = 8(122 — 93) = 232 N
m(V„ + V„.2)i4 8 x 389 x 165

(d) Power developed = kW = = 513.48 kW
1000 1000
2u (V,,, + 1/„.2) 2 x 165 x 389
(e) Blading efficiency = = = 0.83 = 83%.
VZ (393)2
6. A single wheel impulse turbine has blades whose inlet angle is 40° and exit angle 37°. The
mean blade speed is 230 m/s and the nozzles are inclined at an angle of 27° to the plane of
rotation of the blades. There is a 10% loss of velocity due to friction in the blades. The tur-
bine uses 550 kg/hr of steam. Determine (a) steam velocity at nozzle outlet, (b) the power
output of the turbine, and (c) the diagram efficiency.

Vw2 [A.M.I.E. Winter 1981]
VWl
1-0(— u = 230 mis
-a(
a1
Va2
Va t
Fig. 14.15
Solution: Given, [I, = 40'; 13, = 37°; u = 230 m/s; a, = 27°, V = 0.9; m = 550 kg/hr.

(a) Steam velocity at nozzle outlet, V, = 660 m/s(V„+ V„.) = 690 m/s
m (V„. + 550 x 690 x 230 = 24.2458 kw

(b) Power output =
1000 — 3600 x 1000
2u (V„, + Vw2) 2 x 230 x 690
(c) Diagram efficiency = 0.7286 = 72.86%.
VZ (660)2
'1. A single row impulse turbine develops 132.4 kW at a blade speed of 175 m/s using 2 kg of
steam per second. Steam leaves the nozzle at 400 m/s. Velocity co-efficient of the blades is
0.9. Steam leaves the turbine blades axially. Determine (a) nozzle angle and (b) blade angles
at entry and exit, assuming no shock.
1-1(-- V + V =2 378.28 m/s --30-1
u = 175 m/s --).]
Fig. 14.16
Solution: Given, Power= 132.4 kW;
V
r2
14 = 175 m/s; m = 2 kg/s V, =400 m/s; IT, = 0.9;
= 90°.
m( + 2(V„, + V„,)175
Power = or 132.4 =
1000 1000
+ = 378.28 m/s
Steam Turbine 371
From the velocity diagram:

Nozzle angle, a, = 19°, Blade inlet angle, (3, = 32.5°, Blade exit angle, [32 = 36°.
8. The steam enters the nozzle of an
impulse turbine at a pressure of 5 bar and
200°C. The steam is expanded in the
nozzle to a pressure of 0.2 bar. Then it is
supplied to the turbine at the rate of 30
kg/min. The blade speed is 300 m/s. The
0 nozzle is inclined at an angle of 25° with
the direction of motion of the blades and
the outlet blade angle is 35°. Neglecting
friction, find the power developed by the
turbine.
Cl' Solution: Given, P1 = 5 bar; T, = 200°C;
P2 = 0.2 bar, nt = 30 kg/min,
u = 300 m/s; a, = 25°,13, = 35°; Vr = VrZ

Fig: 14.17 From Mollier diagram H, = 2850 kJ/kg;
H2 = 2340 kJ/kg.
V
k Vwt )"-i'c )1 i
= 300 m/s
Va2
Fig. 14.18
Velocity of steam at inlet to blade,
V1 = 44.74(H, — H2) x i„
V1 = 44.74(2850 — 2340) x 1 = 1110 m/s
From the velocity diagram,
VW + V,,z = 1400 m/s
m( + V„,z)u 30 x 1400 x 300
Power = — 210 kW
1000 60 x 1000
9. In a certain stage of an impulse turbine the nozzle angle is 20° with the plane of the wheel.
Four nozzles each of 1 cm diameter expand steam isentropically from 15.2 bar and 250°C to
0.5 bar. The mean diameter of the blade ring is 2.8 m . It develops 55.2 kW at 2400 r.p.m. The
axial thrust is 3.45 N. Calculate (a) blade angles at entrance and exit and (b) power lost in
blade friction.
Solution: Given, cc, = 20'; no. of nozzles, n =4,

2 H1
dia. of nozzle d = 1 cm ..Area = 4d
= 0.785 x 10-4 m2, P, = 15.2 bar

P2 = 0.5 bar, D = 2.8 m, N = 2400,
H2
Power = 55.2 kW
Axial thruSt = 3.45N
nDN n x 2.8 x 2400 = 352 m/s (1)
Blade speed, u = =
60 60
From Mollier diagram H1 —H2 = 590.4 kJ/kg. Fig. 14.19
V, = 44.74(H, — I/2) xr1„ = 44.74590.4 x 1 = 1086 m/s
Dryness fraction of steam at inlet to blade, x = 0.865 and specific volume V, = 3.3 m3/kg.
Mass of steam coming out from nozzle is given by
nA VI 4 x 0.785 x 10-4 x 1086
m= — 0.12 kWs
X Vs 0.865 x 3.3
m( + V„,)u
Power = kW
1000
0.12( V„,, + x 352
55.2 = + V„,2 = 1306.8 m/s
1000
Axial thrust = m(V„. -
3.45 = 0.12(K — V0 )
Vai — Val = 28.75 m/s

From the velocity diagram
Vas = 370 m/s
Vol = 370 — 28.75 = 341.25 m/s
(a) 13, = 29° and 1 2 = 28° Fig. 14.20
(b) V, = 765 m/s; V,1 = 730 m/s
(V,2 — 17,22)
0.12(7652-7302)
Power lost in blade friction = kW _ = 3.1395 kW.
2 x 1000 2000
10. The following data refers to an impulse turbine:
Isentropic nozzle heat drop = 185 kJ/kg
Reheat of steam due to blade friction = 10% of isentropic drop
Nozzle angle = 20°
Ratio of blade speed to whirl component of steam speed = 0.5
Velocity co-efficient for the blades = 0.95
The velocity of steam at entry of nozzle = 30 m/s.
Steam Turbine 373
Calculate (a) blade angles if

the steam leaves axially, k vw1
(b) work done per kg, (c) fric-
tion loss over the blades, and
(d) kinetic energy loss.
Solution: Actual heat drop
which is converted into kinetic
energy = 185 x 0.9 =
166.5 kJ/kg.
a, = 20'; V0Z = 0; a2 = 90°
Fig. 14.21
Absolute velocity of steam at outlet of nozzle (V1) is given by

—302
= 166.5, V, = 578 m/s
2x 102
From the velocity diagram.
(a) Blade inlet angle [3, = 35.6°
Blade outlet angle [32 = 30.8°
= 337.5 m/s, V,z = 320.75 m/s, V2 = V‘,1 = 167 m/s, V,, = 542 m/s, u = 271 m/s
(b) Work done per kg = 11„, )u = 1 x 542 x 271 = 146.9 kJ/kg

2
(c) Friction loss over the blades

— V22 (337.5)2—(320.75)2
— 5510 Nm/s = 5.51 kJ/kg of steam.
2 2
Vat (167)2
(d) Kinetic energy loss = = = 13950 Nm = 13.95 kJ.
2 2
11. One stage of an impulse tur-
vw2
bine consists of a converging
nozzle and one ring of moving
k V 1-1
blades. The nozzles are inclined

at 22° to the blades whose tip 35° ic
angles are both 35°. Va2
(a) If the velocity of steam at
exit from the nozzle is 660 m/s,
find the blade speed so that the
steam shall pass on without
shock and find the diagram
efficiency neglecting losses, if Fig. 14.22
the blades run at this speed.
(b) If the relative velocity of steam is reduced by 15% in passing through the blade ring, find
the efficiency and the end thrust on the shaft when the blade ring develops 1.7 kW.
[A.M.I.E. Winter 1989
Vw2
diC )P ]
Va2
Fig. 14.23
Solution: Given, a, = 22°; 13, =13, = 35°; V, = 660 m/s

From Fig. 14.22, u = 260 m/s, V„ + = 715 m/s, Va = Va2
(a) Diagram efficiency is given by
2u (V„ V„,2) 2 x 260 x 715
flb — = 0.8525 = 85.25%
V2 (660)2
(b) From Fig.14.23, Vrr
= 430 m/s, Z = 0.85 x 430 = 365 m/s
+ Vw = 655 m/s, V, = 250 m/s, = 205 m/s
Diagram efficiency is given by
2u (V„, + V„,Z) 2 x 260 x 655
"rib — = = 0.7825 = 78.25%
(660)2
(V„,, + V„,2)u
655 x 260
Power developed/kg = 170.3 kW
1000 — 1000
1.7
Rate of flow of steam = 1703 — 0.0099 kg/s
End thrust = m(Vd. V0 ) = 0.0099(250 — 205) = 0.449 N.

12. The nozzle angle of a single stage impulse turbine is 20°. The blade angles are equal. The
velocity co-efficient for the blades is 0.83. Find the maximum blade efficiency possible. If
the actual blade efficiency is 90% of maximum blade efficiency, find the possible ratio of
blade speed to steam speed.
Solution: Given, a, = 20°. p, =132
The maximum blade efficiency is given by
costa, cosP2 Vr2
1.1„ (m.) — 2 (1 +KC) where C
= = K =—
Vr, = C1.83
cos220 (0.94)2
(1 + 0.83) = 1.83 x = 0.813 = 81.3%
2 4
The actual efficiency of the turbine = 0.9 x 0.813 = 0.732
Again blade efficiencymb = 2(1 + K) (pcosa, — p2)
0.732 = 2 x 1.83(p x 0.94 — p2) or p2 — 0.94p +0.2 = 0

Solving p = 0.6165 or p = 0.3235.
Steam Turbine ,375
13. Steam issues from the nozzle of an impulse turbine at 405 m/s. The velocity is com-
pounded in two rings of moving blades separated by fixed blades, the moving blade angles
are 30°. Designing for a blade velocity of 67.5 m/s and a 10% loss in the relative velocity in
passing through the blade ring, find the angle of the nozzle and of the fixed blade discharging
tip and calculate the diagram efficiency of the stage.
Solution: Refer to Fig. 14.5 (d).
V,= 405 m/s, u = 67.5 m/s, K = 0.9,13, =13, = 133.
04 = 30°
V, u V,.,
sin(180° - 30°) - sin(30° - al) = sing,
4 05 67.5 67.5 x 0.5
or - al) or sin(30°- = - 0.083333
0.5 = sin(30° 405
or 30°- a, = 4°46'48.6", a, = 30°- 4°46'48.6' = 25°13'11'
Vri V, V 405 x 0.42609
or- 0.5
sina, = sin(180° - 30°)
...Vr = 345.1346 m/s
...V,2 =-KVri =0.9 x345.1346=310.62 m/s

Now VZ = V2 + u 2 - 2.V,.2.0 .cos132
= (310.62)2 + (67.5)2 - 2 x 310.62 x 67.5 x 0.866
V2 = 254.415 m/s
V, = KV, = 0.9 x 254.415 = 228.9735 m/s

V3 V13
Again,
sin(180°-133) sin(30° - a3) sins,
228.9735 67.5 67.5 x 0.5
or or sin a„) - = 0.147396
0.5 - _ sin(30°- a,) 228.9735
or 30° - a3 = 8°28'33"
ot, = 21°31'26"
V3 V, 1; = 228.9735 x 0.366889
=168 m/s
sina3 = sin30° 0.5
11,4 = KV1, = 0 . 9 x 168 = 151.21 m/s.
Velocity of whirl from the first row of moving blades
+ = + = (345.13 +310.62)cos30° = 567.896 m/s.
Velocity of whirl from second row of moving blades
V„,3 + = V,,cosi33 + V,4cosI34 = (168 + 151.21)cos30°= 276.4439 m/s.
Diagram efficiency is given by
2u {(V,„. + Vn) + (Vn + V„,4)} 2 x 67.5(567.896 + 276.4439)
= 0.6949 = 69.49%.
V; (405)2
14. The first stage of an impulse turbine is compounded for velocity and has two rings of
moving blades and one ring of fixed blades. The nozzle angle is 20° and leaving angles of the
blades are respectively: first moving 20°, fixed 25°, second moving 30°. The velocity of the
steam leaving the nozzle is 570 m/s, the blade speed is 120 m/s and the steam velocity rela-
tive to the blades is reduced by 10% during the passage through each ring. Find the diagram
efficiency under these conditions and the power developed for a steam flow of 3.6 kg per
second.
Solution: Given, a, = 20°, R2 = 20-, oy = 25°, Qa = 30°, V, = 570 m/s
u = 120 m/s, K = 0.9,m = 3.6 kg/s
Va2
Fig. 14.24
C,D, = Velocity of whirl for the first set of moving blade = V,y + V,y = 804 m/s
E,F, = Velocity of whirl for the second set of moving blade = + = 264 m/s
2u { ( V„,. + V„,2) + ( +
Diagram efficiency, 11b —
V;
2 x 120(804 + 264)
— 0.7889 = 78.89%.
(570)2
mu {(V,,, + V„,2 )+ (V,„, + V„,4)} 3.6 x 120(804 + 264)
Power developed = kW = — 461.376 kW.
1000 1000
15. At a particular stage of a reaction turbine the mean blade speed is 60 m/s and the steam
pressure is 3.5 bar with a temperature of 175°C. The identical fixed and moving blades have
inlet angles of 30° and outlet ( Vwi+ Vw2 ,
angles of 20°. Determine (a) the
1-.Eu = 60 m/9.1
blade height if it is -1;7,th of the •It
blade ring diameter for a flow Va2

Va1
rate of 810 kg/min. (b) the power
developed by the pair, and (c) the
specific enthalpy drop if the stage
efficiency is 85%.
1A.M.I.E. Winter 1982] Fig. 14.25
Steam Turbine 377
Solution: The specific volume of steam at 3.5 bar and I75°C
= 0.572 m3/kg, u = 60 m/s, a, =13, = 20°, a., =13, = 30°

From the diagram Va = V0 = 60 m/s, V„, + V„, = 270 m/s
(a) Blade height h = 0

1
3tDh.Vaz 7t10.h .h m V,
m= h=
V, V, it 10V'12
,\I 810 x 0.572

h= —0.064 m=64mm.
60 xnx 10 x60
m(V„-1- V„.2)u 810 x 270 x 60

(b) Power developed = 218 kW
1000 60 x 1000 —
( V„, + V„)u
(c) Stage efficiency =
Heat drop
270 x 60
Heat drop — = 19100 J/kg = 19.1 kJ/kg.
0.85
16. A Parson's reaction turbine running at 400 r.p.m consumes 500 kg of steam per minute.
At a certain stage the steam is at
1.6 bar with dryness fraction 0.9
and the stage develops 10 kW.
The axial velocity of flow is
constant and equal to 0.75 of
blade velocity. The blade tip
angles at entrance and exit are
35° and 20° respectively. Deter-
mine (a) mean diameter of the
drum, and (b) the volume of
steam flowing per second.
Solution: Let u = 2.5 cm to Fig. 14.26
represent blade velocity.
From the velocity diagram, V„, + = 7.35 cm
vu., -F Vw 2 7.35
= 2.5 = 2.94 V + Vwi = 2.94u
u
m + V„,2):4
Power =
1000
8.33 x 2.94u x u I moo

10 = . Blade velocity, u = ,N 24.94 — 20.2 m/s
1000
IO N 20.2 x 60
(a) u — .. D = — 0.965 m = 96.5 cm.
60 'It x 400
From steam table at pressure 1.6 bar specific volume of steam V, = 1.091 m3/kg
(b) Volume of steam flowing/second = 8.33 x 0.9 x 1.091 = 8.18 m3/s.
17. At a certain pair in a reac-

tion/ turbine the steam leaves ( \Iwo- vW2= 190 m/s
the fixed blade at a pressure of
u — 63.5 irds
3 bar with a dryness of 0.98
and a velocity of 130 m/s. The 20° 20°
Valy Va 2
discharge angle for both the V. V
rings is 20° and the blades are
2 cm high. The turbine uses
14400 kg of steam per hour
with 5% tip leakage. The ratio
of axial velocity of flow to the
blade velocity is 0.7 at inlet Fig. 14.27
and 0.76 at outlet from the
moving blade. Determine (a) the mean blade ring diameter, and (b) power developed.
Solution: Given, P, = 3 bar, x = 0.98, the specific volume of steam at this pressure
V, = 0.6057 m3/kg
V, = 130 m/s, 02 = cc, = 20°, h = 2 cm

14400
Steam used, in = 14400 kg/hr = — 4 kg/s, tip leakage = 5%
3600
Actual mass of steam used, in = 4 — (4 x 0.05) = 3.8 kg/s, V„ = 0.7u, V a2 = 0.76u
From the velocity diagram, Va, = V,sin20°

Va,= 130 x 0.342 =44.46 m/s
44.46
Va, = 0.7u or u = 63.5 m/s
0.7
Vat = 0.76u = 0.76 x 63.5 = 48.3 m/s
(a) Dm = Mean diameter of blade ring
ftD„,.h Vat x 0.02 x 48.3
m= — 5.1Dm
0.98 x 0.6057
3.8
Dm = = 0.75 m = 75 cm
From the velocity triangle, V„, + = 190 m/s
m (V„ + V„,,)u 3.8 x 190 x 63.5

(b) Power = = 45.847 kW.
1000 1000
18. In a reaction turbine, the blade tips are inclined at 35° and 20° in the direction of motion.
The guide blades are of the same shape as the moving blades, but reversed in direction. At a
certain stage in the turbine the drum diameter is 1 m and blades are 10 cm high. At this place,
steam has a pressure of 1.7 bar and dryness 0.925. If the speed of the turbine is 2500 r.p.m.
and the steam passes through the blades without shock, find (a) the mass flow of steam, and
(b) the power developed.
[A.M.I.E. Winter 1983]
Steam Turbine 379
V52
Fig. 14.28
Solution: Mean drum diameter, D,,= 1 + 0.1 = 1.1 m
nx 1.1 x 2500
Mean blade speed, = — 144 m/s
60
Specific volume of steam at pressure 1,7 bar = 1.031 m3/kg
From the diagram
sin(180° — 35°) — sin20° = sin15°

V, = 319 m/s, Vr = 190 m/s, Va, = V, sin 20° = 319 x sin20° = 109 m/s
nD„,.h.Val Ex 1.1 x 0.1 x 109
(a) The mass flow of steam, in — — 35.8 kg/s
x.V, 0.925 x 1.031
(b) + = 456 rri/s
ni (V.1 +V„2 )u 35.8 x 456 x 144

Power developed = = 2350.7712 kW.
1000 1000
19. The following data refers to a particular stage of a Parson's reaction steam turbine:
Speed of turbine = 1500 r.p.m
Mean diameter of rotor = 1 m
Stage efficiency = 80%
Blade outlet angle = 20°
Speed ratio = 0.7
Determine the available enthalpy drop in the stage.
Solution: Given, N = 1500 r.p.m, Dm = 1 m, B, = 80%
132 = a, = 20°, speed ratio = = 0.7
irD„,N
Blade speed, u =
Vwi+ Vw2 60
k—u = 78.54 m/s—Nd nxlx 1500

— 78.54 mis
20° 4(20° 60
Vat
=0.7 V,
0.7
78.54
= = 112.2 mis
0.7
Fig. 1.4.29
From the velocity diagram VW + = 132.5 m/s

Work done/s kg of steam = m + V„,,)u = 1 x 132.5 x 78.54 = 10406.55 Nm = 10.40655 kJ/s
Work done
Stage efficiency —
Heat drop
10.4 0655
Heat drop = — 13.008 kJ/kg/s.
0.8
20. In a stage of a impulse reaction turbine steam enters with a speed of 250 m/s, at an angle
of 20° in the direction of blade motion. The mean blade speed is 150 m/s when the rotor is
rotating at 3000 r.p.m. The
blade height is 100 mm. The
specific volumes of steam at Vw2 — 272.9 m/s
nozzle outlet and blade outlet
u = 150 m/s
are 3.5 m3/kg and 4 m3/kg .41(
respectively. The turbine 20°

develops 300 kW. Assuming Val
rn
the effectiveness of nozzle and
blades taken together as 90%
and carry over co-efficient as
0.8, calculate (a) the enthalpy
drop in each stages, (b) degree
of reaction, and (c) stage effi-
ciency. Fig. 14.30
[A.M.I.E.1983]
nD„,N nD„, x 3000 150 x 60
Solution: Blade speed, u = 150 = D„,= = 0.955 m
60 60 x 3000
nD„,.h. V, sin al nx 0.955 x 0.1 x 250 sin 20°
At nozzle outlet, m = rcD„,.h.V„, — 7.33 kg/s
V, V, 3.5
nD„,.h. V‘,2 nx0.955x.lxVat
At blade outlet, m = or 7.33 —
V, 4
..V = 97.7 m/s
m(V„, +V„,2)u 7.33( lc +V„)150

Power = or 300 =
1000 1000
300 x 1000
+ = = 272.9 mis
7.33 x 150
From the given data the velocity diagram is drawn (Fig. 14.30).
From the diagram Vr = 121 m/s, V,4 = 212 m/s, V2 = 105 m/s
— (1)1/1 2502 — 0.8 x 1052

(a) Enthalpy drop in fixed blades = = 29.82 kJ/kg.
2ri„ 2 x 0.9 x 1000
2122— 0.8 x 1212
Enthalpy drop in moving blade = (I)V, — = 18.46 kJ/kg
2i,, 2 x 0.9 x 1000
Enthalpy drop in moving blade 18.46

(b) Degree of reaction = — — 0.382 = 38.2%
Total enthalpy drop 18.46 + 29.82
Steam Turbine 381
work done 272.9 x 150

(c) Stage efficiency = = 0.848 = 84.8%
Total heat drop (18.46 + 29.82)1000
21. In a Parson's turbine of 50% degree of reaction running at 25 r.p.s. the available enthalpy
drop for an expansion is 62.8 kJ/kg. If the mean diameter of the rotor is 1 m, find the number
of rows of moving blades required. The blade outlet angle is 20° and speed ratio is
0.7. Assume stage efficiency as 80%. [A.M.I.E. Summer 19901
Vwi + Vw2 )rnd
Bk u A
Fig. 14.31
Solution: Given, 132 = a, = 20°,
rcD„,N rt x 1 x 25 x 60
Blade speed, u = = 78.5 m/s
60 60
78.5
Speed ratio = v = 0.7 V, = = 112 m/s
, 0.7
AF = V,. cos[32 — u = V,cos132 — u = 112 cos20° —78.5 = 27
,
V„ + = V, coca, +AF = 112 x cos20°+ 27 = 132.5 m/s
m(V„., + V„.2)u 1 x 132.5 x 78.5

Work done per stage = = 10.4675 kJ/kg.
1000 1000
Work done per stage

Stage efficiency
= Enthalpy drop per stage
10.4675
Enthalpy drop per stage = 13.084 kJ/kg.
0.8
Total enthalpy drop 62.8

Number of rows required = =5 stages.
Enthalpy drop per stage 13.084
22. At a stage of a reaction turbine, the mean rotor diameter is 140 cm. The speed ratio is 0.7.
Find the inlet angle of the blade if the outlet angle of the blade is 20°. The speed of the turbine
is 3000 r.p.m. Find the diagram efficiency.
If the rotor is designed to run at the best theoretical speed and the exit angle remains the
same, find the percentage,increase in diagram efficiency and rotor speed.
[A.M.I.E.19801
TON IC X 1.4
x 3000
Solution: u = = 220 m/s
60 60
220
Speed ratio, p = 0.7 = V, = -6T7= 314 m/s
Fig. 14.32
a, = p, = 20°
From A ABC
V,2= V,2 + u 2 - 2Vi ucosoc, = (314)2 + (220)2 — 2 x 314 x 220 x cos20° = 17168.068
Vr = 131.02 m/s.
Work done per kg of steam = m(V„,, + V„,)u
= in (2V,cosa, — u)u = 1(2 x 314 cos20° — 220)220 Nm = 81521.1 Nm.
+ — 21q —
Energy supplied — = [..V, = Vr2]
2 2
2 x (314)2 — (131.02)2
— = 90012.88 Nm.
2
Work done 81521.1
Diagram efficiency = 0.9056 = 90.56%
= Energy supplied — 90012.88
For maximum efficiency, u = Vi cosal = 314 cos20° = 295 m/s
For this blade speed of 295 m/s, = (314)2 + (295)2 — 2 x 314 x 295 cos20°
...Vri = 110 m/s.
Work done
Diagram efficiency =
Energy supplied
2u (2Vi cosai — u) 2 x 295(2 x 314cos20° — 295)
= 0.938 = 93.8%
(1q + V,— V2) — (314)2 + (314)2 — (110)2
0.938 — 0.905
Percentage increase in diagram efficiency = . 0.905 — 0.0365 = 3.65%
The best rotor speed

60u 60 x 295
N= — = 4025 r.p.m.
nD IC x 1.4
23. In a power plant the steam is supplied at a pressure of 30 bar and temperature 300°C to the
high pressure side of the turbine where it is expanded to 5 bar. The steam is then removed and
reheated to 300°C at constant pressure. It is then expanded to the low pressure side of the
turbine to 0.05 bar. Find the efficiency of the cycle with and without reheating.
Solution: Given, P, = 30 bar,
Steam Turbine 383
Hc
HA
H
A
HB
HD
Fig. 14.33
T, = 300°C, P2 = 5 bar, P,= 0.05 bar
Temperature of reheated steam = 300°C
From Mollier diagram
HA = 2990 kJ/kg, H,, = 2625 kJ/kg, HE = 3075 kJ/kg,
Hp = 2595 kJ/kg, HE = 2280 kJ/kg.

From steam table hD = hE = 340.6 kJ/kg.
With reheating
(HA — HE) + (Hc— HD) (2990 — 2625) + (3075 — 2595)
= 0.273 = 27.3%.
HA +tic — HB — hp 2990 + 3075 —2625 —340.6
Without reheating
Condition line
HA HA — HE 2990 — 2280
HA — hE 2990 — 340.6
= 0.268 = 26.8%
H 24. In a four stage impulse turbine,

the steam is supplied at 350°C and
at a pressure of 20 bar. The
exhaust pressure is 0.05 bar and
overall turbine efficiency is 80%.
HD Assuming that the work is equally
divided between the stages and the
condition line to be straight, esti-
mate (a) stage pressure, (b) the
efficiency of each stage, and
(c) reheat factor.
Fig. 14.34
Solution: In the Mollier diagram locate the point A, at the intersection of initial pressure 20
bar and initial temperature 350°C. From A, draw a vertical line meeting the pressure line 0.05
bar at D.
H41 = 3140 kJ/kg, H,= 2125 kJ/kg.
Turbine efficiency = Useful heat drop

Adiabatic heat drop
A1C1 +A2C2 + A3C3 + A4C4
0.8 =
HA - HD
HA,- Hc., 3140 - /kJ

0.8 =
HA - HD 3140 -2125
Hc4 = 2328 kJ/kg = H45
Total work done in all four stages = 114, - Plc. = 3140-2328 = 812 kJ/kg.
812
Work done in each stage =-Ti- = 203 kJ/kg.
Now point A5 is marked corresponding to 2328 kJ/kg on a pressure line 0.05 bar as shown in
Fig. 14.34. The condition line A, A2 is drawn straight.
A,C,= A2C2 =A3C3 = A4C4 = 203 kJ/kg.
(a) Let P2 = First stage pressure, P3 = Second stage pressure, and P4 = Third stage pressure
From Mollier diagram we find
P2 = 9 bar, P3 = 2.4 bar, P4 = 0.5 bar
HAI = 3140 kJ/kg; lici = H42 = 2937 kJ/kg
HD, = 2860 kJ/kg; Hc2= HA3 = 2734 kJ/kg
H82 = 2670 kJ/kg; Hc3 = HA4 = 2531 kJ/kg
H83 = 2475 kJ/kg; Hc4 = HA3 = 2328 kJ/kg
H84 = 2285 kJ/kg; H, = 212. kJ/kg
A, C, HAI - HC1 3140 -2937

(b) 0.725 = 72.5%
= A,B, H81 3140-2860
A2C2 HA2 - Hc2 2937 -2734 =

0.76 = 76%
112= A2B2 1-142 -1/82 2937 - 2670
A3C3 HA3 - Hc3 2734 - 2531

- 0.784 = 78.4%
113= A3B3 H43 - HB3 2734 -2475
A4C4 H44 - HCA 2531- 2328

- 0.825 = 82.5%
114= A4B4 H44 -144 2531 -2285
A,B, +A2B2 + A3B3 +A4134

(c) Reheat factor =
AID
Steam Turbine 385
(HA — + (HA,— H3,)+ (HA,— + (HA, — H3,)

HA — HD
(3140 — 2860) + (2937 — 2670) + (2734 — 2475) + (2531— 2285)

— — 1.04
3140 — 2125
25. In a power plant steam is supplied at
a pressure of 100 bar and 500°C to the
turbine. The steam comes out at 0.07 bar
and 85% dry. One stage of reheating is
used. The power output from the turbine
is 1600 kJ/kg. Calculate the thermal
efficiency of the plant.
Solution: Work done
= (HA — !Id+ (H,— HD) = 1600 kJ/kg
Heat supplied = (HA — 10+ (H,— H3)
From steam table
HA = 3373 kJ/kg, hD = 163 kJ/kg at 0.07 bar,
HD = 163 + 0.85 x 2409 = 2211 kJ/kg

Heat supplied in the reheater is given by Fig. 14.35
H,-113 = (HA — H3)+ (H„ — Hp)— HA + 11,
= work done — (HA — H,,,)= 1600 — (3373 — 2211) = 438 kJ/kg.

The thermal efficiency of the plant
is given by
Work done
ri, Heat supplied
1600,
(HA — hp)+ (1-jc — Ha)
1600
=0.44 = 44%
(3373 —163) +438
26. A steam turbine is supplied with
steam having an enthalpy of 3200
kJ/kg. The steam comes out from
the turbine with an enthalpy of 2200
kJ/kg. The ideal regenerative feed
water heater is fed with 11350 kg/hr
of bled steam at 3.5 bar (whose
enthalpy is 2600 kJ/kg). The con-
densate from the condenser with an
enthalpy of 134 kJ/kg enters into
the feed heater. The water leaving
the feed heater dry saturated at 3.5
Fig. 14.36
bar. Calculate the power developed by the turbine. The heater is direct mixing type. Neglect
pump work.
Solution:
Let H1 = Total heat of steam entering the turbine at point 1 = 3200 kJ/kg.
H2 = Total heat of bled steam at point 2 = 2600 kJ/kg
H3 = Total heat of steam leaving the turbine at point 3 = 2200 kJ/kg
h2 = Sensible heat of feed water leaving the feed water heater at point 6 = 584 kJ/kg
/13 = Sensible heat at point 5 of condensate entering the feed water heater = 134 kJ/kg.
Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained by feed water
m(H2 —h2)= (1 — rn)(h,— h3) = (112 — h3)— m(h2 — h3)
m (H2 — h2 + h2 -113)= h2 — h3
112 h 3 584— 134 450
= = 0.1825 kg/kg of steam supplied
m H2 — h3 2600— 134 2466
11350
Steam supplied to the turbine per hour = 0.1815=62150 kg/hr
Work done/kg of steam supplied = (H, — + (1 — in)(H2 — H3)
= (3200 — 2600) + (1 — 0.1815) (2600 — 2200) = 927 kJ/kg

62150 x 927
Power developed by the turbine = — 16003.62 kJ/s = 16003.62 kW.
3600
27. Steam is supplied to a three
stage turbine at a pressure of 15 bar
and 250°C and exhausted at a pres-
sure of 0.07 bar. If the stage effi-
ciencies of all the stages are 75%
HA!
and the pressure at the intermediate
stages are 5 bar and 0.4 bar respec- H A2
tively. Determine (a) Rankine effi-
H81
ciency, (b) condition of steam at the Ht.3
.
end of each stage, (c) efficiency H132
ratio, and (d) reheat factor. H A4
Solution: From Mollier chart H B3
HA. —H, = 840 kJ/kg #2 , H A,
H
= 2923.3 kJ/kg , hD = 163.4 kJ/kg,
11,-1-18 = 209 kJ/kg.

Fig. 14.37
HA ,— HD840
(a) Rankine efficiency = = 0.304 = 30.4%
Hp-
A,— h 2923.3 163.4
(b) HAI — HA2 = 0.75(HAI — H81) = 0.75 x 209 = 156.8 kJ/kg
HA2 = 2923.3 —156.8 = 2766,5 kJ/kg (temperature 160°C)

Steam Turbine 387
H42 — HB2 = 411 kJ/kg
HA2 — HA3 = 0.75 x 411 = 308.3 kJ/kg
HA3 = 2766.5 —308.3 = 2458.2 kJ/kg (x3 = 0.923)

HA3 -1/83 = 235 kJ/kg
HA3 —HA4 = 0.75 x 235 = 176.3 kJ/kg
HA4 = 2458.2-176.3 = 2281.9 kJ/kg (x4 = 0.879)

H AI — HA4 2923.3 —2281.9
(c) Efficiency ratio = u — 0.7636 = 76.36%
H— 840
A iBi + A2B2 + A3B3 (HA — 1181 ) +(11A2 — HBO+ (HA3 — HI33)
(d) Reheat factor —
A ID HAI —HD
209+411+235
— 1.018.
840
28. A reheat cycle operating

between pressures of 30 bar and Hc
0.04 bar has a superheat and reheat
temperature of 450°C. The first HA
expansion takes place till the
steam is dry saturated and then
HB
reheat is given. Calculate the cycle
efficiency neglecting pump work.
HD
Solution: From H —41) diagram
HA = 3343 kJ/kg,
HB = 2713 kJ/kg, H = 3381 kJ/kg
HD = 2505 kJ/kg, hD = 121 kJ/kg
Fig. 14.38
Work done = (HA — HR) + (H,— HD)
= (3343 — 2713) + (3381— 2505) = 630+ 876

= 1506 kJ/kg
Heat supplied = (HA — h p)+ (H,-11,3)
= (3343 —121) + (3381 —2713) =3890 kJ/kg
Work done 1506
Cycle efficiency = — = 0.387 = 38.7%.
Heat supplied 3890
29. The following particulars refer to one stage of an impulse reaction turbine.
Mean diameter = 98 cm
r.p.m = 3000
Nozzle outlet angle = 20°
Nozzle height = 12 cm
Blade height = 12 cm
Specific volume of steam at nozzle outlet = 4.38 m3/kg.
Specific volume of steam at blade outlet = 4.8 m3/kg
Steam velocity of nozzle outlet = 280 m/s
Power developed by blade = 294 kW
Determine: (a) degree of reac-
B
A F tion, (b) outlet angle of moving
blades, and (c) gross stage
Vat efficiency
[A.M.I.E. - 1979]
Solution: AC = V, = 280 m/s,
CF = Va =280 x sin 20°
Fig. 14.39
— x 0.98 x 3000
= 280 x 0.342 = 95.76 m/s, AB = u = ION = 154 m/s
60 60
95.76 DE 95.76 x 4.8
Since mass flow is constant = 104.942
4.38 4.8 4.38
AF = 280 x cos20° = 280 x 0.9397 = 263.116 m/s
BF =263.116-154 = 109.116
95.76
Mass flow/s = m(0,98)4.38
x 0.12 x = 8.08 kg/s.
8.08x 154 xEF

kW =294 — EF = 236.273 m/s
1000
BE = EF — BF = 236.273 — 109.116 = 127.157 m/s
BC2 = BF2 + CF2 = (109.116)2 + (95.76)2 = 21076.279
BC = 145.17 m/s
BD 2 = DE2+ BE2 = (104.942)2 + (127.157)2 = 27181.726

.1. BD = 164.868 m/s
AE = AF — EF = 263.116 — 236.273 = 26.843 m/s
AD2 = AE2 + DE2 = (26.843)2 + (104.942)2

AD = 108.32 m/s
DE 104.942
t = 0.82529
an a - BE — 127.157
132 = moving blade outlet angle = 39.53°.

V; — VZ
Heat drop in the fixed blade — kJ
2 x 1000
AC2 —AD 2 (280)2 — (108.32)2
— 33.333 kJ
2 x 1000 2 x 1000
Steam Turbine 389
-
Heat drop in moving blade = kJ
2 x 1000
BD' - BC' 27181.726-21076.279
- = 3.052 kJ
2x 1000 2x 1000
Total heat drop = 33.333 + 3.052 = 36.385 kJ.
-Heat drop in moving blade 3.052
Degree of reaction = - 8.38%
Total heat drop 36.385
294
Gross stage efficiency - = 100%.
8.08 x 36.385
EXERCISES

1. There is enthalpy drop only in blades in case of an impulse steam tur-
bine.
2. The thermal efficiency of a steam turbine is than that of steam engine.
3. Steam turbine is an combustion thermal prime mover.
4. Balancing is in case of steam turbine.
5. Speed obtained in case of steam turbine may be as high as r.p.m.
6. The method of abstracting steam at certain sections of turbine is known as
7. The steam turbines are mostly of flow type.

8. Steam turbines work on cycles.
9. The turbine was the first impulse steam turbine.
Answers
1. fixed 2. higher 3. external
4. perfect 5. 30,000 6. bleeding
7. axial 8. modified Rankine 9. De-Laval
Delete the phrase which is not applicable
1. A steam turbine develops power at a uniform/changing rate and therefore does not need
a flywheel.
2. In an impulse turbine steam expands in nozzles/blades.
3. The speed of impulse turbine is too high/low for practical purposes.
4. In case of reaction turbine the steam expands as it flows over the moving/fixed blades.
5. In a condensing steam turbine the steam is exhausted at below/above atmospheric pres-
sure.
6. De-Laval turbine is a simple Teaction/impulse turbine.
7. Person's reaction turbine is basically a impulse reaction/pure reaction turbine.
8. Curtis turbine is basically a pressure/velocity compounded impulse turbine.
9. The main advantage of reaction turbine as compared to impulse turbine is low/high
blade speed.
10. The most widely used method of governing steam turbine is nozzle control/throttle
governing.
11. Fbr Person's reaction turbine, degree of reaction is 60%/50%.
12. The pressure on the two sides of the moving blades of a reaction turbine is same/higher.
13. Rateau turbine is basically velocity/pressure compounded impulse turbine.
14. The value of reheat factor varies from 1.2 to 1.6/1.02 to 1.06.
riblade
15. Stage efficiency of steam turbine is nmozzle x %lade'
!nozzle
cos2 a
16. Maximum blade efficiency of impulse turbine is(1 + KC)cosa/(1 + KC)
2
Answers
1. Changing 2. blades 3. low
4. fixed 5. above 6. reaction
7. pure 8. pressure 9. high
10. Nozzle control 11. 60% 12. same
13. velocity 14. 1.2 to 1.6 - 15. ilblade
16. (1 + KC)cos a nnozzle

1. What is the difference between an impulse turbine and a reaction turbine?
2. What is meant by compounding of steam turbine ? Explain the velocity compounding
in detail. What are its advantages?
3. With the help of velocity diagram, establish expression for diagram efficiency and stage
efficiency of a single stage impulse steam turbine.
4. What are the advantages of steam turbine over steam engine?
$. Derive an expression for maximum blade efficiency of an impulse turbine.
6. Derive an expression for maximum blade efficiency of a reaction turbine.
7. What is meant by degree of reaction?
8. What is meant by reheat factor in turbine practice?
9. Describe the re-generative feed heating cycle of operation of a modern steam turbine
power station?
10. What are the different losses that occur in a steam turbine?
11. The steam enters an impulse wheel having a nozzle of 20° at a velocity of 450 m/s. The
exit angle of the moving blade is 20° and the relative velocity of the steam may be
assumed to remain constant over the moving blades. If the blade speed is 180 m/s.
Determine (a) blade angle at inlet, (b) work done per kg of steam, (c) power developed
when the turbine is supplied with 1.8 kg of steam per second, and (d) Diagram
efficiency. [Ans: 33°, 94097.5 Nm, 171.6 kW, 94.23%]
12. The speed of an impulse turbine with a single row wheel is 2400 r.p.m and the diameter
of the blades is 95 cm. The blade velocity co-efficient is 0.8 and the speed ratio is 0.4.
The nozzle angle is 20°. The outlet angle of the blade is 2° less than the inlet blade
angle. Draw the velocity diagram and calculate for a steam flow of 5.4 kg/s, (a) axial
thrust on the blades, (b) power developed, and (c) blading efficiency.
[Ans: 54.74 N, 180.8 kW, 79%]
13. A simple impulse turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 10.3 bar and 40°C
superheat. The pressure in the wheel chamber is 1.03 bar and the nozzle efficiency is
90%. If the nozzle angle is 20°, velocity co-efficient 0.8 and blades are equiangular,
determine for maximum efficiency (a) the blade speed, (b) the blade angles, (c) power
developed for a steam flow of 9000 kg/hr, and (d) blading efficiency.
[Ans: 408.8 m/s, 36°, 756 kW, 80%]
14. Steam issues from a nozzle at 442 m/s. Velocity is compounded in two rows of moving
blades. The moving blade tip angles are 30°. Assuming 10% loss in velocity due to
Steam Turbine 391
friction, determine velocity of the moving blade so that the (a) final discharge is axial
and (b) blade angles of the fixed blade.
[Ans: 100.44 tn/sec, 17°, 43° (outlet)]
15. One stage of an impulse turbine is velocity compounded with two rows of moving
blades having outlet angles of 22° and 30°. The outlet angle of the fixed blade is 35° and
the nozzle angle is 20°. Steam is supplied to nozzles at 13.7 bar and 220°C and the
pressure is the stage is 1.76 bar . If the steam consumption is 1120 kg/hr, mean diameter
of blades 60 cm, turbine speed 3000 r.p.m. nozzle efficiency 90%, loss in relative
velocity across each blade 15%, find (a) power developed, (b) blading efficiency, and
(c) stage efficiency. [Ans: 52 kW, 53.67%, 48.2%]
16. A reaction turbine has a speed of 3000 r.p.m and the mean diameter of blading at a cer-
tian pair is 750 mm. The exit angle of the blade is 20°, both fixed and moving blades
being identical. The steam flow rate is 810 kg/min. If the power developed per pair is
220 kW and steam pressure is 2.74 bar dry saturated, calculate the inlet blade angle and
blade height. [Ans: 74.5°, 8.7 cm ]
17. The drum diameter of a reaction turbine is 2 m. The speed is 750 r.p.m and the steam
consumption 14 kg/s. At a particular ring the blade height is 16 cm and discharge angle
25°. The pressure at this place in the turbine is 0.39 bar and dryness 0.97. Calculate the
power developed in this particular ring, assuming a turbine efficiency of 75%, Also find
the drop in pressure while the steam is passing through the turbine pair.
[Ans: 160.3 kW, 0.049 bar]
18. Steam at a pressure of 13.72 bar and 250°C is expanded through a turbine to a pressure
of 4.12 bar. It is then reheated to a temperature of 200°C after which it completes its
expansion through the turbine to an exhaust pressure of 0.2 bar. Calculate the ideal
efficiency of the plant and the work done (a) taking the reheating into account and (b) if
the steam was expanded direct to the exhaust pressure without reheating.
[Ans: 26.4%, 753.6 kJ, 26%, 695 kJ]
19. Steam supplied to a three stage turbine is at 19.6 bar and 350°C. The steam leaves the
first stage at 5.9 bar and the second stage at 0.98 bar. The steam finally leaves at 0.98
bar. Each stage has an efficiency of 0.8. Find (a) overall thermal efficiency, (b) effi-
ciency ratio, and (c) reheat factor. [Ans: 28.3%, 0.804, 1.008 ]
20. Steam leaves the boiler and enters the turbine at 4118.94 kPa, 425°C. After expansion
to 411.89 kPa, some of the steam is extracted from the turbine for the purpose of
heating the feed water in a feed water heater. The remaining steam is expanded to a
condenser pressure of 6.86 kPa. Determine the efficiency of the cycle.
[Ans: 39%]
21. Steam is supplied to the turbine at 17.2 bar and 45°C superheated. Two stages of feed
heating are employed. The steam is bled at pressures 3.4 bar and 0.68 bar. The tempera-
ture of feed water is raised to that of the bled steam and the condensate from each heater
may be taken at the same temperature as feed water entering the heater. The condensate
pressure is 0.068 bar. The stage efficiency is 0.7 for the first stage and 0.65 for the other
two stages. Determine the overall thermal efficiency of the cyCle. [Ans.]
Steam Condenser
15.1 INTRODUCTION
A closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abqracting heat and the pres-
sure is maintained below atmospheric pressure is known as a condenser.
15.2 ADVANTAGES OBTAINED BY

INCORPORATING A CONDENSER IN A
STEAM ENGINE OR STEAM TURBINE PLANT
(a) The efficiency of the plant increases due to the increased enthalpy
drop, which increases by increasing the vacuum in the condenser.
(b) Reduction in steam consumption per kW hour. Increase in vacuum
from 71 to 73.5 cm of Hg gives about 45% reduction in steam con-
sumption.
(c) The temperature of the condensate is always higher than that of the
feed water if it is taken from an outside source. Therefore the amount
of heat supplied by the boiler per kg of steam generated is reduced.
Atmospheric
pressure line
F.
7 7
co) co)
Volume Volume --)—

(a) (b)
Fig. 15.1 Effect of condenser vacuum on (a) work done by steam engine, and
(b) work done by steam turbine
Steam Condenser 393
(d) The reuse of condensate as feed for boiler reduces the cost of power
generation. This is made possible by the use of a condenser. The sec-
tioned areas shown in Figs 15.1(a) and (b) represent the increase in
work done per kg in a steam engine and steam turbine respectively by
exhausting steam into the condenser instead of exhausting into the
atmosphere.
(e) The formation of deposits in the boiler is prevented with the use of
condensate instead of feed water from outer sources.
15.3 PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS OF A

CONDENSING PLANT
(a) A condenser in which steam is condensed.
(b) A condensate pump to extract the condensed steam from the condenser
and feed it to the hot well.
(c) A dry air pump to remove air and non-condensable gases.
(d) A feed water pump to force the condensate from the hot well to the
boiler.
(e) A cooling water pump for circulating cooling water.
(f) An arrangement such as cooling tower to recool the circulating water
after it gets heated in the condenser.
(g) An atmospheric relief valve for releaving the pressure in the,condenser
when the condenser does not function properly.
15.4 TYPES OF CONDENSER

Condensers may be classified into the following two groups: (a) jet condensers
and (b) surface condensers.
Jet Condenser
In a jet condenser, the steam to be condensed and the cooling water come in
direct contact and the temperature of condensate is the same as that of the cool-
ing water leaving the condenser. For jet condensers the recovery of the conden-
sate for reuse as boiler feed water is not possible.
The jet condensers are divided into:
(a) Parallel flow jet condenser in which the steam and the cooling water
flow are in the same direction.
(b) Counter flow jet condenser in which the steam flows in the opposite
direction to the cooling water.
Depending upon the arrangement of the removal of condensate, the jet con-
densers are subdivided into the following categories: (a) Parallel flow jet con-
denser, and (b) Low level counter flow jet condensers.
Parallel flow Jet condenser
A low water level parallel flow jet condenser is equipped with a dry air pump
and a condensate extraction pump. The mixture of exhaust steam and air from
the engine enters from the top of the condenser and on descending comes in
contact with a spray of cooling water. The cooling water enters from the top of
condenser. The condensate and cooling water are removed from the bottom by
means of a pump. Figure 15.2 (a) shows the arrangement of low level parallel
flow jet condenser.
Exhaust steam
Perforated tray
Air pump
Condensate
Condensate
Boiler extraction
feed water pump
Cooling
water
Over flow pipe

Hot well
Cooling pond ►
Fig. 15.2 (a) Parallel flow jet condenser
Low level counter flow Jet condenser
Figure 15.2 (b) shows the arrangement of a low level counter flow jet con-
denser. The water and steam flow in the opposite direction. The cooling water
after entering into the condenser at the top is passed through a series of
perforated trays. This helps in breaking the water into sprays and increases the
heat transfer rate. The steam while rising up comes in contact with the water
sprays and gets condensed.
No separate cooling water pump is required to supply cooling water as the
vacuum created in the condenser is sufficient to draw cold water into the con-
denser. The counter flow arrangement prevents undercooling of the condensate
and the condensate coming out from the condenser may approach the
Steam Condenser 395
temperature of the incoming steam. This arrangement requires less quantity of

cooling water as mixing is more rapid and provides higher heat transfer co-
efficient. The extraction of air is done form the top of the condenser. This helps
in reducing the capacity of the air pump as air density increases while ascending
upwards due to cooling.
Air pump suction_
Perforated tray
Exhaust steam inlet
Condensate
Condensate
Feed water extraction
to boiler pump
Cooling
water
Over flow pipe

Hot well
Cooling pond
Fig. 15.2 (b) Low level counter flow jet condenser
The condensate coming out from the condenser is extracted by a pump and
discharged to the hot well. The hot condensate from the hot well is supplied to
the boiler by a separate feed pump if it is suitable as feed water to the boiler.
Other two mixing types of condensers are Barometric or high level con-
denser and ejector condenser, but they are not described here as they do not
carry much practical importance.
Advantages of Jet condenser
(a) More intimate mixing of steam and cooling water.
(b) Requires less vantity of circulating water.
(c) Less floor space required.
(d) The equipment is simple and capital cost is low.
Disadvantages of Jet condenser

(a) There is a waste of condensate.
(b) The cooling water should be clear and free from impurities.
(c) The piping is costly.
(d) Vacuum seldom exceeds 660 mm of Hg.
(e) The air extraction pump requires high power.
Surface Condenser
In this type of condenser, the cooling water and exhaust steam do not come in
direct contact with each other. It is generally used where large quantities of
inferior water is available and where good quality of feed water to the boiler
must be used most economically. The arrangement of the surface condenser is
shown in Fig 15.3.
Exhaust steam
Cooling water
Cover plates outlet
Baffle plate
Water box Cooling water

inlet
Condensate to
extraction pump
Fig. 15.3 Surface condenser

It consists of an air tight cylindrical shell closed at each end. A number of
tubes are fixed in the tube plates. The exhaust steam from the prime mover
enters at the top of the condenser and surrounds the condenser tubes through
which cooling water is circulated under force. The steam gets condensed as it
comes in contact with the cold surface of the tubes. The cooling water flows in
one direction through the first set of tubes situated in the lower half and returns
in the opposite direction through the second set of the tubes situated in the upper
half of the condenser. The warm cooling water comes out from the condenser by
a separate pump and air is removed by an air pump.
Steam Condenser 397
Classification of surface condenser

The surface condensers may be classified according to:
(a) Number of water passes—single or multipass
(b) Direction of condensate flow and tube arrangement—down flow, cen-
tral flow.
Down flow condenser In_this type of condenser, steam enters from the top and
flows mainly downwards over the tubes. The air is extracted at a lower temper-
ature than the condensate by providing a separate cooling section known as air
cooler.
Central flow condenser In this type of condenser the air cooling section i8
provided at the centre of the tube nest of air is extracted from this section. This
arrangement causes the steam to flow radially inwards towards the centre and
pass over the entire periphery of tubes. The condensate is extracted from the
bottom.
Requirements of a modern surface condenser
The following are the requirements of a modern surface condenser:
(a) The steam should be evenly distributed over the whole cooling surface
of the condenser.
(b) There should be no undercooling of condensate.
(c) The water should be passed through the tubes and steam must surround
the tubes.
(d) There should be no air leakage into the condenser.
(e) An arrangement for cooling the air should be provided in the condenser
before its extraction.
(f) The rise in temperature of cooling water should be limited to 10°C for
better thermal efficiency.
Advantages of surface condenser
A surface condenser has the following advantages:
(a) High vacuum can be attained which provides a high thermal efficiency.
(b) The condensate can be directly used as boiler feed water.
(c) Any kind of cooling water can be used in the condenser.
(d) Chances of losing vacuum are minimum.
(e) Suitable for high capacity units.
Limitations of a surface condenser
(a) The surface condenser is bulky and so requires more space.
(b) Its capital running and maintenance cost is greater than jet condenser.
15.5 VACUUM IN CONDENSER AND ITS

MEASUREMENT
The Vacuum in condenser is usually measured in cm of mercury. It is the
difference between the barometric

Vacuum gauge pressure and the absolute pressure in
the condenser.
Let 11b = Barometric height in cm of
Hb — Hv Hg.
Condenser Hv = Vacuum gauge reading in
shell
cm of Hg.
Then absolute pressure in the con-
denser
= Hb — Hv cm of Hg.
Mercury bath The barometric height changes from
place to place. Accordingly, the gauge
reading would also vary. For the pur-
pose of comparison, it is convenient to
refer the vacuum reading to a standard
barometric height of 76 cm of Hg.
Fig. 15.4 Corrected vacuum = 76 — (Hb — Hv)
Pressure equivalent to 1 cm of Hg = 1.333 x 10-3 bar.
Causes of Loss of Vacuum in Condenser

(a) Air infiltration.
(b) Reduced circulation of cooling water.
(c) Scale accumulation on the surface of tubes.
(d) Plugging of ejector jet.
Methods to Obtain the Maximum Possible Vacuum

in. Condensers used in Modern Steam Power Plants
(a) Constantly removing the air from condenser.
(b) By keeping the cooling water temperature as low as possible.
(c) By keeping the leak proof joints.
15.6 VACUUM EFFICIENCY
The vacuum efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual vacuum to the ideal
vacuum.
Actual vacuum
Vacuum efficiency —
Ideal vacuum
Actual vacuum recorded by gauge

— Barometric pressure — Absolute pressure corresponding
to temperature of condensation
Steam Condenser 399
Factors Affecting the Vacuum Efficiency

(a) If the air leakage increases, the vacuum efficiency decreases due to
increase in Pa.
(b) The vacuum efficiency decreases with an increase in barometric pres-
sure.
(c) The vacuum efficiency decreases due to insufficient amount of cooling
water.
15.7 CONDENSER EFFICIENCY

Condenser efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual rise in the temperature of
cooling water to the maximum possible rise.
t2 - ti
Condenser efficiency —
T, —11
where Ts = Saturation temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure in

the condenser
ti = Inlet temperature of cooling water.
t2 = Outlet temperature of cooling water.
15.8 CO-EFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (C.O.P.)

OF CONDENSER
t2 — t
C.O.P. =
(T1 — T2) + 5
where T1 = Mean condenser temperature

T2 = Temperature of hot well.
15.9 SOURCES OF AIR LEAKAGE IN CONDENSER

(a) The air leaks through the joints, packings and glands into the con-
denser as the pressure inside is below the atmospheric pressure.
(b) The feed watercontains air in dissolved condition. The dissolved air gets
liberated when steam is formed and it is carried with the exhaust steam
into the condenser.
(c) In case of jet condenser, dissolved air with the cooling water enters into
condenser.
15.10 EFFECTS OF AIR LEAKAGE IN A

CONDENSER
(a) It increases the back pressure of the prime mover and reduces the work
done per kg of steam.
(b) The partial pressure of steam and its corresponding temperature

decreases due to pressure of air.
(c) Because of poor thermal Conductivity of air the rate of heat transfer
from the vapour is reduced.
15.11 DETECTION OF AIR LEAKAGE

For the detection of air leakage the plant is run till the pressure and temperature
are steady in the condenser. Then the condenser is isolated from the rest of the
plant by shutting off the steam supply and stopping the pumps. If the condenser
has leakage then the readings of vacuum gauge and thermometer will fall. The
location of air leakage is found by one of the following methods:
(a) Soap bubble The condenser is filled with air at pressure. The effect of
soap water is noted. At the point of air leakage there will be a bubble for-
mation.
(b) Pepprament oil This test is done when the condenser is in function. Oil is
put on the suspected joint. If there is any leakage, the oil fumes enter the
condenser and there is an odour in the air discharge from the condenser.
(c) Candle flame Large leakages can be detected by passing a candle flame
over suspected places of leakage when the condenser is under vacuum.
15.12 DETERMINATION OF THE QUANTITY

OF CIRCULATING WATER REQUIRED
IN A CONDENSER
Let mw = Mass of circulating cooling water in kg.
ms = Mass of steam condensed in kg.
H1 = Total heat of steam entering the condenser in kJ/kg.
h2 = Sensible heat of condensate in kJ/kg.
= Inlet temperature of circulating cooling water in °C.
t2 = Outlet temperature of circulating cooling water in °C.
s = Specific heat of cooling water in kJ/kg K = 4.187 kJ/kg K.
Heat lost by steam = ins(111 —h2)= ms(hi + h2)
Heat gained by cooling water = na v x s (t2 — ti )

We know that
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by water
ms(hi + — h2) = xs tI)
mAht +x 1 L1 — h2)
m,,, = kg.
s (12-10
Steam Condenser 401
15.13 COOLING TOWER

A majority of large power plants are built adjacent to rivers where cooling water
is available in large quantities. But for many plants, the source of cooling water
is the local water supply. In such cases, the same water is recirculated over and
over again. It must be cooled before it re-enters the condenser tubes. The water
is cooled by means of cooling ponds or cooling towers.
There are different types of cooling towers. The induced draft cooling towers
are commonly used in high capacity power plants.
The hot water coming out from the condenser is sprayed at the top of the
tower and air is induced to flow through the tower with the help of induced draft
fan mounted at the top of the tower. The amount of water usually lost with
induced draft cooling tower ranges from 1 to 2% by evaporation and 0.5 to 2%
by drift losses. To compensate these losses water is supplied from an external
source.
15.14 AIR PUMPS
The presence of air in the condenser increases the condenser pressure. This will
decrease the turbine efficiency.
Air pumps are provided to maintain a desired vacuum in the condenser by
extracting the air and other gases. The common types of pumps used for this
purpose are:
(a) Wet air pumps: They remove a mixture of condensate and non-
condensable gases.
(b) Dry air pumps: They remove only air.
Edward Air Pump

This is a wet air pump of the reciprocating type. It consists of delivery valves
which are placed in the cover. The pump piston is flat on its upper surface and
conical at the bottom. The pump lever has a ring of ports around its lower end
for the whole circumference.
When the piston is at the top of the barrel the condensate and air from the
condenser is collected in the conical portion of the lower part of the barrel
through the ports. On the downward stroke of the piston, vacuum is produced
above it. The piston uncovers the ports. The mixture of condensate and air
rushes into the space above the piston. This mixture is compressed when the
piston goes up and raises the pressure above the atmospheric pressure, The
delivery valves are now open which allow the mixture to pass on the top of the
cover. The condensate flows over the weir to the hot well, which is at atmo-
spheric pressure. A relief valve is placed at the base of the cylinder to release the
pressure.
Volumetric Efficiency of a Wet Air Pump

+ V„
Suction capacity
where Va = Volume of air pumped in m3/min
V„ = Volume of condensed steam in m3/min
2 3
7cD xL x N m /min
Suction capacity for single acting pump = —
4
where D = Pump piston diameter in metre
L = Stroke length in metre
N =. r.p.m of the pump
Volumetric Efficiency of Dry Air Pump

Va
rIvot = Suction capacity
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. In a surface condenser the pressure of steam is 12 kPa. The cooling water flow rate is
40 kg/kg of steam condensed. The condensate leaves at 44°C and the rise in temperature of
circulating water is 14°C. Determine the dryness fraction of steam entering the condenser.
Solution: Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by circulating water.
7,(H, — h2) = m,,,x s (t,— t,) m,(h,+ h2) = m„x s (12 — t,)
From steam table at pressure 12 kPa, h, = 207 kJ/kg, L, = 2383 kJ/kg, h2 = 184.2 kJ/kg
1(207 + x, x 2383 — 184.2) = 40 x 4.187 x 14
40 x4.187 x 14 + 184.2 —207

x, = — 0.976
2383
2. In a surface condenser the vacuum maintained is 70 cm of Hg. The barometer reads
75.4 cm of Hg. If the temperature of condensate is 18°C, calculate (a) partial pressure of air,
(b) mass of air per kg of steam, and (c) vaccum efficiency. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Absolute pressure in the condenser in given by
Pa, = Barometer reading - Vacuum reading = 75.4 - 70 = 5.4 cm of Hg = 54 mm of Hg
= 54 x 0.001333 = 0.071982 bar
Again P, = P5 + Po
From steam table at 18°C, P3 = 0.02063 bar V, = 65.08 m3
(a) Partial pressure of air P„= P„,,— P3 = 0.071982 — 0.02063 = 0.051352 bar
(b) Pa Va = m„R„Ta
Pa V° 0.051352 x 105 x 65.08

ma — 4 kg/kg of steam.
RaTa 287 x (18 + 273)
Steam Condenser 403
Actual vacuum
(c) Vaccum efficiency
Barometer reading - Pressure in mm of Hg corre-
sponding to temperature of condensation
700
= = 0.948 = 94.8%
754 - 15A
3. Find the weight of cooling water required in the surface condenser of a 3000 kW steam
power plant from the following data:
Steam used = 10 kg/kWhr
Exhaust steam condition = 0.9 dry
Pressure in the condenser = 0.1 bar
Hot well temperature = 32°C
Cooling water inlet temperature = 25°C
Cooling water outlet temperature = 32°C
Temperature of steam at entrance = 40°C
What will be the vacuum efficiency ?
Solution: Power of steam power plant = 3000 kW
Steam used = 10 kg/kWhr
10 x 3000
m, - kg/min = 500 kg/min.
60
in,(h i + 112)
The mass of circulating water required is given by m„. =
s(12 -ti)
From steam table at 40°C, h, = 167.5 kJ/kg, L, = 2392.9 kJ/kg and at 32°C, h2 = 134 kJ/kg.
= 500(167.5 + 0.9 x 2392.9 - 134)
.*. m„. - 29020 kg/min
4.187(34 - 25)
Corresponding to 32°C ideal pressure, P, = 0.0475 bar
Assuming barometric pressure = 1.05 bar
Ideal vacuum = 1.05 - 0.0475 = 1.0025 bar
Actual vacuum = 1.05 - 0.1 = 0.95 bar
Actual vacuum 0.95
Vacuum efficiency = = 0.948 = 94.8%
Ideal vacuum 1.0025
4. A surface condenser deals with 2100 kg of steam per hour and the air leakage amounts to
0.8 kg per hour. The temperature of air pump suction is 35°C and the vacuum is 680 mm of
Hg when the barometer reads 760 mm of Hg. Determine the capacity of wet air pump which
has a volumetric efficiency of 75%.
Solution: From steam table at temperature 35°C.
Partial pressure of steam Ps = 0.0573 bar
Specific volume V, = 25.25 m3
Absolute pressure in condenser is given by
P,= Barometer reading - Vacuum reading
= 760 - 680 = 80 mm of Hg = 80 x 0.001333 = 0.1087 bar

Partial pressure of air Pa = Pob - Ps= 0.1087 - 0.0573 = 0.0514 bar
Volume of air to be handled can be calculated by the equation Palls,= malt Tr,
trialt,T„ 0.8 x 287 x (35 +273)
= - 13.76 m3/hr
0.0514 x 105
Volume of condensed steam handled per hour

2100 , 3
V =- L .3 M
1000=
+ V„
Volumetric efficiency of the wet air pump =
Suction capacity
+ V„ 13.76 + 2.1
Suction capacity = = 21 rn3/hr.
rlva 0.75
5. The following observations were recorded during a trial on a steam condenser:
Condenser vacuum = 0.93325 bar (70 cm of Hg)
Barometer reading = 1.02 bar (76.5 cm of Hg)
Mean condenser temperature = 35°C
Hot well temperature = 28°C
Condensate collected = 1800 kg/hr
Mass of cooling water = 80000 kg/hr
Inlet temperature of cooling water = 15°C
Outlet temperature of cooling water = 27°C
Calculate (a) Vacuum corrected to a standard of 76 cm of Hg, (b) Vacuum efficiency,
(c) Undercooling of condensate, (d) Condenser efficiency, (e) State of steam entering the
condenser, (f) Mass of air present per cubic metre of condenser volume, and (g) Mass of air
present per kg of uncondensed steam.
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K, Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg
[D.M.E. - III 1986, A.M.I.E. 19841
Solution: (a) Corrected vacuum = 1.01325—(1.02-0.93325) = 0.9265 bar
(b) From steam table the pressure of steam corresponding to temperature of 35°C =
0.0562 bar
Actual vacuum
Vacuum efficiency
Barometric pressure - Absolute pressure of steam
0.93325
— 0.9685 = 96.85%
1.02 — 0.0562
(c) Undercooling of condensate = condenser temp.—temp. of hot well = 35-28 = 7°C
(d) Absolute pressure in condenser Po, = P5 + P„
Again lj b= Barometer reading—Vacuum reading = 1.02-0.93325 = 0.08675 bar
Saturation temperature corresponding to pressure 0,08675 bar from steam table = 42.9°C
Therefore the maximum temperature to which the cooling water can be raised is 42.9°C
Actual cooling water temperature rise 27 — 15 12
Condenser efficiency = = 0.43 = 43%
Maximum possible temperature rise 42.9 — 15 27.9
(e) From steam table at pressure 0.08675 bar
= 179.8 kJ/kg, L = 2399.6 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of condensate corresponding to hot well temperature of 28°C = 117 kJ/kg
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by water
1800(179.8 + x x 2399.6 —117) = 80000 x 4.187(27 —15)
x = 0.9
(f) At condenser temperature of 35°C partial pressure of steam P, = 0.0562 bar
Pa = Pab. P, = 0.08675 — 0.0562 = 0.03055 bar
Steam Condenser 405
Mass of air present per m3 of condenser volume is given by

Palla 0.03055 x 103 x 1
m= „ - = 0.03456 kg
287(35 + 273)
(g) Specific volume of steam at 35°C = 25.25 m3/kg.

0.03055 x 105x 25.25
Mass of air present per kg of uncondensed steam = = 0.8723 kg
287(35 + 273)
6. A steam turbine developing 2.5 MW has a steam rate of 6.15 kg/kW hour. The steam is
supplied at 24 bar and 300°C. From turbine the steam is exhausted to a condenser at 720 mm
of Hg (Vacuum). The barometer reads 750 mm of Hg. The temperature of condensate is
27°C. The circulating water enters the condenser at 15°C and leaves at 25°C. Find (a) quality
of steam entering the condenser, (b) quantity of circulating water, and (c) ratio of cooling.
Assume no air is present in the condenser.
Solution: From steam table, at pressure 24 bar saturation temperature is 221.8°C. But the
steam supply temperature is 300°C. Therefore the steam is superheated. Total heat of super-
heated steam at entrance to turbine.
Hsup = h + L + Ci,(Tap-T,)= 952 +1850 + 2.093(573 -494.8) = 3013.3 kJ/kg.
Steam rate = 6.15 kg/kWhr

Mass of steam entering to the turbine is given by
6.15 x2.5 x 103
m, = 6.15 x 2.5 x 103 kg/hr = . kg/s
3600
Pressure of exhaust steam = 750 - 720 = 30 mm of Hg = 30 x 0.001333 = 0.03999 bar.
From steam table, at pressure 0.03999 bar, h,= 121.4 kJ/kg, L, = 2433.1 kJ/kg
Total heat of exhaust steam = h, + x,L,= 121.4 +x, x 2433.1 kJ/kg
Heat drop in the turbine per kg of steam = 3013.3 - (121.4 +x, x 2433.1) kJ
6.15 x 2.5 x 103
Total heat drop per second = [3013.3 - (121.4 +x, x 2433.1)] kJ/s
3600
Energy produced by the turbine = 2.5 MW = 2500 kJ/s
As there is no mechanical loss, the heat drop in the turbine must be equal to the energy pro-
duced.
6.15 x 2.5 x 103
[3013.3 -(121.4 +x, x 2433.1)] =2500
3600
.*. x, = 0.95
(b) Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by cooling water
ms(h,+ xi L,- /0= m„.x s(1,- t1)
ms(hi + x IL, - h2 )
"114 =
S
x2.5-;111.4+0.95x2433.1-113.1)
4..7(298 - 288)
Cooling water flow rate 852061
(c) Ratio of coo). ' = = 55.42
Steam flow rate 6.15 x 2.5 x 103
7. In a surface condenser test the vacuum gauge reading was 66 cm of Hg when the barometer
reads 76 cm of Hg. The temperature in the condenser was 47°C. Find the alteration in vacuum
if the quantity of air entering the condenser was reduced to 100 kg/hour by suitable means.
If the condensate weighs 980 kg/hr, calculate quantities of air and vapour which the pump
has to deal with.
Solution: Absolute pressure in condenser, Pab= 76-66 = 10 cm of Hg = 0.1333 bar
From steam table at 47°C, partial pressure of steam
Ps = 0.106 bar and specific volume V, = 13.88 m3/kg
P,= Ps + Pa Pa = 0.1333 - 0.106 = 0.0273 bar
Mass of steam = 980 kg/hr
Volume of steam/hr = 980 x V, = 980 x 13.88 = 13602 m3
This is also the volume of air
PaVa 0.0273 x 105 x 13602
of air = - 404.3 kg/hr
RaTa = 287(47 +273)
When the mass of air is reduced to 100 kg/hr the partial pressure of air will become
100
x 0.0273 = 0.00675 bar
P° = 404.3
Absolute pressure of condenser will change to = 0.106 + 0.00675 = 0.11275 bar
0.11275
1.333 x 10-3
= 84.6 mm of Hg.
New vacuum reading = 760 - 84.6 = 675.4 mm of Hg.
Alteration in vacuum = 675.4 - 660 = 15.4 mm of Hg.
Capacity of pump = 980 + 100 = 1080 kg/hr.
8. In a surface condenser the vacuum reading is 721 mm of Hg. The barometer reads 758 mm
of Hg. The amount of air leakage in the condenser amounts to 6 kg/hr. The temperature at
inlet to the air cooler section is 30°C and at the outlet is 26°C. Calculate (a) mass of steam
condensed in the air cooler section, and (b) reduction in the air pump capacity following the
cooling of air.
Solution: Absolute pressure in condenser, Poi, = 758 - 721 = 37 mm of Hg = 0.04933 bar.
At entry to cooling section, partial pressure of steam corresponding to 30°C from steam
table P, = 0.04246 bar.
Partial pressure of air, Pa = Pab 135 = 0.04933 - 0.04246 = 0.00687 bar.
ma RaT„ 6 x 287 x (30 + 273)
Volume of air, V, = - 759.5 m3/hour
0.00687 x 105
759.5 759.5
Mass of steam associated with the air - V,-= 23.09 kg/hr.
3289
Specific volume at 30°C, V, = 32.89 m3/kg
At outlet to cooling section, partial pressure of steam corresponding to 26°C from steam table
P, = 0.03363 bar, specific volume V, = 40.99 m3/kg
Partial pressure of air, Pa = Po -1), = 0.04933 - 0.03363 = 0.0157 bar
maR,T, 6 x 287 x (26 + 273)
Volume of air, Va = = 327.9 m3Thr
Pa 0.0157 x 105
327.9
Mass of steam associated with air = 40.99 _ 8 kg/hr.
(a) Mass of steam condensed = 23.09-8 =15.09 kg/hr.
Steam Condenser 407
759.5 - 327.9
(b) Percentage reduction in capacity = = 0.566 = 56.6%.
759.5
9. A steam engine using 3000 kg of steam per hour exhausts into a jet condenser where the
vacuum is 670 mm of Hg. (barometer reading 754 mm of Hg). The amount of air entering the
condenser at the rate of 0.6 kg per 1000 kg of steam. Cooling water with inlet temperature of
23°C is injected into the condenser is 0.075 in' per kg of steam. The condensate temperature
is 34°C. The injection water has also air dissolved in it which is 6% of the volume of water at
atmospheric pressure. The volumetric efficiency of the pump is 80%. Determine (a) capacity
of air pump to remove air and condensate and (b) The rise in temperature of cooling water
assuming steam enters the condenser dry and saturated at 34°C.
Solution: Absolute pressure in condenser Prth = 754-670 = 84 mm of Hg = 0.112 bar
Partial pressure of steam at 34°C, P, = 0.05324 bar
Partial pressure of air, P = 0.112 - 0.05324 = 0.05876 bar.
0.6 x 3000
Mass of air entering with steam, m, = 1.8 kg/hr
1000 =
Volume of cooling water = 0.075 x 3000 = 225 m3/hr
1.013x 105 x 225 x 0.06
Mass of air with cooling water, tn, - - 16.1 kg/hr
287(23 + 273)
Total mass of air, m„ = nt , +m2 = 1.8+ 16.1 = 17.9 kg/hr.
maRr,T„ 17.9 x 287 x (34 + 273)
Volume of this air = = 265.8 m3/hr
0.05876 x 105
3000
Volume of condensate, V„= 1000 = 3m /hr
Va + V„.
Volumetric efficiency
= Suction capacity of pump
265.8 + 3
0.8 -
Suction capacity of pump
268.8
Suction capacity of pump = = 336 m3/hr
0 .8
(b) Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by cooling water
x H,= m,, x s x rise in temp. of cooling water
tn, x H, 3000 x 2421
Rise in temperature of cooling water = = 7.71°C
m„, x s 225 x 1000 x 4.187
10. In a condenser, separate air and water pumps are installed. Steam enters the condenser at
40°C and condensate is removed at 37°C. The quantity of air infiltrating into the condenser
through various zones is 5 kg/hr. Calculate (a) the volume of air handled by the air pump, and
(b) the quantity handled by a combined air condensate pump at 38°C.
Solution: Pressure of steam corresponding to 40°C = 0.0738 bar
At air pump suction point temperature = 37°C
Partial pressure of steam, P,= 0.0627 bar
Partial pressure of air, P,„ = 0.0738 - 0.0627 = 0.0111 bar.
mak,71 5 x 287 x (37 + 273)
Volume of air = = 400.8 m3/hr.
0.0111x105
If the condensate air are to be removed by the same pump at 38°C

Partial pressure of steam at 38°C, P, = 0.0662 bar
Partial pressure of air, P,,= 0.0738 - 0.0662 = 0.0076 bar
5 x 287 x (38 + 273)
..Volume of air = = 776 m3/hr.
0.0076 x 105
Thus the volume of air handled by the pump is nearly doubled.
11. The air leakage into a surface condenser is estimated as 84 kg/hr. The vacuum near the
inlet of air pump is 70 cm of Hg when barometer reads 76 cm of Hg. The temperature at the
inlet of the vacuum pump is 20°C. Calculate (a) the minimum capacity of air pump in m3/hr,
(b) the dimensions of the reciprocating air pump to remove the air if it runs at 200 r.p.m. (take
T) = 1.5 and volumetric efficiency = 100%), and (c) the mass of vapour extracted per minute.
[A.M.I.E.1979]
Solution: Absolute pressure at air pump suction = 76 - 70 = 6 cm of Hg.
13,,,,= 60 x 133.32 N/m2 = 7999.2 N/m2
Corresponding to 20°C, the pressure P5 = 2337 N/m2
Pressure of air P„ = P0,, - P, = 7999.2 - 2337 = 5662.2 N/m2
in,,RaTa 84 x 287 x 293
Volume of air Va = - 1247.5 m3/hr.
Po 5662.2
V°
Volumetric efficiency =
:D 2LN x 60
TE 2
or - D LN .60 = V„
4
or 4
2 x 1.5D xNx 60 =
D
41/,, 4 x 1247.5
or 133= =
nx1.5xNx60 mx1.5x200x60
D = 0.4452 m = 44.52 cm
Stroke length L = 1.5D = 1.5 x 44.52 = 66.78 cm.
1247.5
Volume of air per minute = 60 = 20.791 na2
Specific volume of steam at 20°C = 57.84 m3/kg.

20.791
Mass of vapour extracted/min = = 0.3594 kg/min
57.84
12. A steam turbine discharges 5000 kg of steam per hour at 40°C arid 0.85 dryness. The
estimated air leakage is 15 kg/hr. The temperature at the suction of the air pump is 32°C and
the temperature of the condensate is 35°C. Calculate (a) the vacuum gauge reading,
(b) capacity of air pump, and (c) loss of condensate in kg per hour.
[A.M.I.E. 1987]
Solution: Partial pressure of steam at 40°C P, = 0.07375 bar
Specific volume of steam at 40°C, V, = 19.55 m3/kg
Volume of 5000 kg of steam = 5000 x x V, = 5000 x 0.85 x 19.55 = 83087.5 m3
Steam Condenser 409
The same volume is also occupied by 15 kg of air

The pressure of air in the condenser is given by
ma RaTo 15 x 287 x (40 + 273)
Pa = = 16.217 N/m2
Va 83087.5
Absolute pressure Pa, = Ps + Pa = 7375 + 16.217 = 7391.217 N/m2 = 55.44 mm of Hg
Again Pab= Barometer reading — Vacuum reading
(a) Vaccum reading = 760 — 55.44 = 704.56 mm of Hg
(b) Partial pressure of steam at the air pump suction corresponding to 32°C, P ,= 0.04754 bar
Pa = Pa,— P, = 0.07391217 — 0.04754 = 0.026372 bar = 2637.2 N/m2
rn”RaT„ 15X287(32+273) 3
Volume of air, Va = = 497.88 m
Pa 2637.2
Capacity of the air pump = 497.88 m3/hr
(c) Specific volume of steam at 32°C, V, = 29.57 m3/kg
497.88
Loss of condensate — = 16.837 kg/hr.
29.57
13. A jet condenser has to condense 3810 kg of steam per hr. The volume of injection used
285 m3/hr and its initial temperature is 25°C. The volume of air at atmospheric pressure dis-
solved in the injection water is 5% of the volume of water and the air which comes in with the
steam and leaks into the condenser amounts to 1 kg per 2000 kg of steam. The vacuum in the
air pump suction is 670 mm of Hg (barometer 760 mm of Hg) and the temperature of con-
densate is 36.2°C.
Determine the suction capacity of the air pump in m3 per minute to remove air and water
from the condenser. Take the volumetric efficiency of air pump as 80% and the mass of one
m3 of air at 0°C and atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar (N.T.P) is 1.293 kg.
Solution: Absolute pressure in the condenser is given by
760 — 670
P.b = — 0.12 bar
750
Partial pressure of steam at 36.2°C, P, = 0.06 bar
Partial pressure of air, Pa = Pab — P,= 0.12 — 0.06 = 0.06 bar
285 x 5
Volume of air dissolved in injection water at atmospheric pressure and 25°C =
100
= 14.25 m3/hr
Volume of this air at N.T.P. (0°C and atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar) dissolved in the
injection water is given by
P,v, P2
=
T1 T2
1.01325 x 14.25 1.01325 x Vat

Vat = 13.054 m3/hr.
(25 + 273) = (0 + 273)
Mass of leakage air = 3810 x 2000 = 1.905 kg/hr.
1.905
Volume of this air at N.T.P. Va2= — 1.473 m3/hr
1.293
V„. + 13.054 + 1.473

Total volume of this air/min. at N.T.P. = = = 0.2421 m3
60 60
Volume of this air at 0.06 bar and 36.2°C
1.01325 x 0.2421 0.06 x V„
-4.632 m3/tnin.
(0 + 273) (36.2 + 273)
3810
Volume of condensate per minute = = 0.0635 m3
60 x 1000
285
Volume of injection water per minute = - = 4.75 m3
60
Volume of mixture actually discharged per minute = 4.632 + 0.0635 + 4.75 = 9.4455 m3.
9.4455
Suction capacity of the wet air pump = = 11.8 m3/min
0.8
14. In a surface condenser a section of the tubes near to the air pump suction is screened off,
so that the air is cooled to a temperature below that of the condensate, separate extraction
pumps being provided to deal with air and condensate respectively. 6500 kg of steam are
condensed per hr and the air leakage is 5.5 kg/hr. The temperature of the exhaust steam is
32°C, the temperature of the condensate is 30°C and the temperature at the air pump suction
is 26°C.
Assuming a constant vacuum in the condenser, find (a) the mass of steam per hr con-
densed in the air cooler, (b) the volume of air in m3 per hr to be dealt with by the air pump,
and (c) the percentage reduction in the necessary air pump capacity following the cooling of
air.
Solution: From steam tables at 32°C, partial pressure of steam, P, = 0.04754 bar, specific
volume, V, = 29.57 m3/kg.
Volume of steam per hour = 6500 x 29.57 = 192205 m3
The leaked in air will also have the same volume as the steam. The air pressure is then given
by
maltaTo 5.5 x 287 x (32 + 273)
P. - 2.5 N/m2
V. 192205
The air pressure is a negligible one.
Total pressure in the condenser = 0.04754 bar
At 26°C at the air pump suction, the partial pressure of steam, P, = 0.0336 bar.
Partial pressure of air P a = Pab - PI= 0.04754 - 0.0336 = 0.01394 bar
Again P.V.= m.R.T.
moRaTo 5.5 x 287 x (26 + 273)

V = 338.573 m3/hr
Pa = 0.01394 x 105
(b) Volume of air to be dealt with by the air pump = 338.573 m3/hr.
Specific volume of steam at 26°C = 41.03 m3/kg
338.573
Mass of steam with the air per minute - = 0.1375 kg
60 x 41.03
At the entry to the air cooler, condensate temperature is 30°C. Partial pressure of steam at
30°C, P, = 0.04242 bar,
Partial pressure of air Pa = 0.04754 - 0.04242 = 0.00512 bar.
Steam Condenser 411
Again Pa l/a = InaltaTo
maRaTo 5.5 x 287(30 + 273)

... V = _, = 934.1510hr.
Pa 0.00512 x 105
Volume of air that would have to be handled if there was no cooling = 934.15 m3/hr.
934.15
...Mass of steam associated with air per minute = _0.4727 kg.
60 x 32.93
(a) Mass of steam condensed in the air cooler = 0.4727 - 0.1375 = 0.3352 kg/min = 0.3352 x
60 = 20.112 kg/hr.
934.15 - 338.573
(c) Percentage reduction in volume of the air pump = - 0.6375 =63.75%.
934.15
15. In a particular steam power plant, air is believed to leak into the condenser. To check
whether this is so, the plant is run until conditions are steady, where upon the steam supply
from the engine is shut off, simultaneously, the air and condensate extraction pumps are
closed down, so that the condenser is isolated. At shut down the temperature and vacuum in
the condenser are observed to be 39°C and 690 mm of Hg. After five minutes the values are
28°C and 490 mm of Hg. The barometer reading is 754.5 mm of Hg. The effective volume of
the condenser is 0.4 m3. Determine (a) the amount of air leakage into the condenser during the
observed period and (b) the mass of water vapour condensed in the same period.
Solution: At shut down, absolute pressure, Pab = 754.5 - 690 = 64.5 mm of Hg = 64.5 x
133.32 = 8599.14 N/m2
At 39°C partial pressure of steam, P 5 = 7000 N/m2
Partial pressure of air, Pa = Pa1,- P, = 8599.14 - 7000 = 1599.14 N/m2
The effective volume of condenser = 0.4 m3
Pa lla 1599.14 x 0.4
• Mass of air present in the condenser = - 0.00714 kg.
R:T: 287 x (39 + 273)
Specific volume of steam at 39°C = 20.53 m3/kg
0.4
Mass of vapour present = - 0.01948 kg
20.53
Five minutes after shut down, absolute pressure, P0,, = 754.5 - 490 = 264.5 mm of Hg = 264.5
x 133.32 = 35263.14 N/m2
Partial pressure of steam at 28°C, P, = 3778 N/m2
• Partial pressure of air, Pa = 35263 - 3778 = 31485 N/m2.
31485 x 0.4
Mass of air present in the condenser volume of 0.4 m3 = 0.1457 kg
= 287 x (28 + 273)
0.4
Mass of vapour present = 36.73 = 0.01089 kg
(a) Mass of air leaked in 5 min = 0.1457 - 0.00714 = 0.13856 kg.

(b) Mass of steam condensed in 5 min = 0.01948 - 0.01089 = 0.00859 kg.
16. A 4000 kW turbine has a steam rate of 5.5 kg per kW hr when operating on steam at 9.8
bar and 200°C. Condenser vacuum = 67.5 cm of Hg. Barometer reading 76 cm of Hg. The
radiation loss is assumed to be 1% of the initial enthalpy of steam. Cooling water inlet tem-
perature = 20°C, Outlet temperature = 28°C. Determine square metre of the tube surface
required, using U = 0.3. Allow 5°C of undercooling.
Solution: P.,b= 76 - 67.5 = 8.5 cm of Hg = 85 x 133.32 = 11332.2 N/m2

From steam table at pressure 11332.2 N/m2 saturation temperature is 48°C.
Allowing 5°C of undercooling total heat in one kg of condensate = 200.9 - 21 = 179.9 kJ.
Enthalpy of steam at 9.8 bar and 200°C
= 2777.3 + 2.1(473 - 452.03) = 2821.337 kJ
3600
Heat equivalent of work = - 661.157 kJ
5.5 x 0.99
Total heat of steam entering the condenser = 2821.337 - 661.27 = 2160 kJ
Heat extracted/kg of steam = 2160 - 179.9 = 1980.161 kJ.
Total heat extracted per hour = 1980.161 x 4000 x 5.5 = 43563541 kJ
t2 - t, 28 - 20
= = 48-20= 23.776°C
logy _ log, _
Area of the tube surface required is given by Q = U.A.Q„,
where Q = heat transmitted in kJ/hr
U = rate of heat transmission in kJ/degree mean temperature difference per cm2 of
condensing surface per hr.
A = total cooling surface in cm2
Q„, = logarithmic mean temperature difference in °C
Q 43563541 x 10-4
A= = = 610.74 m2.
UQ„, 0.3 x 23.776
EXERCISES

1. The main function of a condenser is to the back pressure upon an engine or
turbine.
2. In a surface condenser the exhaust steam and the cooling water in direct
contact.
3. A pump which extracts both air and condensate from the condenser is known as
pump.
4. A pump which extracts only moist air from the condenser is known as pump.
5. Surface condensers are more than jet condenser.
6. The lowest possible exhaust pressure in case of condensing steam turbine plant is
than that of a condensing steam engine.
7. In case of marine engines is used.
8. The vacuum maintained in the surface condenser will mainly depend upon the
of the cooling water.
Answers
1. reduce 2. do not come 3. wet air
4. dry air 5. costly 6. less
7. surface condenser 8. temperature
From the following statements delete the phrase which is not applicable:
1. Air from a condenser is extracted from the coldest/hottest zone in the condenser.
2. "Vacuum efficiency of condenser would be 100% if there were no air/maximum air
present in the condenser.
Steam Condenser 413
3. In surface condensers provided in steam turbines, the amount of air leakage should not
exceed 10 kg/10000 kg/5 kg/1000 kg of steam condensed.
4. Evaporative type condenser has steam in.pipes surrounded by water/steam.
5. In a steam engine fitted with condenser, the back pressure in engine is equal to/more
than the condenser pressure.
6. The secondary object of a condenser is to supply to the boiler pure/impure and hot/cold
feed water.
7. The work output of a steam engine will increase if its back pressure is increased/de-
creased.
Answers
1. hottest 2. maximum air 3. 10 kg/10000 kg
4. steam 5. equal 6. impure
7. increased
State whether true or false
1. Surface condenser should be air tight.
2. Maximum vacuum in condenser is possible, if no air is present in the condenser.
3. Absolute pressure in condenser is more than the atmospheric pressure.
4. Air in condenser reduces the corrosive action.
5. In surface condenser water flows through the nest of tubes.
6. Cooling towers are employed to cool the circulating water in the condenser.
7. In jet condenser cooling water mixes with exhaust steam.
1. (a) What is the function of condenser ?
(b) A surface condenser in designed to handle 10,000 kg of steam per hr. The steam
enters at 0.08 bar and 0.9 dry and the condensate leaves at the corresponding saturation
temperature. The pressure is constant throughout the condenser. Estimate the cooling
water flow rate per hr, if the cooling water temperature rise is limited to 10°C.
[Ans: 515620 kg]
2. (a) What factors contribute to loss of efficiency in a surface condenser ?
(b) Exhaust steam having a dryness fraction of 0.84 enters a surface condenser where
the vacuum is 695 mm of Hg and is condensed to water at 35.8°C. The temperature of
the hot well is 32.6°C. The circulating water enters the condenser at 15°C and leaves at
35°C. The barometric pressure is 756 mm of Hg. Calculate, (i) the mass of circulating
water required per kg of steam, and (ii) the mass of air extracted per m3 of condenser
volume. [Ans:24.4 kg/kg of steam, 0.03685 kg/m3]
3. (a) Compare the merits and demerits of surface condenser over jet condenser.
(b) The air entering a steam condenser with steam is estimated at 6 kg/hr. The tempera-
ture at inlet to the air cooler section is 30°C and at the outlet 26°C. The vacuum in the
shell is essentially constant throughout and is 721 mm of Hg while the barometer reads
758 mm of Hg. Calculate (i) the mass of steam condensed per hr in the cooling section,
(ii) the mass of moisture contained in the air, (iii) the volume of air entering
cooling section per hour. [Ans:14.94 kg/hr, 7.98 kg/hr, 754.8 m3/hr]
4. What are the sources of air leakage in a steam condenser ? Explain the effects of air
leakage in condensers.
5. What are the advantages obtained by incorporating a condenser in a steam engine or
steam power plant ?
6. What are the principal requirements of a condensing plant ?
7. What is meant by condenser efficiency and C.O.P. of condenser. What are the methods
of detection of air leakage ?
8. The following data pertains to a test on a surface condenser.
Rate of condensation of steam = 1190 kg/hr.

Temperature of condensation = 35°C
Cooling water consumption = 12.86 kg/s
Absolute pressure in condenser = 60 mm of Hg
Cooling water inlet temperature = 17°C
Cooling water outlet temperature = 31.4°C
Calculate the vacuum efficiency and the quality of steam at inlet to condenser. Assume
that there is no sub-cooling of condensate.
9. (a) Define vacuum efficiency.
(b) A turbine develops 2 MW and uses 11500 kg of steam per hr, the steam being
supplied at 20 bar with temperature 300°C. The exhaust steam is condensed at vacuum
of 670 mm of Hg (barometer 750 mm of Hg) and the condensate leaves at 43.8°C. The
rise in the temperature of condensing circulating water is 19.7°C. Calculate (i) the per-
centage heat thrown in cooling water, (ii) the mass of cooling water required per
kW.hr, and (iii) overall thermal efficiency. [Ans:73%, 151 kg, 21%]
10. The following observations were recorded during a test on a surface condenser. Mean
condenser temperature = 35°C, Hot well temperature = 30°C, condenser vacuum =
70 cm of Hg, Barometric pressure = 76 cm of Hg, condensate collected = 16.75 kg/min,
cooling water = 600 kg/min, Rise of cooling water temperature = 14°C, Determine
(a) mass of air present per m3 of condenser volume, (b) dryness fraction of steam as it
enters the condenser, and (c) vacuum efficiency
[Ans: 0.0269 kg, 0.943, 97.5%]
11. In a jet condenser exhaust steam enters at an absolute pressure of 0.12 bar and 0.85 dry.
- Determine the mass of injection cooling water per kg of steam condensed if its temper-
ature at inlet is 20°C. Allow 5°C of undercooling.
Air Standard Cycles
16.1 OTTO CYCLE (CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE)

This cycle was presented by Beau De Rochas in 1862. It was successfully
applied by a German Scientist, Dr A.N.Otto, in 1876 to work an internal
combustion engine using petrol (gasoline) as fuel.
The cycle consists of two adiabatic processes and two constant volume pro-
cesses. The P — V and T — 4) diagrams are shown in Figs. 16.1 (a) & (b).
Constant
volume
(71.1
ro)
a.
2
Volume ( V ) Entropy ($)

(a) (b)
Fig. 16.1 (a) P-V and T-4) diagram for Otto cycle
The sequence of operation is as follows:

Process 1-2 Adiabatic compression of air during which the piston moves
from crank end to cover end.
Process 2-3 The piston is at rest for a moment at the cover end dead centre
and heat is added at constant volume from an external source. In actual engine
the heat is supplied by igniting the air-fuel mixture by spark.
Process 3-4 The fluid then expands adiabatically and work is done by the
system.
Process 4-1 The piston is momentarily at crank end dead centre and heat is
rejected to the external sink by bringing it in contact with the cylinder head.
Considering 1 kg of air,
Heat supplied during process 2 — 3 = Cv(T3 — T2)
Heat rejected during process 4 — 1 = Cv(T4 —

Work done = Heat supplied — Heat rejected = Cv(T3 — T2 )— Cv(T4 — T,)
Work done
Efficiency,
TI = Heat supplied
Cv(T3 — T2) — Cv (T4 TO— T4 T1

11 = 1 (16.1)
C, (T3 — T2) T3 — T2
T2 V, )7-'
Now considering process 1 — 2, =—
V2
Clearance volume = V2 = V3
Volume before compression V,

Compression ratio = r = —
Volume after compression V2
T2
.*. = rY 1 or T2 = T, x rY-1
Volume after expansion V4

Expansion ratio = = =r
Volume before expansion V3 V2
Considering adiabatic expansion process 3 — 4
T3 V4 f 1 = y1
,7, = .% T3 = T4 X I
4 V3
T4 — T, 1
Efficiency, ri = 1 =1 (16.2)
T4 X r1-1 — Ti X rY-1 rY -1
16.2 MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE FOR

OTTO CYCLE
Let P „, be the mean effective pressure (m.e.p.)
P3 V3 — P41/4 P2 V2 - P, VI
Pm (VI - 1/2) = Area under 3 —4 — Area under 1 —2 =
y-1 y— 1
Dividing both sides by V2
P3 P4r P2 — Pi r
P„,(r — 1) =
Y-1 y—
p = 1 [ (P3 — Par) — (P2. —

m (16.3)
r- y—1
Air Standard Cycles 417
Y 70 —
PV = C
60 —
50 —
40 —
20 —
10 —
Fc---Vi —V2
Volume ( V ) 4 8 12 16 20
Compression ratio
Fig. 16.2 P-V diagram for Otto cycle Fig. 16.3 Relationship between stan-
dard efficiency and compre-
ssion ratio of Otto cycle
The air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle depends only on the compression
ratio. The efficiency can be increased by increasing the compression ratio, In
actual engines, working on Otto cycle the compression ratio varies from 5 to 8
and depends upon the quality of fuel. Figure 16.3 shows the variation of air
standard efficiency with compression r atio.
Maximum work done condition
The work done is given by
W = Cv(T3 - T2 )- Cv(T4 -T ) )
T3
But T2 = T1 rY-1 and T3 = Tet r ?"-1 ... W=C itT 3 -T l e- I +T
rl I
Differentiating the above equation with respect to r and equating to zero
T3 )2(7 T3
r= T2 = and T4 = y _
T1
Substituting the value ` of r in the above equations,
1 ii--1
7, )2(y- I) T3
T2 = Ti[( / 3 = Tfr12 = "\IT1 T3
Ti 1f
T3 T3 = I
Similarly, T4 = A,ITi T3
T3 2(y1-1) I ( T3 )2
[(T,) -7;-]
T2 = T4 = 7'3
16.3 DIESEL CYCLE (CONSTANT PRESSURE

CYCLE)
This cycle was introduced by Rudolph Diesel in 1893 and now it is used in all
diesel enignes. In air standard diesel cycle, the working fluid is air and heat is
supplied from an external source and is rejected to an external sink.
The P — V and T --(1) diagram is given below.
Volume ( V ) Entropy ( 4)) —3.-

(a) (b)
Fig. 16.4 (a) P— V and (b) T — 4 diagram for diesel cycle
The sequence of operations is given below:

(a) The air is compressed isentropically from condition 1 to condition 2.
(b) The heat is supplied to the compressed air from an external source at con-
stant pressure which is represented by the process 2-3.
(c) The air expands isentropically from condition 3 to condition 4.
(d) The heat is rejected by the air to the external sink at constant volume until
it reaches to condition 1 and the cycle is repeated.
This cycle is called constant pressure cycle because the heat is supplied to
the working fluid at constant pressure.
Heat supplied during constant pressure process 2 — 3 is, Q1 = mCAT3 — T2)
Heat rejected during constant volume process 4 — 1 is, Q2 = M Cv(T4 — T1)
Work done is given by W = Qt — Q2 = M Cp (T3 — T2) — MCv(T4 — T1)
W M Cp (T3 — T2) — M Cy(T4 — T1) T4 — T1

Efficiency, = = —1 (16.4)
SZt m Cp(T3 — T2) y (T3 — T2)
V1 V2 + VS
Compression ratio, r - -
V2 V2
where V2 = Clearance volume, and Vs = Stroke volume

V3
Cut off ratio, p = v
2
Process 1-2 is isentropic compression

T2 VI )7- I
— — r - T2 = T1 x Y-1
T1 V2
Process 3-4 is isentropic expansion
T3 V4 )7 I I
T4 V3 - V3 -
Y I
T4 = T3 x ( P)
r
Process 2-3 is constant pressure heat addition

V2 173 V3
T3 = T2 X — = T2 X p = x- Ix p
T2 T3 V2
ny - I
T4 = xe-i xpx y-1 =T1 xp7
Substituting the values of T2, T3 and T4 in Eq. (16.4), we have

x (SY- T1 TI(p/- 1) 137- 1
TI = 1 - =1 -.
'ATI X Y- 1 X p - x r7-1) yx x r7-1(p - 1)y.rY-1(p
1 - 1)
(16.5)
Mean Effective Pressure for Diesel Cycle

The mean effective pressure of a cycle is defined as the work done per cycle
divided by the stroke volume.
P3113 -P4V4 P2V2 -P,V,
P 2(/3 - V2) + y-1 1- I
Pm -
Vs
(P3V3-P4V4) (P2V2:-P1V,)
P2(V3 V2) + Y-I Y- I .
Pm
V1- V2
(PP -Pe) (P2 -P1r)
Pm= (16.6)
r —1
16.4 FOR THE SAME COMPRESSION RATIO THE
EFFICIENCY OF THE OTTO CYCLE IS
GREATER THAN THAT OF DIESEL CYCLE
The efficiency of a Diesel cycle is
1 pY — 1
11 = 1 — rY_ x
y(p- l)
The efficiency of the Diesel cycle for the constant compression ratio depends
upon the factor
1 (pY— 1 )
K=
y P
For the value of y= 1.4, the value of the factor K for different cut off ratios is
given under
p=3 2.5 2 1.5
K = 1.31 1.24 1.17 1.092
Thus we see that the value of K is always greater than unity and thus we can
deduce that for the same compression ratio, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is
greater than that of the Diesel cycle.
16.5 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A DIESEL ENGINE

(a) An engine working on Diesel cycle, only air is taken in during suction
stroke, therefore the compresssion ratio is made higher as there is no
danger of preignition.
(b) The fuel injection is either by means of compressed air or by some
mechanical means.
(c) The diesel engine has the advantage of being able to burn the low cost
fuel oil.
(d) The diesel engine is used in a broad range (30 MW) of heavy duty
applications because of its higher efficiency and reliability.
16.6 COMPOSITE CYCLE (DUAL—COMBUSTION

CYCLE)
In this cycle, the combustion of fuel takes place partly at constant volume and
partly at constant pressure. Semi-Diesel engines work on this cycle.
The sequence of operation is:
1-2 represents isentropic compression of air
2-3 represents the combustion of fuel at constant volume.
Volume ( V ) Entropy ( 4) )
(a) (b)
Fig. 16.5 (a) and (b)
3-4 represents the combustion of fuel at constant pressure.

4-5 represents isentropic expansion during which work is done by the sys-
tem.
5-1 represents heat rejection at constant volume.
Assuming one kg of working fluid
Q1 = Heat added during constant volume process + Heat added during
constant pressure process.
= Cv(T3 — T2) + Cp(T4 — T3)
Heat rejected, Q2 = Cv(T5 —T1)
Work done, W = Q1 — Q2 = Cv(T3 — T2) + Cp(T4— T3) — Cv(T5 —
The thermal efficiency of the cycle
Work done Cv(T3 — T2) + Cp(T4 — T3) — Cv(T5 T1)
= Heat supplied Cv(T3 — T2) + Cp(T4 — T3)
T5
=1 s d,,, (16.7)
(i 3 12) + ni 4 — I 3)
P3
Compression ratio, r = —, Pressure ratio, a = P
V2 2
r V5
Cut off ratio, p = V4 Expansion ratio, re — =—
V3' p V4
Considering process 1— 2, T2 = Ti x r7-1
Considering process 2 — 3 [V, = V3 ]

P2 V2 P3 V3 P3
= .". T3 = T2 = Ti X rY - I x a
T2 P2
Considering process 3 - 4 [P3 = Pet ]
P3 V3 P4 V4 V4
T4 = T3 X — =TIxrY-1 xaxp
T3 = T4 V3
Considering process 4 - 5
V4 r I n y-
T5 -T 4 — = T XrTi XaX px r -T XaxpY
V5
Substituting the values of T2, T3, T4 and T5 in Eq. (16.7)

x a x pY-
=1 -
[T1 x rY-1 x a- T1 x rY-1 xr?-1 xaxp- x rY-1 x a]
1 api- 1
=1 (16.8)
1 [ (a - 1) + ya(p - 1)1
Work done
Mean effective pressure -
Swept volume
Q1 - Q2
Pm
- V
Also,
Pi e [ay (p -1) + (a -1) - 1)]

P„,= (16.9)
(?- 1)(r - 1)
16.7 BRAYTON CYCLE OR JOULE CYCLE
The Brayton cycle or Joule cycle is a theoretical cycle on which a gas turbine
works. The P - V and T -4) diagrams are shown in Figs 16.6 (a) and (b). The
cycle employs an air compressor, combustion chamber and a gas turbine.
The sequence of operations is as follows:
(a) The air is compressed adiabatically in a compressor and it is repre-
sented by the process 1-2.
(b) The compressed air is heated at constant pressure up to point 3.
(c) The high pressure and high temperature air expands adiabatically in a
turbine and its pressure reaches the initial pressure and the process is
represented by 3-4.
(d) The air at condition 4 is passed through a heat exchanger where it is
cooled to its initial condition 1 and the cycle is repeated.
Volume ( V ) Entropy ( (1))

(a) (b)
Fig. 16.6 (a) P-V and (b) T-(1) diagram for Joule cycle
The above operations are for closed cycle. But most of the turbines in actual
practice operate on open cycle. Taking one kg of air,
Heat supplied, Q1 = C,(T3 - T2)
Heat rejected, Q2 = Cp(T4 - T1)
Work done, W = Q1 - Q2 = Cp(T3 - T2) Cp(T4 T1)

Efficiency of the cycle
4
Qi - Q2 Q2 CP (T4 T1) T4 - 7.1(7:: l)

= =1 - -1 -1
Q1 Q1 cp(T3 -T2) T3- T2 7'2(7, 1)
7
Y-1
T2 (P2) 1
Considering process 1- 2,
T1 Pi
r-I 1-1
T3 (PI 7 (P2) 7
Considering process 3 - 4, - = - =
T4 P4 131
T2 T3 T3
as P3 = P2 and P4 = Pi —=— or =T4
T4 T2 T1
r-
) P2
= 1- (- where — = Pressure ratio = rp
rp P1
The efficiency of the cycle increases with increase in pressure ratio. But the rate
of increase in efficiency decreases with increase in pressure ratio.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1.An engine working on ideal Otto cycle has temperature and pressure at the beginning of
compression as 25°C and 1.5 bar respectively. Find the compression ratio if y= 1.4 and ther-
mal efficiency = 48%. Also find the temperature and pressure at the end of compression.
Solution: Given, T, = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K, P1 = 1.5 bar, y = 1.4, 1 = 0.48
, 1 1 1
=1 1-- or 0.48 = 1 —
t1= or —
r0.4 = 0.52
-I
r°4 = 1.923 r = 5.13

T2
We have, — = T2= T, X rT- I = 298x 5.13°4 = 573 K = 300°C
p12
.
v Y
=e=5.13
"
PI V2
P2= P x 5.13" = 1.5 x 5.13" = 14.79979 bar

2. An engine working on the Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8.5 : 1. The temperature
and pressure at the beginning of compression are 93°C and 0.93 bar respectively. The maxi-
mum pressure in the cycle is 38 bar. Determine the pressure and temperature at the salient
points of the cycle and the air standard efficiency.
Solution: Given, T1 = 93°C = 93+273 = 366 K, Pi = 0.93 bar
Compression ratio r =—
, = 8.5
V2
At the end of compression
1.4
P2 V
P2 = 0.93 x 8.5" = 18.6 bar
Pi V2)
T2 = 1/1 )
77 I
_ ( T2 =366 x 8.51A-I =861 K =588°C
Ti V2
At the beginning of expansion
T3 P3 38
= T3 = 861 x- 1759 K = 1486°C
T2 P2 18.6=
At the end of expansion
P V3.4 = P
3 4
V3 IA VIM P3 38
P4 = P3() = P3( - =r'.4= = 1.9 bar
V4 8.5"
714 P4 P4 366 x 1.9

748 K = 475°C
T,P, T4 — Tlx P, = 0.93 —
Air standard efficiency is given by
1 1
rlAsE= 1 — _i=1 1 — 56.1%
ry 8.514
3. The compression ratio of an Otto
cycle is 8. At the beginning of compres-
sion the pressure and temperature are 1
bar and 300 K respectively. The heat
transfer to the air per cycle is 1900 kJ/kg
of air. Calculate (a) the pressure and
temperature at the end of each process of
the cycle, (b) thermal efficiency, and
(c) the mean effective pressure.
Take C,, = 1.005 kJ/kg K,
C, = 0.718 kJ/kg K Volume ( V )
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
Fig. 16.7
1.005 =
Solution: P1 = 1 bar, T, = 300 K, y 1.4
•= Cv
Cp = 0.718
RT, 0.287 x 103 x 300
P,V,= RT, V, = = — 0.861 m3/kg
1x 105
T2 _1
T2 = Ti x = 300 x 8°A = 689.22 K
P2 V 1
13,11; = P211 or — = = 8'A P2 = 1 x 8" = 18.38 bar
Pi 2
Vi 0.861
V2 =
= — — 0.1076 m3/kg
r 8
Heat added per kg during constant volume process 2-3 is given by
Q, = Cv(T3 — T2) or 1900 = 0.718(T3 — T2)
T 1900
T3 = 2646.24 T3 = 2646.24 + 689.22 = 3335.46 K
2 = 11718
T3 3335.46'
132 = P2 X — = 18.38 x 689.22 — 88.95 bar
T2
T3
T4 — 3335.46
— 801)4.4 = 1451.9 K
r
P3 88.95
P= = 81.4 = 4.84 bar
r3
1
(b) — = 56.47%
= 1— ri-i = 1— 80.4
Heat rejected per kg of air during constant volume process 4-1 is given by
Q2 = Cv(T4 - = 0.718(1541.9 -300) = 827.06 kJ/kg
Network done = Q,- Q2 = 1900 - 827.06 = 1072.92 kJ/kg
(c) Mean effective pressure
ID Network done 1072.92
= Stroke volume - V1 - V2
1072.92
= 1424.13 l(N/m2 = 14.2413 bar
0.861 - 0.1076
4. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.5 m3, pressure 1 bar and temperature
27°C at the beginning of compression stroke. The pressure at the end of compression is
10 bar. The heat added during constant volume process is 200 Id. Calculate (a) percentage
clearance, (b) efficiency, and (c) mean effective pressure.
Solution: P, = 1 bar, P2 = 10 bar, V, = 0.5 m3, T, = 27°C = 27 +273 = 300 K
P2 (V, y
r =(P13 (10) 5 12
- 172
T2 _ (VI T- I 1
y_ T2 = T, x =300(5.12)" =576 K
Ti - V2 =r
PI VI 2 V2 T2 Pi 576 1
f, X X 1/1 =wci x-ffi x 0.5 = 0.096 m3
T
1 - PT2 . • V2= 1 2
Heat supplied, Q, = mCv(T3 - T2 )
PIVI 1x105 x0 .5
But m= = - 0.58 kg
RT, 0.287 x 103 x 300
.•. 200 = 0.58 x 0.718(T,- 576) .. T3 = 1056 K
7.4
Y -1
1/3 Y- 1 1
= (174 1 )Y I = 105( 112)04 = 549 K
=(;,) .. T4 = T3 X(-
T3 r 5.
1/2 .096
(a) Percentage clearance = , -‘, x 100 = x 100 = 23.76%
vi - V2 (0.50 -0.096)
(b) Efficiency, ri = 1 - 1Y- I = 1 - (5.12

I nr., - 47.2%
r
Heat rejected Q2 = mC„(T4 - T1 ) = 0.58 x 0.718(549 -300) = 103.7 Id
Network done = Heat added-Heat rejected = 200-103.7 = 96.3 Id
Network done 96.3 x 103
Mean effective pressure = - - 2.37 bar
Stroke volume (0.5 - 0.096)105
5. The upper and lower temperature limits for an Otto cycle are 1400 K and 300 K. Find the
maximum theoretical power developed by the engine working on this cycle when the rate of
flow of air is 0.33 kg/min.
Solution: The condition for maximum work is T2 = T4 = 7n'3
Here T, = 300 K, T3 = 1400 K
T2 = T4 = q300 x 1400 = 648 K

Work done/kg = Cv[(T3 — T2) — (T4 — T1)1 = 0.718[(1400 — 648)— (648 — 300)1 = 290 kJ/kg
290 x 0.33
Maximum power developed = = 1.6 kW
60
6. 1 kg of air is taken through a Diesel
cycle. Initially the air is at 15°C and 1
bar. The compression ratio is 15 and the
heat added is 1850 kJ. Calculate the
ideal cycle efficiency and mean effective
pressure (rig. 16.8.)
Solution:
RT, 0.287 x(15 +273)
= 0.81 m3
= P, = 100
T2 = T, x r" = 288(15)14- = 851 K

Volume ( V )
VI 0.8
—=1).054 m3
V2 r'
Fig. 16.8
Heat added = m C p(T3 —
1850 = 1 x 1.005(T3 —.851) T3 = 2692 K

P2 V2 P3V
Considering process 2 — 3, =
T2 T33
V3 T3 T3 2692
Or, v = T,2 or p = = = 3.1633
2 T2 851
V,
V4 = V.. TT, r 15
— — = 3.1633 = 4.742
V3 v3. p
V2
Y-1 ( 0.4
T4 = T3( = 2692) = 1444 K
V3
Heat rejected = mCv(T4 — T,) = 0.718(1444 — 288) = 830 kJ
Work done = Heat added — Heat rejected
=1850 — 830 = 1020 kJ.
Efficiency,
Work done 1020
= = = 55.1%
Heat supplied 1850
Mean effective pressure,
Work done 1020

P"'_ V,— V2 100(0.81— 0.054)
= 13.4 bar
7. In a Diesel cycle the maximum pres- Volume ( V )
sure reached is 36 bar. The compression
ratio is 13. The temperature at the
Fig. 16.9
beginning of compression is 83°C and the temperature at the beginning of expansion is

1800°C. Determine (a) the temperature at the end of compression, (b) the temperature at the
end of expansion, (c) the heat supplied and heat rejected per kg of working fluid, and (d) the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Take C,, = 0.986 kJ/kg,
CI, = 0.702 kJ/kg .K.

Solution: Given, T, = 83°C = 83 +273 = 356 K, r = 13
= C 0.986 _
T3 = I800°C = 1800 + 273 = 2073 K, y 1.4
• Cv 0.702
T2 _
(a) -f, = rY T2 = T,x rY-1 = 356 x 13m-1 = 993 K = 720°C
T3 2073_
— 2.08
Cut off ratio, p = F2= 993
(b) T4 = pTx T, = (2.08)''4 x 356 = 1000 K = 727°C

(c) Heat supplied per kg of working fluid is given by
Q,= in C p(T, — = 1 x 0.986(1800 — 720) = 1064.88 Id
Heat rejected per kg of working fluid is given by
Q2 = mCv(T,— Td= 1 x 0.702(727 — 83) = 452.08 kJ
(d) Thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by
Heat supplied — Heat rejected 1064.88 — 452.08
— = 0.5754 = 57.54%
Heat supplied 1064.88
8. In a Diesel cycle the lowest tempera-
ture and lowest pressure are 300 K and
1 bar respectively. The compression
ratio is 16 and heat added per kg of air is
2500 kJ/kg. Determine (a) the tempera-
ture and pressure at the end of compres-
sion, (b) the highest temperature reached
in the cycle, (c) cycle efficiency, and
(d) power output for air flow rate of
0.25 kg/s.
Take Cp =1 kJ/kg K, and
Volume ( V )
C, = 0.714 kJ/kg K
Fig. 16.10
Solution: Given, P, = 1 bar, T, = 300 K, Compression ratio, r = 16

Heat added per kg of air = 2500 kJ/kg
(a) T2 = T, x = 300 x (16)1'4-1 = 909 K
132 = P,x rY = 1 x(16)1'4 = 48.5 bar

(b) Heat added/kg = C p(T,— T,)
2500 = 1(T,— 909) T3 = 2500 + 909 = 3409 K

RT, (Cp—Cv)T, (1 — 0.714) x 1000 x 300

(c) V, = p = = 0.858 m3/kg
i 1 105
V, 0.858
V2 = 0.0536 m'/kg
= =
T3 3409
V3 = x V, = 909 x 0.0536 = 0.201 m3/kg
T3 3409
T4 = (v4 T-1 = C1858)1.4-1 = 1908 K
0201
173
Heat rejected/kg = Cv(T4 — T,) = 0.714(1908 — 300) = 1147.9 kJ/kg
2500 — 1147.9
(e) Cycle efficiency, ri = = 0.5408 = 54.08%
2500
(d) Power output = m x work/kg = 0.25(2500 — 1147.9) kI/s = 338 kW
9. A C.I. engine working on diesel cycle has the following particulars: stroke = 0.25 m, cyl-
inder bore = 150 mm, clearance volume = 400 cm'
The fuel injection takes place at constant pressure for 5% of the stroke. Find the cycle effi-
ciency. Now the fuel cut off is delayed from 5 to 8% of the stroke. What will be the percent-
age loss in efficiency if the compression ratio remains the same.
Solution: Given, L = 0.25 m, d = 150 mm = 15 cm, V, = 400 cm'
Swept volume, V, = —
1c4 d 2L = 4(15)2 x 25 = 4415 cm'
V, = + V, = 4415 +400 = 4815 cm'
Volume at the point of cut off = 400 + x 4415 = 620.75 cm'

100
620.75
Cut off ratio, p = — 1.552
400
4815
Compression ratio, r
=-4137 = 11°4
PY— 1 (1.552P— 1
1— 1 — =1— — 59.4%
v.rY-'(p — 1) 1.4(12.04)' 4-1 X (1.552 — 1)
When the fuel is cut off at 8% of stroke
Volume at cut off = 400 + x 4415 = 753.2 cm'
100
753.2
Cut off ratio, p = = 1.883
400
1.883 " — 1
The new efficiency = 1 — 57.4%
1.4 x (12(04)"-)l x (1.883 —1)
Percentage loss in efficiency = 59.4 — 57.4 = 2%
10. A C.I. engine working on diesel cycle has the following particulars: lowest pressure =
1 bar, mean effective pressure = 7.5 bar, compression ratio = 12.5
Determine the percentage cut off of the cycle.
Solution: Given, P, = 1 bar, P„, = 7.5 bar. r = 12.5
P
x {ex y(p — 1)—r(pl — 1)}
P"' (r — 1) (r — 1)
lx 105
7.5 x 105= {(12.5)14x 1.4(p —1)— 12.5(p" — 1)}
(12.5 — 1)(1.4 —1)
or, 1.4p —0.36p' A — 2.05 = 0
By trial and error method p = 2.25
Percentage cut off = 1 x 100 = x 100 = 10.88%

r —1 12.5 — 1
11.Obtain an expression in terms of volume ratio for the ideal efficiency of the Diesel engine
cycle, assuming constant specific heats. Calculate the deal efficiency for an engine with a
compression ratio of 15 and cutting off fuel at 5% of the stroke.
Solution: Heat added, Q, = mCp(T3 — T,)
Heat rejected, Q,= m C„(T, —T,)

Q2 Cv(T4 —
Efficiency, 1 —1
Q1 Cp(T3— T2)
T4 — T, 1)
or = —1
TO 7 T2(7.1.3 _1)
/1 )7-1 T3 V3
[Putting = T3(174 , T2 = Ti(72
/ y=7/ , r —17,
2 2 2
V4 r 1
Expansion ratio,
r e= V3
= —P f2 =
v3y_,
rl= 1— x
1 [T3(74 / T2 17, — [ T4 7-3(q- I n r- I
y xr?-1 =px ry _ i xe-l _ p1
T, T2
(;:— 1)
1 1 p/— 1
11=1 X X
y p-1
v,
V3 — —1 V3 ( V4
= = 0.05 or 1 = 0.05 77 —
V4 — V2 V4 1 v2 V2
V3
Or
V2
V3
= p = 1+0.7 =1.7
2
1 (1.7)" ,
= — 1 0.38 = 0.62 = 62%
1.4 x 150.4 03_ 1
12. A diesel engine has a compression ratio of 14 to 1 and fuel is cut off at 0.08 of stroke.
Calculate the mass of fuel used per kW hour, if the calorific value is 42000 kJ/kg and the rel-
ative efficiency, 0.54.
Solution: See Fig. 16.9

v,
V3 - V2
, - 0.08 or = 0.08 or P = 0.08
- 2 v. r-1
2
-1
or p -1 = 0.08(r - 1) p = 0.08(r -1)+1 = 0.08(14 - 1) + 1 = 2.04
pY = 2.041A = 2.713
1 1 2.713 -1
=1 x 1-I x = 1 - 0.4096 = 0.59°4 = 59.04%
v(p - I) (14)°4 1.4(2.04 -1)
Actual efficiency
Relative efficiency -
Ideal efficiency
Or Actual efficiency = Relative efficiency x Ideal efficiency
= 0.54 x 0.5904 = 0.3188
Let m1 = Mass of fuel used per kW hour.
1 x 3600 3600
0.3188 = m = - 0.2688 kg.
mi x 42000 1 0.3188 x 42000
13. In an air standard Dual cycle the compression ratio is 12 and the maximum pressure in the
cycle is 70 bar. The lowest pressure and temperature of the cycle are I bar and 300 K. Heat is
added during constant pressure process up to 3% of the stroke. Taking diameter as 25 cm and
stroke as 30 cm, determine (a) the pressure and temperature at the end of compression, (b) the
thermal efficiency, and (c) the mean effective pressure.
Assume C,, = 1.005 kJ/kg K, Cy = 0.718 kJ/kg K, y= 1.4
Solution: Fig. 16.5 (a)
Swept volume, V, = 2L =71 (.25)2 x 0.3 = 0.014728 m3
4d
(a) P2 =131 x = 1 x (12)m = 32.42 bar
T2 = T,x r" = 300x (12)"-I = 810.58 K .
P3 0
T3 = T2 X
= 810.58x 712 - 1750.17 K
2
V4 V3 + 0.03V, 0.03(V1 - V2)
p= = „ =1+ = 1+0.03(r - 1) = 1+0.03(12 - 1) = 1.33
V3 v3 V2
T4 V4
= 173 =p T4 =T3 xp=1750.17x1.33=2327.73K
12
Expansion ratio, re =- ==9.023
p
7'4 2327.73
T= - - 965.6 K
5 (r) (9.023)1.4 I
Heat supplied, Q, = m[Cv(T3 - T2) + Cp(T4 -7'3 )]
Q,= m[0.718(1750.17 - 810.58) + 1.005(2327.73 -1750.17)] = m x 1255.10 kJ

Heat rejected, Q2 = mc (T5 -T1) = in x 0.718(965.6 - 300) = m x 477.9 kJ
Work done, W = Q1 -Q2 = m(1255.1 - 477.9) = m x 772.2 kJ

W m x 772.2
(b) Thermal efficiency, -r1= = = 0.6192 = 61.92%
Qi m x 1255.1
P,V,
(c) Mass of air, m =
RT,
+ Vc V, V, 0.014728
r= or V - = = 1.339 x 10-3 m3
Vc Vc + 1 r-1 12- 1
V, = V, + = 0.014728 + 1.339 x 10-3 = 16.067 x 10-3 m3

l x105 x16.067x10-'
= = 1.866 x 10-2 kg
0.287 x 1000 x 300
m(Qi -Q2)
Mean effective pressure, Pm =
1.866 x 10-2 x 772.2 x 103

Pn, - = 9.783 bar
0.014728 x 105
14. An air standard dual cycle uses 1 kg of air and has a compression ratio 14. The pressure
and temperature at the beginning of adiabatic compression are 1 bar and 30°C respectively.
The temperature at the end of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition are
1200°C and 1500°C respectively. Calculate (a) the heat supplied, (b) the heat rejected, (c) net
work done, (d) A.S E., (e) clearance per cent, and (f) cut off per cent.
Solution: Fig. 16.5 (a)
Given, r = 14, P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 30°C = 30 + 273 = 303 K
7'3 = 1200°C = 1200 + 273 = 1473 K, T4 = 1500°C = 1500 + 273 = 1773 K

Considering process 1-2
T2 = T, x r" = 303 x (14)14-1 = 870.75 K
(a) Heat supplied, Q, = inc,(T3 - T2) + m C p(T.,- T3)
Q, = 1 x 0.716(1473 - 870.75) + 1 x 1.01(1773 - 1473) = 734.21 kJ
mRT, 1 x 287 x 303
(b) = mRT, V, = = 0.8696 m3
1 x 105
VI 0.8696
= r .. V2 = = 0.06211 m3 = V3
V,2 r = 14
Considering process 3 - 4
V3 V4 T4 1773
T4 .. = 473 X V3=1473 x 0.06211 = 0.07476 m3
T3
Considering process 4-5 which is adiabatic expansion
T5 V4)1-1 r4 j1 1 (.07476)1 I
= 0.3747
T4 175 = = 0.8696
T5 =14 x 0.3747 = 1773 x 0.3747 = 664.45 K

Heat rejected, Q2 = mC„(T5 - TO= 1 x 0.716(664.45 - 303) = 258.8 kJ
(c) Network done = Q,- Q2 = 734.21 - 258.8 = 475.412 kJ

Work done 475.412
(d) A.S.E. -
Heat supplied 734.21 = 0.6475 = 64.75%
V2
(e) Clearance per cent = , , x 100 = 0.06211 x 100 = 7.7%
v - V2 0.8696 - 0.06211
V4 - V3 0.07476 - 0.06211
(f) Cut off per cent = x 100 = x 100 = 1.566%
V V2 0.8696 - 0.06211
15. An oil engine works on the dual cycle, the heat liberated at constant pressure being twice
that liberated at constant volume. The compression ratio is 8 and expansion ratio 5.3 . Both
compression and expansion follow the law PV 1 3 = C and the initial conditions at the com-
mencement of the compression are 1 bar and 27°C. Find the m.e.p. of the cycle.
Solution: See Fig. 16.5 (a)
Given, r =8, r, = P, = 1 bar, T, = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
8 T4
p= r
= = 1 '5 1 = 7';
The temperature at the end of compression is given by
T2 VI
(172 ) = (r)" T,=T,x (r)" = 300(8)" = 559.82 K
Again we have, C,,(T4 -7.3) =2C„(T3 -T3)

T4 - T3 2Cv 2 x 0.716
or = = = 1.4178
T3 - T2 Cp I .0 1
7;1-1
1.51 - 1
or T
= 1.4178 or, T,
- 1.4178
I 1 -,
,
2 0.51 T2
Or 1- = = 0.36 - = -1 0.36 = 0.64
1.4178 T3
T3 1
Pressure ratio, a p-== -f, = iv)4 = 1.56
2
m.e.p. of the cycle is given by
P,r1o.n(p - 1) + (a- 1) (ap" -
Pm - (n - I)(r -1)
l x 8111.56 x 1.3(1.51 -1)+(1.56 - 1) - 1 {1.56x(1.51)"-I}]

=5.042 bar
(1.3-1)(8-1)
16.In a Brayton cycle the air enters the compressor at 1 bar and 25°C. The pressure leaving
the compressor is 3 bar and temperature at turbine inlet is 650°C. Determine per kg of air
(a) Cycle efficiency (b) Heat supplied to air (c) work available (d) Heat rejected in the cooler
at the shaft and (e) Temperature of air leaving the turbine.
Take y= 1.4 and C,, = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
Solution: See Fig. 16.6 (a)
Given, P1 = I bar, T, = 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K
P2 = 3 bar, T3 = 650°C = 650 +273 = 923 K, m = 1 kg
p.
7-I
Y W 1
(a) Cycle efficiency, i = 1 - ( =I- = = 26.9%
P2 3 .
(b) Considering process 1-2
7-I
01
T2 T, K
P,
Heat supplied to air, Q, = Cp(T,- T2) = 1.005(923 -407) = 515 kJ/kg
(c) Work output = rl x Heat input = 0.269 x 515 = 138.5 kJ/kg
(d) Work output = Q,- Q2
Q2 = 515 -138.5 = 376.5 kJ/kg
T3 923
(e) 7'4 = r-i - o. - 675 K
PT' (3)1.4
( P
EXERCISES

1. For a thermodynamic cycle to be reversible, it must consist of process only.
2. The air standard efficiency of a Diesel cycle having fixed compression ratio will
with increase in cut off ratio.
3. The most efficient engine is that which works on a cycle.
4. For the same compression ratio the thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is than that
of Diesel cycle.
5. In a Diesel cycle, heat is added at constant
6. The air standard efficiency of an I.C. engine with increase in compression
ratio.
7. In an ideal Otto cycle combustion takes place at constant
8. Modern high speed oil engines work on
9. The cut off ratio of a Diesel cycle is than unity.
10. In gas turbine plant of constant pressure type cycle is used.
Answers
1. reversible 2. decrease 3. reversible
4. greater 5. pressure 6. increases
7. volume 8. dual combustion 9. greater
10. joule
Write true or false
1. Petrol engine works on Otto cycle.
2. All thermodynamic processes are reversible processes.
3. The point of cut off is a stage during compression stroke.
4. Dilal combustion cycle is known as semi Diesel cycle.
5. In a Diesel cycle heat is rejected at constant pressure.
6. Efficiency of a Diesel cycle increases as compression ratio is increased.

1. A four stroke engine having a swept volume of 0.4 m3 operates on Otto cycle. The
compression ratio is 6. The temperature and pressure at the beginning of compression
are 1 bar and 60°C. The heat supplied is 150 kJ/cycle. Calculate (a) pressure and tem-
perature at cardinal points, (b) work done, (c) efficiency, and (d) m.e.p.
2. An engine working on Otto cycle has the temperature and pressure at the beginning of
compression are 25°C and 1 bar respectively. Determine the pressure and temperature
at the end of compression if the efficiency of the cycle is 48%.
[Ans: 300°C, 9.85 bar]
3. In an ideal Otto cycle the air at the beginning of isentropic compression is 1 bar and
15°C. The ratio of compression is 8. If the heat added is 1005 kJ/kg during the constant
volume process, determine (a) the maximum temperature in the cycle, (b) the air stan-
dard efficiency, (c) the work done per kg of air, and (d) the heat rejected per kg of air.
[Ans: 2073.415 K, 56.47%, 567 kJ/kg, 437.3 kJ/kg]
4. In an ideal Diesel cycle, the air at the beginning of isentropic compression in 1.1 bar
and 15°C. The pressure at the end of compression is 35 bar. The ratio of expansion is 5.
Determine (a) the temperature at the cardinal points of the cycle, and (b) work done per
kg of air, and A.S.E.
[Ans: 500.9°C, 1559.5°C, 689.5°C,579.13 kJ/kg 54.51%]
5. A C.I. engine works on Diesel cycle and has the following particulars: Cylinder diame-
ter = 150 mm, Stroke of piston = 250 mm, Clearance volume = 400 cm3.
Cut off takes place at 5% of the stroke. Find the efficiency of the cycle: If the cut off
is delayed from 5 to 8% of the stroke, find the percentage loss in efficiency.
[Ans: 59.4%, 2%]
6. An engine working on Diesel cycle has a compression ratio 15. The pressure and tem-
perature at the beginning of compression is 1 bar and 15°C respectively. The maximum
temperature of the cycle is 2427°C. Determine (a) Heat supplied and work done per kg
of air, (b) cycle efficiency, (c) maximum pressure, (d) cut-off ratio, and (e) m.e.p.
[Ans: 1857 kJ, 1027 kJ, 55.4%, 37.9 bar, 3.17, 13.45 bar]
7. An engine working on dual cycle has a compression ratio 12. The pressure and temper-
ature at the beginning of compression are 1 bar and 27°C. The peak pressure is 70 bar.
Heat is added during constant pressure process up to 3% of the stroke. Taking cylinder
diameter as 25 cm and stroke 30 cm, calculate (a) the pressure and temperature at the
cardinal points of the cycle, (b) A.S.E, and (c) m.e.p.
[Ans: 61.92%, 9.847 bar]
8. An engine working on dual cycle has pressure 1 bar and temperature 27°C at the
beginning of compression. The pressure at the end of compression is 30 bar. The maxi-
mum pressure is 50 bar. During combustion half of the heat is added at constant volume
and half at constant pressure. Determine. (a) the temperature at all salient points of the
cycle, and (b) A.S.E.
[Ans: 783.8°C, 1488°C, 1991°C, 674.3°C, 61.14%]
9. A gas turbine works on Brayton cycle. The initial condition of the air is 1 bar and 25°C.
The maximum pressure and temperature is 3 bar and 660°C. Calculate (a) Cycle effi-
ciency, (b) Heat supplied and heat rejected per kg of air, (c) work done per kg of air,
and (d) exhaust temperature.
[Ans: 27%, 140 kJ/kg, 675 lc]
Internal Combustion
Engines
wohownove
17.1 INTRODUCTION
The engine in which the combustion of fuel (liquid or gas) takes place inside the
cylinder is known as internal combustion engine. The examples of internal
combustion engines are petrol, oil and gas engines. In such engines, working
fluid is the product of combustion of fuel-air mixture. Internal combustion
engines are referred as I.C. engines.
In case of external combustion engines, the combustion of fuel takes place
outside the cylinder as in the case of steam engine. The other examples of
external combustion engines are, steam turbine, closed cycle gas turbine, and
hot air engine. In these engines, the combustion of fuel takes place in a boiler
where steam is produced by the energy of combustion. The steam so produced
is made to act on the piston of the steam engine cylinder. The important appli-
cations of the I.C. engine are as follows:
(a) Used for road vehicles, locomotives, cargos.
(b) Used as a portable stand by power unit in case of scarcity of electric
power.
(c) Used in aeroplanes, farm tractors, lawn mowers, motor boats and
concrete mixing devices.
17.2 I.C. ENGINE VERSUS STEAM ENGINE

The following are the differences between these two engines.
(a) In an I.C. engine the fuel mixed with correct amount of air burns
inside the engine cylinder.
In a steam engine the working fluid (steam) is produced in a boiler
which is outside the power producing unit.
(b) The working pressure and temperature inside an I.C. engine are much
higher than that in a steam engine. The materials from which the
components of an I.C. engine are made are more heat resistant.
Internal Combustion Engines 437
(c) Due to high operating temperature, an I.C. engines requires cooling for
its efficient operation. A steam engine is steam jacketed to prevent the
condensation of steam.
(d) An I.C. engine can be started instantaneously. But in a steam engine
firing of the boiler and generation of steam takes sometime.
(e) In an I.C. engine the products of combustion after doing work are
exhausted to the atmosphere, but in a steam engine the exhaust is con-
densed and fed back to the boiler.
Advantages of an I.C. Engine Over an E.C. Engine

(a) Higher overall efficiency, ranges from 30-35%.
The efficiency of steam engine lies between 15-20%.
(b) Lower weight to power ratio due to its compact design.
(c) It can be started instantaneously.
(d) Requires less space
(e) Lower first cost except for heavy large units.
17.3 CLASSIFICATION OF I.C. ENGINES

I.C. engines may be classified on the following basis:
(a) According to type of fuel used: (i) petrol engine, (ii) diesel engine,
(iii) gas engine.
(b) According to the method of ignition used: (i) spark ignition engine (S.I.
Engine), (ii) compression ignition engine (C.I. Engine), (iii) hot spot
ignition engine.
(c) According to the number of strokes per cycle: (i) four stroke engine,
(ii) two stroke engine.
(d) According to the working cycle:
(i) Otto cycle engine, (ii) diesel cycle engine, (iii) dual combustion
cycle engine.
(e) According to the number of cylinders used (i) single cylinder engine,
(ii) multi-cylinder engine.
(f) According to the arrangement of cylinders: (i) horizontal engine,
(ii) vertical engine, (iii) radial engine, (iv) opposed cylinder engine,
(v) V—engine
(g) According to the method of fuel injection: (i) carburettor engine,
(ii) air injection engine, (iii) airless injection or solid injection engine.
(h) According to the type of cooling system: (i) air cooled engine.,
(ii) water cooled engine.
(i) According to the speed of the engine: (i) slow speed engine,
(ii) medium speed engine, (iii) high speed engine.
( j) According to the valve location: (i) overhead valve engine, (ii) side
valve engine.
(k) According to the method of governing: (i) hit and miss governing
engine, (ii) qualitative governing engine, (iii) quantitative governing
engine.
(I) According to the field of application: (i) stationary engine; (ii) auto-
motive engine. (iii) marine engine, (iv) aircraft engine, (v) locomotive
engine.
17.4 MAIN PARTS OF AN I.C. ENGINE

The main parts of an I.C. engine are discussed below:
(a) Cylinder It is the main body of the engine in which the piston reciprocates
to develop power. The cylinder has to withstand very high pressure (about 70
bar) and temperature (about 2800°C) because there is a direct combustion inside
the engine cylinder. Therefore, the material of the engine cylinder should be
such that it can withstand such a high pressure and temperature. Generally, the
cylinder is made of ordinary cast iron. Heavy duty engines are made of alloy
steel. Sleeves or liners are inserted into the cylinder when the engine block is
heavy. For easy maintenance the sleeves or liners can be replaced when worn
out. Liners are generally made of nickel chrome iron.
(b) Cylinder head One end of the cylinder is closed by cylinder head. The cyl-
inder head contains inlet and exhaust valves through which the fresh charge is
admitted inside the engine cylinder and burnt gases are exhausted from the
cylinder to the atmosphere.
The cylinder head is usually casted as one piece and bolted to the top of the
cylinder. Cylinder head is made of cast iron. A copper or abestos gasket is pro-
vided between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make the joint gas tight.
(c) Piston It is the heart of the engine. It is a gas tight movable cylindrical disc
which slides up and down in the cylinder. It's function is to compress the fresh
charge during the compression stroke and to transmit the force produced due to
combustion of the charge to the connecting rod and then to the crank during the
power stroke. The piston is generally made of cast iron. Aluminium alloy is also
used as it has higher thermal conductivity and is light in weight.
(d) Piston rings The piston rings are mounted in the circumferential grooves
provided on the outer surface of the piston. These are circular in shape and are
made of special grade cast iron. Usually there are two sets of rings mounted on
the piston. The upper piston rings are called compression rings and their func-
tion is to provide gas tight seal and to prevent leakage of high pressure gas. The
lower piston rings are called oil control rings whose function is to provide
effective seal and to prevent the leakage of oil into the engine cylinder.
(e) Connecting rod It connects the piston at one end and the crank at the other
end. Its' function is to transmit the force given by the piston to the crankshaft.
Generally, it is a steel forging of circular, rectangular, I, T section. It has a
passage for the transfer of lubricating oil from the big end bearing to the small
end bearing (gudgeon pin).
(f) Crankshaft The crankshaft is said to be the backbone of the engine. It is a
steel forging machined to a smooth finish. It is supported in main bearings and
has a flywheel.
(g) Piston pin or wrist pin It connects the piston to the upper (small) end of the
connecting rod.
(h) Inlet valve It controls the admission of the charge into the petrol engine and
air into the diesel engine during suction stroke.
(i) Exhaust valve It removes the exhaust gases after doing work on the piston.
(j) Inlet manifold It is a passage which carries the charge to the engine.
(k) Exhaust manifold It is the passage which carries the exhaust gases from the
exhaust valve to the atmosphere.
(I) Crankshaft The crankshaft is driven from the crankshaft by a timing gear
on a chain at half the speed of the crankshaft. Its function is to operate the intake
and exhaust valve through the cams, cam followers, push rods and rocker arms.
(m) Cam The cam profile is made to give desired motion to the valve through
the follower. High carbon steel or medium carbon case hardened steel is used.
(n) Valve spring The valves are placed close by the valve spring.
(o) Push rod and rocker arm The motion of the cam is transferred to the valve
through the push rod and rocker arm. These are also known as valve gear.
(p) Crank case The crank case holds the cylinder, piston and crankshaft. It is
made of cast iron. It also serves as the sump for the lubricating oil.
(q) Flywheel Flywheel is mounted on the crankshaft. Its function is to maintain
the speed fairly constant. Flywheel stores excess energy during the power stroke
and returns it during the other stroke.
(r) Bed plate The lower portion of the crank case is known as bed plate. It is
held in position by means of bolts to the foundation.
(s) Governor The function of the governor is to maintain the engine speed
constant by regulating the charge in case of petrol engine and amount of fuel in
case of Diesel engine when the load requirement changes.
17.5 TERMS USED FOR AN I.C. ENGINE

(a) Bore The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore.
(b) Stroke The distance travelled by the piston from one dead centre position
to the other dead centre position is called stroke.
(c) Top dead centre (T.D.C) The topmost position of the piston towards the
cover end side of the cylinder of a vertical engine is called top dead centre
(T.D.C). In case of a horizontal engine, it is known as inner dead centre.
(d) Bottom dead centre (B.D.C) The lowest position of the piston towards the
crank end side of the cylinder is called bottom dead centre (B.D.C). It is called
outer dead centre (O.D.C) in case of horizontal engine.
(e) Clearance volume The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of
the piston when the piston is at top dead centre is called the clearance volume. It
is usually expressed as the percentage of the swept volume. It is denoted by K.
(f) Piston displacement or swept volume The volume swept through by the
piston in moving between top dead centre and bottom dead centre is called
swept volume or piston displacement. It is denoted by Vs. It is equal to the area
of the piston multiplied by its stroke length.
Swept volume, vs = 71D2 x L

where, D = bore of the cylinder in m, and L = stroke length in m.
Total volume of the cylinder = Swept volume + Clearance volume,
(g) Compression ratio It is the ratio of total cylinder volume to the clearance
volume. It is denoted by r.
V, + Vc
V,
For Petrol engines the compression ratio varies from 5 : 1 to 9 : 1 and for diesel
engine from 12 : 1 to 22 : 1.
(h) Piston speed The distance travelled by the piston in one minute is known
as piston speed.
Piston speed = 2 L N m/min
where, L = length of stroke in m, and N = speed of the engine in r.p.m.
17.6 FOUR STROKE AND TWO STROKE CYCLE

ENGINES
In a four stroke cycle engine the series of events of the working cycle is com-
pleted in four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft.
In a two stroke cycle engine, the series of events of the working cycle is
completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of the crankshaft.
17.7 FOUR STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE

(S.I. ENGINE)
In four stroke cycle engines, ail the events of the cylinder, i.e., suction, com-
pression, ignition, expansion and exhaust take place in two revolutions of the
crankshaft.
IV SP EV IV SP EV
The four strokes of a petrol engine are
described below.
(a) Suction stroke The piston is at the
T.D.C. position and is ready to move
down. During this stroke the inlet valve
is open and exhaust valve is closed. As
the piston moves downwards, the
charge, i.e., air-fuel (petrol) mixture is
admitted inside the engine cylinder
through the inlet valve because of suc-
tion. This operation continues till the
piston reaches its bottom dead centre
(B.D.C) position. At this position, the
(a)
inlet valve closes. This downward
movement of the piston is known as suc- IV SP EV
tion stroke. During this period the crank
rotates through 180° i.e., half revolution.
(b) Compression stroke In this stroke
both valves (inlet and exhaust) are
closed. The piston moves upward and
the charge inside the engine cylinder is
compressed. Due to compression the
pressure and temperature of air-fuel
mixture increases continuously. The
mixture is then ignited by means of an
electric spark when the piston reaches
the top dead centre position. The air fuel
mixture burns instantaneously and the (c) (d)
temperature and pressure of the burnt
gases increases, but the volume remains.
constant. Fig. 17.1 Four stroke cycle petrol
(c) Expansion stroke or power stroke engine (a) suction,
The increased high pressure of the prod- (b) compression,
ucts of combustion exerts a greater (c) expansion, and
amount of force on the piston and pushes (d) exhaust
it downward. In this stroke both the
valves remain closed. Expansion of the gases takes place and work is done
during the stroke. The piston moves from T.D.0 to B.D.C. This stroke is known
as the power stroke. As the piston reaches the B.D.C. position the exhaust valve
opens and the pressure falls slightly to above the atmospheric pressure at con-
stant volume.
(d) Exhaust stroke During this stroke the exhaust valve is open and the
inlet valve is closed. The pressure during this stroke is slightly higher than the
atmospheric pressure. The piston moves upward from B.D.0 to T.D.C. The
upward movement of the piston pushes out the products of combustion from the
engine cylinder through the exhaust valve into the atmosphere. This completes
the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the fresh charge inside the
engine cylinder once again and the cycle is repeated.
17.8 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL P- V DIAGRAM

OF A FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE
The P—V diagram of a four stroke cycle petrol engine is shown in Fig. 17.2. The
suction line is shown by the line al which lies below the atmospheric pressure
line in the actual diagram the line 1-2 represents the compression stroke.
Vl
Suction
Suction Attn. pressure
T.D.0 B.D.0 T.D.0 B.D.0
Volume Volume --->-
(a) (b)
Fig. 17.2 (a) Theoretical and (b) actual P- V diagram for four stroke petrol engine
Line 2-3 represents the ignition of the charge at constant volume. 3-4 rep-
resents expansion stroke or power stroke. The exhaust stroke is shown by the
line 4—a which lies above the atmospheric pressure line in the actual diagram.
Valve liming Diagram for Four Stroke Petrol Engine

The valve timing diagram is a diagram which shows the correct positions corre-
sponding to the opening and closing of the valves (inlet and exhaust). It is very
useful to get the best performance of the engine.
Inlet valve
In actual practice, the inlet valve opens a few degrees before the start of the
suction stroke because the valve Opens and closes slowly, and therefore some
T.D.C.
I.V.O. = Inlet Valve Opens
EV.C. I.V.C. = Inlet Valve Closes
E.V.O. = Exhaust Valve Opens
E.V.C. = Exhaust Valve Closes
Fig. 17.3 Valve timing diagram of four stroke petrol engine
time should be provided for the valve to open fully at the beginning of the suc-
tion stroke. During the suction stroke, the piston moves in downward direction
and the pressure decreases in the cylinder, as a result, the air and petrol mixture
is admitted into the cylinder. In modern I.C. engine, the speed of the piston is
very high. Therefore, there is a possibility that the full amount of air-fuel mix-
ture is not admitted during the complete downward movement of the piston, if
the inlet valve is closed at the end of the suction stroke. This insufficient air-fuel
mixture will not produce the same power as that produced by full charge. To
avoid the loss of power, it is necessary that the inlet valve should remain open
even after the completion of theoretical suction stroke. This helps to admit the
full amount of air-fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder even during the
beginning of compression stroke until the pressure equalises the atmospheric
pressure. At this moment the inlet valve is closed. The inlet valve opens 10° to
30° in, advance of T.D.C. position. In Fig. 17.3 it is shown as 20° in advance.
The inlet valve closes 30° to 60° after B.D.C. position. In Fig. 17.3 it is shown
35° after B.D.C. So, the inlet valve remains open for 20°+ 180° + 35° = 235°.
Exhaust valve
Theoretically the exhaust valve opens at the end of an expansion stroke, but in
actual practice it is necessary to open the exhaust valve before the completion of
expansion stroke and should remain open even after the completion of the
exhaust stroke. Otherwise the full amount of burnt gases cannot be expelled out
from the engine cylinder, a large amount of the burnt gases will remain com-
pressed in the clearance space of the cylinder. In Fig. 17.3, the exhaust valve
opens 35° before the completion of the expansion stroke and closes 10° after the
completion of the exhaust stroke. Thus the exhaust valve remains open for
35°+ 180°+ 10° = 225°.
To give the air fuel mixture to burn completely more time is given by pro-
ducing the spark through spark plug 30° to 40° before the T.D.C. position during
the compression stroke. There is always a time lag between the spark and the
ignition of the charge. Therefore it is necessary to produce the spark before the
piston reaches the T.D.C. The angle through which the spark is given earlier is
called "Ignition advance" or "Angle of Advance".
17.9 FOUR STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

(C.I. ENGINE)
Working of the four-stroke cycle diesel engine.

(a) Suction stroke During this stroke,
4_,Injector the inlet valve opens and only air is
..
Air --).- sucked into the engine cylinder. The
T.D.0 exhaust valve remains closed. This
stroke is completed when the piston
reaches the bottom dead centre posi-
tion.
Piston (b) Compression stroke During this
stroke the piston starts moving upward
from the bottom dead centre position.
B.D.0
Connecting In this stroke, both the inlet and exhaust
/ rod valves remain closed. As the piston
moves up, the air is compressed to a
high pressure (about 60 bar) and tem-
perature (600°C). Just before the end of
the compression stroke, a fine spray of
diesel is injected into the high tempera-
ture compressed air. The fuel ignites
instantaneously. The injection of fuel
takes place at constant pressure.
Fig. 17.4
(c) Expansion strokeDuring this stroke both inlet and exhaust valves remain
closed. Due to increased pressure of the products of combustion, the
piston is pushed down with a large force. Expansion of the gases takes place and
work is done during this stroke. The expansion stroke is completed as the piston
reaches its bottom dead centre (B.D.C) position.
(d) Exhaust stroke During this stroke the inlet valve remains closed while the
exhaust valve remains open. The piston moves up from B.D.C. to T.D.0 posi-
tion and pushes out the burnt gases form the engine cylinder. The stroke is
completed as the piston reaches the T.D.C. position and is ready for the next
cycle.
17.10 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL P— V

DIAGRAM FOR FOUR STROKE
DIESEL ENGINE
Figures 17.5 (a) and (b) shows the theoretical and actual P-V diagram for a four
stroke diesel engine. These two diagrams differ from each other. In the actual
diagram shown in Fig. 17.5 (b) the corners are rounded off because the inlet and
exhaust valves do not open and close all of a sudden but take sometime to do so.
The actual pressure inside the engine cylinder is slightly less than the atmo-
spheric pressure during suction stroke and slightly higher than the atmospheric
pressure during exhaust stroke.
6.1 Exhaust . 2
Atmospheric
a
Suction 1 pressure
Volume Volume —).-

(a) (b)
Fig. 17.5 (a) Theoretical and (b) actual P- V diagram for a four stroke
diesel engine
17.11 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF A

FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
The actual valve timing diagram of a four stroke diesel engine is shown in
Fig. 17.6. The inlet valve opens 10° to 25° in advance of top dead centre position
(T.D.C) and closes 25° to 50° after the bottom dead centre (B.D.C) position.
Exhaust valve opens 30° to 50° in advance of B.D.C. position and closes at
10° —15° after the T.D.0 position. The fuel injection takes place at 5° to 10°
before T.D.0 position and continues up to 15° to 25° after T.D.0 position.
I.V.O. = Inlet Valve Opens

I.V.C. = Inlet Valve Closes
F.V.O = Fuel Valve Opens
F.V.C. = Fuel Valve Closes
E.V.O. = Exhaust Valve Opens
E.V.C. = Exhaust Valve Closes
Fig. 17.6 Valve timing diagram of a four stroke diesel engine
17.12 TWO STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE

The two stroke cycle engine requires two strokes of the piston or one revolution
of the crankshaft to complete the cycle. In two stroke engines, ports are used
instead of valves. The exhaust gases are expelled out from the engine cylinder
by the fresh charge of the fuel entering the cylinder. In this engine the suction
and exhaust strokes are eliminated.
In case of petrol engine, the mixture of air and petrol is ignited by means of•
an electric spark produced at the spark plug. The two strokes of the engine are:
(a) First stroke, (b) Second stroke.
Figure 17.7 shows the working principle of two stroke petrol engine (nm-
monly used in motor cycles and scooters etc).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 17.7 Two stroke cycle petrol engine
(a) First stroke Assume that the piston is at its B.D.0 position. During this
stroke, the piston moves upwards from bottom dead centre to top dead centre. It
closes the transfer port and the exhaust port. The charged air-petrol mixture
which is already there in the cylinder is compressed. Due to upward movement
of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crank case and a fresh charge is
drawn into the crank case through the uncovered inlet port. At the end of this
stroke, the piston reaches the T.D.0 position.
(b) Second stroke The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion cham-
ber by means of an electric spark produced by the spark plug, slightly before the
completion of the compression stroke. Due to combustion of the air-petrol
mixture, the piston is acted on by a large force and is pushed in the downward
direction producing the useful power. During this stroke, the inlet port is cov-
ered by the piston and the fresh charge is compressed in the crank case. Further
downward movement of the piston uncovers the exhaust port and then the
transfer port. The expanded gases start escaping through the exhaust port and at
the same time fresh charge which is already compreAsed in the crank case, is
forced into the cylinder through the transfer port. The charge strikes the deflec-
tor on the piston crown, rises to the top of the cylinder and pushes out most of
the exhaust gases. The piston is now at the bottom dead centre position. The
cylinder is completely filled with the fresh charge, although it is somewhat
diluted with the exhaust gases. The cycle of events is then repeated.
Figure 17.8 shows the port timing diagram of a two stroke cycle petrol
engine.
T.D.C.
I.P.Opens I.P.Closes
tM
0
E.P.Opens
0
T.P.Opens
E.P.Closes
T.P.Closes
t
Faus
B.D.C.
Fig. 17.8 Port timing diagram of a two stroke petrol engine
Figures 17.9 (a) and (b) shows the theoretical and actual P—V diagram for
two stroke petrol engine.
17.13 TWO STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE

As the piston moves down on the power stroke, it first uncovers the exhaust
port, and the cylinder pressure drops to atmospheric pressure as the products of
combustion come out from the cylinder. Further downward movement of the
4.:
Volume Volume —).-

(a) (b)
Fig. 17.9 (a) Theoretical and (b) actual P- V diagram for a two stroke petrol engine
piston uncovers the transfer port (TP) and slightly compressed air enters the
engine cylinder from the crank case. Due to deflector on the top of the piston,
the air will move up to the top of the cylinder and expels out the remaining
exhaust gases through the exhaust port (EP).
During the upward movement of the piston, first the transfer port and then
the exhaust port closes. As soon as the exhaust port closes the compression of
the air starts. As the piston moves up, the pressure in the crank case decreases so
that the fresh air is drawn into the crank case through the open inlet port as
shown in Fig. 17.10 (d). Just before the end of the compression stroke the fuel is
forced under pressure in the form of fine spray into the engine cylinder through
the nozzle into this hot air. At this moment, the temperature of the compressed
air is high enough to ignite the fuel. It suddenly increases the pressure and tem-
perature of the products of combustion. The rate of fuel injection is such as to
maintain the gas pressure constant during the combustion period. Due to
increased pressure the piston is pushed down with a great force. Then the hot
products of combustion expand. During expansion some of the heat energy pro-
duced is transformed into mechanical work. When the piston is near the bottom
of the stroke it uncovers exhaust port which permits the gases to flow out of the
cylinder. This completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the
air once again.
17.14 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINES OVER
FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
Advantages
(a) The two stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revo-
Fuel injector Fuel injector
(a) (b)
Fuel injector Fuel injector
E.P. E.P.
I.P. I.P.
T.P. ■ T.P.
(c) (d)
Fig. 17.10 Two stroke cycle diesel engine
lution of the crankshaft. The four stroke cycle engine gives one work-
ing stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. So, theoretically
the power developed by two stroke cycle engine is twice that
developed by four stroke cycle engine for the same engine speed and
cylinder volume.
Ca0
44
6.1
Volume Volume
(a) (b)
Fig. 17.11 (a) Theoretical and (b) actual P- V diagram for a two stroke
diesel engine
Fuel supply
15° 20°
F.V.O. F.V.C.
tt\
06
Oo
E.P.C. E.P.O.
45°
600 (
Fig. 17.12 Valve timing diagram for two stroke diesel engine
(b) The turning moment on the crankshaft is more even in two stroke cycle
engine due to one working stroke for every revolution of the crank-
shaft, and so a lighter flywheel is required in it.
(c) For the same power, a two stroke cycle engine is more compact, light
and requires less space than a four stroke cycle engine. So, it is more
suitable for auto cycles, motor cycles and scooters.
(d) A two stroke cycle engine is simpler in construction and mechanism.
There is no valve and valve mechanism in it. The ports are easy to
design and they are covered and uncovered by the movement of the
piston itself.
(e) It has high mechanical efficiency due to the absence of cams, cam shaft
and rockers etc.
(f) It gives less torsional oscillations.
(g) It requires fewer spare parts due to its simple design.
(h) It can be easily reversed if it is of valve less type.
(i) There is a saving in work required to overcome the friction of inlet and
exhaust port.
Disadvantages
(a) The thermodynamic efficiency of two stroke cycle engine is less than
four stroke cycle engine because the compression ratio of the two
stroke cycle engine is less than that of four stroke cycle engine.
(b) The overall efficiency of the two stroke cycle engine is less than that of
four stroke cycle engine because greater overlapping of the ports is
necessary in two stroke cycle engine for effective scavenging. A por-
tion of the fresh air-petrol mixture in case of S.I engine always escapes
unused through the exhaust port. So, the specific fuel consumption is
higher.
(c) In two stroke cycle engines the number of power strokes per minute are
twice the power strokes of four stroke cycle engines. So the capacity of
cooling system used must be higher. The cooling of the engine also
presents difficulty as quantity of heat removed per minute is large. The
piston gets over heated due to firing in each revolution and oil cooling
of the piston is necessary.
(d) The consumption of lubricating oil is large in a two stroke cycle engine
because of high operating temperature.
(e) The exhaust is more noisy due to sudden release of the burnt gases.
(0 The fresh charge is polluted by the burnt gases due to in complete sca-
venging.
(g) There is greater wear and tear of moving parts.
Due to excessive loss of charge with exhaust gases and high fuel consump-
tion, the two stroke cycle S.I. engine is not widely used except in the case of
outboard motors, scooters, motor cycles and light vehicles. The modern practice
is that large two stroke engines are generally. C.I. engines. The two stroke C.I.
engines are better for slow and moderate speeds.
The use of two stroke opposed piston C.I. engines is suitable for marine
installations where the engine room is small.
17.15 COMPARISON BETWEEN DIESEL ENGINE

AND PETROL ENGINE
The petrol engine differs from diesel engine in the following respects.
Table 17.1
Petrol engine Diesel engine

(a) During suction stroke the mixture (a) During suction stroke only air is
of air and petrol is sucked in the sucked in the engine cylinder.
engine cylinder.
(b) The petrol engine works on Otto (b) The diesel engine works on diesel
cycle. cycle.
(c) In petrol engine spark plug is used (c) In diesel engine fuel injector is
to ignite the charge with an electric used. The fuel burns by the heat
spark. of compressed air.
(d) Here carburettor is used which (d) Here an injector is used to inject
supplies the mixture of air and pet- the fuel at the end of compression
rol in correct proportion. stroke.
(e) The compression ratio in petrol (e) The compression ratio in diesel
engine varies from 5 : 1 to 9 : 1. engine varies from 14: I to 22 : 1.
(f) Due to lower compression ratio, (f) Due to higher compression ratio,
the temperature and pressure in the temperature and pressure in
petrol engines are lower than that diesel engines are much higher
of diesel engines and so, petrol than that of petrol engines and so
engines are light and less stronger diesel engines are heavier and
than diesel engine. stronger than petrol engines.
(g) There is a chance of pre-ignition. (g) As only air is compressed during
compression stroke, there is no
chance of pre-ignition.
(h) Thermal efficiency is lower due to (h) Thermal efficiency is higher due
lower compression ratio. to higher compression ratio.
(i) The initial cost of petrol engine is (i) The initial cost of diesel engine is
less but the running cost is high high but the running cost is low
because the cost of petrol is more as the cost of diesel is less.
than diesel.
( j) Petrol engines are used in cars, ( j) Diesel engines are used in heavy
scooters and motorcycles. duty vehicles like trucks, buses
locomotive engines.
17.16 FUEL FEED SYSTEM OF A PETROL ENGINE

To run an automobile engine, the fuel (petrol or diesel) from the fuel tank must
reach by some means to the engine cylinder. The fuels such as petrol, benzol
and alcohol used in S.I. engines, vaporize easily at atmospheric conditions,
therefore the engine suction is sufficient to vaporize these fuels and no preheat-
ing is required. The fuels such as light oils and paraffin oils used in diesel
engines do not vaporize easily and so the engine suction is not sufficient to
vaporize these fuels. The fuel injection system is used in oil engines. In petrol
engine, the petrol from the fuel tank reaches through the fuel pump, filter and
carburettor to the engine cylinder. Thus, the fuel feed system of a petrol engine
consists of the following components:
(a) Fuel tank, (b) Fuel pump, (c) Fuel filter, (d) Carburettor, (e) Intake manifold,
(f) Fuel tubes for necessary connections, (g) Gauge to indicate to the driver the
fuel level in the fuel tank.
The functions of the fuel feed system are:
(a) To store fuel in the fuel tank
(b) To supply fuel to the engine to the required amount and proper condition.
(c) To indicate to the driver the fuel level in the fuel tank.
17.17 TYPES OF FUEL FEED SYSTEMS

The fuel from the fuel tank can be supplied to the engine cylinder by the
following systems: (a) Gravity system, (b) Pressure system (c) Vacuum system,
(d) Pump system, (e) Fuel injection system.
The gravity, pressure and vacuum systems of fuel feed are almost obsolete
now, the pump system is used universally on motor vehicles. Some gasolene
engines use fuel injection system. In this system fuel injection pump is required
instead of carburettor.
In gravity system of fuel feed, the fuel tank is mounted at a place higher than
that of the carburettor. The fuel flows from the tank to the carburettor due to the
gravitational force. Thus the system does not require any fuel pump. It is a
cheap and simple system. The fuel tank is directly connected to the carburettor.
In motor cycles and scooters this system is used.
In pressure system, a pressure sealed tank is used. The pressure is created in
the tank by means of a separate air pump. For starting, the pump is primed by
hand which produces pressure in the tank and the fuel flows to the carburettor.
In this system the tank can be placed above or below the carburettor.
In a vacuum system, the engine suction is used for sucking the fuel from the
main tank to the auxilliary fuel tank from where it flows by gravity to the car-
burettor.
In pump system, a fuel pump is used to feed the fuel from the fuel tank to the
carburettor. The pump is driven either by the cam shaft or electrically. In this
system the fuel tank can be placed at any suitable position in the vehicle.
In fuel injection system, a fuel injection pump is used in place of carburettor.
The fuel is atomized by means of a nozzle and then delivered into an air stream.
Separate fuel injection system is used for each cylinder which controls the mix-
ture under different load and speed conditions.
17.18 CARBURETTOR
Carburettor is a device which is used for atomizing and vaporizing the fuel
(petrol) and mixing it with the air in varying proportions, to suit the changing,
operating conditions of the engine.
Atomization is the breaking up the liquid fuel (petrol) into very small par-
ticles so that it is properly mixed with the air. But vaporization is the change of
state of the fuel from liquid to vapour. Carburettor performs both the process
i.e., atomization of the fuel and vaporization of the fuel.
Simple Carburettor
Figure 17.13 shows a simple carburettor which consists of (a) float and float
chamber, (b) venturi and throttle valves and (c) choke valve.
Throttle valve
Float
Venturi tube
Float chamber I Valve

Fuel
Fig. 17.13 Simple carburettor
Float and float chamber

The petrol is supplied to the float chamber from the fuel tank through the filter
and fuel pump. The arrangement in float chamber is such that when the petrol
reaches a particular level, the needle valve blocks the inlet passage and thus cuts
off the petrol supply. On the fall of the petrol level in the float chamber, the float
descends down and inlet passage opens. The petrol is supplied to the chamber
again. Thus a constant fuel (petrol) level is maintained in the float chamber. The
float chamber supplies the petrol to the main discharge jet. The level of fuel in
the float chamber is kept slightly below the top of the jet to prevent the leakage
when not operating. The difference of level between the top of the jet arid the
source of the fuel in the float chamber is usually kept as 1.5 mm.
Venturi and throttle valve

The main body of the carburettor consists of a narrower passage at its centre.
This narrower passage is known as venturi. One end of the carburettor is
mounted on the intake mainfold of the engine. During the suction stroke of the
piston, vacuum is created in the cylinder of the engine. Due to vacuum, the air is
drawn through the carburettor. The velocity of the air increases as it passes
through the venturi where the area of cross section is minimum. Due to
increased velocity of air at the venturi, the pressure at the venturi decreases.
Therefore a low pressure zone is created in the venturi. The outlet of the dis-
charged jet which is located at the venturi is in the zone of low pressure. The
fuel issues out from the nozzle in the form of fine spray. This fuel spray is
mixed with air in the mixing chamber and then the mixture is supplied to the
intake manifold of the engine. The throttle valve is placed between the mixing
chamber and the intake manifold of the engine. The supply of the mixture is
controlled by means of throttle valve.
Choke valve
During starting or warm up in cold weather the engine requires extra rich mix-
ture. This is done by introducing a choke valve in the air passage before the
venturi. For this purpose the choke valve is closed to allow only a limited supply
of air and creates high vacuum near the fuel jet. The fuel flow increases as the
vacuum near the jet increases.
Limitations of a simple carburettor
(a) A simple carburettor is suitable only for engines running at constant speeds
and at constant load condition as it gives proper mixture at only one engine
speed and load.
(b) The working of the simple carburettor is effected by changes of atmo-
spheric temperature and pressure.
(c) Simple carburettor does not have arrangements for providing rich mixture
during starting and warm up.
(d) It cannot provide very rich mixture required for sudden acceleration of the
engine.
17.19 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM OF A

DIESEL ENGINE
The fuel supply system of a diesel engine consists of (a) fuel tank, (b) fuel filter,
(c) injection pump, (d) injector, (e) fuel lines for necessary connections, and
(f) fuel gauge.
The main difference between the fuel feed system of a diesel engine and that
of a petrol engine is that the fuel feed system of diesel engine consists of an
injector instead of a carburettor, remaining elements being the same.
The fuel from the fuel tank flows direct to a hand lever type of fuel priming
pump from which it then passes out to the inlet side of the main fuel filter. The
fuel after being filtered proceeds to the inlet side of the fuel injection pump.
From the injection pump it flows under pressure in the feed pipes leading to the
fuel injectors. Each injector has a leave-off fuel pipe to carry off any back
leakage fuel. This back leakage fuel is returned to the fuel tank.
Requirements of Fuel Injection System

(a) The fuel injection should occur at the correct moment, rate and quantity
as required by the engine at different load conditions.
(b) The fuel should be injected in a finely atomized condition.
(c) The fuel should be distributed uniformly inside the combustion chamber.
(d) The beginning and end of injection should take place sharply.
Fuel Injection System

There are two methods of fuel injection in compression ignition engines: (a) air
injection, (b) airless or solid or mechanical injection.
Air injection system
This system was developed by Dr Rudolph Diesel. In this method, air is first
compressed to a very high pressure. A blast of this air is then injected carrying
the fuel along with it into the cylinder. The high pressure air requires a multi-
stage compressor. The compressor consumes about 10% of the power devel-
oped by the engine, thus decreasing the net output of the engine. This method of
fuel injection is costly and complicated. Therefore it is now obsolete.
Airless or solid injection
In this system the fuel is supplied at a very high pressure (150 bar) from the fuel
pump to the fuel injector and from there it is injected to the combustion cham-
ber. It burns due to the heat of compressed air. This method requires a fuel
pump. This method is used in all types of diesel engines. Air less injection may
further be classified as: (a) individual pump system, (b) common rail system and
(c) distributor system.
Injection valves Individual pump system In

§ this system each cylinder has
Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder
To other its own individual high pre-
R.
.111ro111_11M11 cylinder
ssure pump and a metering unit
as shown in Fig. 17.14. It is
Fuel pumps quite a compact method Ind
Crank case involves higher cost. 1 he
design of this type of pump
should be very accurate because
Fig. 17.14 Individual pump system the volume of fuel injected per
cycle at full load is 21331 ,30of the Common rail
engine displacement and dur-

ing idling it is of the Cylinder
engine displacement. The time
allowed for injecting such a
small quantity of fuel is about
aso sec at 1500 rpm. The pres-
sure required is about 10 MPa Multicylinder fuel pump
to 30 MPa.
Common rail system In this
system, the fuel is pumped by Fig. 17.15 Common rail system
a multicylinder pump into a
common rail, in which the pressure is controlled by a relief valve. A metered
quantity of fuel is supplied to each cylinder from the common rail.
The advantages of common rail system are:
(a) Only one pump is required for multicylinder engines.
(b) It fulfills the necessity of either (i) the constant speed with variable
load or (ii) the constant load with variable speed.
(c) This system has a very simple arrangement and a low maintenance
cost.
(d) The variation of the pump supply pressure will affect all the cylinders
uniformly.
The disadvantages of common rail system are:
(a) Leaks may develop in the injection valve.
(b) More accurate workmanship and design are required.
Distributor system In this system there is a single high pressure pump as in
common rail system.
This pump is used for metering and compressing the fuel and after that the
fuel is delivered to the common rotating distributor. The distributor supplies the
fuel to .each cylinder. The function of the distributor is to select the cylinder to
receive the fuel according to the cam coming in contact with the distributor.
Comparison between air injection and airless injection
The airless injection in comparison to air injection is simple in construction,
light in weight and less costly. The fuel is atomized properly. It is suitable for
higher output engines. It requires greater accuracy in manufacturing.
Fuel Injection Pump of a Diesel Engine

This fuel pump meters the correct quantity of fuel and delivers it at the correct
time to the engine cylinder according to the varying load and speed conditions.
The forward stroke (delivery stroke) is produced by a cam and the return stroke
is produced by a spring. The plunger reciprocates in the barrel. The plunger has
a rectangular vertical groove which extends from the top to another helical
groove. The delivery valve is lifted off its seat against the spring under the
action of the pressure of the fuel. The fuel from the delivery valve goes to the
injector. The supply port and sill port are uncovered when the plunger is at the
bottom of its stroke. The fuel is forced into the barrel. As the plunger is pushed
up by the movement of the cam, both the ports are closed. On further movement
of the plunger, the fuel above it is compressed which lifts the delivery valve and
the fuel goes to the injector.
Lock nut Adjusting

screw
Leak-off
connection Spring
Fuel inlet
Spindle
Fuel duct
v Cap nut
Stem
Nozzle body
Valve
Fig. 17.16 Spring loaded fuel injector
The plunger rises up still further and at a particular movement the helical
groove connects the spill port, through rectangular groove to the fuel in the
upper part of the plunger. Then there is a sudden drop in pressure and the deliv-
ery valve falls back on its seat under the action of spring force. The pressure
drops in the delivery pipe. Thus the discharge from the nozzle of the injector is
cut off suddenly. The cycle is repeated again. The rack is connected to the
accelerator. It meshes with a gear quadrant. The motion of the rack rotates the
gear quadrant which rotates the plunger. The driver simply operates the accel-
erator which controls the fuel supply to the engine cylinder. The importance of
helical groove in the plunger is that it makes possible the point of cut off to
occur sooner or later in the stroke.
Functions of Fuel Injector

(a) To atomize the fuel to the required extent.
(b) To distribute the fuel such that there is complete mixing of fuel and air.
(c) It must start and stop fuel injection instantaneously.
It consists of a needle valve which fits on its seat in the nozzle by a plunger or
spindle. The spring controls the pressure on the plunger by which the needle
valve opens. The nozzle is attached to the body by means of a capnut. The fuel
enters the nozzle through holes in the injector body. When the needle valve is
raised from its seat by the pressure of the fuel, the injection of the fuel into the
combustion chamber takes place. When the injection pressure falls below the
spring pressure, the valve closes. Fuel leakage past the needle valve is returned
to the fuel tank. Fuel leakage also provides lubrication of valve stem.
17.20 METHODS OF IGNITING FUEL IN

PETROL ENGINES
There are two ignition systems usually employed in petrol engines: (a) battery
or coil ignition system (b) magneto ignition system.
In both these systems it supplies a very high voltage of up to 20000 volts for
igniting the compressed air fuel mixture by producing spark at the spark plug
gap. The following are the requirements of an ignition system:.
(a) The voltage from the source must be stepped up to a very high value to
produce spark.
(b) The intensity of spark should lie within a specified limit.
(c) The high voltage should be supplied to each spark plug at the correct
moment.
(d) There should be no failure of spark.
Battery or Coil Ignition System

This system is used in cars and other vehicles using petrol engines. Figure 17.17
shows the circuit diagram of a battery or coil ignition system. The main compo-
nents of this system are: (a) a battery of 6 to 12 volts, (b) ignition switch,
(c) induction coil, (d) circuit or contact breaker, (e) condenser, (f) distributor,
and (g) spark-plugs.
There are two circuits in this system—One is the primary circuit and the
other is the secondary circuit. The primary circuit consists of a battery, ignition
Ignition
Primary
switch Ammeter
winding
Secondary
V winding Rotor
Primary
winding Contact
breaker 2
Battery
Induction
coil Cam
Earth Condenser
Distributor
Ground
4 3 2 1
Spark plugs
Fig. 17.17 Battery or coil ignition system
switch, ammeter, primary winding in the induction coil, contact breaker and a
condenser. The secondary circuit consists of secondary winding which has large
number of turns of fine wire in the induction coil, distributor, rotor and spark
plugs. The primary winding and secondary winding are wound on a laminated
soft iron core and are insulated from each other. One end of the secondary
winding is earthed and the other end is connected to the distributor cap. The
contact breaker is driven by a cam which rotates at half the engine speed (for
four stroke engines). There is a condenser in the primary circuit. The condenser
prevents the sparking at the contact breaker points.
Working of the battery or coil ignition system
When the ignition switch is switched on and the contact breaker point touches a
current flows from the battery through the switch to the primary winding of the
coil to the circuit breaker points and the circuit is completed through the ground.
The current which flows through the primary winding of the coil produces a
magnetic field in the coil. When the primary circuit is opened by the contact
breaker points, the magnetic field collapses. Electromotive force is induced in
the secondary winding of the coil. A condenser is connected across the contact
breaker in the primary circuit which helps to collapse the field very quickly and
produces a very high voltage in the secondary coil as there are more turns of
fine wire than in the primary coil. The voltage is increased up to 20,000 volts.
One end of the secondary coil is connected to the ground and the other end is
connected to the external terminal of the distributor. The distributor connects
the secondary coil to the different spark plugs. The distributor directs this high
voltage to the proper spark plug where it jumps the air gap of the spark plug
electrodes and the charge in that cylinder is ignited.
In a single cylinder engine the distributor is not required as in the case of

motor cycle engine, scooter engine and a single cam is sufficient for giving the
spark.
Advantages of battery ignition system
(a) It gives better spark at low speeds of the engine during starting and idling.
(b) Its initial cost is low. For this reason this system is used in cars and com-
mercial vehicles.
(c) The maintenance cost is less.
(d) The distributor drive is simple.
Disadvantages of battery ignition system
(a) The engine cannot be started if the battery is discharged.
(b) Occupies more space.
(c) It has a complicated wiring.
(d) The spark intensity falls as the engine speed increases.
Magneto Ignition System

Magneto ignition system is generally used in small spark ignition engines, such
as in motor cycles and scooters. Figure 17.18 shows the circuit diagram of a
magneto ignition system.
Rotating magnet Secondary

assembly winding
Primary Rotor
h,
winding Contact
@breaker
Ai
Fixed
Cam rer-
armature Condenser =
Distributor
Ground
4 3 2 1
Spark plugs
Fig. 17.18 Magneto ignition system
This system consists of a magneto instead of battery, which produces and sup-
plies current in the primary winding. The magneto consists of a fixed armature
having primary and secondary windings and a rotating magnetic assembly
which is driven by the engine. It also consists of contact breaker, condenser,
distributor rotor distributor and spark plugs. As the magnet turns, a magnetic
field is produced from a positive maximum to a negative maximum and back
again. As this value falls from a positive maximum value, an alternating current
is induced in the primary winding. This current flows in the primary circuit till
the contact points are closed. When the contacts open, a very high voltage is
induced in the secondary winding. This high voltage is then directed to the
proper spark plug by the distributor.
Advantages of magneto ignition system
(a) Occupies less space
(b) Simple wiring
(c) Spark intensity improves as the engine speed rises.
(d) Used in motor cycles, scooters, racing cars.
Disadvantages of magneto Ignition system
(a) Difficult starting
(b) More costly
(c) Poor sparking at low speed
Firing Order
The order in which the firing takes place in the different cylinders of a multi-
cylinder engine is known as the firing order. Proper firing order maintains
proper engine balancing and reduces engine vibration. Firing orders for various
engines are given below:
Table 17.2
No of cylinders Firing order
2 , 1,2
3 1,3,2
4 1,2,4,3 or 1,3,4,2
6 1,5,3,6,2,4
1,4,2,6,3,5
1,3,2,6,4,5
1,2,4,6,5,3
8 1,6,2,5,8,3,7,4
1,4,7,3,8,5,2,6
Spark Plug
Spark plug is used in S.I. engines (Petrol engines) to produce electric spark to
ignite the compressed air fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder.
The spark plug consists of three main parts:
(a) A central electrode.
(b) A threaded metallic body with a ground electrode.
(c) An insulator separating the two electrodes.
As shown in Fig 17.19 the central elec-

/ Terminal trode in the spark plug is surrounded by a
porcelain insulator. The central electrode
extends for a short length through the bot-
Central tom of the insulator. The upper end of the
electrode
central electrode is connected to the cable
from the ignition coil. A metal screw sur-
Porcelain
insulator rounds the bottom part of the insulator.
The lower portion of the screw is attached
to a short electrode and bent towards the
central electrode so that there is a gap
Metal between the two electrodes. The air gap is
screw
generally kept between 0.6 mm to 1 mm.
The high tension current is given to the
terminal of the central electrode. This cur-
Spark
rent jumps the air gap between the central
gap electrode and ground electrode. The
Ground
electrode electrode metals are, Nickel, alloy of
Nickel and Manganese, platinum alloy,
alloy of Nickel, manganese and silicon.
Fig:17.19 Spark plug Too large or too small air gap reduces the
efficiency of the entire ignition system.
Reasons for failing of a spark plug
A spark plug will fail in its function due to the following reasons:
(a) The plug may fail due to engine oil entering the combustion chamber.
(b) Plug fouled by too rich mixture.
(c) Plug gap incorrect.
(d) Plug gap closed by carbon deposits.
(e) Burned electrode.
(f) Cracked or broken insulator sealing.
17.21 POWER AND EFFICIENCY

Calculation of Indicated Power
The actual mean effective pressure Pm(act) in N/m2 is given by,
Area of indicator diagram (mm)2
Pm (act) — Length of indicator diagram (mm)] x Spring scale (17.1)
where spring scale is in N/m2 per mm.

Let A = area of the piston in m2
L = Length of stroke in m
n = number of explosions per minute
N = number of revolutions per minute.
The mean force on the piston = Pmoo x A N

Work done per working stroke or cycle = 13,,(acoLA N • m or J
Work done per minute = iini acci)LAA Nm/min or J/min
p n:a oL
Work done per second — Nm/s or J/s
60
P n1(acOL A I/
Indicated powcr/cylinder — kW
60 x 1000
Pm(act)LA n
Total indicated power — 60 x 1000 x No. of cylinders (17.2)
For a single acting four stroke cycle engine the number of explosions per min-
N
ute, ti =—2 and
For a double acting four stroke engine it = N
For a single acting two stroke cycle engine ti = N
For a double acting two stroke cycle engine n = 2 N
For a double acting engine the powers for both the ends (cover end and crank
end) should be calculated separately and then added. While calculating the area
for the crank end, area of the piston rod should be taken into account.
Pumping Mean Effective Pressure and Pumping

Power
The smaller area (negative area) formed by the suction and exhaust operations is
called pumping loop and represents the loss of work. This negative work is to be
deducted form the gross work. To obtain the net mean effective pressure, the
pumping mean effective pressure is to be deducted from the gross mean effec-
tive pressure.
Net m.e.p. = gross m.e.p. — pumping m.e.p. (17.2(a))
Pumping m.e.p x L xA x
Pumping power = kW (17.2(b))
60 x 1000
Brake Power
The brake power of internal combustion engines is calculated exactly in the
same way as that for steam engine explained in Chapter 12.
Let W = Dead load on brake in N
S = Spring balance reading in N
W—S = Net load on the brake in N
Di = Diameter of brake wheel in in
di = Rope diameter in m
Di +di
R= m = effective radius of the brake wheel
2
N = Number of revolutions of crankshaft per minute (r.p.m)

T = (W—S) R = braking torque in N—m.
(W — S)R x 2nN
Brake power — kW (17.3)
60 x 1000
2nN T
kW (17.3(a))
60 x 1000
Brake mean effective pressure (b.m.e.p.)
b.m.e.p.xAxLxn
Brake power — kW
60 x 1000
Brake power in kW x 60 x 1000
b.m.e.p — N/m2 (17.3(b))
L xA x n
Also, b.m.e.p. = Indicated m.e.p. x imech (17.3(c))
Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power available at the engine
crankshaft and the power developed in the engine cylinder.
Brake power
Mechanical efficiency, riunech = (17.4)
Indi• cated power
The difference between the indicated power and brake power is known as fric-
tion power.
Friction power = Indicated power — Brake power (17.4(a))
Thermal Efficiency
The ratio of B.P or I.P to the energy supplied by the fuel during the same inter-
val of time is known as the thermal efficiency. If it is based on I.P. then it is
known as indicated thermal efficiency, and it based on B.P. then it is known as
brake thermal efficiency.
Indicated thermal efficiency,
Indicated power in kW x 3600
lindi(h) (17.5)
nif X C.V.
where inf = Fuel oil supplied in kg/hr
C.V. = Calorific value of fuel oil in kJ/kg
In the case of gas engine, indicated thermal efficiency
Indicated power in kW x 3600
(17.5(a))
Vf X C.V.
where of = Volume of gas supplied in m3/hr
C. V. = Calorific value of gas in kJ/m3
Brake thermal efficiency

Brake power in kW x 3600
(brake)( th) (17.6)
nif X C. V.
where mf = Fuel oil supplied in kg/hr
C. V. = Calorific value of fuel oil in 'kJ/kg
In the case of gas engine, brake thermal efficiency
Brake power in kW x 3600
Ilbrakem (17.6(a))
Vf x C.V.
where Vf = Volume of gas supplied in m3/hr
C. V. = Calorific value of gas in kJ/m3.
Also, Brake thermal efficiency,
ilbrake(h) = X 1lmech (17.6(b))
Brake thermal efficiency is also known as overall efficiency.

Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio
The ratio of the indicated thermal efficiency or the brake thermal efficiency to
the air standard efficiency is known as relative efficiency or efficiency ratio.
Relative efficiency,
Indicated or Brake thermal efficiency
11R — (17.7)
Air standard efficiency
Volumetric efficiency
The ratio of the actual volume of the charge admitted into the cylinder to the
swept volume of the piston is known as volumetric efficiency.
Volume of charge admitted (N.T.P)
Volumetric efficiency, ri,voi — (17.8)
Volume swept by piston
17.22 COOLING OF I.C. ENGINES

Purpose of Cooling
The maximum temperature reached due to the combustion of the fuel inside the
engine cylinder is in the range of 2000°C to 2500°C. The large amount of heat so
produced is absorbed by the cylinder walls, piston, cylinder head and engine
valves. As a result, the temperature of these parts increase. This high tempera-
ture will break the lubricating film between the moving parts. So, this high
temperature must be reduced by some means in the range of 250°C to 300°C, at
which the engine can work efficiently. The overheating of these parts over
250°C to 300°C may cause the following defects:
(a) At high temperature the lubricating oil decomposes to give gummy and
carbon deposits and piston may breakdown.
(b) High temperature reduces the strength of the piston, piston ring. The
uneven expansion of cylinder and piston may seize the piston.
(c) High temperature around the valve may cause the burning of valves
and valve seats.
(d) With the increase in temperature of the cylinder body there is a ten-
dency for detonation to increase.
(e) If the ignition parts are initially at high temperature, there is a chance
of pre-ignition in spark ignition engines.
To avoid all the above effects it is necessary to cool the engine.
The cooling system is designed to remove about 30 to 35% of the total heat
produced in the engine cylinder.
Methods of Cooling I.C. Engine

There are two methods of cooling I.C. engines: (a) air cooling, and (b) water
cooling.
Air cooling
In this method, the heat after being conducted through the cylinder walls is dis-
sipated directly to the air. For this purpose fins and flanges are provided on the
outer surfaces of the cylinder and cylinder head. An air current is flowing
continuously over the heated surface of the engine from where heat is to be
removed. The amount of heat dissipated depends upon the following factors:
(a) Surface area of metal in contact with air.
(b) Rate of air flow.
(c) Temperature difference between the heated surface and the air.
(d) Conductivity of the metal.
Advantages of air cooled engines
(a) Light in weight due to the absence of radiator, cooling jacket and cool-
ant.
(b) The design of this system is simple and less costly.
(c) There is no chance of leakage of coolant.
(d) Anti-freeze not required.
(e) Engine warms up faster than with water cooled engines.
(f) Can be operated in cold climate where water may freeze.
Disadvantages of air cooled engines
(a) Less efficient cooling because the coefficient of heat transfer for air is
less than that of water.
(b) Cooling is not even all around the cylinder.
(c) More noisy operation.
(d) Limited use in motor cycles and scooters where the cylinders are
exposed to air stream.
Water cooling
In this method of cooling, the water is cir-
culated through water jackets around each
of the combustion chambers, cylinders,
valve seats and valve stems. The circulat-
ing water while passing takes heat of the
combustion. When it passes through the
radiator it is cooled by air drawn through
the radiator by a fan and by air flow devel-
oped by the forward motion of the vehicle.
After passing through the radiator, the
water is again circulated.
Systems of water cooling
There are two systems of water cooling: Cylinder
Thermosiphon system or natural circula-
tion system In this system of cooling,
the maculation of water is obtained Fig. 17.20
due" ° the difference of densities of hot
and cold regions of the cooling water.
There is no pump to circulate the water.
The hot water from the engine jacket rises
up in the hose pipe as it is lighter and goes
to the radiator from the top. Then it is
cooled there and goes down to the bottom
of the radiator. From there it goes again in
the engine jacket. This system is quite
simple and cheap, but cooling is rather
slow. To maintain continuity of the water
flow, the water must be maintained up to
certain minimum head. If the water level
falls down, the circulation will discontinue
and the cooling system will fail. Fig. 17.21 Thermosiphon system of
cooling
Forced circulation system In this system of water cooling the circulation of

water is obtained by a pump which is driven by a V—belt from a pulley on the
engine crankshaft. This system is more effective. The circulation of water
becomes faster as the engine speed increases. It is not necessary to maintain the
water up_to a particular level.
Advantages of water cooling system
(a) The specific fuel consumption is low as compared to air cooled engine.
(b) Uniform cooling is possible.
(c) It is not necessary to place the engine in the front of the vehicle as in
case of air cooled engine.
(d) Compact engine design with minimum frontal area is possible.
Disadvantages of water cooling system
(a) It is dependent on water supply.
(b) The engine may be damaged in case of failure of cooling system.
(c) The pump takes considerable power.
(d) Initial and maintenance costs are higher.
17.23 SCAVENGING
The process of removing the burnt gases from the engine cylinder is known as
scavenging. In case of four stroke engine, the problem of scavenging is not dif-
ficult as the piston pushes out the burnt gases from the engine cylinder during its
exhaust stroke. But in two stroke engine it poses a problem as the exhaust stroke
is short.
There are three types of scavenging methods in two stroke cycle engine.
(a) cross flow scavenging, (b) loop or back flow scavenging, (c) uniflow sca-
venging.
71%
Piston Piston
0 0
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 17.22 Types of scavenging (a) cross flow, (b) loop or back flow, (c) uniflow
Cross Flow Scavenging
The inlet or transfer port of the engine and the exhaust port are situated on the
opposite sides of the cylinder wall. Due to the piston crown which is situated on
the top of the piston, the fresh charge moves upwards and pushes out the burnt
Loop or Back Flow Scavenging

The inlet port and exhaust port are situated on the same side of the cylinder wall.
At time of entering into the engine cylinder, the fresh charge forms a loop and
pushes out the burnt gases as shown in Fig. 17.22 (b).
Uniflow Scavenging
The inlet port is situated on one side of the cylinder wall and the exhaust valves
are kept in the cylinder head for the removal of the exhaust gases. Here the fresh
charge and burnt gases move in the same upward direction as shown in
Fig. 17.22 (c).
17.24 SUPERCHARGING OF I.C. ENGINES

Supercharging is the process of forcing the mixture of air and fuel or air only to
the engine cylinder during the suction stroke under pressure. It is done with the
help of a compressor or blower known as supercharger, in order to increase the
mass or density of the mixture of air and fuel or air admitted into the engine
cylinder.
It has been found experimentally that the power developed by the engine can
be increased by supercharging. It is used in aircraft engines as the mass of air
sucked in the engine cylinder decreases at high altitudes. This is because at high
altitudes, the atmospheric pressure decreases. When supercharging is used the
engine is known as supercharged engine.
In petrol engine the supercharger is fitted in such a way that it draws air from
the atmosphere through the carburettor, compresses the air-petrol mixture and
then delivers it to the engine cylinder through the inlet pipe. In the C.I. engine
supercharging is provided to prevent knocking.
The following are the objects of supercharging the engine:
(a) To maintain the power output of the engine working at high altitude
where less oxygen is available for combustion.
(b) To reduce the mass of the engine per indicated power developed, as in
aero-engines.
(c) To reduce the bulk of the engine to fit into a limited space such as in
marine engines.
(d) To increase the mechanical efficiency.
(e) The specific fuel consumption of a supercharged engine is less due to
proper combustion achieved by better turbulence and proper formation
of air fuel mixture and due to increase in mechanical efficiency.
17.25 LUBRICATION OF I.C. ENGINES

Lubrication is necessary for proper maintenance of a motor vehicle. Use of
lubricating oil between the moving parts is known as lubrication.
The main parts to be lubricated in case of I.0 engines are: (a) cylinder walls,
(b) crankshaft main bearing, (c) big end bearing of connecting rod, (d) small end
bearing of connecting rod. (e) cam faces where they engage with the tappets,
(f) push rod guides, (g) rocker arm pin, (h) valve guides, (i) timing gears, and
( j) cam shaft bearings.
Purpose of Lubrication
(a) To reduce friction between the mating parts.
(b) To reduce wear and tear of the moving parts.
(c) To keep the engine parts clean.
(d) To absorb shock between bearing and other engine parts.
(e) To reduce noise and to increase engine life.
(f) To act as a cooling medium for removing heat.
(g) To form a good seal between piston rings and cylinder walls.
(h) To absorb and carry away harmful substances resulting from incom-
plete combustion.
(i) To prevent deposition of carbon, soot and lacquer.
( j) To prevent metallic components from corrosive attack due to acid for-
mation during combustion process.
Systems of Lubrication
The different systems for lubricating the engine are: (a) petroil system,
(b) splash system, (c) pressure system, (d) semi-pressure system, (e) dry pump
system.
Petrol! system
This system of lubrication is generally used in two stroke petrol engines like
scooters and motor cycles. In this system oil pump is not required for the pur-
pose of lubrication. The lubricating oil is mixed into the petrol,itself in a specific
ratio. When the fuel goes into the crank chamber during the engine operation,
the oil particles go deep into the bearing surfaces and lubricates them. The pis-
ton rings, cylinder walls, piston pin etc are lubricated in the same way.
If the engine remains unused for a long period, the lubricating oil separates
off from petrol and cloggs the passage of the carburettor, resulting, in the start-
ing trouble of the engine. This is the main disadvantage of this system.
Splash system
In this method, the lubricating oil is stored in an oil sump or oil trough. A dipper
or scoop is made in the lowest part of the connecting rod. When the engine
runs the dipper dips in the oil once in every revolution of the crankshaft and the
oil is splashed on the cylinder walls. In this way the engine wall, piston pin,
piston rigs, crankshaft bearings and big end bearings are lubricated. This system
works in connection with pressure system.
Pressure system
In this system the lubricating oil is stored in a separate tank or sump and the
pump is immersed in the lubricating oil. The oil pump pumps the oil through the
strainer and delivers it through a filter to the main oil gallery at a pressure of
200-400 kN/m2. The oil from the main gallery goes to the main bearings and
then through a hole to the crank pin. From the crank pin it goes to the piston pin
through a hole in the connecting rod web, where it lubricates the piston pin
bearings and piston rings. For lubricating the cam shaft and timing gears the oil
is led through a separate oil line from the oil gallery. The valve tappets are
lubricated by connecting the main oil gallery to the tappet guide surfaces
through drilled holes. An oil pressure gauge is inserted in the oil circuit to indi-
cate the pressure of oil in the system.
Semipressure system
This system is the combination of splash system and pressure system. All four
stroke engines are lubricated by this system.
Dry sump system
In this system the lubricating oil is kept in a separate tank from where it is fed to
the engine. The oil which falls into the oil sump after lubrication, is sent back to
the oil tank by a separate delivery pump. This system is used where the vehicle
has to change its position continuously like in aircrafts. The advantage of this
system is that there is no chance of breakdown of the oil supply during up and
down movement of the vehicle.
17.26 GOVERNING OF I.C. ENGINES

The purpose of governing is to keep the engine speed constant regardless of the
changes in the load on the engine.
In petrol engines this is done by means of a throttle valve which is placed in
the intake manifold immediately following the carburettor. The amount of
opening of the throttle valve determines how much mixture will enter the engine
cylinder. The throttle valve is operated by accelerator pedal. The position of the
throttle valve may be controlled by the speed governor of centrifugal type.
In Diesel engines the flow of fuel is controlled by centrifugal governor which
operates a device on the fuel pump for by-passing a portion of the fuel which
would otherwise be injected into the engine cylinder.
In gas engines there are three methods of governing: (a) hit and miss method
of governing, (b) quality governing, and (c) quantity governing.
Hit and Miss Method of Governing

The fuel supplied to the engine is completely cut-off during few cycles of the
engine. When the speed rises above the permissible value, the governor sleeve
rises and the gas valve remains closed. As a result only air is taken into the
engine cylinder. So, no power is developed in the engine cylinder due to the
complete absence of fuel and the engine speed falls. The speed continues to
decrease till the pecker block falls back into the position. This method is not
used because of large variation in speed due to the absence of turning effort on
the crankshaft during the idle cycles necessitating a very heavy flywheel to
avoid the considerable variation in speed.
Quality Governing
In this method the amount of fuel supplied to the engine cylinder per cycle is
varied according to the load conditions. As applied to gas engine, the quality
governing is effected by reducing the quantity of gas supply to the engine. In
case of oil engine the quantity of fuel admitted is varied by one of the following
methods:
(a) The stroke of the fuel pump plunger is altered by the action of the governor
and the fuel supply is varied to suit the load of the engine.
(b) By inserting a control valve to the delivery side of the fuel pump. The
opening of the valve is controlled by the governor. It opens after a part of
the delivery stroke is performed. In this system oil is delivered during the
first part of the delivery stroke and returned to the suction side during the
remaining part of the delivery stroke.
(c) By delaying the closing of the suction valve of the fuel pump. The valve
remains open during the first part of the delivery stroke, therefore a part of
the fuel oil is returned back to the fuel pump during some part of the
delivery stroke and delivered to the engine during the remaining part of the
delivery stroke. This is known as spill method as the oil is spilled (fall)
back to the fuel pump from oil tank.
(d) By changing the angular position of the helical groove of the fuel pump
plunger relative to the suction port, the amount of fuel delivered can be
changed. This is a common practice in all modern C.I. high speed engines.
Quantity Governing
This method is used in many gas engines and is commonly used for all petrol
engines. This is done by varying the quantity of fuel supplied to the engine by
means of throttle valve but the mixture strength, supplied to the engine remains
the same. When the load on the engine decreases, its speed increases and the
flyballs fly out. The governor sleeve rises up and partly closes the throttle valve
by which the quantity of mixture supplied to the engine cylinder is decreased.
This reduces the indicated mean effective pressure and finally the power devel-
oped by the engine.
17.27 TESTING OF I.C. ENGINES

Measurement of Indicated Power (I.P)
The power developed inside the engine cylinder is known as the indicated
power and is designated as I.P.
The indicated power is measured by indicator card with the help of an

instrument called indicator. An indicator card is the graphical representation of
the pressure-volume variation during the one working cycle. The indicator dia-
gram has a positive loop and a negative loop. The area between the compression
and expansion lines is called positive loop and the area between suction and
exhaust lines is called negative loop. The positive loop represents the gross
work during the cycle and the negative loop represents the pump loss due to
admission of fresh charge and removal of exhaust gases.
Network done per cycle = Area of positive loop — Area of negative loop.
The areas of positive loop and negative loop are measured with the help of pla-
nimeter.
Let AP = Area of positive loop in mm2
= Area of negative loop in mm2
h r= Mean height of the indicator diagram.
L = Length of the indicator diagram in mm
S = Spring scale in N/m2/mm
A n
Then h — P A„ mm
1
(A —A )
Actual indicated mean effective pressure Pm(act,,= n Xs =h Xs N/M2
Generally the area of negative loop is negligible as compared with positive loop.
Pnita„)LA n
Indicated power per cylinder — kW
60 x 1000
where Pm(act) is in N/m2, L is in m, A is in m2, n is the no. of explosions per min-

ute.
Measurement of Brake Power (B.P)

The power available at the engine crankshaft is known as brake power. The
brake power is less than the indicated power because of different losses such as
pump losses, mechanical losses in bearings, power required to drive the fuel
pump, water pump and governor.
The brake power is measured by coupling the brake dynamometer to the
engine shaft.
Let W = Load measured on the dynamometer in N.
R = Arm length in m
N = rpm of engine
T = Torque in Nm.
W R2TEN
Brake power = kW
60 x 1000
2rtl?
In the hydraulic dynamometer the arm length R is fixed. So the factor i s
constant and is known as dynamometer constant.
WN
B.P. =
60 x 1000
where K = Dynamometer constant —
2rcR )
Measurement of I.P. of Multicylinder Engine

(Morse Test)
This method is used to measure the indicated power without the use of indicator,
in multicylinder engines. The brake power of the engine is measured by cutting
off each cylinder in turn. The cylinder of a petrol engine is cut off by shorting
the spark plug and in case of diesel engine this is done by cutting off the fuel
supply to the required cylinder. Let there be n cylinders in an engine and all the
cylinders be working.
Then (B.P.), = (I.P.), — (F.P.), (17.9)
where F.P. is the frictional power per cylinder.
If one cylinder is cut-off then the power developed by that cylinder is cut-off.
Then the power developed by that cylinder (I.P.) is lost and the speed of the
engine falls as the load on the engine remains the same. The engine speed can be
brought back to its original value by reducing the load on the engine. This is
required to maintain the F.P. constant, because it is assumed that the F.P. is
independent of the load and depends only on the speed of the engine.
When 1st cylinder is cut-off,
(B.P.), _1 = (I.P.), _1 — (F.P.), (17.10)
Subtracting Eq. (17.10) from Eq. (17.9)
(B .P), — (B.P.)„ _1 = (I.P.)„ — (I.P.)„ _1 = I.P. (17.11)
The difference between the B.P. with n and (n-1) cylinders working gives the
I.P. of the first cylinder which is cut-off. In this way the I.P. of all the cylinders
is measured one by one and the sum of I.Ps of all cylinders is the total I.P. of the
engine. The B.P. of the engine by making each cylinder inoperative can be
measured by dynamometer discussed in the last article.
The method of measurement of I.P. of the multicylinder engine is known as
Morse Test.
Measurement of Air Consumption

Orifice chamber method is used in laboratory for measuring the consumption of
air. The arrangement of this system is shown in Fig. 17.23.
It consists of an air tight chamber in

Rubber diaphragm which a sharp edged orifice is fitted.
The orifice is situated away from the
suction connection to the engine. A
_ rubber diaphragm is provided to fur-
Air box
ther reduce the pressure pulsations.
Sharp
edged hy, There is a pressure depression due to
orifice i the suction of the engine which causes
the flow through the orifice for obtain-
To engine ing a steady flow, the volume of the
chamber should be sufficiently large as
compared with the swept volume of
Fig. 17.23 Measurement of air con- the cylinder. Generally 500 to 600
sumption through the times the swept volume. The pressure
orifice chamber method difference which causes the flow
through the orifice is measured with
the help of manometer fitted in the air box. The pressure difference is kept to
10 cm of water to make the compressibility effect negligible.
Le A = Area of orifice in m2
= Head of water in cm
d = Diameter of orifice in cm
pa = Density of air in kg/m3
Cd = Coefficient of discharge of orifice
Head in terms of air in m is given by
h,v h„, pW h,, 1000 10h,,
H.P. = 100 Pw H = 100' pa = 100 . pa - P. m
The velocity of air passing through the orifice is given by
10h
Va = 42g T-1 m/s. Va = -\12g.—w m/s
Pa
The volume of air passing through the orifice is given by
10h,, 3
Va =A x VxCd =Cd xA x"\12g. -- 14Cd.A h"m /s
Pa Pa
Mass of air passing through the orifice is given by,
Va.p, = 14.Cd. .—
\11 1„
Pa 4 x 1002 w
=-0.0011Cd .d2—
N1r;:-Z kg/s (17.12)
The density of atmospheric air is given by,

Pa Va = ma RaTa
ma Pa Pa
Pa =
Va = RaTa 287
— x T„
where Pa is the atmospheric pressure in N/m2 and Ta is the atmospheric temper-
ature in K.
Putting the value of pa in Eq. (17.9)
2,\1 Pa .k,
ma = 0.0011Cd .d kg/s = 0.0038958.Cd.d2 kg/min.
287 x
= 0.0039Cd.d4q PaTjiw (17.13)
The volumetric efficiency of the engine is given by

Actual volume of air taken
11 = Displacement volume
14.Cd.A . a x 60
P
(17.14)
102
.L.N . x No. of cylinders
When the volumetric analysis of the exhaust gases is known, then the mass of
air supplied per kg of fuel is given by,
N XC
ma /kg of fuel = (17.15)
33(C1+ C2)
where N = Percentage of nitrogen by volume in exhaust gas
C= Percentage of carbon in fuel by weight
= Percentage of CO2 by volume in exhaust gas
C2 = Percentage of CO by volume in exhaust gas.
Measurement of Fuel Consumption

An arrangement for measuring the fuel consumption rate is shown in Fig. 17.24.
A small glass tube is fitted to the main fuel tank. When the fuel consumption
rate is to be measured the valve is closed and the fuel is consumed from the
burette as shown in the figure. For a known value of fuel consumption, the time
is measured and the fuel consumption rate is calculated as under.
x Sp. gravity of fuel
Fuel consumption kg/hr — (17.16)
1000 x t
Measurement of Heat Carried Away by Cooling

Water
The heat carried away by cooling water is
Burette
measured by measuring the quantity of water
flowing through the jacket and the rise in
temperature of the cooling water. The quan-
tity of water flowing through the jacket is
measured by collecting it in a bucket for a
specified time or directly with the help of a
flow meter. The inlet and outlet temperatures
of the water are measured by thermometers
which are inserted in the pockets provided.
The heat carried away by cooling water is
given by To
engine
Q,,, = m„.C„,(To — Ti) (17.17)
where m,, = mass of water/minute Fig. 17.24 Arrangement for mea-

C,„ = Specific heat of water gen- suring fuel consump-
erally taken as 4.1868 tion rate
kJ/kg
To = Outlet temperature of water
T, = Inlet temperature of water.
Measurement of Heat Carried Away by Exhaust Gas

The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel is calculated by the equation.
NxC
33(C1 + C2)
The heat carried away by exhaust gas per kg of fuel is given by
Qg = mg.Cg.(Tg — Ta)= (ma + 1).Cg(Tg —Ta) (17.18)
where (ma + 1) = mass of exhaust gas formed per kg of fuel supplied
Cg = Specific heat of exhaust gases
T = Temperature of exhaust gases coming out from the engine
Ta = Ambient temperature.
Heat Balance Sheet

A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied and heat utilised in different
ways in a system. The performance of the engine is obtained from the heat bal-
ance sheet.
A heat balance account includes the following items.
Heat supplied by the fuel to the engine = m f x L.C.V.
where mf is the mass of fuel supplied per minute and L.C.V. is the lower calo-
rific value of the fuel.
(a) Heat equivalent of brake power = Brake power x 60 kJ/min.

where Brake power is in kW.
(b) Heat lost to jacket cooling water = mw.C,,(To — T1) kJ/min
Heat lost to exhaust gases = mg.Cg.(Tg —T.) kJ/min.
(c)
The rest of the heat is lost by convection and radiation. This cannot be
(d)
measured and so this is known as unaccounted loss. This is calculated
by the difference of heat supplied and the sum of (a) + (b) + (c).
A heat balance sheet is shown in Table 17.3.
Table 17.3
Heat supplied per kJ % Heat expenditure per kJ %

minute minute
Heat supplied by the 100 (a) Heat equivalent of — —
combustion of fuel brake power
(b) Heat lost to jacket — —
cooling water
(c) Heat lost to exhaust — —
gases
(d) Unaccounted heat i.e. —
(Heat supplied—
{ (a) + (b) + (c) I
Total 100 Total 100
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1.,A four cylinder four stroke petrol engine has size 65 mm diameter and 95 mm stroke. On
test, it developed a torque of 64 Nm when running at 3000 rpm. If clearance volume in each
cylinder is 63 cm3, the brake efficiency ratio based on air standard efficiency is 0.5 and calo-
rific value of petrol is 42000 kJ/kg. Determine the fuel consumption in kg/hr and the b.m.e.p.
Solution: Swept Volume/Cylinder
= d2 x L =74 (6.5)2 x 9.5 = 315.239 cm3
Vs + Vc 315.239 + 63
Compression ratio r= —6
Vc 63
1 ,
1lAsE= (6)'.4-1 — 0.5125 = 51.25%
r7-1
Relative efficiency =
%rake (0)
0.5 = ti„cw,) = 0.5 x 0.5125 = 0.2562 or 25.62%
0.5125
2mNT 2rcx 3000 x 64

B.P. = 60 x 1000 = 20.106 kW.
60 x 1000
B.P.x 60 x 60 20.106 x 60 x 60
Now %rake (1h) = = 6 726 kg/hr.
mf x C. V. ni f 0.2562 x 42000
B.P. =20.106
B.P./cylinder = 4 4 = 5.0265
P„,(brako xLxA xn
Also, B.P./cylinder =
60 x 1000
P„,(br.,„c) x 0.095 x x (0.065)2 x 3000

5.0265 =
2 x 60 x 1000
Brake mean effective pressure,
5.0265 x 2 x 60 x 1000 x 4
P b = 637801.41 N/m2 = 637.8014 kN/m2
'—`) 0.095 x rC x (0.065)2 x 3000
2. A four cylinder, two stroke cycle petrol engine develops 30 kW at 2500 rpm. The mean
effective pressure of each is 800 kN/m2 and mechanical efficiency is 80%. Calculate the
diameter and stroke of each cylinder if stroke to bore ratio is 1.5. Also calculate the brake
specific fuel consumption of the engine, if brake thermal efficiency is 28%. The calorific
value of petrol is 44000 kJ/kg.
Solution: Given, No. of cylinders = 4, B.P. = 30 kW,
N = 2500 rpm, P„,= 800 kN/m2, rime, = 80%, L

d
— = 1.5,
tio,„„,„,) = 28%, C. V. = 44000 kJ/kg

B.P 30
I.P.
.P. — = = 7.5 kW
timed, 0.8
37.5
I.P./cylinder = — = 9.375 kW
4
P,„(o xLxAxn
Now, 1.P./cylinder — kW
60 x 1000
800 x 103 x I.5d xrcxd2 x 2500
9.375 = d3 = 2.3873 x 10-4m3
4 x 60 x 1000
d= 0.062 m = 6.2 cm L =1.5d =1.5 x 6.2 = 9.3 cm
Brake thermal efficiency = B.P. x60x 60

mI xC" V
300
6
' — 0.28 x
Brake specific fuel consumption — B.P. = 0.2922 kg/kW hr.
44000
3. The following particulars refer to a 2 stroke diesel engine: bore = 10 cm, stroke = 15 cm,
piston speed = 300 m/min, torque developed = 58 Nm, mechanical efficiency = 80%, indi-
cated thermal efficiency = 40%, calorific value of fuel used = 44000 kJ/kg.
Determine: (a) indicated power, (b) indicated mean effective pressure, and (c) fuel consump-
tion per kW hour on brake power basis.
Solution: Given, d =10 cm = 0.1 m, L = 15 cm = 0.15 m,
Piston speed = 2LN = 300 m/min, T = 58 Nm.
Type of engine = 2 stroke diesel engine,

-C.V. = 44000 kJ/kg, rime, = 80%
lindi.Oh) = 40%
300 300
Piston speed = 2LN = 300 N= = - 1000 rpm
2L 2 x .15
B.P
= I.P.
2ENT 2 xrcx 1000 x58
Now, B.P. - - 6.073 kW
60 x 1000 60 x 1000
B.P. 6.073
I.P. = = - 7.5921 kW.
timed, 0.8
P,„(.0xL xA x n
I.P./cylinder - kW.
60x 1000
P„,(ico x 0.15 xnx (0.1)2 x 1000
7.5921 =
4 x60x 1000
Indicated mean effective pressure
7.5921 x4 x 60 x 1000
- 386666.67 N/m2 = 386.66667 kN/m2
Puo.o 0.15 xitx 0.01 x 1000
' I.P. x 60 x 60
(c) Indicated thermal efficiency
mix C.V.
7.5921 x 3600
Fuel consumption per hour, m f - = 1.5529 kg/hr.
0.4 x 44000
mf
Fuel consumption per kW hour on brake power basis =
B.P.
1.5529
=
- 0.2557 kg
6.073
4. The following particulars refer to a two stroke oil engine: bore = 20 cm, stroke = 30 cm,
speed = 350 rpm, Indicated m.e.p = 275 kN/m2, net brake load = 610 N, diameter of brake
drum = 1 m, oil consumption = 4.25 kg/hr, calorific value of fuel = 44000 kJ/kg.
Determine (a) I.P„(b) B.P., (c) (d) indicated thermal efficiency, and (e) brake thermal
efficiency.
Solution: Given, d = 20 cm, L = 30 cm, N = 350 rpm,
= 275 kN/m2, (W -S)= 610 N, D =1 m,
ni f= 4.25 kg/hr, C.V. = 44000 kJ/kg

P„,(.
0LAn 275 x 103 x 0.3 x 7C X (0.2)2 x 350
I.P. - kW =
60 x 1000 4 x60x 1000
(a) I.P. = 15.1189 kW
27t/s/(W - S) x R 2 xnx 350 x 610 x 1
(b) B.P. = kW = - 11.1788 kW
60 x 1000 2 x 60 x 1000
B.P. 11.1788
(c) Mechanical efficiency = - 0.7393 or 73.93%
1 = 15.1189
(d) Indicated thermal efficiency

I.P. x 60 x 60 15.1189 x 3600
11.0,(h) = m1 xC - 0.2910 or 29.1%
C.V. 4.25 x 44000
(e) Brake thermal efficiency
= Indicated thermal efficiency x mechanical efficiency
=0,291x0.7393=0.2151 or 21.51%
5. A four stroke six cylinder gas engine with a stroke volume of 1.75 litres develops
26.25 kW at 506 rpm. The mean effective pressure is 600 kN/m2. Find the average number of
times each cylinder misfired in one minute.
Solution: Given, V, = 1.75 / = 1.75 x 10-3 m3
I.P. = 26.25 kW, N = 506, P„,,„„= 600 kN/m2

No. of cylinders = 6, type of engine = 4 stroke
P,„( „ ,,LA n
I.P./cylinder - kW
60 x 1000
26.25 600 x 103 x Vs x
=10x1.75x10-3 x n
6 60000
26.25
n= - 250
6x 1.75 x 10-2
soy
As it is a four stroke engine, the number of explosions per minute should be = 253 per
cylinder.
misfired per minute per cylinder = 253-250 = 3
6. In a test with a four cylinder four stroke petrol engine the following results were obtained
for a particular setting and speed:
B.P. with all cylinders working = 24.5 kW
B.P. with no.1 cylinder cut out = 16.53 kW
Estimate the indicated power of the engine and its mechanical efficiency.
Solution: B.P. = 24.5 kW
B.P., = 16.53 kW
= 17.2 kW
B.P.3 = 17.34 kW
B.P.4 = 17.8 kW
I.P., = B.P. - B.P., = 24.5 - 16.53 = 7.97 kW
I.P., = B.P. - B.P., = 24.5 - 17.2 = 7.3 kW
I.P., = B.P. - B.P., = 24.5 - 17.34 = 7.16 kW
I.P.4 = B.P. - B.P.4 = 24.5 - 17.8 = 6.7 kW
Total indicated power of the engine = + I.P., + I.P., + I.P.,
= 7.97+7.3+7.16+6.7 = 29.13 kW
B.P. 24.25
. Mechanical efficiency = I.P. x 100 - x 100 = 83.24%
29.13
7. A petrol engine having a compression ratio 8 has a brake thermal efficiency which is 40%
of ideal air standard efficiency. The calorific value of fuel is 44000 kJ/kg. Calculate the fuel
consumption in kg/hr, if the engine delivers 7.5 kW.
1
Solution: Air standard efficiency = 1
(r
rIA S.E = - (8)1.4- I - 0.5647 = 56.47%
Brake thermal efficiency = 0.4 x riA s, = 0.4 x 0.5647 = 0.2258 = 22.58%

B.P. x 60 x 60
Brake thermal efficiency =
m f x C .V .
7.5 x 3600
.*. m= - 2.7165 kg/hr.
0.2258 x 44000
8. A four cylinder engine running at 1200 rpm gave 18.6 kW brake power. The average
torque when one cylinder was cut-out was 105 Nm. Determine the indicated thermal effi-
ciency if the calorific value of the fuel is 42000 kJ/kg and the engine uses 0.34 kg of petrol
per kW brake power.
Solution: When one cylinder is cut out the output of the engine is given by 3 cylinders.
2nNT 2 xrcx 1200 x 105
Brake power for 3 cylinders = kW = = 13.1946 kW
60 x 1000 60 x 1000
Thus, indicated power for one cylinder = 18.6 - 13.1946 = 5.4054 kW.
Total indicated power for 4 cylinders = 4 x 5.4054 = 21.6216 kW.
Indicated thermal efficiency is given by
I.P. x 3600 21.6216 x 3600
lIndi(th)= rn x C V 0.34 x 18.6 x 42000 = 0.293 or 29.3%
9. An engine is used on a job requiring 110 kW brake power. The mechanical efficiency of
the engine is 80% and the engine used 50 kg of fuel/hour under the conditions of operation. A
design improvement is made which reduces the engine friction by 5 kW. Assuming that the
indicated thermal efficiency remains the same how many kg of fuel per hour will be saved ?
Solution: B.P. = 110 kW, n,,,„,,,= 80%
B.P. 110
I.P. = - = = 137.5 kW.
rl.ch 0.8
Frictional power = I.P.-B.P. = 137.5 - 110 = 27.5 kW
New frictional power = 27.5-5 = 22.5 kW.
New I.P. = 110 + 22.5 = 132 .5 kW.
Let trrri be the new fuel consumption in kg/hour.
As the indicated thermal efficiency is the same in both cases,
New I.P. I.P. 132.5 137.5
tn.( infi 50
132.5 x 50
m fi = 137.5 = 48.18 kg Saving in fuel = 50 - 48.18 = 1.82 kg/hr.
10. A four-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine is designed to develop 40.5 kW indicated
power at a speed of 3000 rpm. The compression ratio being 5. The law of compression and
expansion is P V" = constant and heat addition and rejection take place at constant volum
The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression stroke are 100 kN/m2 and
50°C. Calculate the diameter and stroke of each cylinder assuming all cylinders have equll
dimensions. Take diagram factor as 0.8 and stroke bore ratio as 1.5. The maximum pressure
in the cycle is limited to 3000 kN/m2.
Solution: Given, type of engine = 4 stroke, no.of cylinders = 4,
LP. = 40.5 kW, N = 3000, r = 5, P, = 100 kN/m2

T, = 50°C = 50 + 273 = 323 K, d.f.= 0.8, L = 1.5d P3 = 3000 kN/m2
-1
T Vi " =
T2= 51 " = 1.62, T2 = T, x 1.62 = 323 x 1.62 = 523.26 K
v
40.5
I.P./cylinder = = 10.125 kW.
4
,
Pn(acOLAii
I.P./cylinder =
60 x 1000
P„,oro x 1.5d x rcd2 x 1500
10.125 =
4 x60 x 1000
10.125 x4 x 60 x 1000
P d- = =343.774
"4"`) 1.5 x n x 1500
P2 V2 T2 Vi 523.6
or, P2 =- x xP,= 5 x 100 P2 = 810 kN/m2.
Ti T2 fi T2 323
Again, P,V; =P,V: or, P,= P4 X - ii Jn = P, x -1:

7-1 4
(
3000
or, 3000 = P, x 5" ... P4 = 51 3 = 370,22 kN/m2
1 1
Pmwo = 1 [(P 3 — Pa r) — (P — P i r)] x
r—1
1 1
= [3000 370.22 x 5 — 810 + 100 x 5] x = 699.08 kN/m2
0.3 5 —1
P„,(„o = 699.08 x d .f. = 699.08 x 0.8 = 559.266 kN/m2
d3_ 343.774
P,„(aco.d3 = 343.774
559.266 x 1000
d = 0.085 m d = 8.5 cm
L = 1.5d = 1.5 x 8.5 = 12.75 cm.

11. During a trial on a four-cylinder, four stroke engine coupled to a hydraulic dynamometer
at constant speed, the following readings were obtained.
B.P. with all cylinders working = 14.7 kW
B.P. with cylinder no. 1 cut out = 10.14 kW
Petrol consumption = 5.5 kg/hr.
Calorific value of petrol = 42000 kJ/kg.
Stroke of piston = 10 cm
Clearance volume = 0.1 litre
Calculate (a) mechanical efficiency, and (b) relative efficiency on indicated power basis..
Solution:
I.P., = 14.7-10.14 = 4.56
1.13.2 = 14.7-10.3 = 4.4
I.P.3 = 14.7-10.36 = 4.34
14.7-10.21 =4.49
Total I.P. = 4.56 +4.4 + 4.34 +4.49 = 17.79 kW.
14.7
(a) Mechanical efficiency = B.P. = = 0.8263 or 82.63%
I.P. 17.79
V, =4d 2 x L = (.08)2 x (.1) = 5.0265 x 10-4m3
V, = 0.11itre = 0.1 x10-3 = 10-4m3.

Vs + Vc 5.0265 x 104 + 104
Compression ratio r = = 6.0265
Vc 10-4
, 1
11A.s.E. = 1 (0.,,_ I = I 1 = 0.5215 or, 51.25%
(6.0265)"
I.P. x 3600 17.79 x 3600
Indicated thermal efficiency = = - 0.2772 or, 27.72%
m xCV 5.5 x42000
= 0.2772
Relative efficiency = - 0.5316 or, 53.16%
11A s.E. 0.5215
12. A four cylinder, four stroke cycle petrol engine 82 mm bore, 130 mm stroke develops
28.35 kW brake power while running at 1500 r.p.m and using a 20% rich mixture. If the vol-
ume of the air into the cylinder when measured at 15.5°C and 760 mm of mercury is 70% of
the swept volume, the theoretical air fuel ratio is 14.8, the heating value of petrol used is
44000 kJ/kg and the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 90%, find (a) indicated thermal
efficiency, and (b) brake mean effective pressure.
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Given, no.of cylinders = 4
Type of engine = 4 stroke
Bore = d = 82 ram = 0.082 m
Stroke = L = 130 mm = 0.13 m
B.P = 28.35 kW
N = 1500 rpm.
Type of mixture = 20% rich.
Volume of air at 15.5°C and 760 mm of mercury = 70% of the swept volume
Theoretical air fuel ratio = 14.8
C.V. = 44000 kJ/kg.
= 90%, R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
B.P B.P. 28.35
71.ed, = I.P •• 1.P. =, = 0.9 =31.5 kW.
11fiwi
760 mm of mercury = 1.013198 bar.
Volume of air sucked inside the cylinder in m3 per minute = Volume of air sucked in ore
cylinder per minute x No. of cylinders = 70% of swept volume x 4
TC R.P.M TC
= 0.7 x - d2x L x x 4 = 0.7 x - x (0.082)2 x 0.13 x 1513° x 4 m3/ min = 1.4417 m3/ min
4 2 4 2
Now from equation P V = m R 7'.
PV
Mass of air into the cylinder m =
RT
101319.8 x 1.4417
m= — 1.764 kg/min
287 x 288.5
Theoretically 14.8 kg of air required for 1 kg of fuel but the mixture is 20% rich.
1.764
Actual fuel consumption/min = x 1.2 = 0.14302 kg/min.
4.8
I.P. x 3600 31.5 x 3600
nindi (hl = mI x C.V. 0.14302 x 44000 x 60 — 0.30 or 30%
13. A two stroke cycle, 21 cm bore x 28 cm stroke, single cylinder oil engine gives the fol-
lowing results on test:
Speed = 350 r.p.m
Net brake load = 620 N
Diameter of brake drum = 1m
Oil consumption = 4.25 kg/hr.
275 kN/m2
Heating value of fuel used = 43000 kJ/kg
Air-fuel ratio by weight = 32
Temperature of air in test = 20°C
room
Temperature of exhaust = 370°C
gases
Calculate (a) the indicated power, (b) the brake power, (c) indicated thermal efficiency,
(d) brake thermal efficiency, and (e) per cent heat lost to exhaust gases.
Assume a mean Cp of 1 for the exhaust gases.
[A.M.I.E, 1984]
Solution: Given,
Bore of cylinder, d= 21 cm
Area of cylinder A = 74
71c/ 2 = 4( .2 02 m2
Stroke of cylinder, L = 28 cm = 0.28 m

Speed, N= 350 r.p.m
Net brake load, (W—S) = 620 N
Dia. of brake drum, D = 1 m
Oil consumption, m 1= 4.25 kg/hr.
l.m.e.p, = 275 kN/m2
Heating value of fuel, C.V. = 43000 kJ/kg.
Air fuel ratio by weight = 32
Temperature of air at inlet, t, = 20°C
Temperature of exhaust gases, 12 = 370°C.
For exhaust gas, C p = I
(a) Indicated power
P„,„„ LA n 275x 103 x 0.28 xrcx (0.21)2 x 350
I.P./cylinder = — = 15.557 kW.
60x 1000 kW 4 x60x 1000
488 Thermal Engineering,
(b) Brake power

2rc/)/(W —S)R 2x1rx 350 x 620 x 1
B.P. — kW = —11.362 kW.
60 x 1000 2x 60 x 1000
(c) Indicated,thermali efficiency
I.P. x 3600' 15.557x 3600
0.3064 or, 30.64%
11' ("= m xC V — 425x43000 —
(d) Brake thermal efficiency
B.P. x 3600 11.362 x 3600
= 0.2238 or, 22.38%
0""'"('"Y — m xC V — 4.25x43000
(e) Per cent heat lost to exhaust gases
Mass of fuel consumed in one hour = 4.25 kg.
For one kg of fuel, mass of air required.= 32 kg
For 4.25 kg of fuel, mass of air required.=-32'x 4.25 = 136 kg.
Total mass of exhaust gases = Mass of fuel burnt + Mass of air = 4.25 + 136 = 140.25
kg.
Heat carried by exhaust gases = mCp(12 — t1 )= 140.25.x 1(643 — 293) = 49087.5 kJ.
Heat carried by exhaust gas
Per cent heat lost to exhaust gases =
Heat supplied.by fuel
49087.5
= 0.2686 or, 26.86%.
4.25 x 43000
14. A single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine gave the following while running on full load:
Area of the indicator card = 3 sq. cm
Length of the diagram = 4 cm
Spring constant = 1000 kN/ml/cm
Speed of the engine = 400 rpm.
Load on the brake = 380 N
Diameter of the brake drum = 1.2 m
Fuel consumption = 2.8 kg/hr
Calorific value of fuel = 42000 kJ/kg
Stroke of the piston = 20 cm
Calculate (a) indicated mean effective pressure, (b) indicated power, brake power, (c) brake
mean effective pressure, (d) brake specific fuel consumption, and (e) brake thermal and indi-
cated thermal efficiencies,
[A.M.I.E. 19861
Solution: (a) Indicated mean effective pressure,
Area of indicator diagram 3
P mact, Spring constant = x 1000 = 750 kN/in 2
— Length of indicator diagram
= 4
(b) Indicated power, brake power
Pno,c0LAn 750 x 103 x 0.2 x rcx (0.16)2 x 400
I.P. = kW = = 10.053 kW.
60 x 1000 4 x 2x 60 x 1000
2.7r1V(W —S)R 2 x nx 400(380 —50) x 1.2
B.P. = — — 8.2938 kW.
60 x 1000 2 x 60 x 1000
(c) Brake mean effective pressure
Pm(brake) LAn
B.P./cylinder —
60 x 1000
8.2938 x 60 x 1000 x 4
Pm(brake) = 618750 N/m2 = 618.75 kN/m2.
= 0.2 X It X (0.16)2 X 200
(d) Brake specific fuel consumption
Fuel consumed in kg/hr
Brake specific fuel consumption =
B.P.
2.8
= — 0.3376 kg/kW hr.
8.2938
(e) Indicated thermal efficiency

I.P. x 3600 10.053 x 3600
= 0.3077 or, 30.77%
llind")= m xC V — 2.8x42000
B.P. x 3600 8.2938 x 3600
11(brake (111) = — 0,2538 Or 25.38%.
M I XC"V 2.8 x 42000
15. The compression curve on the indicator dia-
gram from a gas engine follows the law
PV" = Constant. At two points on the curve at 24.
P2 I3
stroke and ,3i stroke, the pressures are 140 kN/m2 PV =C
and 360 kN/m2 respectively. Determine the corn- 2

pression ratio of the engine. Calculate the thermal z
PI
efficiency and the gas consumption per kW hour A
on indicated power basis if the relative efficiency
is 0.4 and the gas has the calorific value of 18840
kJ/m3.
4 VS O
[AMIE. 1983]
ye
Solution: The given law is P V" = C
Volume
Let the point 1 is at 4 th stroke and point 2 is ate th
storke on the compression curve AB as shown in
Fig. 17.25.
Fig. 17.25
Let V, = Stroke volume in m3

Ve = Clearance volume in m3
Stroke volume
= Volume at point 1 = Clearance volume + Stroke volume
4
V,
= + V, — 74 = + 0.75 V,.
V. = Volume at point 2 = + — -zt = + 0.25 V,
Pressure at point 1, P, = 140 kN/m2

Pressure at point 2, P2 = 360 kN/m2
Calorific value C.V. = 18840 kJ/m3
Using the relation PV' = Constant,
= P 2V '''3
PV =PV
V2 Pi V2 VI)
Vc + 0.75V, (360r
= 2.067
Vc + 0.25V, = (140)
or, Vc +0.75V, = 2.067Vc + 2.067 x
or, Vc + 0.75V, = 2.067 Vc + 0.5167V,

or, 0.75V, — 0.5167V, = 2.067 Vc — Vc
or, 0.2333V, = 1.067Vc
1.067
Or, = = 4.5735
Vc 0.2333
(a) Now compression ratio
VA V.,-F Vc
r= = — +1 = 4.5735 + 1 =5.5735
VD V, V„
(b) Thermal
Air standard efficiency,
1 1
tins,— 1 =0.4971
(r)7-1 —1 (5.5735)04
Relative efficiency — Air standard efficiency
..Indicated thermal efficiency = 0.4 x 0.4971 = 0.19884 or 19.884%
(c) Gas consumption
Heat equivalent to 1 kW per hr
Indicated thermal efficiency =
supplied by fuel per hr.
3600 3600
0.19884 = 0.9609 m3/kW hr.
18840 x Vf 1— 0.19884 x 18840
16. A four cylinder four stroke single acting petrol engine gave the following results.
Petrol consumption 5 kg/hr
Speed 750 r.p.m
Air fuel ratio of the mixture = 11 : 1
supplied
Temperature at the end of = 375°C
compression
Pressure at the end of = 1200 kN/m2
compression stroke
Relative efficiency = 50%
Diameter of cylinder 8.5 cm
Stroke of piston 12 cm
R (for mixture) 0.284 kJ/kg K.
5 1 1 1
Solution: Mass of fuel used per cylinder per stroke = 6 x x — kg.
0 4 375 18000
1 12
Mass of mixture per stroke = x12= kg.
18000 18000
As the volume of the mixture before compression and after compression remains the same,
the volume of the mixture is given by
PK.= mRT
mRT 12 0285 x 648 3

= p x m
18000 1200
V, = 1.026 x m'
1/3 = 1.12 xL = —
7r x (0.085)2 x 0.12 = 6.8094 x 10-4
4 4
V, + V,
Compression ratio r= v
1.026x + 6.8094 x
r— = 7.636
1.026 x
The air standard efficiency is given by,
1
11A.s E = 1 - = 1 - - 0.5565 = 55.65%.
• (r) (7.636)04

Relative efficiency — Air standard efficiency
Indicated thermal efficiency = 0.5 x 0.5565 = 0.2782
I P. x 3600
Indicated thermal efficiency — .
m f x C.V.
mf 3600
Specific fuel consumption — — = 0.308 kg/kW. hr.
I.P. 0.2782 x 42000
17. Calculate the relative efficiency based on indicated power and A : F ratio for a four-stroke
gas engine working on Otto cycle from the following data:
Power developed = 5 kW
Speed = 180 r.p.m.
Volumetric efficiency = 85%
Clearance volume = 1500 cm'
Swept volume = 6500 cm'
Fuel consumption = 4 m3/hr
Calorific value of fuel = 17000 kJ/m3.
Brake power 5
Solution: Indicated power = = = 6.25 kW
Mech. Efficiency 0.8
I.P. x 3600 6.25 x 3600
Indicated thermal efficiency — — 0.2205 or 22.05%
V1 XC.V. 6 x 17000
V, + V, 6500 + 1500
Compression ratio, r= — 5.333
1500
1 1
Air standard efficiency TI A s E = =1- = 0.488 = 48.8%
rY (5.333) 4
il indi(01)
Relative efficiency based on indicated power = 0.2205= 0.4518 or 45.18%
T1A.S E 0.488
Volume of mixture admitted into the cylinder per stroke = Swept volume x Volumetric effy
= 6500 x 0.85 = 5525 cm3.
4 1
Volume of fuel consumed per stroke = - x - x 106 = 740.74
60 90
Volume of air per stroke = 5525 - 740.74 = 4784.26 cm3
4784.26
A: F ratio by volume = 740.74 - 6.4587:1
18. The following data refer to a single cylinder four stroke petrol engine:
Compression ratio = 5.6
B.s.f.c. = 0.37 kg/kW h
Adiabatic index for air = 1.4
Find (a) brake thermal efficiency, (b) indicated thermal efficiency, (c) air standard efficiency,
(d) relative efficiency with respect to ri,fid,, and (e) relative efficiency with ,respect to tibrake
FA.M.I.E. 1993]
B P. x 3600 3600
Solution: (a) Brake thermal efficiency = . =1 0.2211 or 22.11%
tnI XC. V. 0.37 x 44000
ak 0.211
(b) Indicated thermal efficiency = ilbr e (`6) = = 0.2764 or 27.64%
1 1
,(c) Air standard efficiency = 1 -I (5.6)0 4 0.4979 or 49.79%
rliwth) 0.2764
(d) Relative efficiency with respect to rh,;(,) = = 0.5551 or 55.51%
rIA.s.E 0.4979
%rake 010 0.2211
(e) Relative efficiency with respect to r1„,e(u,) = 0.4979 - 0.444 or 44.4%.
19. A petrol engine working on four-stroke cycle, uses a fuel of calorific value 44000 kJ/kg.
A mixture of air and petrol of 5 m3 is found from 1 kg of petrol when evaporated. If the com-
pression ratio is 5 and the indicated thermal efficiency is 0.55 of the ideal, determine the
power developed by a four cylinder engine, when it nins at 1500 r.p.m. The diameter of the
cylinders and the length of strokes are 10 cm and 12.5 cm respectively, Assume volumetric
efficiency 75% and y= 1.4, Calculate the probable mean effective pressure.
Solution: Volume of air-petrol mixture drawn in per suction stroke = 0.75 x stroke volume
= 0.75 x -(0.1)2 x 0.125 = 7.3631 x 10-4m3.
But the calorific value of 5 m3 of mixture = Calorific value of 1 kg of petrol = 44000 kJ/kg
44000
.•. Heat supplied by 7.3631 x 10 in3of mixture = 5 x 7.3631 x 10 = 6.4795 kJ.
Heat supplied per minute = 6.4795 x No. of working cycle per minute x No of cylinders
= 6.4795 x 1- 50
x 4 = 19438.6 Id
2
1 1
Ideal thermal efficiency = 1ry-- I- = 1 --
50.4= 0.4746
Actual thermal efficiency = 0.55 x 0.4746 = 0.26108
Indicated work done = 0.26108 x 19438.6 kJ/min = 5075.067 kJ/min
Actual indicated power = 84.58 kW.
5075.067 x 2
Work done per cylinder per cycle = - 1.6916 id = 1691.6 Nm
4 x 1500
Work done 1691.6 x 4
Probable mean effective pressure - = 1723.049 lcN/m2.
stroke volume rc x (0.1)2 .125
20. A Diesel engine has a compression ratio of 14 to
1, and fuel is cut off at 0.08 of stroke. Calculate the
mass of fuel used per kW hour, if the calorific value
is 42000 kJ/kg and the relative efficiency 0.54.
V3 - V2
Solution: , „ = 0.08
V - v2
V3-1
2
= 0.08 or,
v r - 1 = 0.08
Or,
2 I
or, p = 0.08(r - 1) + 1 = 0.08(14 - 1) + 1
p = 2.04 Volume -N.
ilAsE= 1 x PY- 1)
rY- I
Flg. 17.26
1 2.04' 4 - 1
= 1-
14.4 X 1.4(2.04 - 1) - 1 0.4096 = 0.5904 or 59.04%.
Relative efficiency =
Indicated thermal efficiency = r1R x 1A s E = 0.54 x 0.5904 = 0.3188
Indicated thermal efficiency = I.P. x 3600

x C.V.
3600
Mass of fuel used = = 0.2688 kg/kWhr.
0.3188 x 42000
21. A four stroke single cylinder oil engine is to develop 22 kW brake power at 250 r.p.m.
The calorific value of the fuel is 43000 kJ/kg, and the thermal efficiency on the indicated
power basis and the mechanical efficiency are estimated to be 0.32 and 0.88 respectively.
Assume that the air taken in is 8.5 kg per kg of fuel and that the volumetric efficiency is 0.8
based on atmospheric conditions of 103 kN/m2 and 20°C.
Find the necessary cylinder diameter if this is two-thirds of the stroke.
B.P. - 22
Solution: I.P. = - 25 kW
Mech.Eff 0.88
I.P. x 3600
Indicated thermal efficiency =
mI XC.V.
Mass of oil consumed per hour,

I.P. x 3600 25 x 3600
m = — 6.54 kg/hr.
i •iindi(th) —
Y C.V. 0.32 x 43000
Air taken in = 6.54 x 8.5 = 55.595 kg/hr = 0.9265 kg/min.

mRT
Volume of the air taken in per min. V —
0.9265 x 0.287 x (20 + 273)

or, V = — 0.75649 m3/min.
103
0.7564 9
Piston displacement = ~lv = = 0.9456 m3/min
0.8
Again V, =1—c d2 xL x r*P2'm 4 (L)2xL x250

0.9456 = 5
0.9456 x 4 x 9
0.9456 = n x4 x 125L3 or, L3= — 0.02167 m3
4 9 icx4 x 125
L = 0.2788 m = 27.88 cm d = —3 x 27.88 = 18.58 cm.

22. A four stroke single cylinder oil engine, operating
on the Diesel cycle and running at 240 r.p.m has a pis-
ton diameter of 25 cm, a stroke of 37.5 cm and a
clearance volume of 1485 cm3. Fuel is injected during
1 th of the expansion stroke. If the pressure and
the .5
temperature at the beginning of compression are 103
kN/m2 and 40°C, find the ideal indicated power and
the corresponding thermal efficiency. Neglect the
increase in mass of the change due to oil injection.
Take R = 0.287 ki/kg K, and y= 1.4.
Solution: Given, V2 = 1485 cm3, P, = 103 kN/m2, Volume
T, = 40°C, N = 240 r.p.m, d = 25 cm, L = 37.5 cm
Fig. 17.27
Stroke volume, V, = 5
4 d2 x L =71. (25)2 x 37.5
or, V, — V, = 18407.769 cm3

V, = 18407.769 + 1485 = 19892.769 cm3
19892.769
r = compression ratio = = — 13.395
V2 1485
Again, p= (r-1)+1
r 1
.2. or, 12
1
.*. p= — (13.395 —1) + 1 = 2.0329
12
1 1)1-1 1 (2.0329)M — 1
= 1 — e- x (p - 1) — 1 — (13.395rA 1.4(2.0329 —1) = 0.5836 or 58.36%
11" E.
Mean effective pressure is given by

P,r7 [y (p - 1) -7 (pr-1)] 103 x (13.395)14[1.4(2.0329-1)- (13395)04 (2.03291.4 - 1)]
= (1.4-1)(13.395-1)
(7- Mr -1)
= 663' kN/m2
Indicated power,
Pni).
qac LA.n 663 x 103 x 0.375 x x (.25)2 x 120
= kW - = 24.408 kW.
60 x 1000 4x60x 1000
23. Find the diameter of the cylinder of a single acting Diesel engine, working on four stroke
cycle, which is required to give 38 kW indicated power at 200 r.p.m form the following data;
compression ratio 14 : 1, fuel cut off, 5% of the stroke, index of compression curve 1.4, index
of expansion curve 1.3, pressure at the beginning of compression 100 kPa, ratio of stroke to
bore 1.5 : 1.
38x 103x 60
Solution: Work to be developed per-cycle - = 380 x 60 Nm = 22800 Nm.
100
V3 — V2 v, 1
= 0.05 or, = 0.05
V, - V2
or, P - 1 = 0.05 or p = 0.05(r - 1) + 1

r -1
or, p = 0.05(14 - 1) + 1 = 1.65.
We have, P3 = P2 = P1(Yls = 100 x (14)14 = 4023.27 kPa

V2
P4 = P ,i-V
-14 = P3(-1 x -V-14 = 4 0 2 3 .2 (7 1.65 x-1 )1 3
V4 V2 VI 14
... P4 = 249.655 kN/m2.

P3V3 — P4 V4 P2 V2 — P1V1
Network done per cycle from the PV diagram = 3 V2) +
n-1 y-1
V, F p v, P3C1
:,2)-P 4 ( v4;) P2 P
L 30/, v, + n-1 y-1
4023 27 x 1.65 02127
(1.65 1 14 249.665 ` 14 — 1 00
= V,[4023.27 + j x 103 = 466.7073 x 103V, Nm.
14 14 ) 1.3 - 1 1.4-1
22800 = 466.7073 x 103V, ... V, = 0.04885 M3
V2 1
Swept volume, Vs = V,-V,= V,(1--)= 0.04885(1- -F4) = 0.04536 m3
V,
V, =-7,,-ci d2 xL =74 d2 x 1.5d ...:d2 x 1.5d = 0.04536
4 x 0.04536 -
or, d3 = 0.0385 m3 ... d = 0.3376 m = 33.76 cm.
It x 1.5
24. A compression ignition engine working on the dual or compound combustion cycle has a
stroke volume of 9450 cm3 and a compression ratio of 14. The fuel has a calorific value of
44000 kJ/kg and injection is timed for a maximum pressure of 6355 kN/m2. Initially, the cyl-
inder is full of air at 103 kN/m2 and 92°C. Calculate the work done per cycle at an air fuel
ratio of 21 to 1. Take Cv = 0,714 and use the value of R for air throughout. Neglect the fuel
mass in the constant volume part of combustion.
V, - V2 V1 - V2 Vs
Solution: Clearance volume V2 - (V, _V_)
1 = r -1
V2
9450
V - 726.923 cm3
2 = 14-1
V, = 9450 + 726.923 = 10176.923 cm3
1 103
P2 P1(1= x (14)''4 = 4143.97 kl•Ihn2
V2
P22
V 4143.97 1
T2 = Tq-X Ti = 1 03 x 4 x (273 + 92)= 1048.924 K
ii
P3 7, 6355 1 nA 2 od
l
1608.58 K
/ 2 X " = 4143.97
7.3 = 7 x .--=
P, V, 103 x 0.0101769
Now, m = R T1 = 0.01 kg
0.287 x 365 -
Heat added at constant volume (2 - 3) = mCv(T, - T,)
= 0.01 x 0.714(1608.58 -1048.92) = 3.9959 kJ.

3.9959
. Mass of fuel added = - 0.0000908 kg
44000
But the air-fuel ratio is = 21 : 1
Total mass of fuel added =112 = 0.00047619 kg
So fuel added at constant pressure process (3-4) = 0.00047619-0.0000908

= 0.00038539 kg.
. the temperature T4 is given by
0.00038539 x 44000 = m C p(T4 - T3) = (0.01 + 0.00047619) x 1 x (T4 - 1608.58)
or, T4 - 1608.58 = 1618.274 T4 = 3226.854 K
T4 3226.854
V4 = X V3 = x 0.00072692 = 0.001458 m3
T3 1608.58
TS 0 ( 0.001458 4-1
7', = 3226.854 = 1483.39 K
T4 0.0101769
Work done = Heat supplied - Heat rejected
= 44000 x 0.00047619 -(0.00047619 + 0.01) x .714 x (1483.39 - 365)
= 12.39811 kNm = 12398.11 Nm/cycle.

25. From a test of a four stroke engine operating on the Diesel cycle, the following data were
obtained:
Compression ratio = 14
Stroke = 48 cm
N.T.P. Volumetric efficiency = 75%
Rotational speed = 300 r.p.m
Mean effective pressure = 622 kN/m2
Oil used per kW per hour = 0.22 kg
on Indicated power basis
Calorific value of oil = 44000 kJ/kg
Pressure at the beginning of = 103 kN/m2
compression
Pressure and temperature of the products left in the clearance space at the end of discharge,
100 kN/m2 and 360°C.
Find the indicated thermal efficiency and the indicated efficiency ratio of the cycle.
Assuming that the working substance is air throughout the cycle and neglect the increase in
the mass of the working substance during the oil injection.
Solution: Stroke volume = VI - V2 =- -r d 2 x L = — (.3)2x 0.48 = 0.03393 m3
4
V,
Compression ratio, r=— = 14
V,
1/1 - V2 0.03393
Clearance volume = V2 —
v. = 0.00261 m3
14 —1
v -1
From the relation P V=mRT
Mass of the products in the clearance volume,
PV 100 x 0.00261
m = = — 0.001436 kg.
I RT 0.287 x (360 + 273)
Mass of air sucked in,
m2 = Volumetric efficiency x mass of the swept volume of air at N.T.P
0.75 x 103 x 0.03393

= 0.03345 kg.
0.287 x (273 + 0)
Total mass = m, + m2 = 0.001436 + 0.03345 = 0.034889 kg.
The pressure at the end of compression, P2 is given by
P,= P, xrY = 103 x (l4)' 4 = 4143.9688 kN/m2
From the relation P V=mRT, we get the temperature at the end of compression,
P2V2 4143.9688 x 0.00261
T2 = = — 1080.156 K.
mR 0.034889 x 0.287
I.P. x 3600 3600
%d'ojo = — 0.3719 = 37.19%
//if x C.V. 0.22 x 44000
P„,LAn
Indicated power developed — kW
60 x 1000
622x 103 x 0.48 x rcx (.3)2 x 150

I.P. = = 52.76 kW.
4 x 60 x 1000
52.76 x 0.22 x 44000
Heat produced due to oil injected per cycle — = 56.746 kJ
150 x 60
Temperature T3 at the end of combustion is given by,
Q = m Cp(T,— T2) 56.746 = 0.034889 x 1(T,— T2)
or, T3 — T2 = 1626.47 T3 = 1626.47 + 1080.156 = 2706.628 K
V3 T3 2706.628
Fuel cut off ratio = p = =
V2 T,— 1080.156
1 [ 131— 1
Air standard efficiency, IL SE = 1 _1
ry y (p
( 2.5057)" — 1
T1A.S.E = 1— = 0.5677 or 56.77%
(14)" x 1.4(2.5057 — 1)
0.3 1
Indicated efficiency ratio = 0.5677
7 9 — 1:1.5267
26. Determine the bore and stroke of a single cylinder 4 stroke oil engine from the following
data:
Brake power = 18.5 kW
Engine speed 250 r.p.m
At suction, volumetric efficiency = 80%
Pressure at the end of suction = 100 kPa
Temperature at the end of suction = 10°C
Indicated thermal efficiency = 35%
Percentage of C and H in the fuel = 85% and 15%
used
Calorific value of fuel used = 42000 kJ/kg.
Excess air supplied = 24%
Stroke-bore ratio = 1.5
Brake power 18.5
Solution: Indicated power = — = 21.022 kW.
11.0 0.88
I.P. x 3600 21.022 x 3600
or, 0.35 =
//If X L, v mi x 42000
21.022 x 3600
Mass of fuel used per hour, m f = = 5.1484 kg/hr.
42000 x 0.35
Mass of fuel used per stroke — 5.1484 = 0.00068645 kg.

60 x 125
We have, C+ 0, = CO2 and 2H2 + 02 = 2H20
12+32=44 4+32=36
Actual amount of air required per kg of fuel
2 32) 100
: (0.85 x 1- + 0.15 x- x — x 1.24 = 18.69 kg.
12 4 23
Air required per stroke = 0.00068645 x 18.69 = 0.012829 kg.

Volume of air required per stroke,
mRT 0.012829 x 0.287 x (273 + 10)
V= = = 0.01031 m3
p 100
0.01031 0,01031
Volume of cylinder =
TIVol 0.8
r1 D2xL 0.01031 0.01031
D x 1.5D -
4 0.8 4 0.8
3 0.01031 x4
D' =0.010939
0.8 x Tr x 1.5
D = 0.222 m = 22.2 cm L = 1.5D = 0.333 m = 33.3 cm.
27. A 6-cylinder four stroke petrol engine 10 cm diameter and 15 cm stroke running at 1500
r.p.m. The air fuel ratio by mass is 13 : 1. The pressure and temperature at the end of suction
stroke is 100 kN/m2 and 30°C. At suction condition of the engine the volumetric efficiency is
80%. The brake thermal efficiency of the engine is 22%. Determine the power developed at
ground level where barometer reads 76 cm of mercury. What should be the power developed
by this engine at an altitude of 1000 m assuming the temperature at the end of suction remains
the same. A drop of 10 mm barometer reading may be assumed for each 100 m of rise in
altitude. The calorific value of petrol is 42000 kJ/kg. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg.
Solution: Swept volume = 14E D2 x L =:x (0.1)2 x (0.15) = 0.001178 m3
Volume of air drawn in the cylinder = 0.00,1178 x 0.8 = 0.0009424 m3

Mass of air drawn in the cylinder per stroke,
_ PV - 100 x 0.0009424 = 0.0010837 kg.
tn -
RT 0.287 x (273 + 30)
0837
Mass of petrol admitted per stroke = 0.001 = 0.00008336 kg.
13
Heat supplied by the six cylinders per minute
1 50 0
= 0.00008336 x 6 x x 42000 = 15756.692 kJ.
2
B.P. x 60 B.P. x 60
ilb rske'= mi x C. V. 15756.692
0.22x 15756.692
B.P. = = 57.774 kW.
60
At an altitude of 1000 m,
560x 100
Pressure = 760 - x 1000 = 560 mm of Hg. = = 74.656 kN/m2
100 0
As power developed is directly proportional to pressure,
57.774
Power developed at an altitude of 1000 m = 100 x 74.656 = 43.132 kW.
28. A gas engine working on four-stroke cycle has the following particulars.
Speed = 300 r.p.m

Brake power = 22 kW
Barometric pressure = 103 kN/m2
Temperature = 25°C
Volumetric efficiency = 75%
Calorific value of fuel measured = 18630 kJ/m3
at 100 kN/m2 and 20°C
A : F (by volume) =8:1
Brake thermal efficiency = 30%
Determine: (a) the number of missed cycles per minute, (b) air consumption in kg/min
assuming, that during each missed cycle a volume of air equal to the volume of gas is
admitted, and (c) the gas consumption if the gas pre.ssure is 15 cm of water. Take R = 0.287
kJ/kg.
Solution: Stroke volume = 4D2L = x (0.3)2 x 0.4 = 0.028274 m3

4
Actual volume at 103 kN/m2 and 298 K = 0.028274 x = 0.028274 x 0.75 = 0.0212057 m'
0.0212057 x 103 x 293
This volume at 100 kN/m2 and 20°C is given by = = 0.021475 m3
298 x 100
As the air fuel ratio by volume is 8,
0.021475
Volume of gas taken in per cycle = — 0.00238616 m3
(8 + 1)
B.Px 60
Brake thermal efficiency =
Vr x C.V. x No. of cycles per min.
22 x 60
No of cycles per minute = — 98.98 a: 99
0.00238616 x 0.3 x 13630
(a) Missed cycles per min = —

300 — 99 = 51
2
0.021475 x 8 x 99
(b) Air consumption per minute = + 0.021475 x 51 = 2.985 m3
9
PV 100 x 2.985
Air consumption in kg/min = 3.549 kg
R T = 0.287 x 293 —
0.15 2
(c) Gas pressure = 103 + — = 104.53 kN/m
9.81
Gas conumption per minute at 100 kN/m2 and 20°C = 0.00238616 x 99 = 0.2362239 m3
Gas consumption at 15 cm of water and 25°C — 100'x 0.2362239 x 298 = 0.2298 m

293 x 104.53
29. From the data given below, draw a heat balance sheet for a two stroke diesel engine run
for 20 minutes at full load.
r.p.m. = 350
m.e.p. = 300 kN/m2
Net brake load = 650 N
Fuel consumption 1.5 kg
Cooling water 160 kg
Water inlet temperature = 35°C
Water outlet temperature = 60°C
Air used/kg of fuel = 30 kg

Room temperature = 20°C
Exhaust temperature = 300°C
Cylinder bore = 20 cm
Cylinder stroke = 28 cm
Brake diameter =1m
Steam formed per kg of fuel = 1.35 kg
in exhaust
Pressure of steam = 50 kN/m2
Specific heat of steam in = 2.1 kJ/kg K
exhaust
Specific heat of dry gases = 1 kJ/kg K.
[A.M.I.E. 1976]
P,,,(acol-An 300 X 103 x 0.28 x It X (.2)2 X 350
Solution: I.P. = - 15.393 kW.
60 x 1000 4 x 60 x 1000
2nN(W - S)R 27t x 350 x 650 x 0.5
B.P. = = 11.911 kW
60 x 1000 60 x 1000
Heat equivalent to I.P. = 15.393 x 60 = 923.58 kJ/min
Heat equivalent to B.P = 11.911 x 60 = 714.66 kJ/min
30 x 1.5
Total mass of air/min = 20 = 2.25 kg/min
1.5
Total mass of exhaust gas/min = 2.25 + - = 2.325 kg/min
20
1.35 x 1.5
Mass of steam/min - 2 = 0.10125 kg/min
0
Mass of dry exhaust gas = 2.325 - 0.10125 = 2.22375 kg/min
1.5 x 44000
Heat supplied by fuel/min - = 3300 kJ/min
20
160(251.1 - 146.55)
Heat rejected to cooling water/min = = 836.4 kJ/min
20
Heat to dry exhaust gases/min = 2.22375 x 1 x (300 - 20) = 622.65 kJ/min
Heat to steam = 0.10125[2645 + 2.1(300 - 81.3)] = 314.307 kJ/min.
Table 17.4 Heat balance
Heat supplied per min. kJ % Heat expenditure per min. kJ %

Heat supplied by fuel 3300 100 (a) Heat equivalent to brake 714.66 21.5%
power
(b) Heat lost to cooling water 836.4 25.3%
(c) Heat lost to dry exhaust 622.65 18.9%
gas
(d) Heat to steam 314.307 9.5%
(e) Unaccounted heat 812.163 24.6
Total 3300 100 3300 100
30. A single cylinder four stroke cycle oil engine gave the following particulars on trial.
i.m.e.p = 650 kN/m2
Fuel consumption,per hour = 4.5 kg
Brake torque = 650 Nm.
Calorific value of oil = 45000 kJ/kg
Quantity of jacket cooling water = 360 kg/hour
Rise of temperature of jacket cooling water = 35°C
Mass of air supplied = 90 kg/hour
Temperature of exhaust gases = 330°C
Specific heat of dry exhaust gases = 1 kJ/kg K
Specific heat of steam in exhaust gases = 2.3 kJ/kg K
Hydrogen in fuel by mass = 15%
Calculate, (a) mechanical efficiency, (b) indicated thermal efficiency, and (c) brake specific
fuel consumption in kg/kWhr.
Draw up a heat balance sheet.
P,„( „0LAn _ 650X 103 x 0.36 x n x (.24)2 x 250 — 22.053 kW
Solution: Indicated power =
60 x 1000 60 x 1000 x4 x2
ZrcNT 2n x 250 x 650
Brake power = = = 17.0169 kW.
60 x 1000 60 x 1000
17.0169
Mechanical efficiency — 22.053=0.7716 or 77.16%

I.P. x 3600 22.053 x 3600
= 0.392 or 39.2%
1'c" = nit x C.V. 4.5 x 45000
4.5
Specific fuel consumption on brake power basis = = 0.2644 kg/kW-hour.
17M169
4.5
— x 45000 = 3375 kJ/min by the fuel per minute.
Heat supplied = 60
Heat expenditure per minute

(i) Heat equivalent to brake power = 17.0169 x 60 = 1021.014 kJ/min
(ii) Heat lost to jacket cooling water = 6 x 4.187 x 35 = 879,27 kJ/min
(iii) Mass of wet exhaust gases per minute = mass of air per min + mass of fuel per min.
4.5
= 1.5 + = 1.575 kg per min.
s3
2H2 + 02 = 2H20, 4 + 32 = 36
Or, 1 + 8 = 9 i.e. one kg of H2 produces 9 kg of steam

Mass of steam produced per kg of fuel burnt = 9 x 0.15 = 1.35 kg.
4.5
.•. Mass of steam produced per minute = 1.35 x mass of fuel per min = 1.35 x
60
= 0.10125 kg per min.
Mass of steam in the exhaust gas = 0.10125 kg
Mass of dry exhaust gases per min = 1.575 - 0.10125 = 1.47375 kg.
Heat carried away by the exhaust gas per min. = 1.47375 x 1 x (330- 20) = 456.8625 kJ/min
(iv) Assuming that the steam is in superheated condition in the exhaust gas at atmospheric
pressure of 1.01325 bar.
Total heat of 1 kg of steam = 2676.1 +2,3(330-100)-i x 4.187 x 20 = 3121.36 kJ/kg.
Heat lost to steam in exhaust gases per min = 0.10125 x 3121.36 = 316.037 kJ/min.
(v) Unaccounted heat lost = 3375 - (1021.014 + 879.27 +456.8625 + 316.037)
= 701.8158 kJ/min.
Table 17.5 Heat balance
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure per min. kJ %

Heat supplied by the 3375 100 (a) Heat equivalent to brake 1021.014 30.25
combustion of fuel power
(b) Heat lost to jacket cool- 879.27 26.05
ing water
(c) Heat lost to dry exhaust 456.8625 13.54
gas.
(d) Heat taken by steam in 316.037 9.36
exhaust gas
(e) Unaccounted heat 701.8158 20.80
Total 3375 100 3375 100
EXERCISES

1. Define I.C. engine. How are these engines classified.
2. What are the important applications of I.C. engine ? What are the differences between
an I.C. engine and the steam engine ?
3. What are the advantages of an I.C. engine over an E.C. engine ? Describe the main parts
of an I.C. engine.
4. Describe the working principle of a four-stroke cycle petrol engine and draw its valve
timing diagram.
5. Describe the working principle of a four-stroke cycle diesel engine and draw its valve
timing diagram.
6. Describe the working of two stroke cycle petrol engine.
7. Describe the working of two stroke cycle diesel engine.
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a two stroke cycle engine over a four
stroke cycle engine ?
9. What are the differences between a petrol engine and a diesel engine?
10. Describe the fuel feed system of a petrol engine.
11. Describe the working of a single jet carburettor and list its limitations.
12. Describe the fuel supply system of a diesel engine.
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of common rail system ?
14. Draw the circuit diagram and describe the working of battery ignition system used for a
four-cylinder petrol engine.
15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a battery ignition system?
16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a magneto ignition system?
17. What are the reasons for the failure of a spark plug ? What do you mean by pumping
mean effective pressure?
18. What is the purpose of cooling I.C. engine ? Describe the water cooling system. What
are its advantages and disadvantages?
19. What is meant by scavenging ? What are the different types of scavenging?
20. What is the purpose of supercharging a engine?
21. Name the main parts to be lubricated of I.C. engine. What is the purpose of lubrication?
22. What is the purpose of governing I.C. engine ? Describe the quality and quantity gov-
erning used in I.C. engine.
23. Describe the method used to measure the B.H.P. of an engine.
24. Describe the method commonly used in laboratory for measuring the air supplied of an
I.C. engine.
25. A six cylinder four stroke cycle petrol engine is to be designed to produce brake power
300 kW and 3000 r.p.m. The stroke bore ratio is 1.2 to 1. The indicated m.e.p. is 900
kPa. Determine the bore and stroke of the engine assuming mechanical efficiency 85%,
If the compression ratio of the engine is 6, determine the petrol consumption in litres
per hour and petrol consumption in litre per kW hour based on brake power. Take the
relative efficiency as 0.5 and C.V. of petrol as 44000 kJ/kg. Specific gravity of petrol is
0.76 and y= 1.4 for air.
26. A Diesel engine working on four stroke cycle develops indicated power of 40 kW at
240 r.p.m. The mean effective pressure is 750 kPa, compression ratio is 15, fuel cut off
is at 7% of the stroke, y= 1.4 for air, C.V. of fuel is 43000 kJ/kg, relative efficiency is
50%. Determine (a) the cylinder diameter if stroke bore ratio is 1.2, (b) the air standard
efficiency, (c) the indicated thermal efficiency, (d) the fuel consumption in litre per
hour, and (e) the fuel consumption in litre per kW hour based on indicated power.
Take sp.gr. of fuel as 0.8.
27. The following readings were taken during a test on a single cylinder four stroke cycle
oil engine:
Stroke = 45 cm
Gross i.m.e.p = 750 kPa
Pumping m.e.p = 50 kPa
Net load on brake = 1200 Newton
Effective brake diameter = 1.5 m
Fuel used per hour = 8 kg
C.V. of fuel oil = 43000 kJ/kg
Rate of jacket cooling water per min. = 10 kg
Temperature rise of jacket cooling water = 35°C
Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel oil = 30 kg
Temperature of exhaust gases = 380°C
Hydrogen content infuel on mass basis = 15%
Partial pressure of steam in exhaust gases = 0.07 bar
Mean specific heat of dry exhaust gases = 1.005 kJ/kg K
Cr of steam = 2.1 kJ/kg K
Determine (a) I.P. (b) B.P. (c) rtn,d, (d) (e) 'no. Also draw up a heat balance sheet in
kJ/minute.
Air Compressors
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Air compressor is a machine which compresses the air and raises its pressure. It
sucks air from the surrounding atmosphere, compresses it and delivers it to a
storage tank under high pressure. There are many industrial uses of this com-
pressed air.
18.2 USES OF COMPRESSED AIR
The following are the important applications of compressed air:

(a) It is used to drive air motors in coal mines.
(b) It is used to inject fuel in air injection Diesel engines.
(c) It is used to operate pneumatic drills, hammers, hoist, sand blasters,
air brakes for locomotive and railway carriages, sprays, pile drivers.
blast furnaces.
(d) It is used for starting internal combustion engine and for superchar-
ging I.C. engines.
(e) It is used in gas turbine plants.
(f) It is used for cleaning purposes.
(g) It is used to cool large buildings and aircrafts.
(h) It is used in the processing of food and farm maintenance.
18.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSOR
Air compressors may be classified according to the following considerations:

(a) According to the number of stages:
(i) Single stage: delivery pressure up to 10 bar
(ii) Multi-stage: delivery pressure above 10 bar.
(b) According to the number of cylinders: (i) single cylinder (ii) multi-
cylinder
(c) According to the method of cooling: (i) air cooled, (ii) water cooled
(d) According to working: (a) reciprocating compressor (ii) rotary com-
pressor.
(e) According to the action of air: (i) single acting (ii) double acting
(f) According to drive: (i) steam engine drive (ii) steam turbine drive
(iii) electric motor drive (iv) internal combustion engine drive
(g) According to the method of connection to the driving unit: (i) direct
drive (ii) belt drive (iii) chain drive
(h) According to pressure limits: (i) low pressure compressors (ii) medium
pressure compressors (iii) high pressure compressors.
(i) According to the capacity:
(i) low capacity: Volume of air delivered 0.15 m3/s or less
(ii) medium capacity: Volume of air delivered from 0.15 m3/s to 5 m3/s.
(iii) high capacity: Volume of air delivered above 5 m3/s.
18.4 AIR COMPRESSOR TERMINOLOGY

(a) In a single acting compressor, suction, compression and delivery of air
takes place on one side of the piston and there is one cycle per revolu-
tion of the crankshaft.
(b) In a double acting compressor, suction, compression and delivery of air
takes place on both sides of the piston and there are two cycles per
revolution of the crankshaft.
(c) In a single stage compressor the compression of air from initial pres-
sure to final pressure is done in one cylinder.
(d) In a multistage compressor, the compression of air from initial pressure
to final pressure is done in more than one cylinder.
(e) Compression ratio is defined as the ratio of the absolute discharge
pressure to the absolute inlet pressure.
(f) Free air delivered is the volume of air delivered under the intake con-
ditions of temperature and pressure.
(g) The displacement of compressor is defined as the volume swept
through by the first stage piston in cubic metre per minute.
(h) Capacity of the compressor is defined as the volume of air delivered by
the compressor in cubic metre per minute.
(i) Volumetric efficiency of the compressor is defined as the ratio of the
actual capacity of the compressor to the piston displacement of the
compressor.
18.5 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

The main parts of a reciprocating air compressor are the same as that of a recip-
rocating steam engine and internal combustion engine. The reciprocating com-
pressor may be single stage or multistage and may be single acting or double
acting. The delivery pressure of air in a single stage compressor is limited to
10 bar. The pressure range for a two stage compressor is from 10 bar to 200 bar.
The piston speed of a reciprocating compressor is limited to about 400 m/min.
Air Compressors 507
18.6 IDEAL SINGLE STAGE RECIPROCATING

AIR COMPRESSOR
Figure 18.1 shows the theoretical indicator diagram for a single stage compres-
sor without clearance.
During the suction stroke of the piston,
Delivery c 7 the inlet valve opens and air is sucked in
PV = C the cylinder at 'pressure P, N/m2 up to the
end of suction stroke. Let line AB repre-
sent the suction line in the P—V diagram.
The work is done by the air and is
represented by the rectangle under AB.
Suction During the return stroke of the piston
B the valves are closed and the air in the
A
cylinder is compressed along the line BC
Volume on the P—V diagram till the compression
pressure reaches the final delivery pres-
sure P2 N/M2.
Fig. 18.1 Ideal reciprocating corn- Later, the air is expelled at constant
pressor indicator diagram pressure P2 along the line CD until all
the air is swept out. During this process,
stroke work is done by the piston on the air and the work done is presented by
the area under the line DCB. The network done by the piston on the air per cycle
is represented by the area ABCD.
Case 1: The air is compressed polytropically according to the law PV" = con-
stant.
Let P1 = Pressure of air in N/m2 before compression
V, = Volume of air in m3 before compression
= Temperature in degree Kelvin before compression.
and P2, V2, and T2 are the final conditions of air after compression.
W = Work required per cycle
Work required per cycle = Area ABCD of P—V diagram
P2V2 —
W = P 2V 2 + -P= PVPVn22 ii P2V2 — 1 PIVI
n-1
(P2112 — 131111)(n — 1) + (P2V2 — P, V,) (P2V2 — PIV1 )(n —1 +1)

n —1 n —1
n
( 2V2 — VI) J (18.1)
n —1 P
or W = n mR(T2— T,) J (18.2)

n 1
[P2v2 1
From Eq. (18.1), W = —1
n 1 P1 VI P VI
But for a polytropic process
/31 1/;' = P21q

v2 (PT'
VI — PI
2
Substituting the value of — in the above equation work required per cycle is
given by
In - I)
W= x P V [( P2) ( P2)' 1 x P,V[(' 2) —1 J (18.3)

n —l 1 1 —
P, x --
P, —1 =n— 1 ' I —p
Equation (18.3) gives the work required per cycle or per revolution of a single
acting compressor.
WxN
Indicated power of the compressor — J/s or W.
60
where
W = work required in joules per cycle, N = r.p.m of the compressor.
But P2172 = m R
Substituting the value of P,V, in Eq. (18.3) we have work required per cycle,
W— mRT [(132)
n 1 Pi
For one kg of air, work required is given by
W = n RT[(19 2) _ (18.4)
n 1 —
p
i
Indicated power of the compressor

= W x mass of air delivered per second J/s or W (18.5)
where
W = Work required in joules per kg of air.
Case 2: The air is compressed adiabatically (P = constant)
When air is compressed adiabatically, the work required per cycle is obtained
by substituting y in place of n in Eq. (18.3) and in Eq. (18.4). Thus the work
required per cycle will be
7-1
W— P11/ 11132) _ (18.6)
—1 1
-\ PI)
Air Compressors 509
For one kg of air, work required is given by

Y -1
W = 7 R TILP2) _ J (18.'')
"Y — 1 Pi
Case 3: The air is compressed isothermally (P V = constant)
The work required per cycle = area ABCD
l
W = P2V2 + — PlVi = P l VI loge( i ) [As PI V1 P2V2 ]
V2 V2
= P,VI loge(—
P2) (18.8)
Pi
For one kg of air work required is given by
P2
W =R 1 o ge(= J (18.9)
PI
18.7 EFFECT OF CLEARANCE VOLUME AND

EXPRESSION FOR VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
In actual compressor, a certain
clearance space is provided between
P2 the extreme travel of the piston and the
cylinder cover to prevent the piston
from striking the end or cover of the
cylinder. The volume, thus left
unswept by the piston is known as
clearance volume. Therefore at the end
PI of every delivery stroke the amount of
air filling the clearance volume
remains in the cylinder. The clearance
volume is generally expressed as the
percentage of piston displacement.
Figure 18.2 shows the indicator dia-
gram for a single stage air compressor
with clearance.
Fig. 18.2 Single stage air compressor
with clearance
As already stated, at the end of the delivery stroke the amount of air filling the
clearance volume will not be discharged but remains in the cylinder. At the
begining of the forward stroke, air is not sucked in but the air in the clearance
space expands till the pressure becomes P1 and volume V4, and then suction
begins. The volume of air drawn in at the end of suction stroke is Va. But the
volume of air sucked in without clearance is equal to the displacement volume

V,. Thus the effect of clearance in the compressor is to reduce the amount of
fresh air that can be sucked in the cylinder during the suction stroke, i.e, to
reduce the capacity of the compressor. The ratio of the actual quantity of air
taken in the compressor to the stroke volume of the compressor is called the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
Let Vc = Clearance volume
V, = Swept volume
P2 = Pressure of air in the clearance space in N/m2
PI = Pressure of air in the clearance space at the end of expansion in

N/m2.
n = Index of expansion.
The volume of clearance air at the end of re-expansion is given by
V4 = V3P
P = V 13.
Pi Pi
Actual volume of air taken in, Va. = V1 — V4
va = vi — vc(1-;
3 1 = vs + — [... = V, + Vc]
i
Va = V, — Vc Pln —1
Volumetric efficiency,
V, — Vc[rc_1
2 n
Va ,i ) _
11v = V, Vs
= 1 — 1 [(1)2)4 _ (18.10)
vs -1i;
i
PI
= 1 + c — c (— where V = c (18.10(a))
P1 V,
P2
yr
The ratio P1
is called the pressure ratio and the ratio 7 is called the clearance
ratio.
Thus the volumetric efficieny depends upon the pressure ratio and clearance
ratio. If there is no clearance, then the volumetric efficiency becomes unity.
Air Compressors 511
18.8 EXPRESSION FOR WORK DONE

HAVING CLEARANCE
Let the index n of expansion curve 3-4 and compression curve 1-2 is same.
Work required per cycle = area 1-2-3-4 = area 1-2-6-5— area 3-4-5-6
(n - I) (n - I)
W— P V[( P2 ) n — 1 P V 4 [(—
P2) _ 1
n-1 —
pi 1 n-1 P,
(n - I) (n - u
W =- n P i(V, V4) ' 2 — P V P2 n J/cycle (18.11)

n 1 P, 1 n —1 1 a —p 1
Thus it is seen that the work required to compress and deliver same volume of
air V a with clearance and without clearance is same.
Indicated power of the compressor
Work required per cycle x No. of cycles per minute

60
W W xN
J/s or Watt.
60N 60000 kW.
If P,Va of Eq. (18.11) is replaced by mRT1 , then the work required per kg of air
is given by
(n - I)
W— n Ri(P2) n
n —1 ' —
p
i
Work required in J/s = W x mass of air delivered per second (18.12)
18.9 POWER AND EFFICIENCY OF A

COMPRESSOR
Single Stage Compressor without Clearance

Isothermal work required per cycle,
P,
W= loge
WxN
(a) Isothermal power — 60 J/s or Watt (18.13)
where N = No. of cycles per minute.

But P,V, = mRT, then isothermal work required per kg of air is given by,
W = RT, logeN J
P,
(b) Isothermal power = W x mass of air delivered per second. watt. (18.14)
Isothermal power in watts.
(c) Isothermal efficiency = (18.15)
Indicated or actual power in watts
(d) Overall isothermal efficiency or compressor efficiency =
Isothermal power in watts
(18.16)
Brake power or shaft power required to drive the compressor in watts
Indicated power in watts
(e) Mechanical efficiency —
Brake power or shaft power in watts.
Adiabatic work required per cycle,
P2V2
W= (P2V2— P, V,) J, = Pi VI
y— l y— 1 (PI VI
ey-l)
T2 y
mRT1 ( - —I I— mRT4P2) 1 J (18.17)
T1 ) y—1 -F
—1 t
(Y- I) (Y- I)
( ) Y
— 7 P V [P2 Y
y- 1 1 1 T
., — 11 ' L.' P = CP j
I I
(Y-1)
(f) Adiabatic power = I P,V, ()1

P2
— — 1 x60
If J/s or watt. (18.18)
y— 1 Pi
(g) Adiabatic efficiency =
Adiabatic power in watts
= (18.19)
Brake power or shaft power required to drive the compressor
Multi-stage Compression
The isothermal compression requires minimum work, but in actual practice it is
not possible to compress isothermally, particularly, if the delivery pressure is
high. So, the compression is carried out in stages. This is called multistage
compression. In a two stage compressor, the air is first compressed in the first
cylinder from pressure PI to some intermediate pressure P2. The air coming out
of this cylinder is cooled to initial temperature in an intercooler and then led to
the second cylinder in which it is compressed from pressure P2 to P3.
Advantages of multistage compression
(a) Saving in work is obtained
Air Compressors 513
(b) There is little chance of lubrication trouble as the maximum tempera-

ture is reduced.
(c) It improves the volumetric efficiency.
(d) The leakage loss is reduced considerably.
(e) It provides more uniform torque and thus smaller sized flywheel is
required.
(f) Cheaper material may be used for construction as the operating tem-
peratures are lower.
(g) Lighter cylinders.
Disadvantages of multistage compression
(a) The unit is more complicated.
(b) Initial investment is more.
Two Stage Air Compressor with intercooler

The following assumptions are made for a two stage air compressor with inter-
cooler.
(a) The effect of clearance is neglected.
(b) For both the cylinders the compression follows the law PV" = constant.
(c) There is no pressure drop in the intercooler.
(d) The suction and delivery of air takes place at constant pressure.
Case 1: When the intercooling is imperfect
Figure 18.3 Shows the indicator diagram of a two stage air compressor with
imperfect intercooling.
Saving in work
due to intercooling
PV = C
ti)
Isothermal
PV = C
1
Volume
Fig. 18.3 Two stage compression with imperfect intercooling

As the intercooling is imperfect, the point 2 will not lie on the isothermal line
1 —3".
Let P1 = Pressure of air entering the low pressure (L.P.) cylinder in N/m2.
V1 = Volume of the low pressure (L.P.) cylinder in cubic metre.
P2 = Pressure of air leaving the L.P. cylinder or entering the high

pressure (H.P.) cylinder in N/1112.
V2 = Volume of H.P. cylinder in cubic metre.
P3 = Pressure of air leaving the H.P. cylinder in N/m2.
n = Index of compression for both the cylinders.
Work done in L.P. cylinder = area 1 — 2' — 5 — 6
Work done in H.P. cylinder = area 5 — 2 — 3 — 4
Due to imperfect intercooling the saving in work is shown by the shaded area
2 — 2' — 3' — 3.
( n - I)
Work required per cycle in L.P. cylinder —

n— -1 J
(n - I)
n 17
Work required per cycle in H.P. cylinder — I 2 v 2 [(P3
n—1 p — 11 j
2
Total work required per cycle,
(n - I) (n - I)
W = n [P I 1{( P 2 ) n + P2 14( 1 3 3 _1 J (18.20)

—1 — Pz
n
pi
WxN
Indicated power of the compressor — 60 J/s or watt (18.21)
where W = Work required per cycle in joule, N= Number of cycles per minute
If the compressions are adiabatic, y should be substituted in place of n in
Eq. (18.20).
Case 2: When the intercooling is perfect
3" 3
Saving in work
due to intercooling
PV n = C
Isothermal
Volume
hg. 18.4 Two stage compression with perfect intercooling

Air Compressors 515
tf the intercooling is perfect or complete, the point 2 (Fig. 18.3) will lie on the
isothermal line, i.e., point 2 will coincide with point 2", then
P ,V, =
Then substituting this value in Eq. (18.20) we have
Total work done per cycle
(n - I) (n - I)
n ip) (p3 )
W— n—l i Iv ' — J (18.22)
Pi p
— —2
WxN
Indicate power of the compressor J/s or watt (18.23)
— 60
If P,V, is replaced by mRT„ then work required per kg of air is given by
(n - I) (n - i)
W — n RT,[(P2) (133 ) —
J (18.24)
n 1 —
r2
Indicated power of the compressor = W x mass of air delivered per second

J/s or watt (18.25)
where W = work required per kg of air
Heat rejected in the intercooler per minute = mCp(T2' — T2) kJ. (18.26)
where m = Mass of air compressed per minute
Cp = Specific heat of air at constant pressure
T2' = Temperature of air at the end of compression in L.P. cylinder
or before entering the intercooler.
T2 = Temperature of air leaving the intercooler or entering the H.P.
cylinder.
T'2 can be obtained by using the given relation
-I)
T'2 (PI
T1 Pi
Heat rejected during the process of compression
y— n
= x work done during compression
y-1
Total heat rejected per stage = Heat rejected during compression + Heat rejected
to intercooler.
Minimum Work Required for a Two Stage
Compressor with Intercooling
When intercooling is perfect, the maximum saving in work would be obtained.
It may be noted that the saving in work required varies with the chosen inter-
cooler pressure P2. When the initial pressure P1 and final pressure P3 are fixed,
then the least value of intercooler pressure P2 can be found out by differentiating
the Eq. (18.22) with respect to P2 and equating it to zero.
The Eq. (18.22) is
(n — I) (n — I)
W — n PI VI[r2 + (P3
n p p
i) 2)
n
Putting —1 — K
W = constant x [H
P + —
PI P2)
P3 J
dW
For minimum work — = 0
d P2
K —1 pK
dW KP2K-1 K.Pf 3
or px
dP2 pf+' =° -P2K+.1
(p )2K (p poi<
2 i
P3
Pi= PiP3 or P2 = — or P2 = 11]: 33 (18.27)
rt r2
For minimum work required or maximum efficiency P2 = "\TT
P3
Substituting the value of in Eq. (18.22)
2
Minimum work required per cycle is given by
0 — I) (n — I) (n — I)
W = n Pi VI[P2 4 P2 n n PV P2 "
n 1 —
p + —
p —2—n 1 " 2 —
p —2
i i i
(n — I)
=2 l iP2) n 11J (18.28)

nn 1P p —
i
P2 P3 (P2 2 _ P3 P2 P3
We know — = — or —— p 2 Xp--1 = 1—
31
pi p2 T1
or
Air Compressors 517
P2
Substituting the value of — in Eq. (18.28) we have
Minimum work required per cycle

- I)
W— 2 il_ PI VI[H
P j 24 J (18.29)
n
p
WxN
Minimum indicated power of the compressor — J/s or watt (18.30)
60
Putting P,V,= mRT, in Eqs (18.28) and (18.29),
Minimum work required per kg of air is given by
o -I)
W— 2 n RT[H
P2) 1 (18.31)
n —1 P1
0 - I) 1
n
and W—2 RT, [(P3) 2' —1 J (18.32)
n —1 ' -p
i
Minimum indicated power of the compressor = Work required per kg of air x
mass of air delivered per sec J/s or watt.
Three Stage Compressor

Figure 18.5 shows a three stage compressor.
PV n = C
Saving in work
Volume
Fig. 18.5 Three stage compression with perfect intercooling
The air with pressure P1 and volume VI is compressed polytropically in the L.P.
cylinder to pressure P2 and delivered to the I.P. cylinder through L.P. intercooler
at pressure P2 and volume V2. Then the air with pressure P2 and volume V2 is
compressed polytropically to pressure P3 in the I.P. cylinder. Then it is deliv-
ered to the H.P.cylinder through I.P. intercooler at pressure P3 and volume V3.
This air at pressure P3 and volume V3 is compressed polytropically in the H.P.

cylinder to pressure P4 and Volume V4 and then delivered to the receiver at
pressure P4.
Case l: When intercooling is imperfect
required per cycle is given by
(n - I) (n - I)
131 111 [(1°2 ) n + P2 V2 [(133)
— '
W —nn —
p n— T i]
i P2 •
P V [( I )4 ) n
—1 J (18.33)
+n n 1 " -— p3
Replacing Pi VI, P2V2, P3V3 by niRT0 mR T2 and mR T3
Work required per kg of air is given by,
(n - I)
(n- I),
,,
W — n RTIHP2 ) — 11+ RT2[( P ) _
n—1 p n-1 p
1 32
n
+ R T3 PI n _ 1 J (18.34)
n 1 P3
Case 2: When intercooling is perfect
In this case, PI VI = P2V2 = P3V3
Work required per cycle is given by
(n - I ) (n -I) (n - I )
n
P2) n + H
W = _i Pi ll__ P3) n + H
P4j ' _ 3 .1 (18.35)
n PI P3
P2
Replacing P,111 by mRT„ the work required per kg of air is given by,
(n - I) ( n - I) (n -I)
P3
W — 11 RT[(1)2) n ( n ( 13 4 ) n _3 J (1836)
n 1 1 p +p + p3
i -2
Case 3: Minimum work required
Work required is minimum when
P2
- =- =-
P3 P4
P1 P2 P3
Minimum work required per cycle is given by
3n
W— P V[(132) n J (18.37)
n 1 I I— p
i
Air Compressors 519
P2 P3 P4 = P4 )3
For minimum work
171 = 132 = P3 P )
1
P4I)5 P2 P3 P4
Putting (—
, for —, —, and — in Eq. (18.37)
P,) P1 P2 P3
Minimum work required per cycle is given by,
(ri - I)
3n
P'171[();
4) - 1i
1
WxN
Minimum indicated power of the compressor - J/s or watt (18.39)
60
Let s be the number of stages.
Then minimum work required per cycle with perfect intercooling is given by
sn p "
Yr IV! S+I -1 (18.40)
n-1 P1
18.10 RATIO OF CYLINDER DIAMETERS

Let DI = Diameter of L.P. cylinder
D2 = Diameter of H.P. cylinder.
L = Length of stroke of cylinder
= Volume of L.P. cylinder
V2 = Volume of H.P: cylinder
For perfect intercooling, PI = P2V2
2
P2 ii, 74 D, L D
= = _
Pi 1/2 'it'll, D?
1
DI (P2I
or _= _ (18.41)
D2 Pi
For two stages compressor with perfect intercooling
P2 (P3 I
— = 1-3- Putting this value in Eq. (18.41)
pi 1
Or
18.11 METHODS OF CONTROLLING OUTPUT OF

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
The different methods for controlling the output of compressor are given below.
(a) Clearance pockets The clearance pockets are provided on the cylinders
of reciprocating compressors. The clearance pockets are used to increase
the piston clearance and allow the re-expansion of gases when the load
decreases. It reduces power in proportion to load reduction because the
work is recovered by re-expansion. This operation is controlled manually
or automatically.
(b) Cylinder ports The stroke of the compressor decreases by the use of ports
in the cylinder. There is a loss of power by the use of ports. The ports may
be controlled manually or automatically.
(c) Suction valve lift unloader This is the most useful method as the passage
of air in and out of the cylinder through the suction valve without com-
pression involves less loss. This method also permits the unloading of
individual cylinders.
(d) Cylinder cut-outs In multi-cylinder compressors, one or more cylinders
are made ineffective by, bypassing the air from discharge to the intake of
compressors. There is a check valve in the cylinder bypass connection to
separate the inactive cylinders from the active cylinders. There is no
decrease of power in proportion to output because some power is required
by inactive cylinders to make the flow of air through the valves, cylinder
and connections.
(e) Throttle valve in the suction pipe The throttle valve causes a partial vac-
uum in the cylinder during suction stroke which thereby reduces the mass
of the charge.
(f) Variable speed compressor driving motor.
(g) Multiple units The machines may or may not be interconnected. They
may be started or stopped according to load conditions.
18.12 RECIPROCATING AIR MOTOR

Reciprocating air motors are used where the use of electric motor or I.C. engine
is not permissible, as in mining engineering. It works on the cycle which is the
reverse of the reciprocating compressor cycle. The indicator diagram for a
reciprocating air motor is shown in Fig. 18.6.
The high pressure air from the supply main is applied to the cylinder of air
motor through the valves at pressure P1. The air expands polytropically from 1
to 2. The exhaust valve opens and the air is released at constant volume from 2
to 3 to pressure Pb which is the back pressure. Then the air is exhausted along
the line 3-4 at constant pressure. At point 4 the exhaust valve closes and the
polytropic compression of trapped air takes place along 4 to 5. At point 5 the
Air Compressors 521
admission valve opens and the pressure in the cylinder rises rapidly to the inlet
pressure P1. Again air is supplied at constant pressure up to the point of cut-
off 1.
Pi
N P5
8 P2
P3
Volume
Fig. 18.6 Hypothetical indicator diagram of an air motor
The work done is given by,

P — P2V2 P5V5 -134
W = Pi(VI — V6) + P3(V3 V4)— J (18.42)
n-1 n —1
18.13 ROTARY COMPRESSORS
Rotary compressors are used for supplying large volume of air up to 3000 cubic
metre/min at a very low pressure which rises up to 10 bar. The compression of
air follows the law PV" = constant. The index of compression may be as high as
1.7 if no cooling devices are used. It runs at a very high speed up to 40000
r.p.m. By using intercoolers between the stages the value of index n can be
reduced which approximates adiabatic compression.
Rotary compressors are classified as: (a) positive displacement compressor,
and (b) non-positive displacement compressors.
Positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors are further sub-divided into roots blower
and vane blower.
Roots blower
The back flow of high pressure air from the receiver creates a rise in pressure in
the roots blower.
The ratio of adiabatic work done to the actual work done is known as roots
efficiency.
Adiabatic work done
11roo
ts =
Actual work done
Let P1 = Intake pressure of air

P2 = Discharge pressure of air
V1 = Volume of air compressed
Pressure rise
due to back flow
from receiver
P2
P1
Volume
Fig. 18.7 P-V diagram for roots blower
The work done per revolution = (P2 - PI )Vs. If the volume of air handled per
minute is V1, then work done = (P2 - PI)V,
Theoretical work done in compressing the air
W= P1 V1[(P2)T Y 11 (18.43)
7— --
Actual work done = VI(P2 - P1) (18.44)
y_.
„Yp,v,[(P,) ,
-1 -
r y
iroots X (18.45)
VI (P2
- Pi) (rp —1) y-1
P2
where rp is the pressure ratio = —
P1
It is seen from the above Eq. (18.45) that the efficiency of the root compressor
decreases with increase in pressure ratio. It is used to supply air from
0.15 m3/min to 1500 m3/min. The pressure ratio is in the order of 1 to 3.6 for
single stage machines. The maximum r.p.m is 12500.
Vane blower
Combined squeezing action and back flow of air creates rise in pressure in vane
blower. It consists of the following elements:
(a) A rotor which is located eccentrically in a cylindrical outer casing.
(b) A set of vanes mounted on the rotor and rotating eccentrically in the outer
casing.
Air Compressors 523
(c) Intake and delivery ports: The intake side opens to a large area of vanes
and delivery opens to a much smaller area as shown in Fig. 18.8.
Vanes
Pressure rise
due to back flow
from receiver
Isentropic
L
Receiver r_—). Delivery at
A'r
intake I pressure p2
Volume
(a) (b)
Fig. 18.8 P-V diagram for vane blower
The volume of air VI at pressure P1 is entrapped between two vanes as in root

blower. This entrapped air is first compressed from 1 to 3 as the compression
takes place due to the decrease in volume provided for the entrapped air. The air
is then compressed from 3 to 2 irreversibly.
The work done per revolution with M vanes is given by
W= + W2
(I- 1)
My 1
W= 131 111 d M(P2 — Pd)Vd (18.46)
l
where P1 = Intake pressure of air, P2 = Discharge pressure of air, Pd = Pressure

at point 3, V1 = Volume of air compressed.
W2
Efficiency of vane blower 11 - (18.47)
1411+ W2
The vane blowers are used to deliver up to 150 m3 of air per minute at pressure
ratio up to 8.5. The blower speed is limited to 3000 r.p.m.
Non-positive Displacement Compressors

These type of compressors are also known as dynamic compressors and are
sub-divided into (a) centrifugal compressors, and (b) axial flow compressor.
Centrifugal compressor
It consists of a rotor in which a number of curved vanes are mounted. The rotor
rotates in a casing. As the rotor rotates, it sucks air through its eye, increases its
pressure due to centrifugal force and forces the air to flow into the diffuser
where its velocity is reduced by providing more cross-sectional area. Part of the
kinetic energy of the air is converted into pressure energy and pressure of the air
is further increased. Finally the air at a high pressure is delivered to the receiver.
Let P, = Initial pressure of air
V, = Initial volume of air
T,= Initial temperature of air
P2, V2, T2 = Corresponding values for the final condition
m = mass of air compressed per minute.
For isothermal compression the work done is given by,
1/1 )
W = P, V, loge(— = mRT, loge —
V2 V2
For polytropic compression work done is given by,

n D n
W= P V[(1)2) n 1 — mRT1[( _ ) —1
n—1 1 ' -
p -i n n1 P,
i
For adiabatic compression work done is given by,

(r-i) (7 - i)
IY = 7 P V [ 132 Y ]- —7— mRT,[(132)Y
—1
Y — 1 " (P, ) —1 y— 1 P,
Cr - D
= mcp(T2 — T1) T2 = (PI 1 (18.48)

[As —
T1 PI
Velocity diagrams for blades of centrifugal compressor
Let u, = Linear velocity of the moving blade at inlet
V, = Absolute velocity of the air entering the blade
Vri = Relative velocity of air at inlet
= Velocity of flow at inlet
13, = -Angle which the relative velocity Vr, makes with the
direction of motion of blade
u2, V2, V ; Vf , f!02.
r2 2
= Corresponding values at outlet.
m = Mass of air compressed in kg/s
Theoretical work done in the direction of motion of the blades is given by,
Air Compressors 525
W = m Vw, .u2 J/s [ ••• V„,, =
Actual work done = W x work factor (18.49)
Fig. 18.9 Velocity diagrams of centrifugal compressor
Power required to drive the compressor is given by

P = mV„, .u2 watt (18.50)
,
For maximum work lin = u2. In actual practice V„, is less than u2. u2 — V„,, is
known as slip and —

», is known as slip factor.
Width of impeller blades

Let b, = Width of the impeller blade at inlet
D, = Diameter of the impeller at inlet
Vf, = Velocity of flow at inlet.
VS = Specific volume of air at inlet
b2, D2, V1, 11,2 = Corresponding values at outlet
m = Mass of air flowing through the impeller

The mass of air flowing through the impeller at inlet is given by
ir.D b Vf,
m—
Vs,
Similarly mass of air flowing through the impeller at outlet is given by

D2b2 V1
2
m—
Vs,
As the mass of air flowing through the impeller is constant, therefore

rcDibl Vf, rcD2b2V f2
(18.51)
VSI VS2
If the number and thickness of blade is taken into account then mass of air
flowing through the impeller is given by
(TED,— n Obi VA
m =
Vs,
where n is the number of blades and t is the thickness of blade.

Axial flow compressor
In axial flow compressor the air flows parallel to the axis. It consists of a num-
ber of rotating blades fixed to a rotating drum. Each stage consists of one row of
moving blades and one row of fixed blades. As the air flows from one set of
stator and rotor to another, it gets compressed. The successive compression of
air in all the sets of stator and rotor increases its pressure and the air is delivered
at a high pressure from the outlet. The blades are made of aerofoil section to
reduce the losses caused by turbulence and boundary separation. The number of
stages may vary from 4 to 16. The pressure ratio per stage is from 1.2 to 1.3.
Comparison between centrifugal and axial flow compressor
Table 18.1
Centrifugal compressor Axial

flow compressor
(a) Air flows normally to the axis of (a) Air flows parallel to the axis of
the comperssor. the compressor.
(b) The manufacturing and running (b) The manufacturing and running
cost is low. cost is high.
(c) It requires a low starting torque. (c) It requires a high starting torque.
(d) It is not suitable for multi- (d) It is suitable for multi-staging.
staging.
(e) It requires large frontal area. (e) It requires less frontal area.
Air Compressors 527
Velocity diagram for axial flow compressors
vw2
Fig. 18.10 Combined velocity diagram for axial flow compressor
Work done by the compressor is given by W = nt(Vw2 -114.0 joules (18.52)
Pressure rise in rotor blades

Degree of reaction -
Pressure rise in compressor
-
R- (18,53)
2u (V,,2 - Vivi )
From velocity triangles of inlet and outlet we have

Vw, = u - Vf tan(31, Vw2 = u - Vf tan132 Vw2 - Vw, = Vf (tan131 - tani32)
and Vr22 = Vf2 +(VT tan132)2, V/12 = Vf2 + (V1tan(3,)2 Vr,2 - Vr22 = VAtan213, - tan2132)
Vf2(tan2131 - tan2I32) Vf (tani31 + tan[32)
R=
2u yi (tan[31 - tan132) 2u
The value of degree of reaction is taken as 0.5
Vf
0.5 = — (tani31 + tan132)
2u
= tanI3, + tan132
u
But — = tanai + = tan% + tani32
Vf
0:1 = P2 and a2 =
So for 50% reaction, the compressor has symmetrical blades.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A single stage single acting reciprocating compressor delivers 150 m3 of free air per min-
ute, compressing it form 1 bar to 8 bar. The speed of the compressor is 300 r.p.m. If the
clearance is 16 th of swept volume, find the diameter and stroke of the compressor. Take
= 1.5, where L is stroke and D is bore. The value of n can be taken as 1.3.
[A.M.I.E. Summer 1991]
11,1(p ) 1 [( 8 )A ]. 0353
Solution: Volumetric efficiency = 1 2 —1 or 75.3%
7 =— -1
J
The free air delivered per minute is given by
150
V, x rk, x 300 = 150 V,
= 300 x 0.753 0'664 1113
=71 131 1 = 0.664, 4D2 x 1.5D = 0.664, D3= 0.6164

5nx 4=0.5636.
D = 0.826 m= 82.6 cm L = 1.5D = 1.5 x 82.6 = 123.9 cm.

2. Find the power required to drive an air compressor which has to compress 34 m3 of air per
minute from 1.013 bar to 4.052 bar and deliver it at the higher pressure. Assume that the
index n for the compression curve is 1.25 and that 15 per cent of the work supplied to the
compressor is wasted.
Solution: Work done is given by
4.-11 123-1
W= n P,V, P2 _ 1= 1.25-1
1.25 x 1 013 x 105 x 3—4 4.052 ' 25 _ = 91704 W
n— 1 P, 60 .013
As 15% of work is wasted, we get 85% useful work.
91704
Power required to drive the compressor = 0.85 — 107887.06 W = 107.887 kW.
3. A single acting single stage compressor is belt driven from an electric motor at 400 r.p.m.
The cylinder diameter is 15 cm and the stroke 17.5 cm. The air is compressed from 1 bar to
7 bar and the law of compression PV' 3 = Constant. Find the power of the motor, if transmis-
sion efficiency is 97 per cent and the mechanical efficiency of the compressor is 90 per cent.
Neglect cleafance effects.
Solution: Volume of air sucked in per second
400 ,
V, = — D2 xLxr•P•m. x (0.15)2 x (0.175) x — mis= 0.020616 m3/s
4 60 — 4 60
Work required per second is given by
0.3-1)
I.3
W= n P,V,[(P2) " 1 x 105 x 0.020616 [(7) = 5063.85 W
n —1 17, — = 1.3 3— 1
5063.85 5063.85
Power of the motor = = 5.8 kW.
Trans. eff. x Mech. eff. x 1000 0.97 x 0.9 x 1000
Air Compressors 529
4. Atmospheric air at 1.013 bar and 21°C is taken into a single stage compressor having zero
clearance. It is compressed according to the law P V1.2 = constant to the constant discharge
pressure of 4.052 bar. The discharge is taken through a regulating valve into a closed vessel
of 2.8 m3 capacity. Here the initial conditions were 1.013 bar and 21°C and aftercharging for
4.2 min. were 3.4 bar and 27°C. Calculate (a) the volume of air taken per minute if measured
at atmospheric conditions, and (b) the indicated power to drive the compressor.
Solution: Initial mass of air in the vessel
= P,V, 1.013 x 100x 2.8
m, — 3.361 kg.
RT, 0.287 x (273 + 21)
Final mass of air in the vessel
P2V2 3.4 x 100 x 2.8
m — — 11.0569 kg.
2 R T2 0.287 x (273 + 27)
m2-1111 11.0569 — 3.361

Mass of air discharged per minute = — 1.832 kg/min
4.2 4.2
(a) Volume of air taken per minute at atmospheric conditions
1.832 x 0.287 x (273 + 21)
— = 1.5259 m3/min.
1.013 x 100
(b) Indicated power to drive the compressor
P IV[P2
(" watts
n—1 FT —1
= X 1.013 x 105x L12 4 052)12 =4017.69 W. =4.01769 kW.

1.2 — 1 60 Ll1.013 1
5. In a single stage acting air compressor the index of compression and expansion may be
taken as 1.2 and it may be assumed that the area of the indicator diagram that obtained is
increased 10 per cent by valve action. The clearance volume may be assumed as i9 th of the
swept volume. A compressor of this type is required capable of compressing 7.6 cubic metre
of free air per minute form 100 kPa to 900 kPa. It runs at 240 r.p.m with a mean piston speed
of 220 m/min. Find the bore and stroke of the cylinder and the work done per revolution.
P2)
Solution: Volumetric efficiency = 1+ c —c .1
7
1 1 (900r
= 1 + 19 — -100 = 1.0526 — 0.3283 = 0.7243 or 72.43%
19
Volumetric efficiency =
7.6
— 10.49289 m3/1111n.
— 0.7243
Swept volume = '4

IC 2
D LN m3/min
lt 2
4 xLxN = 10.49289
D
It 2
-D .x 110 = 10.49289 [2LN = 220 m/min, LN = 110 m/min]
4
2 10.49289 x 4
D = - 0.12145 D = 0.3485 m = 34.85 cm.
x 110
Piston speed = 2LN = 220
110
Stroke = L = 0.4583 m = 45.83 cm.
240 =
Ideal work per revolution is given by
0-1)
1
W= 1 xP,V4P2 ) -
-
p ]xN
i
12-1
1.2
x 100 x 103x- '6 (900T
00 = 8402.741 J
1.2 - 1 2740 ) - 1]
Add 10% for valve action
Actual work per revolution = 1.1 x 8402.741 = 9243.015 J
6. A small single acting compressor has a bore and storke both of 10 cm and is driven at 400
r.p.m. The clearance volume is 80 cm' and the index of compression and expansion is 1.2.
The suction pressure is 0.95 bar and the delivery is 8 bar.
Calculate (a) the volume of free air at 1.03 bar and 20°C dealt with per minute, if the
temperature at the start of compression is 30°C, and (b) the mean effective pressure of the
indicator diagram assuming constant suction and delivery pressure
[A.M.I.E. Summer 1989]
Solution: Swept volume, V, = il D2L = -ix 100 X 10 = 785 cm'
V, 80
Clearance ratio, C =v- =,-T. iT5- _- 0.10191
,
P2f
. Volumetric efficiency, iv., = 1 +c-c (
8
riv,,,= 1+0.10191 -0.101916) = 0.5002 or 50.02%
V„
Again nvo, = v- .. V, = 785 x 0.5002 = 392.657 cm'/revolution
392.657 x 400
Volume of air delivered per min = = 0.15706 m3/min at 30°C and 0.95 bar.
106
0.95 x 303
(i) Volume of free air at1.03 bar and 20°C = x 0.15706 = 0.1498 m3/min.
1.03 x 293
0-11
n [( p2)^
(ii) Work required per cycle is given by, W = P, V°
n 1 P -1
'
1.2 , 392.657 ( 8 )0';

.
1.2 - 1
x 0.95
.95 xx 10" x 106 0.95 1 = 95.424 joules or Mtn.
Air Compressors 531
Mean effective pressure is given by

Work required per cycle 95.424 x 106 1.32
Pm bar PV =C
Swept volume 785 x 105
= 1.2155 bar.
7. A single stage double acting air compressor
is rcquired to deal with 16.8 m3 of air per min-
ute measured at 1.013 bar and 16°C. The pres- V)
sure and temperature at the end of suction are

0.95 bar and 32*C. The delivery pressure is 5.7
bar when it runs at 500 r.p.m. Assuming a
clearance volume of 5 per cent of stroke vol-
ume, index of compression and expansion
1.32, calculate the necessary stroke volume.
Find also the temperature of the air delivered Volume
and the indicated power of the compressor.
Solution: Fig. 18.11
5.7
V, = 1/3(1;
2f = 0.05 V,((,
,
= 0.1943 V,
Volume of air sucked in, V. = (V, -V0= (1.05 - 0.1943) V, = 0.8557 V,
0.95 x 0.8557V, (273 + 16)
The volume of free air at 1.013 bar and 16°C = x = 0.7603 V,
(273 + 32) 1.013
0.7603 V,.
Volumetric efficiency = - 0.7603 or 76.03%
V,.
Actual stroke volume = 16.8- 0.02209 m3

0.7603 x 500 x 2
The delivery temperature T2 is given by
0-1) I 32-1
T2 -T(11
I p1' =305(- 7 ) In =470.91 K = 197.91 °C.
i 0.95
0-1)
Indicated power of the compressor = --P V 11
P2
n-1 ° P, -
1.32 5 16.8 0.8557 ( 5.7

= 1 x 0.95 x 10 x x _ = 67178.15 W. = 67.17815 kW.
1.32- 6 0.7603 0793)
8. A two stage compressor compresses air from 15°C and 100 kPa to 6000 kPa. The air is
cooled in the intercooler to 30°C and the intermediate pressure is steady at 733 kPa. The low
pressure cylinder is 10 cm in diameter and the stroke for both cylinders is 11.25 cm. Assum-
ing a compression law of P V135 = constant and that the volume of air at atmospheric condi-
tion drawn in per stroke is equal to the low pressure cylinder swept volume, find the power of
the compressor when running at 250 r.p.m. Find also the diameter of the high pressure
cylinder.
PV = C
PV l '". C
30°
, PV l '"= C
150
Volume
Fig. 18.12
Solution: The volume of air sucked in per minute,
V, = —
11
4 x (.1)2 x (0.1125) x 250 = 0.22089 m3/min.
The volume of air entering the second stage of the compressor is given by
PIV, 2 100 X 0.22089 x (273 + 30)
V, = X=
T — 0.0317 m3
P2 (273 + 15) x 733
Let D2 be the diameter of the high pressure cylinder, then
It x D 2 x0.1125 x 250
0.0317 = —
4 2
or, D22 = 0.001435 m2 D2 = 0.0378 m = 3.78 cm.
Total work required per second is given by
11
It .
= [Pi VI (LI l} P2 V2{(133) "
n— 1 P, P2
0.5-i) (135-I)
1.35 0.22089 {( 733) " 0.0317
— 100 x _ I +733x 60 1(6000
_ " _
1.35 — 1 60 100 733
= 0.96 + 1.0825 = 2.0425 kW. = Power of the compressor

9. In a two stage air compressor the pressures are : atmospheric, 1 bar; intecooler, 7.4 bar;
delivery, 46 bar. Assuming complete intercooling to the original temperature of 15°C and a
compression index n = 1.3, find the work done in compressing 1 kg of air.
If both the cylinders have the same storke and the piston diameters are 9.5 cm and 3 cm
respectively and the volumetric efficiency of the compressor is 85 per cent, will the inter-
c ooler pressure be steady or will it rise or fall as the compressor continues working ?
solution: Work done in compressing 1 kg of air
0-0 (^,1)
n
= RT, (l P2 _ + n RT P3
n piI n—1 I T
D2
(13 ) 1.3-1
1.3 2 = 398124.71 J
x 287 x(273+ 15) (74) " ( 46 "
1.3 — 1 1 + 7.4
Air Compressors 633
The volume ratio of the two cylinders is given by

Volume of L.P. cylinder (9.5)2
= 10.027
Volume of H.P. cylinder 3
whereas the volume of air sucked in by the first stage to the volume of air sucked in by the
VI P2 7 A
second stage is given by —
v = 71=
1 T = 7.4
2
Thus, it is obvious that the cylinder in the second stage is too small to suck in all the air
compressed by the first. stage. This leads to accumulation of air in the intercooler resulting in
rise of pressure.
10. The pressure in the mains of a compressed air service is to be 8 bar and a supply of 28
m3/hr at 15°C and at that pressure is to be maintained. The air is compressed from an initial
pressure of 1 bar by a two stage compressor in which the compression is adiabatic. The air is
cooled to its initial temperature of 15°C in the intercooler. What is the minimum power
required to compress the air ?
Solution:
The mass of supply air is given by
PV 800 x 28
— — = 271 kg/hr
RT 0.287 x (273 + 15)
For minimum work the intercooler pressure is given by
P2 = 4P73 = 41x8= 2.828 bar
The work required to compress adiabatically 271 kg of air per hour in the two stages•is given
by
I 4- I
2y
W = --mRT, (P2) = 2x " x271 x287 x 288 x2.828)" —1
Y— I —I 1.4 — I
= 54227502 J/hr = 15063.195 J/s

Power required to compress the air = 15063.195 W. = 15.063195 kW.
11. The cylinders of a two stage air compressor have the same stroke and the ratio of their
diameters is 2.4 to 1. The delivery pressure is 34 bar and the air supply to the compressor is 1
bar and 17°C. If the temperature of the air leaving the intercooler is 40°C, find the work done
per cubic metre of free air delivered when the compression in each cylinder is adiabatic.
Solution: The pressure and temperature of the free air are 1 bar and 17°C respectively.
We have, //IR for 1 cubic metre of free air
P 105 x 1
PV = mRT mR = = 334.827
T (273 + 17)
As the temperature of the air entering the second stage is 40°C, the pressure P2 and volume V2
will be related as given below:
P IV P2 V2 P2 V) T2
or — = — x —
T, T2 P, V 2 Ti
P2 2.42 (273 + 40) [ Di 2.42]

Or = -X = =
PI 12 (273+17) V2 D1 12
P2
or, T = 6.2168 P2 = 6.2168 bar
Work done on 1 m3 of free air
W= mRT, [)?
131
(- -1
]+ -1-m RT2 [( P3 I
y- 1 P, Y-I P2 )
04 0.1
1.4 1.4 ),
W = x 334.827 x 290 (6.2168 )77' +x334.827 x313 ( 34 1
0.4 0.4 6.2168
= 232972.89 + 229222.55 = 462195.44 J

12. A two stage air compressor with complete intercooling delivers air to the mains at a pres-
sure of 34 bar, the suction conditions being 1 bar and 15°C. If both cylinders have the same
stroke, find the ratio of the cylinder diameters for the efficiency of compression to be
maximum. Taking an index for compression of 1.3, find the work done per cubic metre of
free air delivered and compare it with the isothermal work.
Solution: The pressure in the intercooler for maximum efficiency is given by
P2 = 4P,P3 = 41x 34 = 5.83 bar.
As there is complete intercooling
= P2=
5.83
P,V, = P2V, or = 5.83=5.83
= 5.83
V12 Pi 1
xL Di
Again 7.,- =2,414:1
V2 D? X L = = 5.83 or
The pressure and temperature of free air are 1.01325 bar and 15°C respectively.
I m3 at 1.01325 bar at 15°C = 1.01325 = 1.01325 m3 at 1 bar and 15°C.
The work done is given by

47-1)
2n [ip -7, - 2 1.3
(I ,-1)
1
1
W P, V, 2 1= x 105 x 1.01325 5.83 _ 1 = 440900.58 J
n 13-1 1
1
17
Isothermal work is given by,
P3 34
W = P,V, loge - = 101325 x 1 log, 1.01325 = 355974.74 J
440900.58
Ratio = - 1.238:1.
355974.74
13. A two stage air compressor delivers 1.12 m3 of free air per minute. The delivery pressure
is 13,6 bar and the suction pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 15°C. The index of com-
pression is 1.25 for both stages, the intercooling is complete, and the intermediate pressure is
such as to give the most efficient compression. Calculate the theoretical power necessary to
drive the compressor and the heat carried away from the intercooler per minute by the cooling
water. Take C, = 1.0035 kJ/kg K for air, and R = 287 J/kg K.
Solution: Intercooler pressure P2 = 4P,P3 = Jl x 13.6 = 3.6878 bar
Work required is given by
(n-i) 125-1
2n pi vi[rp2 ) _ 2x1.251 x 105x 1.12[(3.6878
W 125 = 5567 J/s
n -1 (1),) 1.25 60 1
Theoretical power necessary to drive the compressor = 5.567 kW.
Air Compressors 535
l) 1.25-I
T2' r2)' 3.6878)

or T,'= 2881 1
T1 PI
TZ = 373.89 K
Mass of air is given by
m
P V = 105 x 1.12
= 1.355 kg/min.
RT 287 x 288
Heat rejected by the air to the intercooler = m C,,(T,' — T2) kJ/min
= 1.355 x 1.0035(373.89 — 288) = 116.789 kJ/min.

14. A two stage single acting air compressor
having capacity 4.5 m3/min. measured under P6
free air conditions of 1.01325 bar and 15°C.
The pressure during the suction stroke is 0.98
bar. The temperature of air at the start of com-
pression in each stage is 27°C. The delivery
pressure is 15 bar. The clearance volume in
P2
L.P. cylinder is 5% of the stroke. The index of
it)
compression and expansion is 1.3 and speed is
140 r.p.m. The intercooler pressure is such p1
that the work is shared equally between the
two cylinders. Determine. (a) the indicated
power, and (b) the diameter and stroke of L.P. Volume
cylinder if bore is equal to the stroke.
Fig. 18.13
Solution: The mass of air is given by

_PV 1.01325 x 105 x 4.5
— = 5.516 kg/min.
RT 287 x 288
For work to be shared equally between the two cylinders, the intercooler pressure is given by
P2 = P ,P, = 40.98 x 15 = 3.834 bar.
o
we have
T,=P,
()
0.3
T2 = 300 (3'834)1' — 410.993 K.

0.98
Work done in L.P. cylinder is given by
1 .3
W= R (T,— = x 287(410.993 — 300) = 138038,29 J
n —1 131
As the work is shared equally between the two cylinders,
The total work done per kg of air = 138038.29 x 2 = 276076.58 J.
Indicated power = work done per kg of air x mass of air delivered per second
276076.58 x 5.516
— 25380.64 watt = 25.38 kW.
60
Let the stroke volume of L.P. cylinder,
V, - V3 = 100 m3, then V3 = 5 m3 and V, = 105 m3.

Mass of air handled per stroke for a single acting compressor of 100 m' stroke volume,
m =m,-m3
Mass of air compressed in the cylinder is given by
P, V, 0.98 x 105 x 105
m = - 119.51 kg
RTI 287 x 300
Mass of air left in the cylinder is given by
P3V3 3.834 x 105 x 5
m - = 16.251 kg.
3 R T3 287 x 410.993
For 100 m3of stroke volume m = m, -m3

= 119.51 - 16.251 = 103.259 kg.
100
Actual stroke volume per minute - x 5.516 = 5.3419 m3/min
103.259
Stroke volume per min. =It-D,2 x L x r.p.m

4
3
5.3419 =- x 140. [As D, = L]
4
D3 5.3419x4
= - 0.048 m3
nx 140
D, = 0.3648 = 36.48 cm L = 36.48 cm
15. 20 m3 of air per minute is compressed from 1 bar and 20°C to 10.24 bar. Determine.
(a) the minimum power required to drive the compressor with two stage compression and
compare it for single stage compression.
(b) the heat to be removed in the intercooler per minute.
(c) the maximum temperature in the two cases.
(d) the quantity of cooling water required per minute if the rise in temperature of cooling
water is 25°C.
(e) Ratio of cylinder diameters
Isothermal
PV1.3 = C PV 1 '3 = C
t t
a) 0
,..
.
0
1P
it t
P P
Volume Volume --).-

(a) (b)
Fig. 18.14 (a) Two stage compression with perfect intercooling, and (b) single
stage compression
Air Compressors 537
Assume the index of compression as 1.3 in both the cases. Also assume proper inter-
cooler pressure for minimum work and perfect intercooling. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
and Cp = 1.0035 kJ/kg for air.
Solution: For minimum work the intercooler pressure is given by
P 2 = 15T33 = x 10.24 = 3.2 bar.
Minimum work required per second for two stage compression is given by
(n-I)
2n
W= P , V ,[( P 2) " _ J
n P,
(13-1)
2 x 1.3
= 1.3 1 x 105x 3.2) " = 88947.612 W. = 88.947612 kW.
60 ( 1
(a) Minimum work required for single stage compression is given by
1
_1
W = .7
t13,1/1[H'
P jj
1.3 20
x 105x— (10.24) ' — 1 = 102640.9 W = 102.6409 kW.
1.3 — 1 60 1
(c) For two stage compression the maximum absolute temperature T2' is given by
41-1)
T2' (11"
.
P,
(I 1-
3.2 )
...T 2' = (273 + 20)(T = 383.21 K.
.% Maximum temperature with two stage compression = 383.21 —273 = 110.21°C.,

For single stage compression the maximum absolute temperatufe T3 is given by
0-1)
T3 (P3)"
T, P,
(1.3-1)
(10.24)
T3 = (273 + 20) = 501.2 K.
Maximum temperature with single stage compression = 501.2 — 273 = 288.2°C.

(b) Mass of air compressed per minute is given by
PI VI 105 x 20
m= = = 23.783 kg/min.
RT, 287 x 293
Heat carried away from the intercooler per minute = mCp(T,' —T2) kJ/min
= 23.783 x 1.0035(383.21 — 293) = 2152.973 kJ/min.
Heat gained by cooling water in the intercooler per minute
=In„ x 4.187(12 — ti) = m„. x 4.187 x 25

Heat gained by cooling water = Heat rejected by air
x 4.187 x 25 = 2152.973 20.568 kg/min
(d) Mass of cooling water required per minute = 20.568 kg/min.

(e) Since intercooling is perfect T, = T2
V1 P2 2
3.2
P,V, = P,V, or = = = 3.2
3'
Ratio of cylinder diameters for minimum work
D, V, 5
= (-) = (3.2f = 1.788 ['.' L, = 1,2 ]
v2
16. In a test of a single cylinder single acting air compressor of 10.5 cm bore and 14 cm
stroke air is taken from the atmosphere at 1 bar and delivered through a valve, which main-
tains a delivery pressure of 8 bar to a receiver of 1.4 m3 capacity. A motor giving 2.5 brake
power drives the compressor at 400 r.p.m and i.m.e.p. is 2.1 bar. The receiver is initially at
atmospheric pressure and 20°C and after 20 min. running reaches 7.5 bar and 70°C. Deter-
mine (a) the free air delivered in cubic metre per minute at 20°C, (b) the volumetric efficiency
at atmospheric conditions, (c) the isothermal efficiency, and (d) the mechanical efficiency.
Solution: Swept volume =:D 2 x L = (0.105)2 x 0.14 = 0.0012122 m3
P,V,
Initial mass of air in the receiver =
RT,
P2 V2
Final mass of air after 20 min. =
R T2
P2 V2 P,
Mass of air delivered in 20 min. =
T2 T,
—V (P2 P1
R —— ['.' V, = V2 =V]
T2
RT, v P, _13 TIV 1: PI
Volume delivered at initial condition = = .
P, xR T2 T1 Pi T2 T1
(273 + 20) x 1.4 (7.5 I )

= — 7.569 m'3
1 343 293
7.569
(a) .. Volume of air delivered per minute = — 0.3784 m'
20
0.3784
(b) Volume of air delivered per stroke — 400 = 0.000946 m3
0.000946 1 nn
Volumetric efficiency = 78.03%
= 0.0012122 x ''''
P„,LAN P„,V,N
(d) Indicated power — = 60 watt
60
2.1x 105 x 0.0012122 x400

= 1697.08 W. = 1.697 kW.
60
Indicated power 1.697
Mechanical efficiency — x 100 = x 100 = 67.88%
Brake power 2.5
Air Compressors 539
P, P
(c) Isothermal power = loge W.
60 P2
1 x 105 x 0.3784 8
lo&- = 1311.43 W.= 1.31143 kW.
60 1
1.31143
Isothermal efficiency = 1.697 x 100 = 77.28%
17. A three stage compressor supplies air for a battery of six Diesel engines. The air is drawn
into the compressor under atmospheric conditions of 1 bar and 10°C, and is cooled in each of
the intercoolers to 30°C. The gauge pressures of the intercoolers are 3 bar and 15.3 bar
respectively, and the delivery gauge pressure is 62.8 bar. If each Diesel engine uses 5.62 kg
of air per hour, find the power used in compressing the air. Neglect the clearance of the com-
pressor. Assume adiabatic compression.
Solution: P, = 1 bar, T, = 10°C = 273 + 10 = 283 K
P,= 3 + 1 = 4 bar, P,= 15.3 + 1 = 16.3 bar, P4 = 62.8 + 1 = 63.8 bar.
Temperature after intercooling = T, = T3 = 30°C = 273 + 30 = 303 K
33.72
Mass of air compressed = 6 x 5.62 = 33.72 kg/hr. = 60 — 0.562 kg/min.
Total work done per minute in the three stages is given by

(T-1) (-1-1) (T-1) 11
W = -1— mRT,[( Pl Y _ 1+-— niRT2 [1(1'3 + (PI

Y— I P, Y— I /72 P3
(14-1) 0 4-1) (14-1)
1.4 0.562 1.4 0.562 4 14
— x x287 x 283[(4) " x 287 x 303[H
16.1 + (63.8)
1.4-1 60 — .1 + 1.4 —1 x 60 4 16.3
= 1294.054 + 2767.347 = 4061.4 J
Power used in compressing the air = 4061.4 W. = 4.0614 kW.
18. A three stage air compressor works between pressures of 1 bar and 45 bar for compress-
ing 1 m3 of air. Determine (a) the work required for maximum efficiency condition, (b) the
isothermal work required between the same pressure limits, and (c) the work required if it is a
single stage compressor, (d) the percentage saving in work by using three stages instead of
single stage, and (e) the isothermal efficiency.
In parts (a) and (c) the index of compression in each stage, n =
Solution: (a) Work required for 1 m3 of air is given by
0-1)
3n jp I, p
W n — 1 ' Ir —
(13-1)
= 3 x 1.3
x 105 x 1[( 45)3'13 _ = 442262.33 J
1.3 — 1 7
(h) Isothermal work required for m3 of air is given by,
P4) 5 45
W = P, V, log,(— = 10 X 1 10g, = 380666.25 J
1
c) Work required for 1 m3 of air in single stage is given by,
W = n 1 1414 1
P,
03-0
1.3
= x 105 x 1 (45) 15 _ 1 = 609782.84 J
1.3 — 1 1
(d) Saving in work by adopting three stages instead of single stage = 609782.84 — 442262.33
= 167520.51 J
Isothermal work 380666.25
(e) Isothermal efficiency = x 100 = 86.07%.
Actual work 442262.33
19. A four stage air compressor works between the pressures of 1 bar and 138 bar and the
index of compression in each stage is 1.23. The temperature at the start of compression in
each cylinder is 49°C and the intercooler pressures are so chosen that the work is divided
equally between the stages. If the clearance effect be neglected, estimate (a) the volume of
free air at a pressure of 1.01325 bar and temperature of 15°C which would be dealt with per
kW-hr, and (b) the isothermal efficiency referred to 15°C.
Solution: For equal work in the stages we have
P2 P3 P. P5 P2 P3 P4 P5 P5
or, —X —X —X —= —
1-1 1-2 1- 3 1-4 PI P2 P3 P4 PI
1 2 j 135T 138)4
or
P, ).=( 1 )
For minimum work, four stage work required for 1 kg of air is given by,
4n [ p5
W = n — 1 RT, (-7
1 j —
I
(113-n
4 x 1.23
= x 0.287 x 32 (138r1 ") _ 1 = 512.058 kJ/kg of air.
1.23 — 1 1
Now 1 kW-hr = 3600 kJ.
=
Mass of air handled per kW-hr is given by m = 7.03 kg.
5 00058
The volume of 7.03 kg air at 1.01325 bar and 15°C is given by
mRT 7.03 x 0.287 x 288
V= = = 5.735 m3 of free air per kW-hr.
P 1,01325 x 100
(b) Isothermal work required referred to 15°C per kg of air is given by
P5
W = RT, loge (—) = 0.287 x 288 log, 138 = 407.267 kJ/kg of air.
P,
Isoth e irm 1 work 407.267
Isothermal efficiency = x 100 = 79.53%.
Act u alawor k 512.058
20. A compressor takes in its charge at 1 bar and 38°C, the final pressure being 100 bar.
Neglecting clearance volume and assuming perfect intercooling between the stages, and
given n = 1.3, determine whether a three or four stage machine must be used if the maximum
discharge temperature from any stage is not to exceed 140°C.
Solution: T, = 38°C = 273 + 38 = 311 K T2 = 140°C = 273 + 140 = 413 K
Air Compressors 541
(.-1)
T2 (P2)4 P2 T2 ")
Now or -
n=
r I
= 171
1.3
P2 (413r
7,
1 = = 3.382
1 311
In order to keep the temperature below 140°C, the permissible pressure ratio is 3.382.
P2 _P3 _P4 _ 133+ 1
Again we have,
II - T2 — P3 — Ps —x
Multiplying we have, P 1 — — 3.38V

PP
P,
100 log100
or = 3.38V Taking log on both sides, s = — 3.779
log 3.382
The required number of stages = 4
21. A rotary vane type compressor has an air delivery of 0.01 m3 per revolution when it com-
presses air from 100 kPa to 200 kPa..Determine the compressor efficiency when (a) the ports
are so placed that there is no internal compression, and (b) the ports are so placed that there is
45% pressure rise due to internal compression before back flow occurs.
Solution: (a) When there is no internal compression.
Actual work done per revolution = (P2 — P1 )V3 = (200 — 100) x 103 x 0.01
= 1000 Nm/revolution
Y—P
Ideal work done per revolution =7--.... 1 IVt [(PITY-I) ...... 1
P,
04-9
1.4
x 100 x 103 x 0.01 (200 1 4 — 1 = 766.547 Nm
1.4 —1 1001'
• Compressor efficiency — Ideal work done = 766.547 — 0.7665 or 76.65%

Actual work done 1000
(b) When there is 45% pressure rise due to internal compression, the pressure rise = (200 —
100) x 0.45 = 451(Pa.
• Pressure after internal compression
Pd = 100 + 45 = 145 kPa.
Work done due to internal compression is given by area A
(y-i)
W, "1 1
y-1 —F
t
(1.4-1)
1.4
= x 100x l&x 0.01 (145) " _ 1 =392 Nm
1.4— 1 100
I I
4 100
Again V, = V,(11 1 = 0.01 _ = 0.00766 m3
rd 145 1
P2
V2 V1
Volume Volume ---).-
(a) (b)
Fig. 18.15 (a) & (b)

Work done due to back flow is given by area B.
W2 = (P2 — Pd) V2 = (200 — 145) x 103 x 0.00766 = 421.79 Nm
Total work done W = W, + W2 = 392+421.79 = 813.79 Nm.
766.547'
Compressor efficiency = 813.79 = 0.9419 or 94.19%
22. A centrifugal compressor delivers 54 kg of air per minute at a pressure of 200 kPa, when
compressing from 100 kPa and 15°C. If the temperature of the air delivered is 97°C, and no
heat is added to the air from external sources during compression, determine the efficiency of
the compressor relative to ideal adiabatic compression and determine the power absorbed.
Solution: Ideal temperature at the end of isentropic compression is given by
h-i) o4
P2
T2 = T(
1 p—) = (273 +15)(—)
20 7'= 351.07 K
i 10
Actual temperature at the end of compression
T,' = (273 + 97) = 370 K.
Adiabatic temp. rise
Adiabatic efficiency =
Actual temp. rise
T2 — T1 351.07 —288
— — 0.768 or 76.8%
T2'— T1 370 —288
54
Power absorbed = in Cp(T2 — T1)=- x 1.0035(370-288) = 74.058 kW.
60
23. An air-fuel mixture has a volume of 0.71 m3 per kg at a temperature of 0°C and at a pres-
sure of 100 kPa. The value of y for the mixture is 1.39. The mixture is compressed in a cen-
trifugal compressor from a pressure of 68 kPa to a pressure of 122 kPa, the initial temperature
being —4°C. If the adiabatic efficiency based on temperature rise is 82%, calculate the work
required to deal with one kg of the mixture.
Solution:
P V 100x 0.71
R= = — 2.6 kJ/kg K
T (273 + 0)
Air Compressors 543
Specific heat at constant pressure is given by

c Ry 2.6 x 1.39
= 9.266 kJikg K
r — y-1 — 1.39 — 1
The temperature at the end of adiabatic compression is given by
(y- l) 019
' = 269(122)
T2 = T,x (122 " = 316.939 K
P, 68
Adiabatic temperature rise = T2 — T, = 316.939 — 269 = 47.939 °C
47.939 47.939
Actual temperature rise = T,' — T, — = = 58.463 °C
i 0.82
Work required to compress 1 kg of air = Cp(Ty— TO = 9.266 x 58.463
= 541.718 kJ/kg.
24. Air having a temperature of 20°C flows in a centrifugal compressor which is running at
19800 r.p.m. The other data are : slip factor = 0.85, Work input factor = 1, Isentropic effi-
ciency = 73%, and Outer diameter of blade tip = 48 cm.
Assume that the absolute velocities of air at entrance and at exit of the compressor are the
same. Determine (a) the temperature rise of the air, and (b) the static pressure ratio. Take C, =
1.0035 kJ/kg K.
x /), xN Ex 0.48 x 19800
= = 497.628 m/s.
60 60
Work done per kg of air = ie2x slip factor = (497.628)2 x 0.85
= 210488.58 J/S or W. = 210.488 kW.

Again, work done = Cp(T2'— C p(T2' —T, ) = 210.488
210.488
T2' — 209.754.
T, = 1.0035
T2 — T, T2 -293
Adiabatic efficiency =
T2 — T,= 209.754
. T2 = 209.754 x 0.73 + 293 = 446.12 K
Y 14
P2 T2 fr " (446.12r
The static pressure ratio is given by, 17 = y = 293 — 4.355
EXERCISES

1. (a) What are the uses of compressed air?
(b) Prove that the work done per kg of air in a compressor is given by
0-0
W= RT,[(P
P2)' — 1
n —1
2. (a) Define volumetric efficiency of a compressor.
(b) Prove that the volumetric efficiency of a single stage compressor is given by
flv = 1 — 1(P21—
Vs
i
3. (a) What are the advantages of multistage compression?

(b) Prove that the minimum work required per cycle is given by
2n
W= P,V,[( P2 )' _1
n—1
4. Prove that the minimum work required per cycle with perfect intercooling is given by
0-))
S,
W= P,VIrs+1
) —1
P,
where S is the number of stages.
5. Explain the different methods of controlling output of a reciprocating compressor.
6. (a) What is the difference between centrifugal and axial flow compressor?
(b) Deduce the expression for roots efficiency.
7. (a) Define the following: (i) slip (ii) slip factor (iii) Degree of reaction
(b) Obtain an expression for the work done by a centrifugal compressor.
8. It is desired to compress 12 m3 of air per minute at 101 kN/m2 and 300 K to 707 kN/m2
in a single stage, single acting air compressor. Calculate the power required to drive the
compressor if the compression is:
(a) isothermal, (b) polytropic with index n= 1.3, and (c) isentropic. Neglect the effect
of clearance.
9. In a single cylinder single acting air compressor air is drawn in at 100 kN/m2, 288 K.
The cylinder diameter is 15 cm and stroke is 20 cm. It is compressed isentropically to
625 kN/m2. The speed is 120 r.p.m. Determine (a) the power required to drive the com-
pressor, (b) the mass of air compressed per minute. Take i= 1.4 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
for air.
10. A single stage double acting air compressor has the following data:
Capacity = 15 m3 of free air per minute at atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar
Atmospheric temp. = 15°C
Inlet pressure = 1 bar
Inlet temperature = 27°C
Delivery pressure = 7 bar
Speed = 240 r.p.m
Stroke : bore =1:1
Index of compression = 1.32
Determine (a) the cylinder dimensions, and (b) the indicated power.
11. A single stage double acting air compressor delivers 20 m3 of air per minute measured
at 1.01325 bar and 25°C. The delivery pressure is 7.5 bar. The inlet pressure and tem-
perature are 1 bar and 37°C respectively. The clearance volume is 6% of the stroke
volume. The stroke-bore ratio is 1.2 and the compressor runs at 300 r.p.m. Determine
(a) cylinder dimensions, (b) indicated power, (c) isothermal efficiency, and (d) volu-
metric efficiency.
Take the index of compression and expansion as 1.3 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K for air.
Air Compressors 545
12. A two stage air compressor delivers 3 m3 of free air per minute. The inlet pressure and
temperature are 1 bar and 27°C respectively. The delivery pressure is 40 bar. The
clearance of both L.P. and H.P. cylinder is 4% of the stroke. The stroke bore ratio is
1 : 1. and the compressor runs at 240 r.p.m. Assuming perfect intercooling, determine
(a) the minimum power required to run the compressor, (b) cylinder dimensions, and
(c) Ratio of cylinder volumes.
Take the•index of compression and expansion as 1.3. and the ambient condition is same
as suction condition.
13. In a three stage single acting air compressor with perfect intercooling, the pressure and
temperature at the end of suction in L.P. cylinder is 1.01325 bar and 15°C respectively.
The compressor delivers 10 m3 of free air per minute at 60 bar and the work done is
minimum. Determine (a) L.P. and I.P. delivery pressure, (b) ratio of cylinder volumes,
and (c) total indicated power. Neglect clearance and assume the index of compression
as 1.3.
14. A three stage compressor draws 6 kg of air per hour under atmospheric conditions of
100 kN/m2 and 15°C. It is cooled in each of the intercoolers to 27°C. The pressures of
the intercoolers are 400 kNAm2 and 1500 kN/m2 respectively. The delivery pressure is
6500 kN/m2. Assuming adiabatic compression find the power required to run the com-
pressor.
15. A three stage compressor delivers air at 6500 kN/m2 from an atmospheric pressure of
100 kN/m2 and 27°C. The index of compression is 1.3 throughout. Assuming perfect,
intercooling, determine (a) the amount of minimum work required to deal with 1 kg of
air, and (b) the amount of heat rejected in each intercooler.
Gas Turbine and
Jet Propuision
19.1 INTRODUCTION
Gas turbine has contracted the field of steam turbine because of some advan-
tages over the steam turbine. With open cycle, it requires no boiler, no con-
denser and no cooling water. It requires less floor space compared to a steam
turbine power plant. A gas turbine with closed cycle can run on any type of fuel,
oil, coal etc. while an I.C. engine can run on oil only. In the I.C. engine, com-
pression, combustion and expansion takes place in a single component, i.e, cyl-
inder while, in a gas turbine each of these operations is carried out in a separate
component. The three main components of a simple gas turbine plant are
compressor, combustion chamber and turbine which are all connected, together.
The advantages of gas turbine over steam turbine and internal combustion
engine are enumerated later in this chapter.
19.2 CLASSIFICATION
Gas turbines are classified in two groups as:
(a) Constant pressure combustion gas turbine.
(b) Constant volume combustion gas turbine.
Constant Pressure Gas Turbine

Constant pressure gas turbine is further classified as (i) constant pressure open
cycle gas turbine and (ii) constant pressure closed cycle gas turbine.
Simple constant pressure open cycle gas turbine
A simple constant pressure open cycle gas turbine is shown in Fig. 19.1.
It consists of a compressor, combustion chamber and a turbine. The air is
drawn into the compressor from the surrounding atmosphere at point 1 and is
compressed to point 2. The air is then delivered at point 2 to the annular
combustion chamber. The chamber consists of inner and outer casing. The inner
casing acts as a combustion chamber. The primary air which is one fourth of the
total air delivered by the compressor is used for the combustion of fuel. The fuel
oil enters the inner casing through a burner. Its purpose is to inject fuel oil at
Gas Turbine and Jet Propulsion 547
constant pressure into the combustion chamber. The remaining three-fourth air
is known as secondary air. This air flows through the annular space between the
inner and outer casing. The heat is added by burning the fuel oil into the air in
the combustion chamber at constant pressure. The temperature of the products
of combustion would be approximately 2000°C. As the temperature that the tur-
bine blades can withstand is about 650°C to 900°C, it is necessary to dilute the
products of combustion by admitting additional compressed air which is 300 to
600 per cent excess air. The products of combustion at high pressure and high
temperature enter the turbine at point 3 where it expands doing mechanical
work. The part of the power developed by the turbine is used for driving the
compressor and the remainder is available as useful work. The products of
combustion leave the turbine at point 4 and are exhausted to the atmosphere.
The turbine is started by an electric motor. The P-V and T - (I) diagram of simple
constant pressure open cycle gas turbine is shown in Figs 19.2 (a) and (b).
Combustion
Fuel chamber
Atmospheric
air Exhaust
gases
4
Fig. 19.1 Flow diagram for a simple constant pressure open cycle gas turbine
2' 2
Volume --)P- --).-

(a) (b)
Fig. 19.2 (a) P- V and (b) T -4) diagram of a simple constant pressure open cycle
gas turbine
The cycle of operations are described below:

(a) 1 to 2' Isentropic compression Atmospheric air at pressure P1 and
temperature T1 is taken into the compressor and compressed isentropi-
cally to pressure P2 and temperature T2.
(b) 2' to 3 Constant pressure heating The heat is added by direct burning
the fuel at constant pressure P2 and the temperature of the products of
combustion rises to T3 in the combustion chamber.
(c) 3 to 4' Isentropic expansion The high pressure and high temperature
gas expands isentropically in the turbine from pressure P2 to P4.
(d) 4' to 1 The products of combustion are exhausted at constant pres-
sure P4 = P, This completes the cycle. The area 1— 2' — 3 —4' of the P—V
diagram indicates the network output in an ideal case.
The overall efficiency of this gas turbine plant varies from 20 to 30%. The
following are the losses which are responsible for the lower overall efficiency:
(a) The frictional losses occur both in the compressor and turbine compo-
nents. Therefore, in actual practice the compression (1-2) and expan-
sion (3-4) are polytropic. Area 1-2-3-4 represents the network.
(b) Pressure losses in the pipes connecting the different components.
(c) Variation of mass flow of the working fluid.
(d) Variation of specific heat of the working fluid.
(e) Mechanical losses.
Methods of improving the efficiency The thermal efficiency of the plant can
be increased with the help of the following methods:
(a) Regeneration The exhaust gases carry large amount of heat. The heat of
this exhaust gas is utilised by providing a regenerator (heat exchanger) for
pre-heating the compressed air before it enters the combustion chamber
thus reducing the mass of the fuel supplied in the combustion chamber and
consequently improving the thermal efficiency. The gas turbine plant with
regenerator is shown in Fig. 19.3 (a). The P—V and T -4) diagram is shown
in Figs 19.3 (b) and (c).
(b) Intercooling The part of the power developed by the turbine is used to
drive the compressor. The work required by the compressor to compress
the air can be reduced by compressing it in two stages with a intercooler in
between the two stages as shown in Fig. 19.3(a). The process a—b in
Fig. 19.3 shows intercooling of air.
(c) Reheating The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine can be improved by
expanding the gases in two stages with a reheater in between the two as
shown in Fig. 19.3(a). The process c—d in Fig. 19.3(a) shows reheating.
Constant pressure closed cycle gas turbine
A constant pressure closed cycle gas turbine is shown in Fig. 19.4.
4'
Fuel 2"
—Atmospheric air A4
A2 CC
C2
Compressor
Ab turbine 4d Power
turbine
VA Intercooler \—Reheater
(a)
4" 4'4
Volume
(b)
Fig. 19.3 (a) Flow diagram, (b) P—V diagram, and (c) T —4) diagram for a simple
constant pressure open cycle gas turbine
In this type of gas turbine, the compressed air coming out from the compres-
sor is passed via heat exchanger through the air heater. The air is further heated
in the air heater. The high pressure and temperature air then flows through the
turbine and develops the work. The hot air coming out from the turbine is
cooled to its original temperature in the cooler before passing into the compres-
sor. Thus the same air is circulated through the plant. Part of the power devel-
oped by the turbine is used to drive the compressor and the remaining is
available as useful work. The turbine is started by an electric motor.
Heat exchanger
Cooler
Fig. 19.4 Simple constant pressure closed cycle gas turbine
Analysis of constant pressure closed cycle gas turbine

A closed cycle constant pressure gas turbine works on Joule cycle or Brayton
cycle which has been explained in Chapter 16. Figures 19.5(a) and (b) shows
the P —V and T — j diagram.
P2
Im
=C
Pl
4
F.
(1)
Volume
Fig. 19.5 (a) P-V and (b) T -0 diagram for a constant pressure closed cycle gas
turbine
The process 1-2 represents isentropic compression in the compressor. The pro-
cess 2-3 represents the heating of air at constant pressure in the heat exchanger.
The process 3-4 represents isentropic expansion of air in the turbine. The
process 4-1 represents cooling of air at constant pressure in cooling chamber.
Work required by the compressor per kg of air

We = Cp(T2 — T1) kJ/kg
Work done by the turbine per kg of air
WT = CP(T3 — 7.4) kJ/kg
Network available
W = WT We = Cp(T3 — T4) — Cp(T2 — (19.1)
Heat supplied during the cycle per kg
Qs = (H3 H2) = Cp(T3 — T2)
The efficiency of the cycle is given by
W Cp (T3 — T4)— Cp(T2 — T1) (T3 — T4) — (T2 — T1)
= =
Qs Cp(T3 — T2) (T3 — T2)
(T3 — T ) — (7. — TO T4 T1
— • (19.2)
3—rr1 24) — 1 T3—T
„2 2
P2 P3
The pressure ratio is given by, rp = =
P, P4
Applying the gas law to the points 1 and 2

(y-l)
(Y- I)
T2 (PI T
= = (rp )
T1 PI
( f-
T2 = X (rp) Y
Applying the gas law to the points 3 and 4

(Y- I)
(y- I)
3 ( 3 Y
_
— n j
7, = — — (re) Y
i4 r4
(Y - I)
T3 = T4 X (1.p) Y
Substituting the values of T2 and T3 in Eq. (19.2) we have,

T4 — T,
=1 (Y-I) (Y-i)
T4(rp) Y — T1 x (rp) Y
T4 —T, 1
=1— et-11 —1— (t- I) (19.3)
(rp) .1 (T4 (rp)
(a) Work ratio It is defined as the ratio of the network obtained from the plant
to the turbine work.
(T3 — T4)— (T2 — TO 7 z — T) —1

Work ratio = p =1 p —1 I
kJ 3 — 4)
(T3—T4) 3— 4 7, .7-:_ i)
4( 7
(y-I))
T1[(r p)—Y— — 1 T, T, O
=1 0,- I) = 1 --7--, = 1 — — (r ) T (19.4)
T3 P
T4[( r p) 1 — 1
It is seen from Eq. (19.4) that the work ratio increases with decrease in com-
pressor inlet temperature, increase in turbine inlet temperature and with
decrease of pressure ratio. The efficiency is a function of pressure ratio whereas
the work ratio is a function of pressure ratio and temperature ratio of the cycle.
Therefore, to increase the actual plant efficiency the temperature T1 should be as
low as possible and temperature T3 should be as high as possible. The compres-
sor inlet temperature is normally the atmospheric temperature while the turbine
inlet temperature is decided by metallurgical considerations i.e., the highest
temperature that the metal can withstand continuously. It is obvious from
Eq. (19.4) that for the fixed temperature limits of the cycle, there exists a value
for the maximum pressure ratio
T3
)(Y- I)
rP(max) = (— (19.5)
At the given value of rp the compressor work will be equal to turbine work and
the net output will be zero.
For optimum pressure ratio that will give maximum work output per unit
mass or maximum specific work output, we have
W = Cp(T3 — T4)— Cp(T2 — T,) = C pT3(1— Ti — 1)

13
1 (y; l) 1
= C PT 3 [1 (t-1) — CpTi[frp) 1
(re) Y
Considering T, and T3 as constants, W is maximum when
d
—=0
drp
Differentiating the above equation w.r t. rp and equating to zero we get.
T3 1(Y- I)
r =(— (19.6)
P Ti
Comparing the Eqs (19.5) and (19.6)
rp rpoiax) (19.7)
Taking the temperature T, and T3 as 288 K and 1000 K which are commonly
found in the gas turbine.
1.4
1000
80
rPmax — ( 288 ) =
and rp for maximum specific output = rpmax = •X= 8.8
(b) The cycle of operation with machine

efficiency In the actual cycle it is not
possible to achieve isentropic com-
pression and isentropic expansion due
to losses. The actual compression and
expansion processes on T —4) diagram
are shown in Fig. 19.6.
The isentropic efficiency of the
compressor is given by
Isentropic compression work
11, Actual compressor work
Isentropic increase in enthalpy
Actual increase in enthalpy
h2' — h, CAT,' — T2' — T,

Fig. 19.6 T —4) diagram for constant pres-
h2 —h, Cp(T2 — — T2 — T, stIre closed cycle gas turbine
showing actual compression
and expansion process
(Y-1)
(y-I)
4( 1
1 1
T2 p
(1 2)r
Now — (19.8)
T2 — T,
Tic
T1 Pi
The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is given by

Actual turbine work Actual enthalpy drop
hr =
Isentropic turbine work - Isentropic enthalpy drop
h3 — h4 Cp(T3 — T4) T3 — T4
h3 — /14 -C p(T3 — T4) T3 — T4
(y- I)
T3 (P3 Y T3 - T4
Now (19.9)
T4 = P4 1 (Y - I)
T3 (1, ) 1
4)
Network available per kg of air is given by

T2' -
W - WT -141, — Cp(T3 — T4) — Cp(T2 — = CinT(T3 T4') Cp
1 _Cp i) _
= CATT3(1 -1)= C1,11773 1 - (y
T3 Tic (rp) Y 11c P)
4
For maximum work output —=0
drP
Differentiating and equating to zero.
The pressure ratio for maximum specific work output is given by
i20I)
-
T3
rp - [11711c (19.10)
Ti
If TIT = ric =1 then Eq. (19.10) becomes Eq. (19.6) and T2 =T2, T4 =T4
T2 T3 11 ( T3 '\ T3 T2 T3
or — = -- x —
Ti = T4 = (rP) ' = Ti Ti T1 T4
T2 = T4
That gives the condition for the maximum specific output as the temperature at
the end of compression is equal to the temperature at the end of expansion.
Optimum pressure ratio for maximum cycle thermal efficiency
Actual heat supplied per kg of air.
Qs = Cp(T3 - T2) which can be approximately taken as Cp(T3 -7.21) without intro-
ducing appreciable error.
The cycle thermal efficiency is given by
T2'
W CP(T3 — T4) — CP(T2—T;) TIT(T3 — T4') — Tic

11 th = =
Qs C p (T3 T2') T3 - T2/
11 7 3 [1 13:]
7- 1]
T3 T '21
T
(Y-0
T2 T3 (P2) 1 (Y- I)
Now =— = — = (re) Y
Ti T4' Pi
[1 7.1 [ (y- I)
3 (Y-1) 1
r
fr )
p
Y Tle —1
11(tb) — T (Y-0
TI T3 — (re) Y
d „h,
For maximum thermal efficiency ---1r = = 0
dr
Differentiating the above equation and equating to zero we have
T3 (1- I)
TI
rp =
I+ - 1)(,TiTc
Putting the value of rp in Eq. (9.11) the maximum thermal efficiency is

obtained.
Thermal efficiency of the actual open cycle
Referring to Fig. 19.2(b),
Let ma = Mass of air supplied per minute
nit = Mass of fuel supplied per minute
Cpa = Specific heat of air
Cpg = Specific heat of gas
C.V. = Calorific value of the fuel
The compressor work is given by, W, = ma Cpa(T2 — T1)
The turbine work is given by, WT = (na + M f)C pg (T3 — T4)
Available work is given by
W = WT WC = (ma + mf)C pg(T3 — T4)— maC pa(T2 —
Heat supplied is given by

Q, = m f x C.V.
Thermal efficiency of the actual open cycle is given by
W (Ma + MI)C p g(T3 T4) Ma C p a (T2 T1)

el = = (19.12)
mi x C.V.
Thermal efficiency of simple open cycle constant pressure gas turbine with
regenerator
An open cycle constant pressure gas turbine with regenerator is shown in
Fig. 19.7 (a) and T —4) diagram is shown in Fig. 19.7 (b).
Regenerator
Fuel
4"
CC
2"
A2 3
Id
C T
1
Y4
A Air from atmosphere
(a) (b)
Fig. 19.7 (a) Flow diagram with regenerator and (b) T —4) diagram with regenera-
tor for an open cycle constant pressure gas turbine
Theoretically it is possible to raise the temperature of compressed air leaving

the compressor from T2 to T"2 = T4 and lower the temperature of the gas leaving
the turbine from T4 to T"4 = T2 by passing them through the heat exchanger.
There is no change in compressor work and turbine work with the introduction
of regenerator in the circuit but the quantity of fuel supplied is reduced as the
temperature of air entering the combustion chamber is increased.
Thermal efficiency of the generative cycle is given by
Cp(T3 — T4)— Cp(T2 — T1)

Cp(T3 — T2")
since T4 = T2"
T2 — T, n (Ti — TI)
nth = 1
'
1 p
—T33—T4
— 14 17 (1 3 — 1 4)
1 - (E 1)
licriT T3 p 1)
T2 T3 (1,- I/
But —= = (rp) T
T1
(y-1)
1 T1 (rP) 1 T1 (Y-
4,
'nth = — 1 =1 fr y ) • (19.13)
11,11T T3 1— (Y -i) licir 1 3 '
(r )
- P
It is seen from Eq. (19.13) that the
thermal efficiency of the cycle
T3
increases with increase of and
decreases with increase of rp.

But in actual practice the tempera-
ture rise of air from T2 to n=
T4 is not
possible. The actual temperature of air
will be T2" <T2 . It is shown in Fig 19.8.
Considering actual temperature rise
of air, the thermal efficiency is given
by,
(1)
(T3 — T4) — (T2 — TO
Thh —
Fig. 19.8
The performance of a regenerator is expressed by the term effectiveness of a

regenerator. It is defined as
Heat actually transferred ma Cpa(T2 — T2)

E—
Ideal heat transfer available mgCpg(T4 — T2)
TZ — T2
Assuming ma = mg and Cpa = Cpg E— (19.14)
T4 — T2
Gas turbine plant with intercooler

The gas turbine plant with intercooler is shown in Fig. 19.9(a). The correspond-
ing T-4) diagram is shown in Fig. 19.9(b).
Intercooler
b To exhaust
1
Air
Fuel supply
(a)
Fig. 19.9 (a) Gas turbine plant with intercooler and (b) T —4) diagram
An intercooler which reduces the temperature of air from Ta to its original tem-
perature T, is called a perfect intercooler.
Considering the actual compression takes place in two stages 1—a, and b-2 and
imperfect intercooling, the work done on the air is given by
WW = Cp(Ta —Td+Cp(T2 —Tb)
Let = Isentropic efficiency of the compressor C,
= Isentropic efficiency of the compressor C2
Tb > T, for imperfect intercooling.
P . = Intermediate pressure between the two stages.
Cp Cp
147c = — (Ta. — + — (TT — Tb)
ric, ric2
(y- (1- I)
C pT1[(p C •Tb [(p_

11 1 + —1
•i ci r ,c2 P,
Tb
Assuming m
CpTi [(p . )Y c .m.T [(v y

W= —1 + P —1
el /1'2 Pi
dWc.
For minimum work =0
di);
(y-i)
1 ( y — 1)(P() m (P2) 1 1— y
ll • , • y • (lI )
11,I Y 1r1c2 1
(y-1)
Y
(P() m (P2) 1
(y-1) — n • (2y- l)
TICI(Pl) Y "C2 (P() Y
2(11) (Y- I)
(P1) 1 = 1. — .(P1P2) 1
112
ic
wif =PIP2 [ni.
Tic,
y 12
p .[ ( ric (") (19.15)
i pip2 m
/1C2
If there is perfect intercooling then m = 1 and if = Tic, then P, = -VPIP2
(19.16)
Putting this value we get
CpTir IN) (Pr)

2
ic 17i + —2
2CPT1 [(p r)
2
—1
Ile pi
Thermal efficiency of an intercooled turbine per kg of air and neglecting fuel

mass is given by,
(T3 — T4) — [(Ta — + (T2 — Tb)1

11th = (19.17)
(T3 — T2)
If Tb = T1 then
(T3 — T4) — + T2 — 2TI)

11th - (19.18)
(T3 — T2)
Gas turbine plant with reheater
A gas turbine plant with reheater is shown in Fig. 19.10(a). The corresponding
T — 4 diagram is shown in Fig. 19.10(b).
Fuel Fuel
Pi
1
Air in Exhaust
gases out
(a) (b)
Fig. 19.10 (a) Gas turbine plant with reheater, (b) T --4) diagram for gas turbine
plant with reheater
The work done by the two turbines per kg of gas is given by
WT = C p g (T 3 T) + C p g(T d — T4)
Cpg11T1(T3 — Te,)+ C pgri T2(Td T4.)
where 31T = Isentropic efficiency of Turbine T1

= Isentropic efficiency of Turbine T2
T. Ter
WT = C pg•liT •T3(1 + C p gliT T 1 —
i
T3 2
Td
Cr- I) (7-I)
Y
T3 P2 Td (PI T
and
71., P, ) T4,
Putting the values in the above equation

(r-01 (r- I )
Y
WT = C pg.1
Ti
• T3[1 (Pi ) 7 + C pg 31 7.2 • Td I (PI )
P2 P,
d WT
For maximum work —0
dP
Differentiating the above equation and equating it to zero we get
( 1-1 fill 11 Td
I T, where —m
Pi = [P ) P2 M T3
If 11r = 11T2 and T3 = Td then Pi =-\FT

1 32 (19.19)
Thermal efficiency of the turbine is given by
(T3 — Tc)+ (Td — — (Tz —

11th— (19.20)
(T3 — T2) + (Td — Tc)
Advantages of a closed cycle over an open cycle

(a) It has higher thermal efficiency for the same minimum and maximum
temperature limits and for the same pressure ratio.
(b) Since the heating is external, any kind of fuel even solid fuel having
low calorific value may be used.
(c) There is no corrosion due to circulation of combustion product.
(d) As the system is a closed one there is no loss of the working fluid.
(e) Monoatomic gases such as helium may be used to increase the effi-
ciency.
(f) The size of the turbine will be smaller compared to an open cycle tur-
bine of the same output.
(g) The air is precooled in the precooler on its way back to the compressor
to decrease its specific volume. Thus the size of the compressor can be
reduced.
(h) The regulation is more simple.
(i) The heat transmission coefficient in the exchanger is better due to the
increase in suction pressure.
(j) Loss due to fluid friction is less due to higher Reynolds number.
Disadvantages of closed cycle compared to open cycle

(a) The cooling water required in the cooler is of large amount. So this
cannot be used for aircraft turbines.
(b) It is not economical for moving vehicles because the weight of the
system per kW developed is high as compared with open cycle.
(c) Large air heater is required in comparison to the combustion chamber
required for open cycle because of low heat transfer coefficient in the
heat exchanger.
(d) Its installation cost is more.
Constant Volume Gas Turbine

The constant volume gas turbine is shown in Fig. 19.11.
Exhaust
Compressed
Air gases
air inlet valve
A
Air
Combustion ICC
chamber
Spark
plug
Fuel pump
Combustion gases
Outlet valve for gases
Fig. 19.11 Constant volume gas turbine
In this type of gas turbine, fuel is burnt at constant volume. Air is drawn into the
compressor from the surrounding atmosphere and is compressed to a pressure of
about 300 kN/m2. The compressed air leaving the compressor enters into the
combustion chamber through the inlet valve. The fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber in the current of air by a separate fuel pump. The inlet and
outlet valves are closed automatically as the combustion chamber is filled with
the air. The air-fuel mixture is then ignited by means of spark plugs. The
combustion takes place at constant volume. Due to combustion the pressure
rises to about 12 bar and a non-return valve in the combustion chamber is
opened. The high pressure hot combustion gases enter the turbine passes over
the 'Jades and develops useful work. The part of the power developed by the
turbine is used to drive the compressor and the remainder is available to drive
the generator. The electric motor is used for starting the plant. The exhaust
gases discharged form the turbine are passed through a boiler where the heat of
the exhaust gases is used for the generation of steam. The steam generated in the
boiler is used to run the steam turbine, driving the air compressor.
The main disadvantage of this type of gas turbine is the intermittent speed of
rotation of the turbine shaft. A separate steam plant is necessary to recover the
heat of the exhaust gases which involves additional cost. It works on Atkinson
cycle. This type of gas turbine has now become out dated because of the above
disadvantages.
Applications of gas turbines
(a) Gas turbines are used for electric power generation because of the
ability to get started quickly and less cost of installation and mainte-
nance.
(b) It is used for Locomotive propulsion.
(c) It is used for ship propulsion.
(d) Gas turbine is used in aircrafts.
(e) It is used for supercharging for heavy duty Diesel engines and for avi-
ation gasoline engines.
(f) Used in turbo jet and turbo-propeller engine.
(g) Gas turbines are used for various industrial purposes such as in steel
industry, oil and other chemical industry.
Aircraft gas turbine versus other gas turbines
The differences between an aircraft gas turbine and other gas turbines are as
follows:
(a) The life of aircraft gas turbine is about 500 running hours, whereas the
life of the gas turbines is about 100000 running hours.
(b) Aircraft gas turbine is of small size and weight.
(c) Aircraft gas turbine use the gases leaving the turbine whereas this is
wasted in other gas turbines.
Advantages of a gas turbine over a steam turbine
(a) No feed water supply is required.
(b) It does not require a boiler, economiser or a condenser.
(c) It requires light foundation.
(d) Less number of moving parts and controls.
(e) Initial as well as operating cost is less.
(f) It is very reliable.
(g) It requires less floor space.
(h) It can be started and stopped within few minutes.
(i) It is simple to operate.
( j) Its lubrication system is simple.
(k) Its weight power ratio is low.
Advantages of a gas turbine over an I.C. engine

(a) Mechanical efficiency is higher than that of I.C. engine
(b) Less weight
(c) Low pressure ratio
(d) Any kind of fuel can be used
(e) Very reliable
(f) No cooling water is required in turbine
(g) Maintenance cost is low
(h) Less fire danger
(i) Lubrication is simple.
(j) Power developed is large.
(k) No unbalanced force and there is no vibration in the turbine.
19.3 JET PROPULSION

For the propulsion of aircraft, missiles and space ships the reaction of the jet of
gases which are discharged behind with a high velocity produces the necessary
propulsive work, based on Newton's second and third laws of motion.
The two main categories of jet propulsion engines are: (a) atmospheric jet
engines, and (b) rockets.
Atmospheric jet engines are dependent on atmospheric air for the combus-
tion of fuel.
In rocket engines the fuel and the oxidiser are contained in the body of the
unit, i.e., it is independent of the atmospheric air. The different types of jet pro-
pulsion systems are discussed below.
Turbo Prop
In this system, the gases are expanded partly in the turbine and partly in the
nozzle. About 80% expansion takes place in the turbine and 20% in the nozzle.
The thrust output may be increased by heating the turbine exhaust before
expansion in the nozzle.
Fuel pump
Reduction gear
Propeller t...(--->q
Diffuser. )e
Compressor/ Combustion Turbine
chamber
Fig. 19.12 Turbo prop

TurboJet
Aircraft
Direction ,c Exhaust gases
of air from nozzle
(a)
a
5
Exhaust
to
atmosphere
(b) (c)
Fig. 19.13 (a) TurboJet, (b) flow diagram, and (c) T —4) diagram
The basic components of turbojet engine are diffuser, compressor, combustion

chamber, turbine and jet exit nozzle. Air from the surrounding atmosphere is
admitted through the diffuser in which the air is compressed partially by ram
effect. The air then enters the compressor which raises the pressure of air to the
required value and delivers it to the combustion chamber. An oil pump raises
the pressure of fuel oil and is forced into the combustion chamber through the
fuel nozzle. The fuel is burnt at constant pressure in the combustion chamber.
As a result the temperature and volume of air and products of combustion are
increased. The hot gases from the combustion chamber then pass through the
turbine nozzle ring. It expands partially in the turbine and are exhausted through
the discharge nozzle. Here the remaining pressure energy is converted into
kinetic energy. In this way high velocity propulsion jet is produced. The com-
pressor and the oil pump are mounted on the same shaft as the turbine rotor. The
compressor and oil pump are driven by the power developed by the turbine.
Form this type of unit speeds up to 800 km/hr are obtained. The turbojet engine
works on Brayton or Joule cycle.
19.4 THRUST POWER AND PROPULSION

EFFICIENCY
Let Vo = Forward velocity of the aircraft through air in m/s.
Vj = Velocity of jet (gases) at nozzle exit relative to the aircraft in
m/s.
The atmospheric air is assumed to be at rest, the velocity of air relative to
aircraft, at entrance to the aircraft will be Va . It is called the velocity of approach
of air.
Let the fuel supplied per kg of air supplied to the aircraft be m f kg/s. The
mass of gas leaving the nozzle will be (1 + m f) kg/s.
Thrust
The absolute velocity of the gases leaving the aircraft = (V., — Va )
Absolute velocity of air entering the aircraft = 0
change of momentum = (1 + mf)(V., — Va)
Thrust = (1 + mf)(Vj — Va ) N (19.21)
Thrust Power
V
Thrust power = (1 + mf) (Vj — V„) x Va W. = kW.
1000
(19.22)
Propulsive Power
The heat supplied in the combustion chamber is called propulsive work. It is
utilised in two ways: (a) to produce thrust work, and (b) to give the gases a
kinetic energy.
(1 + mf) (V, — Va)2
Propulsive work = + (1 + mf)(Vj — 17,,)V„
2
(1 + mf) 2 2 (V2— V2 )
= (V V )::: j a
2 ' 2
V,2 — 1/
Propulsive power = ' kW. (19.23)
2 x 1000
Propulsive Efficiency (iip)

It is the ratio of the thrust power to propulsive power.
(1 + m f)
T P = (I ± f) (V j — Va)Va ÷ (V 2 — Va2)
2 '
2Va 2
(19.24)
+ +1
From Eq. (19.24), it is evident that the propulsive efficiency increases with the
increase of aircraft velocity Va. When Va is equal to V,, the propulsive efficiency
becomes 100 per cent, but thrust power becomes zero.
Quite often, the propulsive efficiency is written as
2Va
Vj 2a
TIP v 4. a
1 +2
vj
V
where a =
Thermal Efficiency (rhh)

Propulsive work (1 + tni)(V,2 — 2
1 th =
The heat released by the combustion of fuel — 2 x mf . x C.V.
vj2 - 17,2,
(19.25)
2 x mf x C.V.
Overall Efficiency (no)
10
1 = x rip
2V„
(V j 2 — Va 2) (V, — Va)V„
= x (19.26)
2xmixC.V. (VI +V„) mf xC.V.
Rocket Propulsion
Thrust work = V;. Va
(Vj — Va 2 V12 Va 2
Propulsive work = Va + 2 —
2
2V.Va 2Va 2(5

Rocket propulsive efficiency — 2 2 = Vj — + (19.27)
va Vj
v
1 .1. Vi
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Air enters the compressor of an open

cycle constant pressure gas turbine at
100 kN/m2 and 27°C. The pressure of
air after compression is 400 kN/m2.
The isentropic efficiencies of compres-
sor and turbine are 78% and 84%
respectively. The air fuel ratio is 75 : 1.
The rate of flow of air is 2.5 kg/sec.
Determine the power developed and
thermal efficiency of the cycle. Take Cp
= 1.005 kJ/kg K and y= 1.4 both for air
and gases. The calorific value of fuel
used = 42000 kJ/kg.
(y- I)
T2' (132) 7
Solution: =
T1 F1
0.4 Fig. 19.14
400
T,' =300(— =445.798 K
100)1
T2 —T, 445.798-300
rl` = T2 — . . 038 _T2-300 :. T2 = 486.92 K
Heat supplied by fuel = Heat taken by the burning gases

ma
mi x C .V . = (Ina + inr )(T, — TO .. C .V . =(— +1)(T3 — T2)
mf
42000 = (75 + 1) (T3 -486.92) .•. T3 = 1039.55 K.
Y- I
T4' I PI' 1 21
= . T,= 1039.55 x (1' = 699.565 K
T3 2 4
T3 — T4 1039.55 — T4
TIT = T,— T4' .. 0.84 =
1039.55 — 699.565
:. T4 = 753.96 K
76
WT = In g (T3 T4) = x 1.005(1039.55 —753.96) = 290.844 kJ/kg of air
75
m4Cp0(T2 — T,) =1 x 1.005(486.92 — 300) = 187.854 kJ/kg of air

Network available per kg of air is given by
W= = 290.844 — 187.854 = 102.99 kJ
Heat supplied per kg of air = 7 x 42000 = 560 kJ

5
Power developed = 102.99 x 2.5 = 257.475 kW.
102.99
Thermal efficiency, ri„, — = 0.1839 = 18.39%
560
2. A simple constant pressure gas turbine

operates at a pressure ratio 5 : 1 and the tur-
bine inlet temperature 580°C. The air inlet
temperature is 15°C and the pressure
atmospheric, and the compressor has adia-
batic efficiency 80%. What must be the adia-
batic efficiency of the turbine in order that
the overall cycle efficiency may be 18%?
Assume Cp for air to be 1.005 kifkg K and Cp
for combustion gases 1.093 kJ/kg K. Take R a.
to be 0.287 kJ/kg K for both air and combus-
tion gases.
Solution: Cp — C,, = R or C, = Cp —R
= 1.005 — 0.287 = 0.718 (1)

Cp 1.005
= -14
C, 0.718
Fig. 19.15
04
T2
= (rp) T2 = 288(5)11 = 456.14 K
T2' — 456.14-288
0.8 = T2 = 498.175 K
11` = T2 —T, T2 — 288 .%
Wc. = mo.Cpa(T2 — T1)=1 x 1.005(498.175 —288) = 211.2258 kJ/kg of air.

Heat supplied per kg, Q., = CI:VT,— T2) = 1.005(853 —498.175) = 356.599 kJ.
For gases = 1.093 —0.287 = 0.806
1.093
y= — 1.356
0.806
(y- i) 0 356
T3
= (r p) = (5) = 1.5258
• 853
T4 = — 559 K
1.5258
The work per kg of gas in the turbine is given by
WT = Cpg (T3 — T4') X 117.
Turbine work — Compressor work

Again, Overall efficiency, rio =
Heat input
1.093(853 —559)rMT -211.22-58
0.18 =
356.599
rfr= 0.857 = 85.7%

3. An oil-gas turbine installation consists of a reaction compressor, a chamber into which oil
is injected and in which combustion takes place at constant pressure, a set of nozzles and an
impulse turbine. The air is taken in at 1,01325 bar and at 27°C and is compressed to 4.053
bar, with an adiabatic efficiency of 85%. Heat is added by the combustion to raise the tem-
perature to 572°C. The combined efficiency of the nozzles and impulse turbine is 82%. The
calorific value of oil used is 42000 kJ/kg.
For an air flow of 80kg/min, find (a) the air fuel ratio of the turbine gases, (b) the final
temperature of the exhaust gases (c) the net power of the installation, and (d) the overall
thermal efficiency of the installation. Up to the point of entry to the nozzle take CP =
0.9964 kJ/kg K, C.V. = 0.7117 kJ/kg K, after that point C,, = 1.05 kJ/kg K, C.V. =
0.7955 kJ/kg K.
0.9964
Solution: y = = 1.4
03117
efr l) 01
y
P2 )
1'3" = _ • T -300( "53 -445.8 K
T, Pi •• 2- 1.01325
Adiabatic work on compressor = mC,,(T2 -T,)
= 80 x 0.9964(445.8 -300) = 11622.01 kJ/min.

tu = 11622.01
Actual work on compressor, - 13672.95210/min.
0.85
T;- T, 445.8 - 300
Again, ric - _ or 0.85 =
T2 T2 -300
T2 = 471.53 K
Heat supplied by oil per minute,
Qs = mC,,(T,- T2) = 80 x 0.9964(845 -471.53) = 29770.041 kJ/min
29770.041
Mass of fuel per minute - 42000 = 0.7088 kg.
Air 80
(a) = - 113:1
Fuel 0.7088
(b) Total mass of gases passing through the turbine
rn = 80 + 0.7088 = 80.7088 kg/min.
1.05
The index of expansion in the nozzle, n - = 1.32
0.7955
- I) 0.32
T3 (PI 845 4.053 ri

= or :. T4 = 603.81 K
T4 Pi T4 (1.01325
T3 - T4 845 - T4
,- , or 0.82 - or T4 = 647.22 K.
T3 - T4 845 - 603.81
(c) Adiabatic work done by turbine per min. = msCp(T, - T4)
= 80.7088 x 1.05(845 - 603.81) = 20439.463 kJ/min.

Actual work done by the turbine per min,
WT = 20439.463 x 0.82 = 16760.36 kJ/min.
Network = WT -Wc = 16760.36 - 13672.952 = 3087.408 kJ/min.
= 51.456 kJ/s = 51.456 kW
t:Iverall thermal efficiency of the plant, 3087.408 - 0.1037 or 10.37%

11° = 29770.041
4. A gas turbine set takes in air at 15°C, the pressure ratio is 4 : 1 and the maximum tempera-
ture is 560°C. Assuming efficiencies of 0.86 and 0.83 for the turbine and compressor respec-
tively, determine the overall efficiency, (a) without heat exchanger, and (b) with heat
exchanger making use of 75% of the heat available. Assume that pressure drops in the
connecting pipes, etc. can be neglected and that the specific heats of air are constant.
Solution: T,= 15 + 273 = 288 K, T3 = 560 + 273 = 833 K,
rIT = 0.86, rig = 0.83, rp = 4

0,-1) 04
T,= T, x (rp) =288(4)7' = 427.966 K.
f2 — 427.966 — 288
= or 0.83 — T,= 456.634 K
T2 T2 — 288
Temperature of the exhaust after adiabatic expansion in the turbine,
, T3 833
— (y-o=" = 560.567 K
(r p) (4)IA
T3 — T4 833 — T,
, or 0.86 = T4 = 598.707 K.
T3 — T4 833 — 560.567
Ideal heat available in the heat exchanger = Cp(T4 —T2)
The efficiency of the heat exchanger = 75%
Actual heat available = 0.75 x C,(598.707 — 456.634) = 0.75 x C,, x 142.073
Now Heat loss = Heat gain
0.75 x C,, x 142.073 = Cp(T," — T2) = CAT," — 456.634)
T; = 563.188 K.
.% T3 — T; = 833 — 563.188 = 269.812°C.
(a) Without heat exchanger, Heat added = Cp(T3 — T2) = C,.(833 — 456.634) = 376.366 C,.
Gross work in the turbine = Cp(T3 — T4) = C,.(833 — 598.707) = 234.293 C,..
Work consumed in the compressor= Cp(T,— T1). Cp(456.634 — 288) = 168.634 Cp
Network in the turbine set = 234.293 Cp —168.634 C,, = 65.659 Cp
65.659 C,,
Overall efficiency, r = 376.366 Cp — 0.1744 = 17.44%
With heat exchanger, Heat added = C p(T, —T;) = Cp(833 —563.188) = 269.812 C,,
65.659 C,,
Overall efficiency, Ti, — — 0.2433 = 24.33%
269.812 Cp
5. In a gas turbine cycle, air at atmospheric pressure is compressed adiabatically from 27°C
and 1.01325 bar to 5.741 bar and then the air absorbs heat from the exhaust gases at constant
pressure at a rate of 84 kJ per kg. The air is further expanded at constant pressure by the
combustion of 0.012 kg of fuel per kg of air. The calorific value of fuel is 42000 kJ/kg. The
products of combustion are expanded adiabatically in the turbine to 1.01325 bar, being
exhausted with negligible velocity after yielding some of their heat to the air leaving the
compressor. Cp for air = 1 kJ/kg K.
Estimate the thermal efficiency of the

cycle, assuming air to be the working fluid.
Compare this efficiency with that of the nor-
mal constant pressure cycle.
Solution: T, = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K,
P2 5.741
r— = = 5.666
P —73, 1.01325
Temperature at the end of isentropic com-
pression T2' is given by
re- I) 04 El)
T,= T,(rp) Y = 300(5.666)1 ' = 492.428 K
Work to compress 1 kg of air,
IV,=Ix1x(T,'—
= 492.428 — 300 = 192.428 kJ
The temperature T2 at the end of heating at Fig. 19.16
constant pressure is given by
Cp(T,—T,)= 84 T2 = 84 + 492.428 = 576.428 K.
The turbine inlet temperature T3 is given by
Cp(T,— TO= mi x C.V . = 0.012 x 42000 = 504
7', = 504 +576.428 = 1080.428 K.
The temperature T4 at the end of isentropic expansion is given by
T, 1080.428
T4 = — 658.224 K.
(re) 1 (5.666)7°
The mass of gas, ins, = ma + m f = 1 + 0.012 = 1.012 kg.
Work done in the turbine,
WT = 1.012 x 1(7',— fa) = 1.012(1080.428 — 658.224) = 427.27 kJ
WT — Wc = 427.27 — 192.428
Efficiency of the cycle, ri = = 0.4659 = 46.59%
m f x C.V. 504
With the normal constant pressure cycle i.e., without heating the compressed air by the
exhaust gases.
Temperature T3, the turbine inlet temperature is given by
= 504 + 7'; = 504+492.428 = 996.428 K.

Temperature T4 at the end of isentropic expansion is given by
T3 996.428
T4 = 0._0— 1.641 — 607.2 K.
(re) Y
Work done in turbine, WT = 1.012 x 1(996.428 — 607.2) = 393.89 kJ
393.89 — 192.428
Efficiency of the cycle, t1= = 0.3997 = 39.97%
504
0.4659
Efficiency ratio - = 1.165:1
0.3997
6. A simple gas turbine takes in air at
1.01325 bar and 15.5°C and compresses it
through a pressure ratio of 5:1, the adiabatic
efficiency of compression being 85%. The air
passes to the combustion chamber and after
combustion the gases enter the turbine at a
tC
temperature of 537°C and expand to 1.01325 ffi
cs,
bar, the turbine efficiency being 80%.
Determine the flow of air and gases in kg
per second for a net power of 1470 kW mak-
ing the following assumptions. Fall of pres-
sure through the combustion system 0.0689
bar, C. for both air and combustion gases
1.05 kJ/kg K, y= 1.4. Neglect the additional
mass flow due to the fuel.
Fig. 19.17
Solution: T, = 15.5°C = 15.5 + 273 = 288.5 K, T3 = 537°C = 537 + 273 = 810 K,
re = 5, P1 = 1.01325 bar, P2 = 5.06625 bar, P,= 4.99735 bar,
Tie = 0.85, TIT = 0.8, C, = 1,05, 'y= 1.4

Temperature t, at the end of isentropic compression is given by
(y-i) 04
T2 = T, x (re) = 288.5(5)" = 456.93 K
T2 -T, 456.93 - 288.5

= or 0.85= T2 = 486.65 K
T2 - 7.1 T2 -288.5
Work required to compress 1 kg of air,
= Cp(T2 - T,) = 1.05(486.65 - 288.5) = 208.057 kJ
Turbine inlet pressure P,= P2 - 0.0689 = 5.06625 - 0.0689 = 4 99735 bar.
4.99'735
Pressure ratio in the turbine, r =
1.01325 = 4.932
Temperature T, at the end of isentropic expansion is given by
T3 810
T4' = ty-I)
513.42 K.
(4.932)'
T3 - T4 810 - Ts
, or 0.8 - T4 = 572.736 K.
T3 - T4 810 -513A2
Work done per kg of air in the turbine, WT = C p(T,- T4)
WT = 1.05(810 - 572.736) = 249.127 kJ.
Network per kg, W = 14/7.-14/, = 249.127 - 208.057 = 41.07 kJ
The flow of air, m° per second is given by
x 41.07 = 1470
ma = 35.79 kg/s.
7. A gas turbine set having a heat exchanger gave the following data at the design speed:
Isentropic efficiency of the compressor = 80%
Isentropic efficiency of the turbine = 85%
Combustion efficiency = 95%
Mechanical transmission efficiency = 98%
Pressure ratio = 5:1
Mass flow = 20 kg/s
Heat exchanger effectiveness = 80%
Maximum cycle temperature = 725°C
The ambient temperature and pressure of air
are 15°C and 1.01325 bar respectively.
Determine (a) the power output, (b) spe-
cific fuel consumption (c) thermal efficiency
of the cycle. Assume no pressure loss in heat
exchanger and combustion chamber. Take
C.V. of fuel as 43500 kJ/kg, C,, = 1.05 and
4' y= 1.4 during compression, C, = 1.15 and
2
y= 1.35 during heating and expansion.
Solution: T,= 15°C = 15+273=288K, ri,= 5
The temperature at the end of isentropic
expansion is given by
0- (
T2' = T,x (r p)
0.4
= 288(5)" = 456.14 K.
Fig. 19.18
T2' — 456.14 — 288

Tic = T2 — or 0.8 — T2 = 498 . 17 K
T2 — 28 8
Work required to drive the compressor is given by
Wc. = C,,(T2 — = 1.05(498.17 — 288) = 220.683 Id/kg of air
Since the mechanical efficiency is 98%, actual power required for compressor is
220.683
W. = 0.98 = 225.186 kW per kg of air.
Since there is no pressure loss in the combustion chamber the pressure at inlet to the turbine is
P3 = P2 = 5 x 1.01325 = 5.06625 bar
Temperature T4' at the end of isentropic expansion in the turbine is given by
T3 725 + 273
74' — 0 „ — 657.53 K.
(rp) T (5)3 "
T3 — Ty T3 — T4
— T4' or 0.85 = 998 _ 657.33
r= T3
T3 — T4 = 289.398°C
Gas Turbine and Jet Propulsion 57 5
Work done per kg of air in the turbine, WT = Cp(T3 -T4)

WT = 1.15 x 289.398 = 332.8 kJ
Network per kg, W = WT - WW
W = 332.8 - 225.186 = 107.6141d
Mass of air, ma = 20 kg/s
Net output from the turbine = ma x W = 20 x 107.614 = 2152.28 kW.
Heat supplied by fuel = m f x C.V. x rlrom = mf x 43500 x .95
Again heat supplied = maCp(T,- T2) = 20 x 1.15(998 - 498.17)
mI x 43500 x .95 = 20 x 1.15 x 449.83 = 11496.09

11496.09
0.2781 kg/s
= 43500 x .95 -
Air 20
= - 72:1
Fuel 0.2781
Mass of fuel supplied per hour = 0.2781 x 3600 = 1001.16 kg/hr.
1001.16
(b) Specific fuel consumption 0.4651 kg/kW hr.
= 2152.28 -
107.614 x 0.95
(c) Thermal efficiency, ith = - 0.1976 = 19.76%.
1.15 x (998 - 498.17)
8. A gas turbine set draws in atmospheric air
at 1.01325 bar and 15°C; there are two pres-
3 P2 stages with intercooler, and the total
pressure ratio is 8: 1. The maximum
i temperature of the cycle is 593°C and there is
a.)
i...
2 one turbine for expansion. A regenerator is
11
2 used and recovers 60% of the available heat.
lg. 2' 4 Pi
E Determine the efficiency and the ratio of the
E-. useful work to turbine work. The turbine and
compressor efficiencies may be taken as 0.86
and 0.83 respectively. k= 0.287 kJ/kg K and
y= 1.4.
Solution: T1 = 15°C = 15 + 273 = 288 K,
T,= 593°C = 593 + 273 = 866 K

Fig. 19.19
P1= 1.01325 bar, r, = 8, TIT = 0.86, 11, = 0.83

Regenerator efficiency = 0.6, R = 0.287 kJ/kg K, 'y= 1.4
The intermediate pressure ratio is given by rp, = 4fT= 2.828
The temperature Ta', at the end of isentropic compression in the first pressure stage is given
by
(T- I) 04
T,' = Ti(r p,) Y = 288(2.828)14 = 387.6 K
Actual temperature rise = Adiabatic temp. rise

Compressor efficiency
To' — Ti 387.6 — 288

—T, = — 120
0.83
= 120 + 288 = 408 K.
Assuming the intercooler to be a perfect one, the actual temperature rise in the second stage
would be the same. Then the work to compress 1 kg of air through a pressure ratio of 8 is
given by
W = 2C p(To — TO= 2 x 1.005 x 120 = 241.2 kJ/kg.
The temperature Ti' at the end of isentropic expansion is given by
-(' 2 866
T4 = Ti(rp) ' = 04 = 478 K.
(8)
Adiabatic temperature drop = T3 — T,' = 866 —478 = 388°C
Actual temperature drop, T3 — T, = 0.86 x 388 = 333.68°C
T4 = 866 — 333.68 = 532.32 K.
Work done per kg of air in the turbine is given by
WT = CJ,(T3 — T4) = 1.005(866 —532.32) = 335.348 kJ/kg.
Ideal amount of heat available in the regenerator = Cp(T,— To) = 1.005(532.32 — 408)
= 124.9416 kJ
Actual amount of heat available in the regenerator = 0.6 x 124.9416 = 74.965 kJ
Temperature rise of the compressed air in the regenerator is given by
74.965
T," T2=
1.005 —74.59
T2" = 74.59 + 408 = 482.59 K.

Network, W = WT — W. = 335.348 — 241.2 = 94.148 kJ/kg
Heat added, Qs = Cp(T3 -7.2") = 1.005(866 —482.59) = 385.3274 kJ
Network 94.148
Efficiency, 1 = — 0.2443 = 24.43%
Heat added 385.327
Useful work 94.148
—
Turbine work — 335.348 0.28:1
9. In an open cycle gas turbine plant a two
stage compressor with intercooler and regen-
erator is employed. The air is drawn in at a
pressure and temperature of 1.01325 bar and
22°C. The pressure ratio in each stage is 3
and the isentropic efficiency of the compres-
sors is 82%. The effectiveness of the inter-
cooler is 78%. The maximum temperature in
the cycle is 697°C. The gases are expanded in
a turbine to 1.01325 bar. The effectiveness of
the regenerator is 78%. The isentropic effi-
ciency of the turbine is 80%. Determine the
thermal efficiency of the plant. Take
C, = 1.005 kJ/kg K and y = 1.4.
Fig. 19.20
Solution: T, = 22°C = 22 + 273 = 295 K, T3 = 697°C = 697 + 273 = 970 K,
Pa P2
P,= 1.01325 bar, 17, = 3, =3
Pb
2 a 2 P3
r =F
-'- = -1-3- X =3x3=9, =9
P Pb I4
= rlr, = 0.82, TIT = 0.8

la- I)
(PY 04
= 17 = (3)n = 1.3687 Ta' = 295 x 1.3687 = 403.7 K
1
403.7 - 295
or, 0.82 = Ta = 427 .6 K.
=Ta T 1 T -
a Ta - Tb
Effectiveness of the intercooler -
T - T,
427.6 - Th
Tb = 324.17 K.
0.78 = 427.6 - 295
For the second stage we have,
(a-I)
OA
T' (P2) Y
= 73; = (3)" = 1,3687 .. T,' = 1.3687 x 324.17 = 443.69 K.
T
T2' - Tb 443.69- 324.17

or 0.82 = T2 = 469.9 K
11'2 = T2 -Tb T2-324.17
Total work required to compress the air
WI = C + = Cp( -T,)+ Cp(T2 - Tb )
= Cp[427.6 -295 +469.9 -324.17] = 1.005 x 278.33 = 279.72 kJ/kg

1Y- I)
T3 (133) a 970
Now = (9)" = 1.873 .'. Ta 517.76 K
=
T3 -T4 970- T4
or 0.80 = T = 608.2 K.
lir = T3 - 7'4 970-51736 4
Turbine work, Wt = Cp(T3 -T4)= 1.005(970-608.2) = 363.6 kJ/kg.
T
2 - T2
Effectiveness of the heat exchanger -
T4 - T2
T2" - 469.9
T2" = 577.77 K
"8 608.2 - 469J9
Heat supplied, Q= C,,(T3 - T2") = 1.005(970-577.77) = 394.18 kJ/kg.
WT-14/, 363.6 -279.72
Thermal efficiency, = = 0.2127 = 21.27%.
Qs 394.18
10. A gas turbine installation uses two stage compression with intercooling between the
stages. Air is drawn in at 27°C. The overall pressure ratio is 6 : 1. The isentropic efficiency of
both compressor is 75%. The H.P. tur-

bine drives the compressor and the L.P.
turbine drives the alternator. The
exhaust from the L.P. turbine passes
through a heat exchanger which trans-
,2 fers heat to the air leaving the H.P.
compressor. The temperature of the
gases at inlet to the H.P. turbine is
560°C and the gases are reheated to
ta. 560°C after expansion in the first tur-
bine. The isentropic efficiency of
expansion in each stage is 82%. The
mechanical efficiency is 96%. The
combustion efficiency is 95%. The
4) thermal ratio of the heat exchanger is
0.75. Take Cpa = 1.005 and 'y= 1.4 and
Cp, = 1.16 and y= 1.35. Neglecting
mass of fuel and assuming perfect
Fig. 19.21 intercooling, determine (a) overall effi-
ciency, (b) work ratio, and (c) mass
flow for 4500 kW power output.
Solution: T1 = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K, T3 = 560°C = 560+ 273 = 833 K.
Since both the compressors have the same efficiency and intercooling is perfect, the pressure
ratio for each stage will be same and same amount of work will be expended in driving each
compressor. In that case T, = Tb , = T 2 and P,4 ='= 2.45.
Temperature Ta' at the end of isentropic compression in the L.P. compressor is given by
(T- I)
71' Pa 00
= (2.45)74 = 1.2917
T,
.*. 71' = T, x 1.2917 = 300 x 1.2917 = 387.5 K

Ta' —T, 387.5 — 300
or 0.75 = Ta = 416.66 K.
= Ta 71-300
r, =Tb = 300 K, = T2 = 416.66, Tr= T3 = 833 K.
The H.P. turbine is required to drive both the compressors and to overcome mechanical fric-
tion.
Cpa[(Ta — TI)+(T2 — Tb)] = C pg(T,— 71)x r1„„c„.
1.005[(416.66 — 300) + (416.66 — 300)] = 1.16(833 — Tc) x 0.96
.•. = 622.43 K.
T 3 — Tc. 833 — 622.43
11, = T , or 0.82— ' 576.2 K.
71=
833 — T '
(y-1) 01
T3 (P 3 ) r 833 ( 6 )44
Now or = 1.65 bar.
717 = Pc' 576.2 Pc'
Pc = Pc = P, = 1.65 bar
Temperature T4' at the end of isentropic compression in the L.P. turbine is given by,
(Y- 0 0.4
Td (131 Y 833 _(1.651 4

Or, T4' = 721.95 K
4' - ••
Td -T4 833 - T4
T IT = or 0.82 = T4 =741.94 K
2 Td T4 833 - 721.95
T2" -T 2
The thermal ratio of regenerator - 7, = 0.75
/ 4 - 2
T2" - 416.66
or = 0.75 T," = 660.62 K.
741.94 - 416.66
(a) Network output = Work done in L.P. turbine X71muA= Cpg(T, - T4) X lime„
= 1.16(833 - 741.94) x 0.96 = 101.4 kJ/kg.

Heat supplied = Cpg(T,- T2") X lcom + Cpg(Td - Tc ) X Ticom.
= 1.16(833 - 660.62) x 0.95 + 1.16(833 - 622.43) x 0.95 = 422.01 kJ/kg.
101.4
(a) Overall efficiency = = 0.2402 = 24.02%
422.01
Gross work = H.P. Turbine work + L.P. Turbine work
=[Cpg(T,- Tr) + C p g (Ta -T4)] irnech
Network == Cpg(Td - T4) >(11.h

Network Td - T4
(b) Work ratio = -
Gross work (T3 - Te)+ (Td - T4)
833-741.94
(833 - 622.43) + (833 - 741.94) - 0.3019
(c) Let the mass flow rate is m kg/.
4500
m x 101.4 = 4500 - 44.378 kg/s
=01.4
11. For the consumption of 430 kg of petrol a "flying bomb" had a range of 240 km, an aver-
age speed of 575 km/hr., and a propulsive force of 2670 N. The maximum temperature rise in
the combustion chamber is 815°C. The diameter of the discharge nozzle is 30 cm. The
altitude of flight is 610 m. Take C.V. of fuel as 42000 kJ/kg and Cp for exhaust gases as 1.16
kJ/kg K. Determine (a) the air fuel ratio (b) the temperature of the exhaust gases and their
velocity relative to the bomb. (c) the propulsive efficiency and overall thermal efficiency of
the unit.
Solution: Let m = Mass of air supplied per kg of petrol
(m + 1)x 1.16 x 815 =42000 = 44 .42
Air fuel ratio = 44.42: 1
240 x 3600
Duration of flight = = 1502.6 seconds.
575
430
Fuel consumption per second = - 0.286 kg.
1502,6
Air consumption per second = 44.42 x 0.286 = 12.7 kg
575 x 1000
Let V, = Forward velocity of the machine = 3600 = 159.72 m/s
V = Velocity of jet relative to the machine

Propulsive force = nia(Vi — V„) + mf iti
2670 = 12.7(/1 — 159.72) + 0.286 x V1

V, = 361.8 m/s
x (0.3)2 x 361.8
Volume of the exhaust gases = — 1.97 in3/kg.
12.7 + 0.286
At an altitude of 610 m, the pressure is 0.944 bar.
0.944 x 100 x 1,97
Temperature of the exhaust gases = = 619.89 K
0
Propulsive efficiency,
2V, 2 x 159.72
= Vi 1/ = 361.8 + 159.72 = 0.6125 = 61.25%
2670 x 159.72
Overall thermal efficiency = — 0.0355 = 3.55%
0.286 x 42000 x 1000
12. In a jet-propulsion unit, air is compressed by means of an uncooled rotary compressor, the
pressure at delivery being 3.5 times that at entrance, and the temperature rise during com-
pression is 1,2 times that for frictionless adiabatic compression. The air is then led to a
combustion chamber where the fuel is burned under constant pressure conditions. The
products of combustion at 480°C pass through a turbine which drives the compressor. The
exhaust gases from the turbine are expanded in a nozzle down to atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure is 1.01325 bar and the temperature is 10°C.
Assuming that the values of R and y after combustion remain the same as for air, determine
(a) the power required to drive the compressor per kg of air per second.
(b) the air-fuel ratio if the calorific value of the fuel is 43000 kJ/kg.
(c) the thrust developed per kg of air per second.
The velocity of approach may be neglected, and the gases are expanded isentropically in both
the turbine and the nozzle. For air R = 0,287 kJ/kg K, y= 1.4.
Fig. 19.22
Solution: T,= 10°C= 10 + 273 = 283 K, T, = 480°C = 480 + 273 = 753 K r,= 3.5
h-l) 04
(re) = (3.5)" = 1.43
Temperature T2' at the end of isentropic compression is given by
(1-11
T,' = T,x (r p) Y = 283 x 1.43 = 404.69 K.

Let T2 be the actual temperature at the end of compression.
then T2 -T, = 1.2(7'2' - 7-1 ) = 1.2(404.69 - 283) = 146
T2 = 146 4- 283 = 429 K.

Work required to compress 1 kg of air
= C p(T, - T,)= 1.005(429 - 283) = 146.73 kJ
(a) Power required to drive the compressor per kg of air per second = 146.73 kW.
(b) Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of air from T2 to T3 =
1.005(753 -429) = 325.62 kJ
325.62
Mass of fuel required = 43000 =0.00757 kg.
Air 1
= 132.1:1
•• Fuel - 0.00757
(c) Temperature T4' at the end of isentropic expansion in the turbine is given by
T3 753
T,' = 143 = 526.57K.
(,.p)
Work per kg of air available in the turbine and the nozzle,
= 1.005(T, - T4') = 1.005(753 - 526.57) = 227.56 kJ.
Out of 227.56 kJ, 146.73 kJ are required to drive the compressor. Therefore, net heat avail-
able for developing K.E. = 227.56 - 146.73 = 80.83 kJ.
The exit velocity of the nozzle will be given by
V4 = 44.71‘lioTi= 402.05 m/s.
Thrust = Rate of change of momentum = 1 x 402.05 = 402.04 kg per kg of air per second.
13. A turbo prop aircraft is flying at 720 km/hr at an altitude where the temperature is -18°C.
Determine the specific power output and the thermal efficiency. The specifications are:
Compressor pressure ratio = 9
Maximum cycle temperature = 800°C
Intake duct efficiency = 0.9
Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 0.86
Isentropic efficiency of turbine = 0.9
Mechanical efficiency = 0.92
Neglect the pressure loss in the combustion chamber and assume that the exhaust gases leave
the aircraft at 720 km/hr. relative to aircraft. Take C,. and y for the compression process 1.005
kJ/kg K and 1.4 and for combustion and expansion process 1.15 kJ/kg K and 1.35 respec-
tively.
720 x 1000
Solution: 720 km/hr = 3600 - 200 m/s
Fig. 19.23
For the flow of 1 kg/s of air
K.E. of air at inlet = — x 1 x (200)2 = 20 kJ/kg.
2
„„ 20
... Ta --- 11 = u 0 5 — 19.9 K. .. Ta = 19.9+ (273 —18) = 274.9 K
Ta' —T, Ta' — 255

Intake duct efficiency = or 0.9 =
Ta —T, 274.9 — 255
Ta' = 272.9 K.
(r-l) 14
(272.9r
—_
(pa
= or — 1.268
Ti
,For compressor:
er- Il
T2 (P2) 04
T2'= 274.9 x(9)14 =515 K.
T=
T2' — Ta 515 —274.9

or 0.86 = T2 =554 K.
Tic = T2 — Ta T2 — 274.9
Work required by the compressor = 1.005(554 —274.9) = 280.59 kJ/kg.
PI P2 Pa
Now, —=—x—=9x1.268 =11.412.
P4 Pa Pi
(y-i) a.4
IA
1
T4' = T3(-P
-,) = = 535.17 K
1073 11.412
T3 — T4 1073 — T4
TIT = or, 0.9 = . T4 = 588.95 K
2 3— 2 4 1073 —535.17
Turbine work output = 1.15(1073 — 588,95) = 556.648 kJ/kg.
—280.59
. Network output = WT — Vic = 556.648 — 251.659 kJ/kg.
0.92
Specific power output = 251.659 kW/Icg/s
Heat supplied in combustion chamber = 1.15 (1073 — 554) = 596.85 kJ/kg.
251.659
Thermal efficiency - = 0.4216 = 42.16%.
596.85
EXERCISES

1. Describe with sketches the working of a simple constant pressure open cycle gas turbine.
What factors are responsible for the lower overall efficiency?
2. What methods are adopted for improving the thermal efficiency?
3. Obtain the expression of optimum pressure ratio for maximum cycle thermal efficiency.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed cycle over the open cycle?
5. What are the applications of gas turbine?
6. What are the advantages of gas turbine over steam turbine?
7. What are the advantages of gas turbine over I.C. engine?
8. Explain the working of turbojet.
9. Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine plant at 120 kN/m2 and 17°C, leaves the com-
pressor at 650 kN/m2 and 250°C. The maximum temperature raised in the combustion
chamber is 667°C. At this temperature the gases enter the turbine and leays at 350°C.
Neglecting loss of pressure in the combustion chamber and mass of fuel added determine
(a) thermal efficiency of the plant, (b) power developed for an air flow of 900 kg/min.
(c) work ratio, and (d) the isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine.
Take C, = 1.005 kJ/kg K and y= 1.4 for air.
10. In a gas turbine plant, air is compressed from 100 kN/m2 and 17°C through a pressure
ratio of 5 : 1. It is then heated to 660°C in the combustion chamber and expanded to a
pressure of 100 kN/m2 in a turbine. Determine the cycle efficiency and work ratio if a
perfect heat exchanger is used. Take nr = 85% and 11, = 80%.
11. A gas turbine plant works between the temperature limits of 750°C and 17°C. The isen-
tropic efficiencies for turbine and compressor are 82% and 88% respectively. Calculate
the optimum ratio for maximum work output and the maximum thermal efficiency.
12. A gas turbine plant receives air at 1000 kN/m2 and 300 K. The air is then compressed to
450 kN/m2 and heated to 650°C. The efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 85% and
90% respectively. Neglecting pressure drop determine (a) the overall efficiency of the
plant without heat exchanger, and (b) the overall efficiency of the plant with heat
exchanger of 75% effectiveness. Take y= 1.4 and C,, = 1.005 kJ/kg K for air.
13. The pressure ratio of an open cycle constant pressure gas turbine plant is 5. The temper-
ature range of the plant is 300 K and 1050 K. The data given is.
= 80%, TIT = 85%, Tlcom = 95%, C.V. of fuel = 42000 kJ/kg,
= 1 kJ/kg K, Cpg = 1.15 kJ/kg K and y= 1.4 for air and gases.
Determine (a) thermal efficiency of the plant, (b) power developed for an air flow
300 kg/min, (c) A : F ratio, and (d) specific fuel consumption.
Neglect losses in the system.
14. A single stage gas turbine plant with regenerator receives air at 100 kN/m2 and 300 K.
The pressure ratio of the cycle is 6. The maximum temperature reached is 600°C. Pres-
sure loss in the combustion chamber is 0.08 bar. Take IT = 82%, lc = 86%, Power out-
put = 2200 kW, Cp = 1.1 kJ/kg K and y= 1.4 for air. Determine the air flow rate through
the system.
TWENTY
Refrigeration
20.1 INTRODUCTION
With the progress of civilization there has been an increased demand for the
production of an artificial cold atmosphere for the manufacture and preservation
of medicines and chemicals, preservation of food stuffs and for carrying out
various chemical reactions and scientific research. The cold atmosphere may be
produced and maintained by continuous carrying away of heat by mechanical
means. As heat cannot flow by itself from a lower temperature to a higher tem-
perature, it has to be transferred by the expenditure of mechanical work. The
medium which is used for the transference of heat is either gas or vapour and
the machines which are used for this purpose are known as Refrigerating
machines.
20.2 REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration may be defined as the withdrawal of heat form a space maintained
at a temperature lower than that. of its surrounding. A refrigerator is a machine
for producing a low temperature atmosphere.
20.3 UNIT OF REFRIGERATION, REFRIGERATING

EFFECT AND COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
The capacity of a refrigeration unit is generally expressed as tonnes of refriger-
ation. A tonne of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat to be removed
in order to form one ton of ice in 24 hr and is equivalent to 210 kJ/min.
The amount of heat extracted in a given time is known as refrigerating
effect.
The performance of a refrigeration system is measured by a factor known as
coefficient of performance (C.O.P.). The C.O.P of a refrigeration system is the
ratio of refrigerating effect and work required to produce the effect.
Refrigerating effect N
Coefficient of performance (C.O.P.) = (20.1)
Work required
Refrigeration 585
20.4 CARNOT CYCLE FOR REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
The reversed carnot cycle is used for producing refrigeration. It is shown in

Fig. 20.1.
Isentropic I
Isothermal
Temperature
4 Isothermal
2 > 3
Isentropic
Volume
Fig. 20.1 (a) & (b)
The sequence of operations is given below:

(a) The air is expanded isentropically from points 1 to 2. This causes the
temperature to fall from T, to T2.
(b) The air is now expanded isothermally to point 3 at temperature T2 .
During this process, heat is absorbed from the cold body.
(c)The air is now compressed isentropically to point 4 by the help of
external power which causes the temperature to rise to T,. During this,
process no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
(d) The air is now compressed isothermally from 4 to 1. During this pro-
cess heat is rejected by the air to the hot body.
From T—Odiagram.
Heat rejected to hot body = 7.1(04 — 01 )
Heat abstracted from cold body = T2(4 3 — (02) = T2(41)4 — 4 )
r: 03 = 04 and 4)2=4)11
Work required per cycle = Heat rejected — Heat abstracted
= Ti(4)4 4)1) T2(4)4 4)1) = (Ti — T2) (4)4 01)

Refrigerating effect TA — 4)i)
Coefficient of performance =
Work required (T, — T2) (4 — 4)i)
T2
(20.2)
T1 — T2
The carnot cycle cannot be used for refrigeration purpose because an isentropic
process requires high speed whilst the isothermal process requires extremely
low speed. This variation in flow speed of air and hence piston speed is not
practicable.
20.5 AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM AND

BELL-COLEMAN CYCLE
In the air refrigeration system, air is used as the refrigerant to remove the heat
from a refrigerated place and discharge the same to the atmosphere. Air refrig-
eration system is shown in Figs 20.2 (a) and (b).
Air
compressor
Iv
Al 2
Isentropic
2
Cold Out I
chamber 1 > Cooling
I (1)
In water
..(_
(Li
3
A4
4t
Air Volume
motor
(a) (b)
Fig. 20.2 Open air refrigeration system (Bell-Coleman cycle) (a) flow diagram, and
(b) P-V diagram
In this system, the compressor draws air from the cold chamber, compresses
it and then delivers it to the air cooler. The high pressure cooled air is then
expanded in the expansion cylinder (air motor). The low temperature air leaving
the expansion cylinder then enters the cold chamber and abstracts heat, from the
refrigdrated place. The air coming out from the cold chamber again enters into
the compressor and the cycle is repeated.
Figure 20.2(b) shows the P-V diagram of Bell-Coleman cycle. The process
a-1 represents the suction of air into the compressor. The process 1-2 repre-
sents isentropic compression of air by the compressor. The process 2-b repre-
sents the discharge of high pressure air from the compressor into the air cooler.
Due to the cooling of air in the air cooler the reduction in volume is from 2 to 3.
The process 3-4 represents the isentropic expansion of air in the expansion cyl-
inder. The air enters the cold chamber at condition 4. The process 4-1
Refrigeration 587
represents the absorption of heat at constant pressure.

Let T,, T2, T3 and T4 be the absolute temperatures at points 1, 2, 3 and 4 respec-
tively.
Heat absorbed or abstracted from cold chamber per kg of air,
N = Cp(Ti — T4)
Heat rejected to the cooler per kg of air = Cp(T2 — T3)
Work required, W = heat rejected — heat absorbed = Cp(T2 — T3) — Cp(Ti — T4)
Therefore the C.O.P of the system is given by
Cp(Ti — T4) T1 —T4

C .0 .P — (20.3)
W Cp(T2 — T3) — Cp(Ti — T4) (T2 — 7'3) — (7.1 — T4)
Applying the isentropic law of compression to points 1 and 2, and isentropic

expansion to points 3 and 4
(y-1) (y- I)
T2 P2 1 3 P2 T2 T3 T3
= - = - = - ••. T2 = T1 X
Pi T T4
PI T4 T4
Substituting the value of T2 in Eq. (20.3)

T1 — T4 T, - T4 1 T4
C.O.P = T, • - T3 T T4 (20.4)
( T3 3
Ti X F - T3) - (Ti - T4) (T I — T4) T4) -T4 -1
4
The above equation of C.O.P is valid under the following conditions:
(a) The compression and expansion follow the isentropic law.
(b) There is no pressure loss in the system.
But in actual practice the compression and expansion takes place polytropically
and also there is a pressure loss in the air cooler and refrigerator.
20.6 ADVANTAGES OF AIR REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
(a) The refrigerant used air is non-poisonous, cheap and easily available.
There is no danger of any kind due to its leakage.
(b) The system is highly reliable.
(c) The system is extremely useful for aircraft refrigeration system due to
its light weight and less space requirements in comparison to other
systems.
20.7 DISADVANTAGES OF AIR REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
(a) Very low C.O.P in comparison to other refrigeration systems. There-
fore the running cost of the system is high.
(b) Large volume of air is required to be handled per ton of refrigeration as

compared to other refrigeration systems. This results in larger size of
the compressor and expander.
(c) There is a danger of frosting at the expander valve as air contains water
vapour. This difficulty can be removed by using closed system instead
of open system. It can also be reduced partly by passing air through
silica gel which is water vapour absorber.
20.8 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM Compressor
Evaporator
The modern refrigerating plants
work on vapour compression sys-
tem. The refrigerant used in this
system alternately undergoes a
change of phase from vapour to Out
Cooling
liquid and liquid to vapour during water
the working of the cycle. In evap- In
orating it absorbs heat form the Throttle
cold body which is used as source valve
of latent heat and gets converted
from liquid to vapour. While con-
densing it gives out its latent heat
to the circulating water of the
cooler. The vapour compression Fig. 20.3 Flow diagram for vapour com-
refrigerator is therefore a latent pression refrigeration system
heat pump, as it pumps its latent
heat from the cold body and delivers it to the cooler. The refrigerants usually
used in this system are ammonia, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
Figure 20.3 shows the flow diagram for vapour compression refrigeration
system.
The basic components of vapour compression refrigeration system are com-
pressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator.
Compressor
The compressor used may be either reciprocating, rotary or centrifugal type. Its
function is to draw the vapour through the suction valve from the evaporator at
low pressure and low temperature at point 1. The vapour is compressed isen-
tropically to point 2. During compression, the pressure and temperature
increases and the vapour is discharged through the delivery valve and enters the
condenser at point 2.
Condenser
In the condenser, heat is transferred to the cooling fluid which is generally water
Refrigeration 589
or air. The compressed vapour is cooled and condenses at saturation tempera-

ture which corresponds to the pressure in the condenser. The high pressure sat-
urated liquid leaves the condenser and enters the throttle valve at point 3.
Expansion Valve or Throttle Valve
The function of the throttle valve is to allow the liquid refrigerant under high
pressure to pass at a controlled rate into the low pressure part of the system
known as evaporator. The expansion in the throttle valve takes place from point
3 to 4.
Evaporator
An evaporator consists of pipes in which the liquid evaporates at the lower
temperature and takes up heat from cold brine which produces the refrigerating
effect. The liquid (vapour) will thus leave the brine tank (evaporator) as a fairly
dry vapour and enters the compressor at point 1. This completes the cycle.
20.9 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
CYCLE ON T - (I) DIAGRAM
The following assumptions are made for drawing the T — (13, diagram.
(a) The condition of the vapour leaving the evaporator and entering the
compressor is dry saturated.
(b) The compression of vapour in the compressor is isentropic.
(c) There is no pressure loss in the system.
(d) There is no undercooling of the refrigerant in the condenser.
(e) The work required to drive the system is equal to the difference
between the heat rejected in the condenser and heat absorbed in the
evaporator.
Case—A When the vapour is dry
and saturated at the end of
compression Fig. 20.4 shows
the cycle of operation.
At point 1 the wet vapour is
admitted into the compressor Refrige-
rating
from the evaporator at low tem- effect
(N)
perature T2 and is compressed
isentropically to point 2. The d e
condition of the vapour coming
out of the compressor is dry sat-
urated. It is then condensed in
the condenser from 2 to 3 at Fig. 20.4 Vapour compression refrigeration
constant pressure and tempera- cycle on T -4) diagram when the
ture. During this process the vapour is dry saturated at the
state of the refrigerant changes end of compression
from vapour to liquid. The liquid then enters the expansion valve. The line 3-4
represents the throttling expansion through the expansion valve. At point 4, the
mixture of liquid and vapour enters the evaporator and absorbs its latent heat of
evaporation from the space which is to be cooled. The condition of the refriger-
ant after leaving the evaporator is represented by point 1.
Work done on the compressor, W = Area 1-2-3—a = 112—H, per kg of refriger-
ant.
Refrigerating effect,
N= Area 1 — 4— e — f = H, — H4 = H,— H3 per kg of refrigerant. [..' H3 = H4 ]
N 111 — H3
Theoretical C.O.P — = (20.5)
W H2 — H1
Case—B When the vapour is superheated at the end of compression.

2
Tsup
T
..i>
`V
....,
I ''''..%.o
=I-, b 5
',1 I Refrige-
rating 0
a. I effect
EI
g I (N)
d c, e
Fig. 20.5 Vapour compression refrigeration cycle on T —1) diagram when the
vapour is superheated at the end of compression
Work done on the compressor, W. Area 1-2-3-4—a = H2—H, per kg of refrig-

erant.
Refrigerating effect, N = Area 1 — 5 — e — f = H, — H5 = H, — H, per kg of refrigerant.
NHt — H4
Theoretical C.O.P — = (20.6)
W H2—H1
Case—C When the vapour is wet at the end of compression.

Work done on the compressor, W = Area 1-2-3—a = H2—H, per kg of refriger-
ant.
Refrigerating effect, N = Hi — H4 = — H, per kg of refrigerant.
Refrigeration 591
N H1 — H3
Theoretical C.O.P = — (20.7)
W H2 — Hi
Fig. 20.6 Vapour compression refrigeration cycle on T -0 diagram when the

vapour is wet at the end of compression
20.10 UNDERCOOLING OR SUBCOOLING

The refrigerant is said to be
under- coc'ed or subcooled
when the liquid is cooled below
the saturation temperature T,
corresponding to pressure P,
6 b- before throttling. Undercooling
Refrige-
rating
of the liquid is normally along
effect the liquid line which is repre-
(N) sented by line 4-5 in Fig. 20.7.
d C
The refrigerant after being
condensed in the condenser is
passed through a precooler
where water having tempera-
ture lower than that used in the
Fig. 20.7 T -4) diagram of vapour condenser is circulated to
compression cycle showing undercool the refrigerant. The
undercooling of liquid and refrigerant comes out of the
superheating of vapour at precooler at condition 5 as
the end of compression shown in Fig. 20.7.
The coefficient of performance is given by
H1 — H6 H, — H5
C.O.P. = (20.8)
H2 — Hi H2 HI
The increase in refrigerating effect is represented by the area b-6—c—e

(Fig. 20.7).
Effect of Undercooling
The effects of undercooling are as follows:
(a) It increases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant circulated
thereby increases the coefficient of performance.
(b) The mass flow per trine of refrigeration is less than that for the simple
saturated cycle.
(c) The reduced mass flow reduces the piston displacement per minute.
(d) Power per tonne of refrigeration is less due to reduced mass flow per
tonne of refrigeration.
(e) The increased efficiency may be offset to some extent by the rise in
condenser temperature.
20.11 ANALYSIS OF THE REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
The analysis of the refrigeration system is possible if the following factors are
known:
(a) The refrigeration load on the refrigerator in tons of refrigeration.
(b) The temperature of the refrigerant entering the condenser.
(c) The temperature of the refrigerant entering the evaporator.
(i) The quantity of refrigerant (m,) circulated in the refrigeration plant is
given by
210 T
kg/min.
m,' = H,— H4
where T = Load in tons of refrigeration on the refrigerator.
(ii) Power required to drive the compressor is given by
m,(1/2 — HO
Power = kW.
60
(iii) Quantity of cooling water circulated in the condenser per minute is given
by
111,.Cpc(t2 — t1)=111,(112— H3)
where m, = mass of cooling water circulated per min.
Cc = specific heat of cooling water
t2 = outlet temperature of cooling water.
tl = inlet temperature of cooling water.
(k) Dimensions of the single acting compressor are given by
n
(—4 D2L ti,N = /flys,
i
Refrigeration 593
where D = Diameter of cylinder, L = Stroke of piston, N = r.p.m. of com-

pressor, = Specific volume of refrigerant at point 1, and rk, = Volumet-
ric efficiency of the compressor.
20.12 ADVANTAGES OF VAPOUR COMPRESSION

SYSTEM
The following are the advantages of vapour compression system:
(a) The coefficient of performance is better because the cycle using a
vapour as refrigerant absorbs and rejects heat at constant temperature
like the reversed Carnot cycle.
(b) The temperature at which the heat is to be absorbed can be changed
conveniently by altering the boiling pressure.
(c) The pressure to which the refrigerant is to be compressed is determined
by the cooling water temperature and not by the level of refrigeration
as in the air refrigerating cycle.
(d) The same refrigerant can be used over and over again.
(e) The heat transfer coefficient is high because of the presence of liquid
refrigerant in the condenser as well as in the evaporator.
(f) The expander is eliminated.
20.13 VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
In the vapour compression refrigeration system the compressor handles large
volume of vapour which in turn requires large power for its operation. This is a
drawback of it. In vapour absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an
absorber, a pump and a generator. The" flow diagram of simple absorption sys-
tem is shown in Fig. 20.8.
The vapour at low pressure leaving the evaporator passes to the absorber
where it is dissolved in the weak ammonia solution contained in the absorber.
The absorber is cooled by circulating cold water. The strong ammonia solution
formed in the absorber is then pumped to the generator and circulated through
the system by the pump. The pump increases the pressure of the solution to that
desired in the condenser (about 10 bar). The strong ammonia solution is heated'
in the generator by the steam or heating coil and the ammonia vapour is driven
out of the solution and a satisfactory condenser pressure is produced. The
ammonia vapour then passes to the condenser to be condensed. The high pres-
sure liquid ammonia then passes through the expansion valve or throttle valve.
The high pressure liquid is converted into a very wet vapour at low pressure
(3 bar) and temperature —10°C during this process. The cold and wet ammonia
vapour then passes through the evaporating coils in the evaporator, where it
extracts the latent heat of evaporation from the brine or substance to be cooled.
Vapour
Generator 3".
I-
Weak Cooling
_solution
7 1 water
Heating I
U
coil y Liquid
1><1
Liq uid L.P.side I Pressure
pump I reducing Throttle
I valve valve
Strong A
solution Absorber
0
Ct. Brine
—
(al
A Vapour
Cooling
water
Fig. 20.8 Flow diagram of simple vapour absorption refrigerator
The ammonia vapour coming out from the evaporator is fairly dry and enters the
absorber where it mixes with the cold water contained in the absorber. This
completes the cycle.
The hot weak ammonia solution left at the bottom of the generator is first
throttled to low pressure by passing it through a pressure reducing valve and
then passed into the absorber.
In actual practice, the vapour absorption system is fitted with a heat
exchanger, an analyser and a rectifier a:, shown in Fig. 20.9 to improve the effi-
ciency of the plant.
Heat Exchanger
The capacity of water at high temperature for absorbing ammonia vapour is low.
So the hot weak solution coming from the generator to the absorber must be
cooled. The heat removed from the weak solution may be used to raise the tem-
perature of the strong solution coming form the absorber and going to the gen-
erator. The heat transfer is accomplished by placing a counter flow heat
exchanger between the pump and the generator. It increases the economy of the
plant.
Refrigeration 595
Cooling water
VA
Vapour ,AA016
Analyser Rectifier
A
Drip
4 Heating a)
Cooling
coils "0 water
0
Weak solution Liquid U
reservoir Liquid
Strong solution
Liquid
pump
Weak H.P.side Liquid
Heat
T solution reservoir
exchanger
Evaporator
A L.P.side Throttle
Pressure valve
reducing
valve Ivor Vapour
V N Absorber t
Cooling Brine
coils
Fig. 20.9 Flow diagram of actual vapour compression refrigerator
Analyser
The ammonia vapour contains water vapour while leaving the generator. The
water vapour is to be removed before the ammonia vapour enters the condenser
otherwise it will freeze at the throttle valve. The water vapour is partly removed
by passing the ammonia vapour through an analyser containing a series of trays.
Rectifier
The rectifier removes the remaining water vapour from the ammonia vapour
coming out from the analyser by providing water cooling. The condensed liquid
is returned to the upper part of the analyser by a drip return pipe. Rectifier is
fitted before the condenser.
20.14 ELECTROLUX REFRIGERATOR

The components of ammonia hydrogen (electrolux) refrigerator is shown in
Fig. 20.10.
The system consists of an absorber containing strong ammonia solution dis-
solved in water. The circulation of the system starts when the ammonia solution
in the heater begins to warm up. The strong ammonia solution now flows
through the heat exchanger. It then passes to the heater where heat is supplied
by a gas burner. This causes ammonia vapour to be driven out of the solution.
The ammonia vapour then passes to the condenser via the rectifier. The rectifier
prevents the water particles from entering the evaporator. The hot weak solution
left in the heater drains back into the absorber. The hot weak solution is cooled
in the heat exchanger and accelerates the absorption of ammonia. The con-
densed liquid ammonia in the condenser then flows by gravity into the evapora-
tor. Liquid ammonia meets with an atmosphere of hydrogen in the evaporator.
The total pressure in the low pressure side of the system remains constant. The
liquid ammonia evaporates in the evaporator at its partial pressure. The latent
heat of evaporation thus absorbed produces intense cold around the evaporator
which is situated in the food cabinet and cools the food stored in the cabinet.
The mixture of ammonia and hydrogen flows by gravity to the absorber where
ammonia is absorbed in water. This completes the cycle.
Condenser
NH 3 vapour Liquid NH 3
Evaporator
Hydrogen\
Weak NH3 _
solution r Absorber
1/N - -- -
Mixture of NH 3
and H 2
Gas Strong
burner
4E--/
NH 3 solution
Heat
exchanger
Fig. 20.10 Flow diagram of an electrolux refrigerator
Heat absorbed by the evaporator

The C.O.P of the refrigerator =
Heat supplied by the gas burner
20.15 ADVANTAGES OF ABSORPTION

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM OVER
VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM
(a) As there is no moving part in the system the operation is quiet and
there is very little wearing.
Refrigeration 597
(b) The maintenance cost is low.

(c) The system does not depend upon electric power. Exhaust steam from
other equipments may be economically used.
(d) It can be built in capacities well above 1000 tons each.
(e) At reduced loads the absorption system is almost as efficient as at full
load. The C.O.P. of the compressor system decreases as the load
decreases.
(f) Absorption refrigeration system can operate at reduced evaporator
temperature by increasing the steam which is supplied to the generator
with little decrease in capacity. The capacity of the compression sys-
tem drops rapidly with lower evaporator temperature.
20.16 PROPERTIES OF IDEAL REFRIGERANT

(a) The condensing pressure of the refrigerant with ordinary cooling
medium (i.e., air or water) should not be excessive because that would
require extra heavy construction.
(b) The refrigerant should have low boiling point at atmospheric pressure
otherwise the suction pressure of the compressor will be below atmo-
spheric pressure to produce refrigeration at low temperature with the
consequent operational trouble due to leakage of air and moisture in
the condensing unit.
(c) Refrigerant should have high latent heat because higher the latent heat,
smaller the weight of the refrigerant to be circulated per minute per ton
of refrigeration.
(d) The liquid refrigerant should have low specific heat because higher the
specific heat, greater the amount of vapourization in passing through
the expansion valve.
(e) Chemical stability of the refrigerant is essential.
(0 The refrigerant should not react with the lubricating oil and decrease
the efficiency of lubrication.
(g) The heat transfer coefficient and viscosity coefficient should be satis-
factory.
(h) Refrigerant should not have any reaction with moisture.
(i) Refrigerant should be odourless.
( j) The refrigerant should be non-toxic to lungs, eyes etc.
(k) The refrigerant should be non-inflammable and non-explosive.
(1) Refrigerant should be cheap and easily available.
(m) It should give high C.O.P in the working temperature range.
(n) It should not have any bad effect on the stored material or food when
any leak develops in the system.
20.17 IMPORTANT REFRIGERANTS
Ammonia
It is the most widely used refrigerant. It is used in large ice making and cold
storage plants. It boils at —33°C at atmospheric pressure and is not very expen-
sive. It has high latent heat and high critical temperature. It requires low volume
of gas to be circulated per ton of refrigeration. Ammonia is non-corrosive to all
metals though it attacks copper and brass in the presence of moisture. It is toxic,
inflammable and has an irritating odour.
Dichlorodifluoromethane or Freon-12
It is a widely used refrigerant for many refrigeration applications. It boils at
—29.8°C at atmospheric pressure. Its critical temperature is 111.7°C. It is non-
toxic, non-inflammable and non-explosive. This refrigerant is odourless and
colourless and is fully miscible in oil. Freon-12 is costlier than other
refrigerants.
Because of high molecular weight of Freon-12, larger amount of refrigerant
should be circulated for a given output than in ammonia plants. It is non-
corrosive to any metal commonly used.
Difluoromonochloromethane or Freon-22
It is a widely used refrigerant and is superior to Freon-12. The amount of
refrigerant required is 1.31 kg/min per ton of refrigeration. The specific volume
of saturated vapour at —15°C is .15 m3/kg. The latent heat at —15°C is low. It is
fully miscible in oil at condenser temperature. The compressor displacement per
ton of refrigeration with Freon-22 is 60% less than the compressor displace-
ment with Freon-12 as refrigerant. It has high discharge temperature and
requires water cooling of the compressor head and the cylinder.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
It is one of the most commonly used refrigerant in house hold refrigerators

because of very low working pressure. At atmospheric pressure its boiling point
is —10°C. It has large latent heat and high critical temperature. It is non-
flammable and non-explosive. It is highly toxic. It has a very pungent and suf-
focating odour. Leaks can be easily detected on account of its pungent odour. It
is very corrosive when in contact with moisture. It is fully miscible with oil but
the difference in density between oil and SO, is so large that oil may easily sep-
erate before SO, vapour enters the condenser.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. An ammonia refrigerator is to produce 2 tonnes of ice per day at —4°C from water at 20°C.
Refrigeration 599
If the temperature range in the compressor is between 25°C and —6°C, determine the power
required to drive the compressor. Latent heat of ice = 335 kJ/kg and specific heat of ice =
2.1 kJ/kg K.
Solution: Quantity of ice produced per sec = 2000 1kg

24 x 3600 43.2
Higher temperature, T, = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Lower temperature, T2 = —6+273 = 267 K

Heat to be extracted form 1 kg of water at 20°C to produce 1 kg of ice at —4°C
= 4.187(20 — 0) + 335 +2.1{0 — (-4)} = 427.14 kJ/kg.
Total heat extracted to produ kg of ice per second

ceLiT.2
= 1 x 427.14 = 9.8875 kJ/s

43.2
N
Again C.P.O = —
N 9.8875
— 1.148 kJ/s
C.O.P 8.612
T2 267
Now C.O.P = - — 8.612
T, —T2 298 267
Power required to drive the compressor = 1.148 kW.
2. 12 tonnes of fish are stored in a cold storage plant. The fish is supplied at a temperature of
27°C. The fish is stored in cold storage which is maintained at —9°C. The freezing point of
fish is —4°C. Specific heat of fish above freezing point is 2.93 kJ/kg K and that below freezing
point is 1.256 kJ/kg K. Latent heat of fish is 235 kJ/kg. The power required to drive the plant
is 100 kW. Determine (a) the time required to achieve cooling, (b) the capacity of the plant.
Assume the actual C.O.P. of the plant as 0.5 of the Carnot C.O.P.
Solution: (a) The heat to be extracted from 1 kg of fish
= 2.93[27 — (-4)] + 235 + 1.256[-4 — (-9)] = 322.11 kJ/kg
Total amount of heat removed form 12 tonnes of fish = 12 x 1000 x 322.11 = 3985320 kJ
T2 (273 — 9)
Theoretical C.O.P = = 7.3333
T, — T2 (273 + 27)— (273 — 9)
Actual C.O.P. = 0.5 x 7.3333 = 3.6666

Work done per second, W= 100 kW = 100 kJ/s.
N
Now actual C.O.P = —
N = 3.6666 x 100 = 366.66 kJ/s.

3985320'
.•. The time required to achieve cooling = 366.66 = 10869.252 sec
= 3 hrs. and 1.15rnim

(b) One tonne of refrigeration = 210 kJ/min.
366.66 x 60
Capacity of the plant = = 104.76 tonnes of refrigeration.
210
3. A refrigeration system has working temperature of —27°C and 37°C. What is the maximum
C.O.P. possible? Determine the actual refrigerating effect produced per kW hour if the actual
C.O.P is 70% of the maximum.
Solution: Higher temperature, T, = 37 + 273 = 310 K
Lower temperature, T2 = —27 + 273 = 246 K

T2 246
Maximum C.O.P = - = 3.843
T, — T2 310 — 246
Actual C.O.P = 0.70 x 3.843 = 2.69

Actual refrigerating effect = W„, x C.O.P.„, = 60 x 2.69
161.4
= 161.4 kJ/min = — 0.768 tonne of refrigeration.
10
3 2
4. A refrigerator using atmospheric air and
working on reversed joule cycle, works
between pressures of 1.01325 bar and 8.106
bar. The temperature of air entering the com-
pressor is 10°C and after compression the air
is cooled to 27°C before entering the
expansion cylinder. Both expansion and
tz,
compression are according to the law
PV' 3 = constant. Determine the theoretical
C.O.P of the machine. Take C, = 1.005 and
Cr, = 0.718.
Solution: Temperature of air entering the
compressor. Volume
T, = 10°C = 10 + 273 = 283 K
Fig. 20.11
Temperature of air entering the expapsion cylinder

T,= 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Cp 1.005
1= = —1.4, R = C,— Cv = 1.005 — 0.718 = 0.287
Cv 0.718
- 13-1
T2 PI ( 8.106
Using the relation, = 1.616
( - 1.01325)
T2 =283 x1.616 =457.29 K.
v.- I)
T3 300
Similarly = 1.616 185.66 K
14 1.616
Work done on the air in the compressor per kg of air
.3
= n 1 R(T,--- = 1.3 1 x 0.287(457.29 — 283) = 216.758 kJ
n
Work done by the air in the expansion cylinder per kg of air
.3
R(T3— T4) = x 0.287(300 — 185.66) = 142.2 kJ.
n—1 1.3 — 1
Network done on the air = W = 216.758-142.2 = 74.558 kJ
Refrigeration 601
Heat abstracted, N = Cp(T,-71,)= 1.005(283 — 185.66) = 97.8267 kJ.

N 97.8267
C.O.P = = = 1.312.
W 74.558
5. A dense air machine operates on a reversed joule cycle and is required fora capacity of 12
tonnes. The cooler pressure is 4.2 bar and the refrigerator pressure is 1.4 bar. The air is cooled
in the cooler to a temperature 47°C and the temperature of air at inlet to compressor is —17°C.
Determine for the ideal cycle (a) C.O.P (b) mass of air circulated per min (c) theoretical pis-
ton displacement of compressor (d) theoretical piston displacement of expander, and (e) net
power per tonne of refrigeration.
Solution: 7'3 = 47°C = 47 + 273 = 320 K,
T,= —17 +273 =256K
Volume
Fig. 20.12
(r- )
= (P2) (4.2 )""I
Using the relation, = 1.3687
T, 13; = 0.4)
T2 = 256 x 1.3687 = 350.39 K

(1-1)
7'3 320
Similarly, = (P2) I= 1.3687 .'. = 233.8 K
T4 — 1.3687
233.8
(a) C.O.P = T4 2.712
T3 — T4 — 320 — 233.8 —
(b) Let ma = Mass of air circulated per min.
Heat abstracted per kg of air = CAT,— T4) = 1.005(256 — 233.8) = 22.311 kJ
Capacity of refrigerator = 12 tonnes.
Total heat abstracted per min. = 12 x 210 = 2520 kJ/min
Total heat abstracted per min. 2520
.*. ma — — 112.948 kg/min.
Heat abstracted per kg 22.311
(c) Let V, = Theoretical piston displacement of compressor
maRaT I 112.948 x 0.287 x 103 x 256
Then V, = = 59.275 m3
1.4 x 105
(d) Let V, = Theoretical piston displacement of expander

4 T4 T4 233.8
Now, V or V, = V, x = 59.275 x 256
V4 = 54.134 m3
ma
(e) Network done per second = 6 x Cp[(T2 — T3) — (T, — T4)]
0
112.948
= x 1.005[(350.39 — 320)— (256 — 233.8)] = 15.494 kits = 15.494 kW.
60
15.494
Net power per tonne of refrigeration = — 1.291 kW.
12
6. Determine the theoretical coefficient of performance for CO2 machine working between
pressure limits of 65 bar and 30.2 bar. The CO2 during the suction stroke has a dryness frac-
tion of 0.6. How many tonnes of ice would a machine, working between the same limits and
having a relative coefficient of performance of 40% make in 24 hours? The water for the ice
is supplied at 15°C and the compressor takes 6.8 kg of CO2 per minute. Latent heat of ice is
335 kJ/kg.
Temp. Pressure Liquid heat Latent heat Entropy of liquid
°C bar kJ/kg kJ/kg
25 65 81.22 121,41T 0.2512
—5 30.2 —7.536 245.346 —0.041868
Liquid
line
Saturation
Ti line
Fig. 20.13
Solution: Considering isentropic compression 1-2

Entropy before compression, (I), = Entropy after compression 02
,L, x2L2
OL,+ x = 01,2 +—
T, T2
0.6 x 245.346 x2 x 121.417
-0.041868+ —0.2512+
(-5 + 273) (25 + 273)
Refrigeration 603
x, = 0.628
Enthalpy at point 1, H, = h,+x,L,= -7.536 + 0.6 x 245.346 = 139.6716 kJ/kg
Enthalpy at point 2, H2 = h2+x2L2 = 81.22 + 0.628 x 121.417 = 157.47 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy at point 3, H3 = F14 = 81.22 kJ/kg.

Refrigerating effect, N = H,-114 = 139.6716 - 81.22 = 58.4516 kJ/kg.
Work spent, W =1-12 -H1 = 157.47 - 139.6716 = 17.7984 kJ/K
N 58.4516
Theoretical C.O.P = = = 3.284
W 17.7984
Actual C.O.P. = 3.284 x 0.4 = 1.3136
Again
Actual refrigeration effect
Actual C.O.P. =
Actual work done
Actual refrigerating effect = (H2 - x Actual C.O.P
= (157.47 - 139.6716) x 1.3136 = 23.78 kJ/kg

Total amount of heat extracted per minute = 6.8 x 23.78 = 161.7 kJ
Heat to be abstracted per kg of ice produced = 4.187 x 15 + 335 = 397.805 kJ
161.7
Amount of ice formed per minute = = 0.4064 kg
397.805
Amount of ice formed in 24 hrs = 0.4064 x 60 x 24 = 585.33 kg
= 0.58533 tonnes.
7. A refrigerator works between -7°C and 27°C. The vapour is dry at the end of adiabatic
compression. There is no undercooling and evaporation is by throttle valve. Determine (a) the
C.O.P, and (b) power of the compressor to remove 12140 kJ/hr.
The properties of the refrigerant are as under:
Temp Sensible heat, Latent heat, Entropy of liquid, Entropy of vapour,
°C kJ/kg h kJ/kg L (N. Ov
-7 -29.3 1297.9 -0.109 4.748
27 117.23 1172.3 0.427 4.333
Solution: Cons'dering isentropic compression 1-2.
Entropy before compression, Ili, = Entropy after compression (I),
+x,(OV, -0L,) = 4W2 -0.109 + xi (4.748 + 0.109) = 4.333
x1 =0,914
Enthalpy at point 1, H, = h, +x,L, = -29.3 + 0.914 x 1297.9 = 1156,98 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy at point 2, H2 =112+ L2 = 117.23 + 1172.3 = 1289.53 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy at point 3, H3 = 114 = 117.23 kJ/kg.

Refrigerating effect, N = H,- H4 = 1156.98 - 117.23 = 1039.75 kJ/kg.
Work spent, W = H2 111 = 1289.53 -1156.98 = 132.55 kJ/kg.

N 1039:75
C.O.P. = = = 7.84
W 132.55
Fig. 20.14
Heat required to be removed/hour = 12140 kJ
12140
Mass of refrigerant circulated/hour = kg
1039.75
12140
Total %Kirk done by the compressor per hour = 132.55 x = 1547.638 kJ
,039.75
1547.638
Power of the compressor = 3600 = 0.43 kW.
8. A refrigerating system operates
with a condensing and evaporating
temperatures of 30°C and —5°C
respectively. The liquid temperature
at the throttle valve entrance is 25°C
and the vapour is 0.97 dry before
leaving the evaporating coil. Deter-
mine (a) the condition of the refrig-
erant entering the evaporator, (b) the
theoretical C.O.P., and (c) mass of
cooling water used per kg of refrig-
prar,t for the condenser, if the tem-
perature rise is to be restricted to
20°C.
The properties of the refrigerant
are:
Fig. 20.15
Temperature °C Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy Specific heat

Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
—5 158.261 1431.885 0.63 5.4072 —
30 323.22 1465.38 1.2037 4.9839 5.024 3.35
Refrigeration 605

Entropy before compression, 4), = Entropy after compression, 4)2
Ts„,
(1)L1 + x,(4)V,— 4)L,)= 4)V2 + C,, loge
7,,
TsuP
0.63 + 0.97(5.4072 — 0.63) = 4.9839 + 3.35 log
e (30 + 273)
T,,,p= 303 x 1.087 = 329.4 K = 56.4°C.
(a) Condition of the refrigerant entering the evaporator
Enthalpy of steam before throttling, H5 = Enthalpy after throttling, H6
Enthalpy at point 5, 115 = H,— Cp,(T,— T3) = 323.22-5.024(303 —298) = 298.1 kJ/kg
Enthalpy at point 6, H6 = h6 X6L6 = 158.261 +x6(1431.885 — 158.261) = 158.261 +x6 x 1273.624
.% H5 = H6
298.1 = 158.261 + x6 x 1273.624 x6 = 0.10979
(b) Enthalpy at point 1, H1 = h1 + x,L, = 158.261 + 0.97(1431.885 — 158.26)
= 1393.676 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy at point 2, H,= 1465.38 + 3.25(56.4 — 30) = 1551.18 kJ/kg.
Refrigerating effect, N = H, — H6 = 1393.676 — 298.1 = 1095.576 kJ/kg

Work spent, W = H,— H1 = 1551.18 — 1393.676 = 157.504 kJ/kg
N 1095.576
C.O.P = = 6.955
W = 157.504
(c) Let m„. = Mass of cooling water used per kg of refrigerant.
Heat rejected to condenser cooling water = H,— 115 = 1551.18 — 298.1 = 1253.08 kJ/kg
Heat gained by cooling water = in, x 4.187 x 20
m,, x 4.187 x 20 = 1253.08 m„= 14.964 kg per kg of refrigerant.
9. A vapour compression refrigerator uses F-12 as refrigerant and the liquid evaporates in the
evaporator at —15°C. The temperature of this, refrigerant at the delivery from the compressor
is 15°C when the vapour is condensed at 10°C. Determine the C.O.P if (a) there is no under-
cooling, and (b) the liquid is cooled by 5°C before throttling. Take specific heat at constant
pressure for the superheated vapour as 0.64 and that for liquid as 0.938. The other properties
of refrigerant are:
Temperature in °C Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy per kg

Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
h H Of (t'y
—15 22.316 180.878 0.0904 0.705

10 45.387 191.764 0.175 0.6921
Entropy before compression, 4, = Entropy after compression, 4)2
+x,(4)V, — G=4)V, + C, loge TP

15° C 1 15° C
tu
10° C bu 10°C
c74
& 5°C
FI,*) E-
-15° C 1 —15° C
(b)
Fig. 20.16 (a) Without undercooling and (b) with undercooling
15 + 273
0.0904 +x,(0.705 — 0.0904) = 0.6921 + 0.64 log
e 10 + 273
x, = 0.997
Enthalpy at point 1, H,= h, + x,L, = 22.316 + 0.997(180.878 — 22.316)
= 180.4023 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy at point 2, H2 = 191.764 + 0.64(15 —10) = 194.964 kJ/kg

Refrigerating effect, N= 115 = = 180.4023 — 45.387 = 135.0153 kJ/kg.
Work spent, W = = 194.964 — 180.4023 = 14.5617 kJ/kg

N 135.0153
(a) C.O.P if there is no undercooling = = — 9.27
W 14.5617
(b) C.O.P. with undercooling, Enthalpy at point 5,
H5 = H, — Cp,(T,—T3)= 45.387 — 0.938 x 5 = 40.697 kJ/kg.

N H6 H,— H5 180.4023-40.697
C.O.P. = = — 9.594
W H2 112 — H, 14.5617
10. A food storage chamber requires a refrigeration system of 10 tonnes capacity with an
evaporator temperature of —8°C and condenser temperature of 30°C. The refrigerant F-12 is
subcooled by 5°C before entering the throttle valve, and the vapour is superheated by 6°C
before entering the compressor. The specific heats of vapour and liquid are 0.7327 and 1.235
respectively. Determine, (a) the refrigerating effect per kg, (b) mass of refrigerant circulated
per minute, and (c) C.O.P.
The properties of the refrigerant are:
Temperature in °C Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy in kJ/kg K
Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour

h H Ot Oii
—8 411.289 569.808 4.1618 4.7564
30 447.883 586.515 4.2874 4.7438

Refrigeration 607
Solution: Enthalpy at point 1, H, = H,'+Cp,(T,—T1')= 569.808 + 0.7327 x 6
= 574.2042 kJ/kg
(271
Entropy at point 1, 0, = 4.7564 + 0.7327 loge i-6 = 4.7728 kJ/kg K
T,up,
Entropy at point 2, 02 = 4.7438 + 0.7327 log, 30 + 273
Entropy at 2 = Entropy at 1.
T
4.7438 + 0.7327 loge = 4.7728

303
T.„1,2 = 315.235 K
Enthalpy at point 2, H2 = 586.515 + 0.7327(315.235 — 303) = 595.479 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy at point 3, H3 = 447.883 — 1.235 x 5 = 441.708 kJ/kg

(a) Refrigerating effect, N = H, — H4 = H,— H,= 574.2042 —441.708
= 132.4962 kJ/kg
Fig. 20.17
(b) Refrigeration capacity = 10 tonnes = 10 x 210 = 2100 kJ/min.

Ref . Capacity
Mass of refrigerant circulated per min. =
Ref . effect
2100
— — 15.8495 kg.
132.4962
(c) Work spent, W = H2 — H, = 595.479 — 574.2042 = 21.2748 kJ/kg
N 132.4962
C.O.P. = = — 6.227
W 21.2748
11. A water cooler using Freon-12 as refrigerant works between 26°C and 2°C. The vapour
leaves the evaporator dry and saturated. The output of cold water is 100 kg/hr cooled from
26°C to 6°C. Assuming that the volumetric efficiency of the compressor is 80%, mechanical
efficiency of the compressor is 85%. mechaniCal efficiency of the motor is 95% and that 20%
of useful cooling is lost into the water cooler, determine (a) power of the motor and (b) volu-
metric displacement of the compressor. The properties of Freon —12 are given below:
Fig. 20.18
Temperature Pressure Liquid Vapour

°C bar
hi Cp H V, rOkg
01 (i)v Cp
26 6.69 443.863 4.2736 0.9965 584.923 4.7455 0.6741 0.027

2 3.296 420.584 4.1936 0.942 574.498 4.7556 0.6196 0.053
[A.M.I.E, Win er 1978]

Entropy before compression, 0, = Entropy after compression,
„,,
OV, = 02+ C, loge
Ts4,
T,„1,
4.7556 = 4.7455 + 0.6741 log
e (26 + 273)
= 303.51 K = 30.51°C
Enthalpy at point 1, H1 = 574.498
Enthalpy at point 2, H2 = 584.923 + 0.6741(303.51 —299) = 587.963 kJ/kg

Refrigerating effect, N = H, — H,= H, — H4 = 574.498 —443.863 = 130.635 kJ/kg
Work done, W =11,— H, = 587.963 —574.498 = 13.465 kJ/lkg
Actual amount of heat removed from the water cooler considering heat loss into the cooler.
[100 x 4.187(26- 6)]
= 1.2 — 167.48 kJ/min.
60
167.48
Mass flow of the refrigerant F-12 = 130.635 1.282 kg/min
Work done per min. = 1.282 x 13.465 = 17.262 kJ/min = 0.2877 kJ/s.
. Power of the compressor
0.2877
= — 0.3384 kW
0.85
Refrigeration 609
Volumetric displacement of the compressor
0.053
= 1.282 x = 0.0849 m3/min.
0.8
0.3384
Power of the motor - = 0.3562 kW
0.95
12. A refrigerating plant using ammonia as
refrigerant enters the evaporator at 2.74 bar
and 0.12 dry and leaves the evaporator at 0.9
dry. During compression the work supplied
in the compressor is 171650 N.m.
The flow of refrigerant is 5.45 kg/min.
The compressor is single acting and running
at 130 r.p.m with volumetric efficiency 82%,
determine (a) the C.O.P of the machine,
(b) the volume of refrigerant vapour entering
the compressor per stroke, and (c) the dia-
meter and stroke of the compressor if L = D. Fig. 20.19
Take latent heat of ammonia at 2.74 bar =
1340 kJ/kg and specific volume of ammonia at 2.74 bar = 0.435m3 when the vapour is dry
and saturated.
Solution: Enthalpy at 1, H,= h i + x,L, = h,+ 0.9 x 1340 = h, x 1206 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy at 4, H4 = h4 + x4L4 = h4 + 0.12 x 1340 = h, + 160.8 kJ/kg.

Refrigerating effect, N = H, - H4 = (h,+ 1206)- (h4 + 160.8) = 1045.2 kJ/kg I.. h, = //41
Work of compression per kg of NH3 in compressor,
W= 171650 N-m = 171.65 kJ.
N 1045.2
= 6.089
W 171.65
Volume of ammonia at the suction point of compressor = 0.9 x 0.435 = 0.3915 m3/kg
Volume of ammonia handled by the compressor per minute = 0.3915 x 5.45 = 2.1336 m3/min.
Again volume handled per min. = 4/32 x LxNxi,
It
2.1336 =- xD2 xDx 130 x 0.82
4
or D' = 0.02548 m3
D= 0.294 cm = 29.4 cm and L= 29.4 cm.
13. A house hold refrigerator uses F-12 as a

refrigerant operates between evaporator and
condenser temperature of -10°C and 45°C
respectively. The refrigerant flow rate is 0.4
kg/min. Find the C.O.P and capacity of the
plant if the compressor is assumed to be
isentropic from the saturated vapour state.
If the throttle valve is replaced by an
Fig. 20.20 expanding mechanism that reduces the con-
densed liquid pressure to that of the evaporator is an isentropic process, determine the new
C.O.P. and the capacity of the plant.
Use the following data for the properties of the refrigerant. Take the enthalpy at the end of
compressor to be 211.57 kJ/kg.
T°C Pressure h H 0, 0,,

Bar kJ/kg kJ/kg
—10 2.187 27.13 183.474 0.1088 0.703
45 10.84 81.437 206.628 0.2939 0.6875
Solution: (a) With throttle valve (Cycle 1-2-3-4-5)

Refrigerating effect, N = H, — Hs = 183.474 — 81.437 = 102.037 kJ/kg.
Work spent, W = H2 - H, = 21,1.57 — 183.474 = 28.096 kJ/kg.
N 102.037
C.O.P. — = 3,6317
W 28.096
102.037 x 0.4
Capacity of the plant = — 0.1943 tonnes
210
(b) With expanding mechanism (Cycle 1-2-3-4')
Entropy at 4 = Entropy at 5'
$1, = 0/:+x;(4)v: — 4)0
0.2939 = 0.1088 + x;(0.703 — 0.1088)
x; = 0.3115
Enthalpy at point 5', H; = h,' + x,'L,' = 27.13 + 0.3115(183.474 — 27.13) = 75.831 kJ/kg
Refrigerating effect, N = H, — H,' = 183.474 — 75.831 = 107.643 kJ/kg.

Work spent, W = (112 — 111)—(114 — H,') = (211.57 — 183.474) — (81.437 — 75.831) = 22.49 kJ/kg.
N 107.643
C.O.P. = = — 4.786
W 22.49
107.643 x 0.4
Capacity of the plant = — 0.205 tonnes.
210
14. A compressor 10cm x 10 cm single act-
ing twin cylinder 900 r.p.m is working on
F-12 with condensing temperature of 38°C
and evaporation temperature of 4°C. Com-
pression is isentropic and vapour is just dry
and saturated at the end of compression.
Calculate. (a) the capacity of the refrigerator,
(b) power required for the compressor if its
volumetric efficiency is 85%, and (c) C.O.P
of the system.
[A.M.I.E, Summer1979] fi
Solution: From P-H chart
H, = 577.806 kJ/kg, H2 =593.716 kJ/kg,
H, = 458.057 kJ/kg,
Fig. 20.21
Refrigeration 611
= 0.05 m'/kg, H4 = 458.057 kJ/kg.
lc( 10 )2 10
Swept volume 0.00078539 m3
= 4 100) x 100 =
Total swept volume = 2 x 0.00078539 = 0.0015707 m3
Total volume handled by the compressor per minute = 0.0015707 x 0.85 x 900 = 1.2016 m3/min.
1.2016
Total mass of the refrigerant circulated in the system per minute = 05 - 24.032 kg/min.
24.032(HI -H4) 24.032(577.806 - 458.057)

(i) The capacity of the refrigerator =
210 210
= 13.7 tonnes.
24.032(H2 - H,) 24.032(593.716 - 577.806)
(ii) Power required to run the system - kJ/s
60 60
= 6.372 kW
H, - H4 577.806 -458.057 = 7.526
(iii) C.O.P. of the system -
H2 - H, = 593.716 -577.806
EXERCISES

1. Draw a neat sketch of air refrigeration system working on Bell-coleman cycle and
explain its working.
2. Draw a neat sketch of vapour compression refrigeration system and explain its work-
ing.
3. With a neat sketch explain the working of Electrolux refrigerator.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of air refrigeration system ?
5. What is the effect of undercooling of refrigerant in vapour compression refrig&ation ?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of vapour absorption refrigeration system
over the vapour compression system ?
7. What should be the properties of an ideal refrigerant ? Describe the main refrigerants
commonly used in practice.
8. Determine the power required to run a Carrot refrigerator producing 800 kg of ice at
-6°C per hour from water at 17°C. Take specific heat of ice as 2.1 kJ/kg K and latent
heat of ice as 335 kJ/kg.
9. In an air refrigeration system working on Bell-coleman cycle, air is drawn at 1.01325
bar and -6°C from the refrigerator into a compressor. The air leaves the compressor at
5.07 bar. The compression is isentropic and expansion follows the law
P V' 3 = constant. The air is then cooled 15°C and after cooling it expands till the pres-
sure falls to 1.01325 bar. Determine (a) the work developed per kg of air,
(b) refrigerating effect per kg of air, (c) C.O.P of the cycle, and (d) capacity of the
machine if the air flow is 120 kg/min.
10. An air refrigerator working on Bell-coleman cycle takes air into the compressor at
1.01325 bar and -5°C. The air is compressed in the compressor to 5.07 bar and cooled
to 22°C at the same pressure. It is then expanded in the expander to 1.01325 bar and
discharged to take the cooling load.
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor = 86%

The isentropic efficiency of the expander = 92%
Determine (a) refrigeration capacity of the system for an air flow of 50 kg/min,
(b) power required to run the compressor, and (c) C.O.P. of the system.
11. A dense air refrigeration system provides 4 tonnes of refrigeration when working
between pressures of 3.5 bar and 4 bar. The temperatures of air entering the compres-
sor and expander are 5°C and 18°C respectively. The compression and expansion is
isentropic. Determine (a) the power required to run the system assuming mechanical
efficiency of both compressor and expander as 82% and the system runs at 240 r.p.m.,
(b) diameters of compressor and expander, (c) ice producing capacity of the plant.
Take L = 1.2 D and assume compressor and expander are double acting.
12. A refrigerating plant using CO, as refrigerant works between 300 K and 265 K. The
dryness fraction of CO, is 0.82 at entrance of the compressor. The quantity of CO,
circulated = 5 kg/min. Ice is formed at 0°C from water at 15°C. Find out the ice formed
per day if the relative efficiency is 55%. Take Cp(,,,a,„) = 4.187 kJ/kg K, L (water) = 335
kJ/kg.
The properties of CO, are given below:
Temperature Liquid heat Latent heat Entropy of liquid

°C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K
17 83.25 125.5 0.2618
-8 5.53 241.8 —0.0408
13. An ammonia refrigerator produces 30 tonnes of ice from and at 0°C in a day of 24
hours. The temperature range in the compressor is from 25°C to —15°C. The vapour is
dry saturated at the end of compression and an expansion valve is used. Assuming a
C.O.P. of 60% of the theoretical and calculate the power required to drive the com-
pressor. Latent heat of ice = 335 kJ/kg.
Given:
Temperature Enthalpy per Entropy of liquid Entropy of vapour
°C kg kJ/kg K kJ/kg K
Liquid Vapour 1)1

( Ov
25 100.11 1320.16 0.3475 4.4884
—15 —54.6 1305.92 2,1353 5.062
[Ans: 21.8 k
Appendix-A
STEAM TABLES
Properties of Dry and Saturated Steam

(Pressure Table)
Pressure Sat. Specific Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K
bar P temp .°C volume
t, sat.steam Sat. Evap. L Sat. Sat. Sat.
m3/kg water steam H water steam
Vs h 4).. 41s
0.006113 0.01 206.136 0.01 2501.3 2501.4 0.0000 9.1562
0.007 1.89 181.255 7.91 2496.9 2504.4 0.0288 9.1064
0.008 3.77 159.675 15.81 2492.5 2508.3 0.0575 9.0578
0.009 5.45 142.789 22.89 2488.5 2511.4 0.0829 9.0142
0.010 6.98 129.208 29.30 2484.9 2514.2 0.1059 8.9756
0.011 8.37 118.042 35.17 2481.6 2516.8 0.1268 8.9408

0.012 9.66 108.696 40.58 2478.6 2519.1 0.1460 8.9091
0.013 10.86 100.755 45.60 2475.7 2521.3 0.1637 8.8792
0.014 11.98 93.922 50.31 2473.1 2523.4 0.1802 8.8529
0.015 13.03 87.980 54.71 2470.6 2525.3 0.1957 8.8279
0.016 14.02 82.763 58.87 2468.3 2527.1 0.2102 8.8044

0.017 14.95 78.146 62.80 2466.0 2528.8 0.2238 8.7825
0.018 15.84 74.030 66.54 2463.9 2530.5 0.2368 8.7618
0.019 16.69 70.337 70.10 2461.9 2532.0 0.2401 8.7422
0.020 17.50 67.004 73.48 2460.0 2533.5 0.2607 8.7237
0.021 18.28 63.981 76.74 2458.2 2534.9 0.2719 8.7060

0.022 19.02 61.226 79.85 2456.4 2536.3 0.2826 8.6892
0.023 19.73 58.705 82.83 2454.8 2537.6 0.2928 8.6732
0.024 20.42 56.389 85.72 2453.1 2538.8 0.3026 8.6579
0.025 21.08 54.254 88.49 2451.6 2540.0 0.3120 8.6432
0.026 21.72 52.279 91.17 2450.1 2541.2 0.3211 8.6290

0.027 22.34 50.446 93.75 2448.6 2542.3 0.3299 8.6155
0.028 22.94 48.742 96.27 2447.2 2543.4 0.3384 8.6024
0.029 23.52 47.152 98.7 2445.8 2544.5 0.3466 8.5898
0.030 24.08 45.665 101,5 2444.5 2545.5 0.3545 8.5776
(Contd.)

bar P temp.°C volume
V, h i>w 41,
0.032 25.16 42.964 105.57 2441.9 2547.5 0.3697 8.5545
0.034 26.19 40.572 109.84 2439.5 2549.3 0.3840 8.5327
0.036 27.16 38.440 113.90 2437.2 2551.1 0.3975 8.5123
0.038 28.08 36.527 117.77 2435.0 2552.8 0.4104 8.4930
0.040 28.96 34.800 121.46 2432.9 2554.4 0.4226 8.4746
0.042 29.81 33.234 125.00 2430.9 2555.9 0.4343 8.4572

0.044 30.62 31.806 128.39 2429.0 2557.4 0.4455 8.4406
0.046 31.40 30.500 131.65 2427.2 2558.8 0.4562 8.4248
0.048 32.15 29.299 134.79 2425.4 2560.2 0,4665 8.4096
0.050 32.88 28.192 137.82 2423.7 2561.5 0.4764 8.3951
0.055 35.58 25.769 144.95 2419.6 2564.5 0.4997 8.3613

0.060 36.16 23.739 151.53 2415.9 2567.4 0.5210 8.3304
0.065 37.63 22.014 157.67 2412.4 2570.0 0.5408 8.3020
0.070 39.00 20.530 163.40 2409.1 2572.5 0.5592 8.2758
0.075 40.29 19.238 168.79 2406.0 2574.8 0.5764 8.2515
0.080 41.51 18.103 173.88 2403.1 2577.0 0.5926 8.2287

0.090 43.76 16.203 183.29 2397.7 2581.0 0.6224 8.1872
0.10 45.81 14.674 191.83 2392.8 .2584.7 0.6493 8.1502
0.12 49.42 12.361 206.92 2384.1 2591.1 0.6963 8.0863
0.14 52.55 10.693 219.99 2376.6 2596.6 0.7366 8.0325
0.16 55.32 9.433 231.56 2369.9 2601.4 0.7720 7.9860

0.18 57.80 8.445 241.95 2363.8 2605.8 0.8035 7.9451
0.20 60.06 7.649 251.40 2358.3 2609.7 0.8320 7.9085
0.22 62.14 6.995 260.08 2353.2 2613.3 0.8579 7.8756
0.24 64.06 6.446 268.12 2348.5 2616.6 0.8818 7.8455
0.26 65.85 5.980 275.61 2344.1 2619.7 0.9040 7.8179

0.28 67.53 5.579 282.62 2340.0 2622.6 0.9246 7.7924
0.30 69.10 5.229 289.23 2336.1 2625.3 0.9439 7.7686
0.32 70.60 4.922 295.48 2332.4 2627.8 0.9622 7.7465
0.34 72.01 4.650 301.40 2328.8 2630.2 0.9723 7.7257
0:38 74.64 4.190 312.43 2322.3 2634.7 1.0159 7.6876

0.42 77.05 3.185 322.51 2316.2 2638.7 1.0400 7.6534
0.46 79.27 3.503 331.83 2310.6 2642.5 1.0666 7.6223
0.50 81.33 3.240 340.49 2305.4 2645.9 1.0910 7.5939
0.60 85.94 2.732 359.86 2293.6 2653.5 1.1453 7.5320
(Contd..
Appendix-A 615

t, sat.steam Sat. Evap. L, Sat. Sat. Sat.
V, h Ow 4),
0.70 89.95 2.365 376.70 2283,3 2660.0 1.1919 7.4766
0.80 93.50 2.087 391.66 2274.1 2665.8 1.2329 7.4346
0.90 96.71 1.869 405.15 2265.7 2670.9 1.2695 7.3949
1.00 99.63 1.694 417.46 2258.0 2675.5 1.3026 7.3594
1.01325 100.00 1.6729 419.04 2257.0 2676.1 1.3069 7.3549
1.1 102.31 1.5495 428.79 2250.9 2679.7 1.3329 7.3273

1.3 107.13 1.3254 449.15 2238.0 2687.1 1.3867 7.2712
1.5 111.37 1.1593 467.11 2226.5 2693.6 1.4336 7.2233
1.7 115.17 1.0312 483.20 2216.0 2699.2 1.4752 7.1814
1.9 118.62 0.9293 497.84 2206.5 2704.3 1.5127 7.1443
2.0 120.23 0.8857 504.70 2201.9 2706.7 1.5301 7.1271

2.2 123.27 0.8101 517.63 2193.4 2711.0 1.5628 7.0953
2.4 126.13 0.7467 529.65 2185.4 2715.0 1.5930 7.0663
2.6 128.73 0.6918 540.90 2177.8 2718.7 1.6210 7.0396
2.8 131.21 0.6463 551.48 2170.7 2722.1 1.6472 7.0149
3.0 133.55 0.6058 561.47 2163.8 2725.3 1.6718 6.9919

3.2 135.76 0.5702 570.95 2157.3 2728.3 1.6950 6.9704
3.4 137.87 0.5387 579.97 2151.1 2731.1 1.7169 6.9502
3.6 139.87 0.5106 588.59 2145.1 2733.7 1.7378 6.9311
3.8 141.79 0.4853 596.83 2139.4 2736.2 1.7577 6.9130
4.0 143.63 0.4625 604.64 2133.8 2738.6 1.7766 6:8959

4.2 145.40 0.4417 612.36 2128.4 2740.8 1.7948 6.8796
4.4 147.10 0.4228 619.68 2123.2 2742.9 1.8122 6.8641
4.6 148.74 0.4055 626.76 2118.2 2744.9 1.8290 6.8492
4.8 150.32 0.3896 633.60 2113.2 2746.8 1.8451 6.8349
5.0 151.86 0.3749 640.23 2108.5 2748.7 1.8607 6.8213

5.5 155.48 0.3427 655.93 2097.0 2753.0 1.8973 6.7893
6.0 158.85 0.3157 670.56 2086.3 2756.8 1.9312 6.7600
6.5 162.01 0.2927 684.28 2076.0 2760.3 1.9627 6.7331
7.0 164.97 0.2729 697.22 2066.3 2763.5 1.9922 6.7080
8 170.43 0.2404 721.11 2048.0 2769.1 2.0462 6.6628

9 175.38 0.2150 742.82 2031.1 2773.9 2.0946 6.6226
10 179.91 0.194.44 762.81 2015.3 2778.1 2.1387 6.5865
11 184.09 0.17753 781.34 2000.4 2781.7 2.1792 6.5536
12 187.99 0.16333 798.65 1986.2 2784.2 2.2166 6.5233
(Contd.)


V, h .0„ Os
13 191.64 0.15125 814.93 1972.7 2787.6 2.2515 6.4953
14 195.07 0.14084 830.30 1959.7 2790.0 2.2842 6.4693
15 198.32 0.13177 844.89 1947.3 2792.2 2.3150 6.4448
16 201.41 0.12380 858.79 1935.2 2794.0 2.3442 6.4218
17 204.34 0.11673 872.06 1923.6 2795.7 2.3718 6.4000
20 212.42 0.09963 908.79 1890.7 2799.5 2.4474 6.3409

22 217.29 0.09073 931:94 1870.2 2801.3 2.4927 6.3056
24 221.83 0.08327 952.09 1850.5 2802.6 2.5347 6.2729
26 226.09 0.07692 971.85 1831.6 2803.6 2.5740 6.2425
28 230.10 0.07145 990.59 1813.4 2804.0 2.6109 6.2139
30 233.90 0.06668 1008.42 1795.7 2804.2 2.6457 6.1869

32 237.51 0.06249 1025.47 1778.6 2804.1 2.6787 6.1614
34 240.94 0.05877 1041.82 1761.9 2803.7 2.7101 6.1370
36 244.23 0.05545 1057.53 1745.6 2803.1 2.7401 6,1138
38 247.38 0.05247 1072.68 1729.7 2802.4 2.7688 6.0915
40 250.40 0.04978 1087.31 1714.1 2801.4 2.7964 6.0701

44 256.12 0.04510 1115.22 1683.8 2799.0 2.8485 6.0296
48 261.45 0.04118 1141.57 1654.5 2796.0 2.8970 5.9916
52 266.45 0.03783 1166.58 1626.0 2792.6 2.9427 5.9557
56 271.17 0.03495 1190.46 1598.2 2788.6 2.9858 5.9217
60 275:64 0.03244 1213.35 1571.0 2784.3 3.0267 5.8892

65 280.80 0.02970 1241.00 • 1538.0 2779.0 3.0760 5.8520
70 285.88 0.02737 1267.00 1505.1 2772.1 3,1211 5.8133
75 290.50 0.02530 1293.00 1473.0 2766.0 3.1670 5.7800
80 295.06 0.02352 1316.64 1441.3 2758.0 3.2068 5.7432
84 298.49 0.02222 1335.61 1416.2 2751.8 3.2391 5.7164

88 301.80 0.02104 1354.14 1391.3 2745.4 3.2704 5.6902
92 304.99 0.01995 1372.29 1366.5 2738.8 3.3009 5.6644
96 308.07 0.01895 1390.08 1341.8 2731.9 3.3306 5.6391
100 311.06 0.018026 1407.56 1317.1 2724.7 3.3596 5.6141
104 313.96 0.017167 1424.76 1292.5 2717.3 3.3880 5.5894

108 316.77 0.016367 1441.70 1267.9 2709.6 3.4158 5.5649
112 319.50 0.015620 1458.40 1243.2 2701.6 3.4430 5.5406
116 322.16 0.014920 1474.90 121'8.4 2693.4 3.4698 5.5165
120 324.75 0.014263 1491.30 1193.6 2684.9 3.4962 5.4924
(Contd.
Appendix-A 617
Pressure Sat. Specific Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg.K

ts sat.steam Sat. Evap. L Sat. Sat. Sat.
V, h Ow. Os
126 328.51 0.013348 1515.5 1156.0 2671.5 3.5351 5.4564
132 332.12 0.012508 1539.5 1118.0 2657.5 3.5732 5.4203
138 335.61 0.011731 1563.2 1079.5 2642.7 3.6108 5.3839
144 338.98 0.011010 1586.9 1040.2 2627.1 3.6479 5.3471
150 342.24 0.010337 1610.5 1000.0 2610.5 3.6848 5.3098
156 345.39 0.009706 1634.2 958.8 2593.0 3.7216 5.2716

160 347.44 0.009306 1650.1 930.6 2580.6 3.7461 5.2455
166 350.43 0.008732 1674.1 886.9 2561.0 3.7830 5.2053
172 353.33 0.008185 1698.5 841.5 2540.0 3.8204 5.1635
176 355.21 0.007833 1715.1 809.9 2525.0 3.8457 5.1345
180 357.06 0.007489 1732.0 777.1 2509.1 3.8715 5.1044

186 359.77 0.006987 1758.3 725.1 2483.3 3.9112 5.0567
192 362.41 0.006493 1785.9 668.7 2454.6 3.9530 5.0050
198 364.97 0.006000 1815.7 606.1 2421.8 3.9979 4.9477
204 367.46 0.005495 1848.9 534.3 2383.2 4.0479 4.8819
206 368.28 0.005320 1861.1 507.3 2368.4 4.0663 4.8571

210 369.89 0.004952 1888.4 446.2 2334.6 4.1075 4.8013
214 371.47 0.004538 1922.2 369.6 2291.8 4.1585 4.7318
218 373.03 0.004007 1972.6 255.1 2227.6 4.2351 4.6298
220.9 374.14 0.003155 2099.3 0 2099.3 4.4298 4.4298
Appendix-B
COMMONLY USED CONSTANTS
1. Standard gravity g = 9.80665 m's-2

2. Standard atmospheric pressure:
1 atm= 1.01325 bar = 101325 N/m2 = 760 mm of Hg = 10.342 m
3. Universal gas constant:
G = MR = 8.3143 kJ/kg mot K.
4. Gas-constant
R = 287 J/kg K for air.
5. Specific heats of air:
= 1.0035 kJ/kg K
Cv = 0.7165 kJ/kg K
6. Work done: = f pdv Nm or J

7. Refrigeration:
1 ton of refrigeration = 210 kJ/min.
8. Temperature: Triple point = 273.16 K = 0.01 C = 491.688 R =32.018 F
t°C = T K— 273.16°
The absolute temperature in Kelvin scale and Rankine scale are related by
K= 1.8°R
The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are related by
°C = (0E-32)(5
5)
t°C=(t +273.16) K=(1.8t+32)F=(1.8t+491.69)R
0° C = 273.15 K, 0°F = 459.67 R, 32F = 491.67 R
Appendix-C
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
Chapter-2
'cq ( lq
1. Steady flow energy equation: m( —+ gz +h +Q=ni T + gZ2 -Fh2 + W
2 "
Chapter-3
1. tits =
QI - Q2 TI — T2 for Carnot or reversible engines where
T1 > T2
Qi
, T,
2. C.O.P. = for Carnot or reversible heat pumps
Q1 — Q2 T1 T2
Q2 T2
3. C.O.P = for Carnot or reversible refrigerators
Q1 — Q2T1— T2
Chapter-4
P, — P2V2
1. W = for polytropic process
n—1
y— n
2. Q=
y-1 x W for polytropic process
- i)
T2 (PI " Vi - I
3. = = —
, for polytropic process
i1 r1 r2
Chapter-5
General expression for change of entropy of a perfect gas:
V2 T2
4)2 — 4)1 = m(Cp — Cy) log, + m C,
V,
V2 P2
=M C logy — + m C, loge
P V, ri
T2 P2
= M Cp log — — m (Cp — Cv) log,
e T, r
Chapter-6
P .V,
1. Internal Energy U = H, — kJ/kg for dry saturated steam
io3
P
= H,,,„ kJ/kg for wet steam
103 t1
P x Vsup
kJ/kg for superheated steam
= Hs" 103
2. Entropy
Ts
4),„ = Cp log, for saturated water
xL
4W«_ „, + — = 4)„, + x (4), —CO for wet steam
T
4), = w + for dry saturated steam
cup = c+ cp log, T, for superheated steam.
Chapter-8
1 m + 1 1]
1. Draught in mm of water: h = 353H Ta m x Tg
m Tg ]
2. Height of column of hot gas: h8 =1-1[ x T —1
m+I
rrc
3. Diameter of the chimney: D = 1.128
V.pg
m +1
4. T8 = 2Ta x m for maximum discharge
Appendix—C 621
9.81 x H [ m rg
1000 X 1
ni +I
5. Efficiency of chimney =
CAT, — T2)
Px o xv
6. Power required to drive the fan — 0 kW.
i x10
Chapter-9
a — h')
1. Equivalent evaporation: me = m kg.
2256.7
ma (H — h')
2. Boiler efficiency —
C.V.
Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per hour
3. Boiler power —
21.296
Chapter-10
1. = 350C + 1430(H --j+ 91.6 S kJ/kg

8
2. = 350C + 1210(H --)4- 91.6 S kJ/kg

8
= [H.C.V. — 2442 x 9H) kJ/kg.
3. Minimum air required for complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel
100
= — (2.67 C+8H +S — 0) kg
23
[20 — C, ]
4. Excess air supplied per kg of fuel = 4C
69 C, + C2
1C
[ N
5. Ma — kg of air supplied/kg of fuel.
33 ci + c2
C (C)
6. Mass of gas formed per kg of fuel, m —
8 12(C, + C2)
0 .V
7. Volume of excess air/m3 of gaseous fuel.
= 21 —
8. Percentage of carbon burning to CO = x 100

C2
C2
9. Percentage of carbon burning to CO2 — x 100
+ C2
Chapter-11
(H1 — H2) — — 11.3)

1. Rankine efficiency, BR =
(ho' —ho)
2. Rankine efficiency for modified cycle,
(H1 — H2)-i-V2(P2 — P3)
TLR =
3 - h3
Chapter-12
1. P„,(00 (with clearance and compression)

1 1) c+1 c +xl
= p [--- +(c i7. loge —1 Pb[(1—x)+(c +x)loge
i r c +.; c
2. Indicated power (Double acting steam engine)

2P„,(.0LAN
I.P.= W.
60
3. Brake power, B.P. = 211NT W.
60
4. Steam consumption (Double acting steam engine)
1v x N x 60
ills = 2 x iI D2L x x - kg/hr
x
B.P.
5. Mechanical efficiency,11,..h. =
Indicated power in kW
6. Indicated thermal efficiency, rh =
h2)
Brake power in kW
7. Brake thermal efficiency, rib =
ms(H1 — h2)
Brake power in kW
8. Overall efficiency, Tio =
mf x C.V.
9. Relative efficiency, ir =
Rankine cycle efficiency
10. P2 =4711-37: for equal power and equal initial thrust conditions.
11. Incomplete expansion in L.P. cylinder,
P1 (rPb —P1)+.\i(rPb —P1)2+4rP;
P2= _
Pb ) 2r
• lr antilog(1 —7,- .r
12. Incomplete expansion in both cylinders:
[Pi P2
—(1 + log, rll)— P2]=[ — (1+ loge rd — Pb] ---
17
rll rI. vH
Appendix-C 623
dL2 Pi -P2
13. for equal initial loads
d1-12 ' 3 2 "b
14. Mean effective pressure referred to the L.P. cylinder,
Pm(act) = Df[ P (1 + loge - Pb
Chapter-13
1. V2 = 44.724(H, -1/2)%
2. Mass of steam discharged,
m = A '1\12000 n x P2 f (P2)("1
n - 1 VI
3. Condition for maximum discharge.
P2 2 ("-"
P, —( n +1 )
0.0
P, ( 2 i-i)
4. mm =A 1000 n x x
n+1
V,- V„,
5. M,y= V„, +
101.33) g H2 g
6. Vm =*\12000[ (P - X9.3 1
955 + 1000 + 1000
104M(1 + 104M x V,
7. Ab = • A =
995V,, a Mw X VS
Chapter-14
Impulse Turbine
m(Vw, ± Vw2)u
1. Power developed by the turbine = kW
1000
2u(V,„ i ±
2. Blade efficiency, rlb =
v;
± VOu
3. Stage efficiency =
Hd
costa,
4. rib(max)= (1 + KC) = cos2 a if K = 1 and C = 1
2
5. W(max)= 2u 2 when K = 1 and C = 1

Impulse Reaction Turbine
Vt-1— Vr;
6. Degree of reaction, R =
2u(1c, +1c2)
2p(2cosa, — p)
7. n,.
(1 — ph +2pcosal)
8. Condition for maximum efficiency

p = cosa,
2 costa,
9. .1, (max)
— 1 ÷ COS a,
7c(D + h)x h x Va
10. m = kg
x.
Chapter-15
t2 — t,
1. Condenser efficiency —
Ts — t,
t2 — t,
2. C.O.P. =
(T, — T2) + 5
ms(h, + x,L, — h2)
3. mW —
s(t,— t,)
Vo + V„
4. for wet air pump
— suction capacity
Va
for dry air pump
suction capacity
Actual Vacuum
5. Vacuum efficiency —
Ideal Vaccum
Chapter-16
, 1
1. Efficiency, 11= 1 — -- for Otto cycle
r1-1
131— 1
2. Efficiency, 1= 1 for Diesel cycle
r.r1-1(p — 1)
1 aY — 1
3. Efficiency, = for Dual cycle
rY I [ (a— 1) + ya(p — 1)
Appendix—C 625
Chapter-17
Pm(act)LA n
1. Indicated power/cylinder = kW.
60000
N
n = for 4-stroke engine
2
=N for 2-stroke engine
(W — s)R x27rN
2. Brake power = kW.
1000
3. Mechanical efficiency, timed,. = B.P.

I.P.
I.P. in kW x 3600
4. Indicated thermal efficiency, fl indi (th)
mf x C.V.
B.P. in kW x 3600
5. Brake thermal efficiency, Ilbrake(tii) =
mxCV '

6. Relative efficiency (On I.P. basis.) —
Relative efficiency (On B.P. basis) —
Chapter-18
P2)
1. Isothermal work/cycle, W = P,V, loge( —
P,
W xN
2. Isothermal power W.
= 60
Isothermal power in watts
3. Isothermal efficiency =
Indicated or actual power in watts
4. Adiabatic work required/cycle,
W = Y PI V,[(P2) 1
11 — 1 P,
W xN
5. Adiabatic power = W.
60
Adiabatic power in watts
6. Adiabatic efficiency =
Brake power required to drive the compressor
t 1733. for minimum work required
7. P2 = 47
8. Minimum work required
(n - I)
w 2n .p "v [(p T
3
= for two stage compressor
n-1 P, 1 ]
9. Minimum work required per cycle with perfect intercooling
(n - I)
S ti
p [(1351-iim where s = no. of stages.
141 =
n —1 " P, —1
[ (T-
(rp) y
10. lroo = x
ts ( re— 1) y-1
Chapter-19
1. rp =Airp(max)
1
2. r1= 1 3. Work ratio = 1 --(r ) 1
T3 P
(re )
T 314"
4. r (for maximum work) = [n Tic —
T
T3
5. rp (for maximum efficiency) =

1+ ll
_ \1(T.
1
7.3 1)("7"
1,
6. Pi (for compressor) = p p2 m
i
11c2
7. (for turbine) = pip 2 (m I1T2IY1)

-
11T
(1 + mf)(Vi — Va)Va
8. Thrust power = kW
1000
— Va2
9. Propulsive power = kW
2000
2Va 2a
10. Propulsive efficiency, Tip =
V j + Va — 11- a
2o*
11. Rocket propulsive efficiency =
+
Appendix—C 627
Chapter-20
210T
1. kg/min 2. C.O.P. = —
mr = H, —1/4 w
m,.(11,— Hi)
3. Power required to drive the compressor = kW.
60
4. MeCpc(t2— t1) = mr(H3 — H3)
TE
5. -D2L, ri .N = mr .Vs,
(4 ,v
Appendix-D
rrseiwc.
EXAMINATION PAPERS
A.M.I.E. Section-A Summer-1991
Applied Thermodynamics
(a) State Kelvin-Planck statement of second law of thermodynamics.

(b) Sub-system 1 having a fluid of mass ml, specific heat c1 and tempera-
ture t, is mixed with subsystem 2 having a fluid of mass m2, specific heat
c2 and temperature t2 together in an adiabatic enclosure. It t f is the final
temperature after mixing and t2 < tf < t, show that
if tr
In + m2c, In 2.
ASuniverse = M ICI
t, t2
2. The nozzles of a two-row velocity compounded stage have outlet angles of
22 degrees and utilise an isentropic enthalpy drop of 196 kJ/kg of steam.
All moving and guide blades are symmetrical and the mean blade speed is
150 m/sec. Assuming an isentropic efficiency of the nozzles as 90 per
cent, draw the velocity diagrams for first and second rows, and find out all
the blade angles. The velocity at inlet to the stage can be neglected and the
100V,2 = iNAh, where V, is
outlet velocity form the nozzles is given by y6-
velocity at outlet, IN is the efficiency of nozzles, Oh is isentropic enthalpy
drop.
3. (a) Give the reasons for using a condenser in a steam power plant.
(b) What are the sources of air leakage in a condenser? Mention the effects
of air leakage.
4. In a steam power plant, a small steam turbine operating with steam supply
at 15 bar and 250°C exhausts to a condenser at 0.1 bar. The exhaust steam
is found by test to contain 5% moisture. If the steam flow rate is 700 kg/hr,
find the rate of heat loss (kJ/hr) from steam turbine and thermal efficiency
of the plant.
5 (a) Show that for the Otto cycle, the air standard efficiency can be
expressed as
lair standard = 1 K —1
where r is the compression ratio.
r
Appendix—D 629
(b) In an Otto cycle, the temperatures at the beginning and end of the
compression are 43°C and 323°C respectively. Determine the air stan-
dard efficiency and the compression ratio; take K = 1.4.
6. A gas has CP = 1.984 kJ/kg K and C, = 1.507 kJ/kg K. Find its molecular
weight and the gas constant. A constant volume chamber of 0.3 m3 capac-
ity contains 2 kg of this gas at 5°C. Heat is transferred to the gas until the
temperature is 100°C. Find the work done, the heat transferred and the
changes in internal energy, enthalpy and entropy.
7. Show that for a single stage single-acting reciprocating compressor, the
volumetric efficiency can be expressed as
= 1 V, [(PI -
i]
where iv is volumetric efficiency, vc. is clearance volume. and Vs is swept

volume.
A single-stage single-acting reciprocating compressor delivers 150 rn3
of free air per minute, compressing it from 1 bar to 8 bar. The speed of the
compressor is 300 r.p.m. If the clearance is 16 th of swept volume, find the
diameter and stroke of the compressor. Take T3L = 1.5, where L is stroke and
D is bore. The value of n can be taken as 1.3.
8. Write short notes on any four of the following:
(a) Carnot cycle (d) Air standard efficiency
(b) Throttling process (e) Available energy
(c) Superheated steam (f) Dynamometer
A.M.I.E. Section-A Winter-1989
1. (a) Derive an expression- for change of entropy when the process is iso-
thermal process in terms of volumes.
(b) A hot iron forging weighing 40 kg at a temperature of 550°C is dropped
in 250 kg of oil at 25°C and having a specific heat of 2.512 kJ/kg K for
quenching. The iron forging has specific heat of 0.5024 kJ/kg K.
Assume no heat transfer to the surroundings. Determine (i) Entropy
change of forging and (ii) Entropy change of oil.
2. A single stage double acting air compressor handles 20 m3 of air per min,
measured at 100 kPa and 15°C. The pressure and temperature at the end of
suction are 98 kPa and 32°C. The air is delivered at 650 kPa. Assuming a
clearance factor of 0.5% and compression and expansion process to follow
the polytropic law p V' " constant, determine the stroke volume of the
compressor running at 500 r.p.m. Also calculate the indicated power of the
compressor and the temperature of air delivered. R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
Neglect the effect of piston rod.
3. Two boilers discharge equal amounts of steam into the same main. The
steam from one is at 1.8 MPa and 380°C, and from the other at 1.8 MPa and
0.95% quality. Determine (a) the equilibrium condition after mixing,
(b) the loss of entropy by the high temperature steam, (c) gain of entropy
by the low temperature steam, and (d) net increase or decrease of entropy.
4. Describe with a neat pencil sketch the working of a reciprocating steam
engine.
5. (a) Explain the term 'air standard efficiency'. Obtain an expression for the
same for an engine working on the Otto-cycle.
(b) Explain briefly the working of a centrifugal compressor.
6. One stage in an impulse turbine consists of a converging nozzle and one
ring of moving blades. The nozzles are inclined at 22° to the blades whose
tip angles are both 35°.
(a) If the velocity of steam at exit from the nozzle is 660 m/s, find the
blade speed so that the steam can pass on without shock and find the
diagram efficiency neglecting losses if the blades run at this speed.
(b) If the relative velocity of steam is reduced by 15% in passing through
the blade ring, find the efficiency and the end thrust on the shaft when
the blade ring develops 1.7 kW. Scale 1 cm = 100 m/s.
7. In Bell-Coleman refrigeration plant, the air is drawn from cold chamber at
100 kPa and 10°C and compressed to 500 kPa. The same is cooled to 25°C
in the cooler before expanding in the expansion cylinder to the cold cham-
ber pressure of 100 kPa. Determine the theoretical C.O.P. of the plant and
the theoretical net refrigerating effect/kg of air. The compression and
expansion be assumed isentropic. y= 1.41, C, = 1.005
8. Write short notes on any four of the following:
(a) Two-stroke and four-stroke cycle engines:
(b) Constant pressure heat addition cycle;
(c) Equation of continuity applied to steam nozzles;
(d) Rankine cycle;
(e) Low level jet-condenser
(f) Cut-off governing adopted to steam engine.
A.M.I.E. Section-A Summer-1.989
1. A system contains 0.15 m3 of air at 400 kPa and 150°C. A reversible adia-
batic expansion takes place till the pressure falls to 100 kPa. The air is then
heated at constant pressure till enthalpy increased by 67 kJ. Determine the
total work done.
If these processes are replaced by a single reversible polytropic process
giving the same work between the same initial and final states, determine
the index of expansion. C, = 1.005.
2. Apply steady flow energy equation to a nozzle and derive an equation for
velocity of steam at exit.
A gas expands through an ideally, insulated nozzle following a revers-
ible polytropic law P1/ 12 = constant. There is no change in potential energy
but the ,pressure drops form 2 MPa to 200 kPa and the specific volume
increases from 0.05 m3 to 0.03 m3. If the entrance velocity is 80 m/s.
determine the exit velocity.
3. A small single acting compressor has a bore and stroke both of 10 cm and
is driven at 400 r.p.m. The clearance volume is 80 cm3 and the index of
compression and expansion is 1.2. The suction pressure is 95 kPa and the
delivery is 800 kPa. Calculate (a) the volume of free air at 101 kPa and
20°C dealt with per minute if the temperature at the start of compression is
30°C and (b) the mean effective pressure of the indicator diagram assuming
constant suction and delivery pressure.
4. (a) Explain briefly William's line in case of steam engine.
(b) A double acting single cylinder steam engine with cylinder 15 cm
diameter and 20 cm stroke is to develop 8.5 kW indicated power at 300
r.p.m. with cut off at 20% of the stroke. The back pressure is 30 kPa.
Determine the admission pressure if diagram factor is 0.7. Also calcu-
late the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine if it receives 220 kg
of dry steam per hour. Neglect clearance.
5. The following particulars refer to a velocity compounded impulse turbine
having two rows of moving blades with a fixed row of guide blades
between them. Velocity of steam leaving nozzles- is 1250 m/s nozzle angle
is 20°, blade speed is 300 m/s. Blade angles of first moving blade are sym-
metrical and blade outlet angle of the second moving blade is 30°. Friction
factor for all rows is 0.9. Draw the velocity diagram and determine the
power developed and the axial thrust on the rotor for a steam flow rate of
5000 kg/hr scale 1 cm = 100 m/s.
6. A four stroke petrol engine 8 cm bore 10 cm stroke, is tested at full throttle

at constant speed. The fuel supply is fixed at 0.068 kg/min and the plugs of
the four cylinders are successively short circuited without change of speed,
brake load being correspondingly adjusted. The power measurements are:
With all cylinders firing 12.5 kW B.P.
With cylinder No.1 cut off 9.05 kW B.P.
With cylinder No.2 cut-off 9.16 kW B.P.
Determine the indicated power of the engine under these conditions.
Determine the indicated thermal efficiency. Calorific value of fuel is
44000 kJ/kg. Compare this efficiency with the air standard value;
clearance volume of one cylinder 70 cm3.
7. (a) What is the difference between a refrigerator and a heat pump? Write
expressions for their C.O.P.
(b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of vapour compression
refrigeration cycle as compared to air refrigeration cycle.
A.M.I.E. Section-A Winter-1988
1. (a) An engine works between temperature limits of 1500°C and 100°C.

What can be the maximum thermal efficiency of this engine?
(b) In a Carnot cycle engine:
(i) Temperature of source and sink are 700°C and 50°C. The heat supply
is 5025 kJ/min. Find the power developed by the engine.
(ii) The temperature of source is 500°C. The heat supply and work done
are 420 Id and 2 x 105 N.m. Find the sink temperature.
2. 1 kg of air at 100 kPa and 15°C is compressed according to the law
P V' = constant to a pressure of 1.6 MPa. Calculate the temperature at the
end of compression, the heat received or rejected by the air during the pro-
cess and the change of entropy. Sketch the operation on a temperature
entropy diagram. Take Cp = 1.005 and Cv = 0.714
3. (a) Derive an expression to determine mean effective pressure of a steam
engine having clearance and compression.
(b) A throttle governed steam engine develops 14.7 kW indicated power
with 281 kg of steam used per hour and 36.8 kW indicated power with
521 kg of steam per hour. Determine the steam in kg/hr when steam
engine develops 22 kW.
Appendix-D 633
4. An ideal Diesel cycle operates on 1 kg of standard air with initial pressure

of 100 kPa and a temperature of 35°C. The pressure at the end of compres-
sion is 3.3 MPa and the cut off, 6% of the stroke. Determine (a) compres-
sion ratio (b) the percentage clearance (c) the heat supplied and, (d) the
heat rejected. Take y= 1.4 and C, = 1.005.
5. A refrigerator storage is supplied 20,400 kg of fiM1 at 26.7°C. For preserv-
ing fish has to be cooled to -95°C. 'The cooling takes place in 10 hrs. The
specific heat of fish is 2.93 above freezing point of fish and 1.256 below
freezing point of fish which is -2.2°C. The latent heat of freezing is
232 kJ/kg. What is the capacity of the plant in tons of refrigeration for
cooling the fish? What would be the ideal Carnot cycle C.O.P. between the
same temperature range? If the actual C.O.P. is 3that of ideal, find the
power required to run the plant.
6. A Parsons turbine runs at 1500 r.p.m. The mean diameter of the rotor is
lm, blade outlet angle is 20°, blade speed ratio is 0.7. Calculate the number
of rows of moving blades necessary if the available enthalpy drop is 62.8
kJ/kg. Stage efficiency is 0.8.
7. Write the general energy equation for a steady flow system and equation of
mass of discharge through nozzle and also show the condition for maxi-
mum discharge.
8. Write short notes on:
(a) Give 10 intensive properties of (d) C.O.P
gases
(b) Diagram factor (e) Ignition equipments of S.I.
engine
(c) Effect of clearance in air com- (f) Assumptions made in Kinetic
pressor theory of gases.
State Council for Engineering and Technical Education

West Bengal
1995
HEAT ENGINES-II
Time Allowed —3 Hours Max . Marks —100
Figures in the margin indicate marks for each question.

Answer any five questions.
1. Describe the sequences of operations of various processes constituting

modified Rankine cycle. Represent the cycle in P—V and T—S planes.
Obtain expressions for cycle work and cycle efficiency.
10+2x 2+3 x2
(a) What are the advantages obtained by incorporating a condenser in a
steam power plant?
(b) What procedure will you adopt to check if there is any leakage of air in
the condenser?
(c) Draw a line diagram of a two-pass surface condenser and indicate
steam/condensate and cooling water flow paths.
5 +5 + 10
2. (a) Prove that air standard efficiency of an engine working on Otto cycle is
expressed as
11Y
rl = 1 (
r
r = Compression ratio, 'y= adiabatic index, n = efficiency.
(b) The compression ratio of an Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of com-
pression stroke, pressure is 1 atm and temperature is 15°C. Heat trans-
fer to air per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg of air. Determine the pressure and
temperature at the end of each process of the cycle.
Assume suitable value of any data if required for calculation.
6 +14
(a) Parson's turbine:
(b) Reheat factor;
(c) Supercharging;
(d) Governing of steam turbine. 5x4
4. Data pertaining to a simple impulse turbine are as follows:
Steam velocity = 450 m/s, blade speed = 180 m/s, velocity coefficient =
0.9, nozzle angle = 20°, exit angle of moving blade = 25°
Calculate:
(a) Inlet angle of the moving blade;
(b) Exit velocity of steam and its direction;
(c) Work done per kg of steam;
(d) Axial thrust per kg of steam;
(e) Power for a steam flow rate of 2 kg/s. 4x5
5. (a) Distinguish between the operating features of an impulse turbine and a
reaction turbine.
(b) Show by a sketch, the physical arrangement of the different compo-
nents of a pressure compounded steam turbine. Indicate the variation
of absolute velocity and pressure along the stages of turbine.
6+14
Appendix-D 635
6. (a) What are the functions of a carburettor? Sketch and describe the work-
ing of a simple carburettor.
(b) Describe one method of igniting fuel in a S.I. engine.
14+6
7. (a) Describe briefly the working principle of a closed-cycle gas turbine
plant.
(b) State how an I.C. engine is started by compressed air.
10 + 10
8. (a) What is valve timing diagram? Draw a valve timing diagram for a C.I.
engine.
(b) What are the different methods to reduce detonation in an I.C. engine?
14+6
9. (a) A four-stroke petrol engine having six cylinders is to operate with a
compression ratio of 6 and deliver 368 kW brake power when running
at 3000 rpm. Determine the engine bore and the stroke length, fuel
consumption in kg/hr, and in kg/kW hr with the following data:
Stroke of piston = 1.4 x piston diameter, mech. eff. = 0.85, indicated
mean effective pressure = 11 bar, relative eff. = 0.5, calorific value of
fuel = 41800 kJ/kg.
(b) Explain the following statements:
(i) Misfire in S.I. engine leads to lower efficiency.
(ii) Compound steam engine requires lighter flywheel than those required
by simple steam engine. 12+4x 2
1994
HEAT ENGINES-II
All questions carry equal marks.


Carnot's cycle. Represent the cycle in P-V and T-S planes. Obtain
expressions for cycle work and cycle efficiency. 10+5+5
2. (a) State Dalton's law of partial pressure and show how it may be applied
to the calculations of various factors of the condenser of a steam plant.
(b) Recorded condenser vacuum = 71 cm of Hg
Barometer reading = 76.5 cm of Hg
Temperature of hot well = 28°C
Condensate collected = 1850 kg/hr

Weight of cooling water = 58000 kg/hr
Inlet temperature of cooling water = 9.5°C
Calculate:
(i) Vacuum corrected to standard barometer reading of 76 cm of Hg;
(ii) Vacuum efficiency;
(iii) Condenser efficiency. 8+4 x3
3. (a) Explain briefly the working principles of gas turbine on
(i) Open system;
(ii) Closed system.
(b) State the advantages of compounding steam engine.
16 +4
4. (a) Name the fuel injection systems of C.I. engine. Draw a line diagram of
one such system starting from service tank indicating all elements in
the system.
2+10
(b) Represent Brayton cycle and Dual Combustion Cycle on P—V and T—S
planes.
2x4
5. (a) A four-stroke four-cylinder petrol engine has a compression ratio of
8:1, clearance volume in each cylinder is 110 c. Engine consumes
10.5 kg of fuel whose calorific value is 44000 kJ/kg, engine runs at
2000 rpm and the efficiency ratio is 0.73, estimate the mean effective
pressure developed and the specific fuel consumption.
(b) Explain in brief one method of measuring BHP of an I.C.engine.
14+6
(a) Magneto-ignition:
(b) Hit and miss method of governing;
(c) Jet propulsion;
(d) Pressure-compound turbine. 5 x 4 = 20
7. (a) Explain why cooling of an I.C. engine is necessary. What are the com-
mon methods used? State their relative advantages and disadvantages.
4+4+4
(b) What is a valve timing diagram? Draw a valve timing diagram for a
C.I. engine.
2+6
8. (a) What is Crosslay Indicator in steam engine? How is it used to find the
mean effective pressure of steam?
4+6
Appendix—D 637
(b) The following data refer to a test on a single cylinder oil engine work-
ing on four-stroke cycle:
Diameter of the brake wheel = 1.1 meter, Rope diameter = 2.8 cm.,
Dead load = 510 N, Spring balance reading = 50 N, Engine speed =
600 rpm, Scale of spring = 10, Length of indicator diagram = 6.1 cm, Cyl-
inder bore = 12 cm., Piston stroke = 18.5 cm., Area of indicator diagram =
10 cm2.
Estimate IP, BP and mechanical efficiency of the engine.
10
9. (a) A single cylinder double-acting steam engine 30 cm x 80 cm. Admits
steam at a pressure of 12 bar, cut off takes place at 40% of stroke, back
pressure of steam 1.2 bar diagram factor 0.85, piston velocity of
320 m/min, calculate the speed of the engine and the brake horse
power when the mechanical efficiency is 82%. 10
(b) In connection with steam turbine, define, nozzle efficiency, blade effi-
ciency and stage efficiency. 10
10. (a) Explain with sketch the working principle of a compound jet carburet-
tor.
(b) What are the advantages obtained by incorporating a condenser in a
steam power plant? 14+6
1993
HEAT ENGINES — II
Figures in the margin indicate equal marks.

1. (a) Explain why Rankine cycle is considered as standard reference cycle

for steam power plants. 6
(b) Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 12.97 bar gauge is admitted to a
double-acting steam engine cylinder, cut-off takes place at 26% of the
stroke, clearance volume is 6% of the displacement volume, compres-
sion commences at 0.70 of the return stroke, back pressure being
1.05 bar. Calculate the mean effective pressure of steam. 7
If the engine develops 33 kW brake power when running at 180 rpm, with
hyperbolic expansion and compression of steam, and mechanical effi-
ciency 82%, piston speed as 72 m/min, determine the cylinder dimensions.
7
2. (a) Describe the operating principle of a four-stroke Otto cycle engine and
draw its indicator diagram. 8+ 2
(b) The following data refer to a test on a single cylinder oil engine work-
ing on four-stroke cycle.
Diameter of the brake wheel = 90 cm; rope diameter = 3.2 cm, dead load =
344 N, spring balance reading = 42 N, cylinder bore = 11 cm, piston stroke
= 13 cm.
Estimate IP, BP and mechanical efficiency of the above engine. 4 + 4 + 2
3. (a) What is the necessity of a carburettor? Sketch and describe the working
of a simple carburettor. What happens when float gets punchared?
4+8
(b) What are the various methods of igniting fuel in an I.C. Engine?
Describe in brief one method only. 2+6
4. (a) Explain why cooling of an I.C. Engine is necessary. Describe water
cooling of an I.C. Engine, and mention why a thermostat and a pump
are usually provided with the cooling system of an engine.
4+7+4
(b) What are the different methods to reduce detonation in an I.C. Engine?
5
5. (a) Distinguish between operating features of an Impulse turbine and
Reaction turbine. 6
(b) Show, by sketch, the physical arrangement of the different units of
pressure-compounded steam turbine. Also represent the variation of
absolute velocity and pressure along the stages of turbine.
10+4
6. (a) Data pertaining to a simple impulse turbine are as follows:
Steam velocity = 500 m/sec, blade speed = 220 m/sec, nozzle angle = 20°,
exit angle of moving blade = 30°
Calculate:
(a) Inlet angle of the moving blade;
(b) Exit velocity of steam and its direction;
(c) Work done per kg of steam;
(d) Blade efficiency;
(e) Axial thrust per kg of steam;
(f) Power, for a steam flow-rate of 2 kg/sec. 4+4+3x4
(a) Jet propulsion;
(b) Carnot cycle;
(c) Parsons turbine;
(d) Supercharging. 5x4
8. (a) State the reasons for the following:
(i) Compound steam engine requires lighter flywheel than those required
by simple steam engine;
(ii) Misfires in S.I. Engines lead to lower efficiency;
Appendix-D 639
(iii) Condensing steam engine has higher thermal efficiency than non-
condensing one. 5x3
(b) Explain, in brief, scavenging in two-stroke cycle engine. 5
9. (a) State the advantages of a surface condenser.
(b) What procedure you will adopt to check whether there is any leakage
of air in the condenser?
(c) Draw the line diagram of a two-pass surface condenser and indicate the
steam, condensate and cooling water flow paths.
5 + 5 + 10
10. (a) Prove that the ideal thermal efficiency of an engine working on Otto
cycle is given by
(1 -1
= 1 -)7
where r = compression ratio
y= adiabatic index.
(b) Explain throttle control of governing as used in steam turbine.
10+ 10
1992
HEAT ENGINES—II

Answer all parts of one question at one place.
1. (a) Justify why cooling of an I.C. engine is necessary. Describe water-

cooling of an I.C. engine, and mention why a thermostat and a pump are
usually provided with the cooling system of the engine.
16
(b) Explain preignition. 4
2. (a) Describe briefly the working principle of a gas turbine on
(i) Open system and (ii) closed system 16
(b) State the advantages of compounding a steam engine. 4
3. (a) State Dalton's law of partial pressure, and show how it may be applied
to the calculation of various factors of the condenser of a steam plant.
8
(b) Given the following:
Recorded condenser vacuum = 71 cm of Hg
barometer reading = 76.5 cm of Hg

Temperature collected = 1800 kg/hour
Weight of cooling water = 57500 kg/hour
Inlet temperature of cooling water = 8.5°C
Calculate:
(i) Vacuum corrected to standard barometer reading of 76 cm of Hg
(ii) Vacuum efficiency
(iii) Condenser efficiency 12
(a) Magneto-ignition
(b) Pressure-compounded turbine
(c) Hit and miss method of governing
(d) Spark plug of an I.C. engine. 5 x 4 = 20
5. (a) The blade speed of a single-ring impulse turbine is 350 m/sec, and the
nozzle angle is 15°; steam velocity at exit from nozzle is 800 m/sec.
Given that the velocity coefficient is 0.7 and the blades are symmetri-
cal, draw the vector diagram, and calculate for a mass flow of 1 kg/sec.
(i) axial thrust on the blades.
(ii) steam consumption per kW/hour on BP basis, if mech. efficiency
be 80%. 15
(b) Explain the essential differences in function of moving blades in
impulse and reaction type of turbines. 5
6. (a) Why lubrication of an I.C. engine is essential? With the help of a neat
sketch, explain splash lubrication system in I.C. engine. 12
(b) Describe how an I.C. engine is started by compressed air. 8
7. (a) Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 13 bar is admitted to a double-
acting steam engine cylinder, cut-off takes place at 28% of the stroke,
clearance volume is 6% of displacement volume, compression
commences at 0.75 of the return stroke, back pressure being 1.1 bar.
Determine the mean effective pressure of steam. If the engine develops
40 kW brake power when running at 180 rpm, mechanical efficiency 80%,
piston speed 80 m/min, determine the cylinder dimensions.
6+6
(b) Draw hypothetical and actual indicator diagrams of steam engine. State
the reasons for their differences. 8
8. (a) During a test on a single-cylinder double-acting steam engine, the fol-
lowing data and results were obtained:
Cylinder diameter = 25 cm, piston stroke = 45 cm
Piston rod diameter = 6 cm, mean piston speed = 130 m/min
Steam supplied dry saturated at 4 bar and at a back pressure of
1.05 bar
Appendix-D 641
Indicator area, cover end = 7 cm'

Indicator area, crank end = 8 cm'
Length of indicator diagram = 8 cm
Strength of indicator spring = 0.7 bar per cm of compression
Brake load = 550 N spring balance reading = 65 N
Diameter of the brake wheel = 121 cm.
Rope diameter = 3 cm.
Calculate; (i) IP, (ii) BP, (iii) Mechanical efficiency 14
(b) How is Rankine cycle modified for operation of steam engine plants
and why? 3 +3
9. (a) Prove that ideal thermal efficiency of an engine working on Diesel
cycle is given by,
ri =1 =(-
1 )Y-'
r,
where r, = compression ratio, re = expansion ratio and y= adiabatic index.

15
(b) Explain, in brief, scavenging in two-stroke cycle engine. 5
10. (a) Describe the operating principle of a 4-stroke Dual cycle engine, and
draw its indicator diagram. 10
(b) The compression ratio of an Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of the
compression stroke, the pressure is 0.1 MPa and the temperature is
15°C. The heat transfer to the air per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg of air. Deter-
mine the pressure and temperature at the end of each process of the
cycle.
Assume suitable value of any data if required for calculation. 10
1991
HEAT ENGINES—II

Carnot cycle.
Represent the cycle in P-V and T-S planes. Obtain expressions for:
cycle work, cycle efficiency. Why this cycle is not used in practice?
8+4+4+4
2. (a) Explain briefly, the working principle of gas turbine on (i) open system
and (ii) closed system.
(b) How does the function of a governor differ from that of a flywheel?
8+7+5
3. (a) The blade speed of a single ring impulse blade is 300 m/sec, and the
nozzle angle is 200, steam velocity at exit from nozzle is 900 m/sec.
Given that blade velocity coefficient is 0.7 and the blades are symmet-
rical, draw the velocity diagram, and calculate for a mass flow of
1 kg/sec.
(i) axial thrust on the blades.
(ii) steam consumption per kW-hour on BP basis if mechanical effi-
ciency is 80%.
(b) Explain the essential difference in function of moving blades in
impulse and reaction type of turbines. 14+6
4. (a) Explain with sketch the working principle of a compound jet carburet-
tor.
steam power plant? 14+6
5. (a) What are the main two types of lubricating systems? Explain the
difference between the two systems. 7+3
(b) Draw a schematic diagram labelling all components of a typical forced
type lubricating system. 7+3
6. (a) Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 15 bar is admitted to a double-
acting steam engine cylinder, cut-off takes place at 25% of the stroke,
clearance volume is 7% of displacement volume, compression
commences at 0.75 of the return stroke, back pressure being 1.05 bar.
Determine the mean effective pressure of steam. If the engine develops
44 kW brake power when running at 180 r.p.m., mechanical efficiency
75%, and piston speed 80 m/min, determine the cylinder dimensions.
6+6
(b) What are the assumptions made while drawing hypothetical indicator
diagram of steam engine?
7. (a) A four-stroke petrol engine having six cylinders is to operate with a
compression ratio of 6 and deliver 295 kW brake power at 2400 rpm.
Determine the engine bore and stroke length, fuel consumption in
kg/hour and in kg/kW-hour, with the following data:
Stroke = 1.5 times the bore, mechanical efficiency = 80%, Indicated
mean effective pressure = 10 bar, relative efficiency = 50%, Cal-
orific value of fuel = 44000 kJ/kg.
(b) Explain the merits and demerits of four-stroke and two-stroke cycle
engines. 12 + 8
3. (a) Name the fuel injection systems (solid injection) of C.I. engines. Draw
a line diagram of one such system starting from the service tank,
indicating all elements in the system. 2+ 10
Appendix-D 643
(b) Represent Brayton cycle and Duel Combuston Cycle on P-V and T-S
planes. 4+4
(a) Hit and miss method of governing.
(b) Spark plug of I.C. engine.
(c) Reheat factor.
(d) Jet propulsion. 5x4
10. (a) State the difference between detonation and pre-igniti on.
(b) Advantages of steam turbine as compared to a steam e ngine.
(c) Function of a carburettor. 10 + 5 + 5
1990
HEAT ENGINES—II

modified Rankine cycle. Represent the cycle in P-V and T-S diagrams.
Obtain expression for cycle work, cycle efficiency, steam rate, heat rate.
State where and why this cycle is used. 20
2. (a) The following data relates to a single cylinder double-acting steam
engine:- 12
Boiler steam pressure = 18 bar
Cut-off = 40% of stroke, Diagram factor = 0.75.
Cylinder diameter = 35 cm.
Stroke of piston = 1.8 times the cylinder bore.
Neglect clearance, estimate BP of the engine when running at 150 rpm.
(b) What are the advantages of compounding a steam engine?
8
3. (a) Explain briefly with a sketch the working principle of gas turbine on
closed system. State the advantages of closed cycle gas turbine over
open cycle gas turbine. 14
(b) List the pails to be lubricated in a single cylinder four stroke Diesel
engine. 6
4. (a) Explain with sketch the working principle of a compound jet car-
burettor. 14
steam power plant? 6
5. Data pertaining to a simple impulse turbine are as follows:- 20

Steam velocity = 500 m/sec., blade speed = 220 m/sec.
exit angle of moving blade = 30°, nozzle angle = 20°
Calculate:-
(i) inlet angle of moving blade;
(ii) exit velocity of steam and its direction;
(iii) work done per kg of steam;
(iv) blade or diagram efficiency;
(v) Axial thrust per kg of steam;
(vi) Power for a steam flow rate of 2 kg/sec.
6. (a) A four-stroke four cylinder petrol engine has a compression ratio 8 : 1,
clearance volume in each cylinder is 120 c.c. Engine consumes 10.6 kg
of fuel per hour whose calorific value if 44000 kJ/kg engine runs at
2000 rpm., and the efficiency ratio is 0.72, estimate the mean effective
pressure developed and the specific fuel consumption. 14
(b) Explain, in brief, one method of measuring BHP of an I.C. engine
6
7. (a) Describe anyone method of governing of an I.C. engine. 10
(b) State what methods are to be adopted to prevent detonation and early
ignition in S.I engines. 10
8. Steam with dryness fraction of 0.86 enters a surface condenser, the vacuum
gauge reading is 66 cm of mercury, when barometer reads 75.5 cm of
mercury. The mean temperature in the condenser is 48°C, the temperature
of the condensate in the hot-well is 42°C, and the temperature rise of the
condenser cooling water is 15°C. If the condensate weighs 1100 kg/hr,
determine.
(i) amount of air entering condenser in kg/hr.
(ii) amount of condenser cooling water required in kg/hr.
(iii) volume of air and condensate to be handled by the pump in m3/hr,
20
9. (a) What are the purposes and methods of cooling of an I.C. engine? What
are the possible problems if the cooling is too much? 12
(b) Describe how an I.C. engine is started by compressial air. 8
10. Write short notes on:-
(a) Jet propulsion;
(b) Velocity compound turbine;
(c) Pressure compound turbine;
(d) Impulse-reaction turbine. 20
1995
HEAT ENGINES—I

Figures in the right margin indicate marks allotted.
Steam Table or Mollier Diagram can be used.
Assume any standard data necessary for problem.
1. (a) State the laws of thermodynamics.

(b) Classify the thermodynamic systems.
(c) State the general energy equation and hence obtain the non-flow energy
equation and mention the assumption made. 4 + 6 + 10
2. (a) Derive a relation between the two specific heats of a gas and the char-
acteristic gas constant.
(b) A quantity of gas has an initial pressure, volume and temperature of
140 kN/m2, 0.14 cubic metre and 25°C respectively. It is compressed to
a pressure.of 1.4 MN/m2, according to law PV' 25 = constant. Determine
the change of entropy [C,, = 1.041 kJ/kg K and C,, = 0.743 kJ/kg K].
10+ 10
3. (a) Explain absolute and gauge pressures.
(b) With the help of a neat sketch describe a Babcock and Wilcox boiler
showing the accessories and mountings. 6 + 14
4. (a) Explain what is meant by an isothermal process and sketch this process
for a gas under compression on P—V diagram.
(b) Derive expressions for the work done on the gas and also the heat
transferred when the gas is compressed isothermally.
(c) 1.5 m3 of air at pressure of 1.1 MN/m2 absolute nd the temperature
80°C are expanded isothermally until its volume is 7.5 m3. Determine
the final pressure and the work done by air during expansion. Calculate
also the heat transfer, change in internal energy and change in enthalpy
during the process. 4+8+8
5. A boiler uses 1350 kg of coal per hour which requires m kg of air for
complete combustion per kg of coal. The temperature of flue gases is
633°K and the temperature of outside ambient air is 298°K. If the draught
produced by 30 m high steel chimney is 17.75 mm of water column, deter-

mine (i) air supplied per kg of coal burnt on the grate, (ii) draught in terms
of column of hot gases, (iii) hot gases flow rate through the chimney,
(iv) base diameter of the chimney.
th of the total draught is available for producing velocity. 20
16
6. (a) What is equivalent evaporation?
(b) A boiler working at a pressure of 14 bar evaporates 8.6 kg of water per
kg of coal fired from feed-water entering at 39°C. The steam at the
boiler stop valve is 0.92 dry. Determine the equivalent evaporation
from and at 100°C. Also determine the thermal efficiency of the boiler
if the calorific value of the coal is 30,200 kJ/kg. 4 +16
7. (a) What is throttling?
(b) Draw T -4diagram of a constant pressure non-flow process and
explain what is entropy.
(c) 4 kg of 0.5 dry steam at 6 bar pressure is heated so that it becomes
(i) 0.95 dry at 6 bar pressure,
(ii) dry and saturated at 6 bar pressure.
Determine the quantity of heat to be supplied in each case.
2+8+10
8. (a) Explain the terms higher and lower calorific values.
(b) Calculate the entropy of 2 kg of superheated steam at a pressure of
10 bar and temperature 250°C. Assume specific heat of superheated
steam as 0.55. Use steam tables, 6 + 14
9. Distinguish between:
(a) Fire tube and Water tube Boilers;
(b) Boiler Mountings and Accessories;
(c) Natural and Artifical Draught;
(d) Adiabatic and Polytropic processes. 5x4
10. Write short notes on any four of followings:
(a) Reciprocating engine;
(b) Stored and transitional energy;
(c) Instrument used for measuring calorific value;
(d) Polytropic process;
(e) Saturated, superheated steam and dryness fraction;
(f) Economiser. 5x4
1994
HEAT ENGINES—I
1. (a) Explain the following terms: 9

(i) Pressure gauge, (ii) Vacuum gauge and (iii) Compound gauge.
(b) The air supplied to boiler furnaces is sometimes preheated in air pre-
heaters. In a particular case the boiler room temperature was 18°C and
heated air was at a temperature of 200°C. The weight of air supplied per
kg of coal was 18.2 kg. Find the quantity of heat supplied by the air to
the furnace per kg of coal burnt if the specific heat of air at constant
pressure is 1.005. 11
2. (a) Prove that for perfect gases R = (Cp —C,,), where R is the individual gas
constant, Cp and and C,, are the specific heats of the gas.
6
(b) Distinguish between the internal energy and the enthalpy of a fluid.
4
A volume of 0.1 cu metre of air at 1 atm and 90°C is compressed adiabati-
cally until the volume is reduced to 0.01 cu m. Find the change in internal
energy and the change in enthalpy. 10
3. (a) Explain carefully the terms 'dryness fraction' and 'superheat' as
applied to steam. 6
(b) One kg of steam at a pressure of 14 atm and temperature of 294.3°C is
reduced in pressure to 3 atm. and desuperheated by means of water
sprayed at 20°C and all the water is converted into dry steam. Find out
the quantity of water sprayed. The specific heat of superheated steam
may be taken as 0.5. 14
4. What do you regard as the least number of boiler mountings with which a
boiler can be safely operated? Name them and shown their proper positions
on a neat sketch of a Lancashire boiler. 14 +6
5. A boiler is equipped with a chimney 25 meter high. The temperature of
outside air is 25°C and the average temperature of flue gases in the chim-
ney is 320°C. If the boiler is supplied with 20 kg of air kg of fuel burnt,
calculate: (a) the theoretical draught created in cm of water and (b) the
velocity of flue gases in the chimney is 60 per cent of the draught is lost in
friction at the grate and passages. 20
6. A boiler plant supplies 2700 kg of steam per hour at a pressure of 7.5 bar
and 0.98 dry from feed water at 41.5°C, when using 375 kg of coal having a
calorific value of 31000 kJ/kg. Determine the efficiency of the boiler and
the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C. Find the saving in fuel per
hour if by fitting an economiser it is estimated that the feed water could be
raised to 100°C assuming other conditions remain unaltered and the
efficiency of the boiler increases by 6 per cent. 20
7. Find out the thermal efficiency of the following two engines working
under the following conditions: 20
Engine I Engine II
Initial pressure 11 bar 11 bar
Quality of steam Dry saturated 100°C superheat
Back pressure 0.35 bar 0.5 bar
Steam consumption per 9.1 kg 8.2 kg
indicated kWh
8. (a) What are the effects of air leakage in a condenser? 6
(b) In a surface condenser the pressure of steam is 0.12 bar. The rate of
cooling water flow is 40 kg/kg of steam condensed. The condensate
leaves at 44°C and the rise in temperature of the circulating water is
14°C. Determine the dryness fraction of steam entering the condenser.
14
9. (a) Compare an engine working on Otto-cycle with an engine working on
Diesel cycle from the following points of view:
(i) fuel, (ii) working cycle, (iii) method of fuel ignition, (iv) method of
fuel injection, (v) method of governing, and (vi) speed.
9
(b) At maximum power a 6-cylinder engine running at 2800 r.p.m. con-
sumed 655 kg of air per hour, measured at NTP. The dimensions of the
engines are 11 cm bore and 12.2 cm stroke. Calculate the volumetric
efficiency based on NTP. Assume that the engine works of four stroke
cycle principle. 11
10. (a) Name the various uses of Mollier chart. 4
(b) Draw T—Q diagram of the following processes: 4
(i) Isothermal, (ii) Adiabatic.
(c) Calculate the entropy of 1 kg of wet steam with dryness fraction of 0.9
at a pressure of 8.4 bar 12
1993
HEAT ENGINES—I
1. (a) State the laws of thermodynamics with examples. 4

(b) Classify the thermodynamic systems. 6
(c) State the general energy equation and hence obtain the non-flow energy
equation and mention the assumptions made. 10
2. (a) Explain the terms: (i) Gauge pressure; (ii) Absolute pressure; and
(iii) Vacuum pressure. 6
(b) The gauge pressure of a steam boiler is 30 bar; the condenser vacuum
is equal to 708.2 mm of mercury. Determine the absolute pressure in
the boiler and the condenser if the barometer indicates the pressure of
745 mm. Express the unknown condenser pressure in Min' and
kg/sq cm. 14
3. (a) Derive from the laws of Boyle's and Charle's the characteristic equa-
tion of a gas. Can we apply this equation to vapour?
10
(b) When the pressure in a car tyre was checked at a temperature of 12°C,
the type gauge showed a.reading of 1.75 bars. What would be the tyre
gauge reading when the temperature had increased to 45°C, assuming
the volume of air in the tyre to be constant. Take the atmospheric
pressure to be 1.013 bars. 10
4. At the beginning of compression a cylinder contains 750 cm3 of gas at a
pressure of 100 kN/m2 absolute. Compression takes place according to law
P V" = constant until the pressure is 780 kN/m2 abs. If the final volume is
of the initial volume, find the value of index 'n'. Also determine the work
done during compression and the heat rejected during compression.
Take y=1.4. 20
5. State the conditions of steam in following cases: 12
(a) (i) At a pressure of 10 atm, total heat is 2646 kJ/kg.
(ii) At a pressure of 15 atm, temperature is 197.39°C.
(iii) At a pressure of 20 atm, temperature is 220°C.
(iv) At a pressure of 7 atm, specific volume is 0.25 cu metre.
(v) At a pressure of 5 atm, specific volume is 0.43 cu metre.
(vi) At a pressure of 8 atm total heat is 2800 kJ/kg
(b) Find out the specific volume of steam when its pressure is 7 kg/sq
cm. abs. When the condition of steam is (a) wet having a dryness frac-
tion 0.9 (b) superheated, the temperature of steam being 250°C. The
volume of 1 kg of water may be taken as 1 litre. 8
6. (a) What is the function of a boiler? 4
(b) How are boilers classified? Give the basis on which the classification is
based. Also give the name of at least one boiler of each type. 16
7. (a) What are the methods adopted for superheating steam in boiler? 6
(b) Steam leaving the boiler at a pressure of 12 atm enters the superheater
where it receives heat at constant pressure. The condition of steam
entiring the superheater is 0.95 dry and leaves it at a temperature of
250°C. Calculate the heat received by steam in the superheater and
increase in volume of steam as it passes through the superheater. 14
8. (a) State the condition for maximum discharge through a chimney. 4
(b) Calculate the static draught produced by a chimney of 35 metre height
when the mean gas temperature is such as to caused the weight of three
gases discharged in a given time to be maximum. The temperature of
atmospheric air is 25°C. If 15 kg of air per kg of coal is required for
complete combustion. 16
9. Boiler which originally burned coal is converted so as burn oil fuel. The
following data are taken before and after conversion: 20
The equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C = 8 kg when it burns
coal.
The equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C = 14.4 kg when it burns
oil.
How many barrels of 200 litres capacity are equivalent in heat to one
tonne of coal? The specific gravity of oil fuel is 0.8. If the calorific value
of oil fuel is 40,000 kJ/kg, find the calorific value of coal. Determine the
efficiency of the boiler which is assumed to be the same before and after
conversion.
10. (a) Explain the term Entropy. How it is applicable in thermodynamics? 6
(b) Draw T-4) diagram of the following processes. 8
(i) Constant Volume; (ii) Constant Pressure; (iii) Isothermal; and
(iv) Adiabatic.
(c) 2 kg of air at 25°C and 10 bar is compressed at constant pressure to a
temperature of 60°C and 5th of its original volume. Calculate the
change of entropy.
Take C,, = 1.005 and C,, = 0.714 6
1992
HEAT ENGINES—I
1. (a) Derive a relation between the two specific heats of a gas and the char-
acteristic gas constant. 10
(b) Nitrogen is to be stored at 140 atm and 30°C in a steel cylinder of
0.5 cu. metre capacity. The cylinder is to be protected against exces-
sive pressure by a fusible plug which will melt and allow the gas to
escape if the temperature rises too high. How many kg of N, will the
cylinder hold at the designed condition? At what temperature must the
fusible plug melt in order to limit the pressure in the receiver to 155
atm? 10
2. (a) Explain the terms: (i) Critical temperature, (ii) Critical pressure and
(iii) Critical density. 6
(b) The pressure of steam in a condenser is 0.12 bar absolute and the
dryness fraction is 0.88. How many heat units must be abstracted from
the steam in order to condense (a) 1 kg, (b) 1 cu. metre. 14
3. (a) What is the fundamental difference between internally fired and exter-
nally fired boilers? Name two boilers of each type. 6
(b) Make a neat sketch and describe a locomotive type of boiler, showing
therein the main accessories. 14
4. (a) What are the functions of a Chimney in a boiler installation?
6
(b) Estimate the height of a Chimney to produce a static draught of 20 mm
of water if the mean temperature of flue gases in the Chimney is 250°C
and the temperature of outside air is 20°C. The densities of atmospheric
air and flue gases at NTP are 1.293 and 1.34 kg/cu.metre respectively.
14
5. (a) State the first and second laws of Thermodynamics. 4
(b) Define Open system, Closed system and Isolated system. 2x3=6
(c) State the general energy equation, and hence obtain the non-flow
energy equation and mention the assumption made. 10
6. (a) Distinguish between: 4 x 3 = 12
(i) Natural and artificial draught.
(ii) Economiser and feed water heater.
(iii) Adiabatic and Polytropic process.
(iv) Stored energy and transitional energy.
(b) A water pump delivers 1000 cu.m of water per minute to a tank at a
height of 40 meters. The efficiency of the pump is 80%. If the pump is
driven by a motor ofil 90%. Find the horse power of motor in kilowatt.
8
7. (a) What do you mean by the term Equivalent Evaporation? 4
(b) The following data were recorded during trial of a boiler.
Duration of Trial 8 hrs. Total grate area 4 sq.m., pressure of steam 12 bar.
Total amount of coal burnt 4000 kg. Total amount of water evaporated
35000 kg. Feed water temperature 28°C. Quality of steam 96 per cent dry,
Calorific value of coal 40000 kJ/kg.
Determine (i) The equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C (ii) Ther-
mal efficiency of the boiler and (iii) Amount of coal burnt per sq.meter of
grate area per hour. 16
8. In an experimental determination of the calorific value of an oil having a
hydrogen content of 14 per cent. The following data were obtained weight
of oil 0.579 gm; weight of water 1400 gm; water equivalent of calorimeter
500 gm; rise in temperature of water 2.912°C; cooling correction 0.058°C;
weight of cotton used in igniting oil 0.005 gm; calorific value of cotton is
17000 kJ/kg. Find the higher and lower calorific value of the fuel.
20
9. (a) Draw T -4 diagram of a constant pressure non-flow process and
explain what is entropy. 8
(b) 2 kg of air at 16 kg/sq cm. pressure and 20°C is heated at constant
pressure to twice the initial volume. Find the amount of change in
entropy. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K and C,, = 1.005.
12
'10. (a) Distinguish between 3 x 4 = 12
(i) Reciprocating and Rotary Engine.
(ii) Degree Kelvin and Degree Celcius.
(iii) Mountings and Accessories.
(b) State purpose of any four of the following: 2x4=8
(i) Throttling calorimeter, (ii) Fusible plug, (iii) Air preheater, (iv) Steam
separator, (v) Draught manometer, (vi) Chain grate stoker.
1991
HEAT ENGINES—I

Figures in the margin indicate marks for each questions
1. (a) What is a perfect gas? 2

(b) What is the physical significance of the gas constant Ìt.'? 6
(c) A vessel contains 1.4 cu.m of air at a pressure of 7.03 bar. If one fifth
of the air is removed by an air pump, what will be the pressure of the
remaining air, the temperature remaining unaltered? 12
2. (a) Explain the function of a Throttling Calorimeter with the help of a
sketch. 10
(b) In a test with Throttling Calorimeter, the following observations were
made:— 10
(i) Pressure of steam before throttling —15 bar
(ii) Pressure of steam after throttling —1 bar
(iii) Temperature of steam after throttling = 150°C
What is the "dryness fractions" of steam before throttling?
3. (a) State the advantages normally claimed for multitubular boilers. 4
(b) What are the principal merits of a Locomotive fire-box type boiler?
What are the demerits of this type of boilers? 8
(c) Write a short note on 'waste heat boilers'. 8
4. (a) State the difference in effect between a feed water economiser and an
air pre-heater. 8
(b) A boiler is working on natural draught and it uses a fuel of calorific
value 2800 kJ/kg. The temperature of gases leaving the economiser
chamber is 260°C and is reduced to 150°C while leaving the pre-heater
chamber. If 17 kg of air is supplied per kg of coal burnt and the effi-
ciency of the pre-heater is 80 per cent, calculate the percentage saving
of heat of coal in the pre-heater. Assume sp.heat of air and the flue
gases to be 1.005.
12
5. (a) State the advantages and disadvantages of mechanical draught. 8
(b) Find the evaporative capacity of a marine boiler having three furnaces,
each 90 cm x 180 cm. and burning 110 kg of coal per hour per sq.
metre of grate area, allowing an evaporation of 9.5 kg of water per kg.
of coal.
12
6. (a) What do you mean by the term Entropy. Explain. 6

(b) Deduce an expression for change in entropy for polytropic non-flow
process. 8
(c) 2 kg of air at 15 bar pressure and 20°C is heated at constant volume to a
pressure of 25 bar. Find the amount of change in entropy. Take R =
0.287 kJ/kg K 6
7. (a) Distinguish between a boiler and a steam generator. 4
(b) How boilers are classified?
(c) Explain the working principle of a water tube boiler with a neat sketch.
12
8. (a) Draw P—V ad T—Q diagram for the following processes. 4x3
(b) What is Mollier diagram? How it helps us to solve different thermo-
dynamic problems—Explain. 8
9. Write short notes on (any four) 4x5
(i) Flow and non-flow process.
(ii) First and second law of thermodynamics.
(iii) Superheater in a boiler.
(iv) Chain grate stoker.
(v) Instrument used to determine calorific value of fuel.
10. (a) Establish a relationship between the height of a chimney and draught
produced in a boiler. 14
(b) Find the height of a chimney required in a boiler to produce 10 mm
draught. 14 kg of air per kg of coal is required for complete combus-
tion. The temperature of flue gas is 398°C and that of atmosphere 25°C.
6
1990
HEAT ENGINES— I

1. (a) Name the instruments used for measuring pressure.

(b) Explain the principle of working of a "Manometer".
(c) The gauge pressure of a steam boiler is 3.0 MPa, the condenser vac-
uum is equal to 708.2 mm of mercury. Determine the absolute pressure
in the boiler and the condenser if the barometer indicates the pressure
of 745 mm.
Appendix—D 655
2. (a) In an experiment to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat a

paddle was fixed to the shaft of an engine and rotated in water, within a
closed hollow vessel, mounted freely on the shaft of an engine and
rotated in water, within a closed hollow vessel, mounted freely on the
shaft and prevented from turning round by weights attached to its side.
At 300 r.p.m of the engine, 200 kg of water was found to have a rise of
54°C in 42 minutes. Determine the mechanical equivalent of heat if the
load on the side of the vessel is found to be 58 kgf at a leverage of 1
metre.
(h) Deduce an expression showing the relation between the two specific
heats of a gas and the characteristic gas constant.
3. A gas at a pressure of 14 bar and a temperature of 343°C is expanded adia-
batically to a pressure of 1.05 bar. The gas is then heated at constant vol-
uine until it again attains 343°C temperature and finally it is compressed
isothermally until the original pressure of 14 bar is attained. Sketch the
P—V and T—S diagrams for these operations and if the gas weighs 0.5 kg.,
find (i) the change of internal energy during the adiabatic expansion,
(ii) pressure after the constant volume heating.
Take Cp —1.005 and C, —0.714 kJ/kg K.
4. (a) Explain the principle of working of a throttling calorimeter.
(b) What minimum dryness fraction can be determined by a throttling cal-
orimeter if the steam entering the calorimeter is at a pressure of 10 bar
abs. and is throttled down to a pressure of 1.2 bar.
5. (a) What is the function of a steam boiler?
(b) How are boilers classified? Give the basis on which the classification is
based. Also give the name of at least one boiler of each type according
to the above classification.
(c) Name the different types of stokers used for burning coal. Explain with
a sketch the working of anyone of them.
6. (a) Give the method employed to control the degree of supeheat in a
superheater.
(b) Explain how an injector works. What are the advantages and disad-
vantages of an injector?
7. A boiler is equipped with a chimney 25 metre high. The temperature of
outside air is 25°C and the average temperature of flue gases in the chim-
ney is 320°C. If the boiler is supplied with 20 kg. of air per kg of fuel burnt
calculate:-
(a) the theoretical draught created in cm-of-water and
(b) the velocity of flue gases in the chimney if 60 per cent of the draught is
lost in friction at the grate and passages.
8. A boiler plant was tested for 3 hours with the following observations:-
Steam pressure —12 bar
Dryness fraction —0.95
Feed water temperature —28°C

Coal consumed 71200 kg
Calorific value 29300 kJ per kg
Weight of water fed —10,000 kg.
At the end of trial the water in the boiler was drained and weighed 150 kg.
Find thermal efficiency of the boiler and equivalent evaportion from and at
100°C.
9. In a Diesel engine air is adiabatically compressed from 1.02 bar and 37°C
•to one-sixteenth of its volume. Heat is then supplied at constant pressure
till the temperature reached 1350°C.
Determine per kg of air,
(i) heat supplied, (ii) pressure at which heat was supplied, (iii) total change
of entropy.
Indicate the processes in P—V and T—S diagrams.
Take C, = 1.005 and C, = 0.714 kJ/kg K.
10. (a) For steam undergoing a hyperbolic process, show that, changes in
enthalpy and internal energy are equal.
(b) One kg of steam undergoes a non-flow hyperbolic expansion process
from 15 bar with dryness fraction of 0.90 to 5 bar. Determine the final
condition of the steam, heat and work transferred.
4.1 CZ
Psychrometric Properties of Air at Standard Barometric Pressure of 760 mm Hg or 1.01325 bar

Properties of water and steam Properties of Dry Air at 760 Properties of Mixture of Dry air and saturated
(Taken from 1st steam tables) mm. Hg steam i.e. (1 + W,) kg at total pressure of 760 mm.
Hg
Tempe- Saturation pressure of water Enthalpy Enthalpy of Specific Vol- Specific Enthalpy li, Volume of Enthalpy of Specific humid-
rature and steam of satura- saturated ume of satu- Volume V Mixtures (1 + mixture (1 + ity per kg of dry
P ted water steam h rated steam V, w,) kg dry air w,) kg per kg air w, kJ/kg
t°C hw kJ/kg v., m3/kg of dry air 16
mm.Hg Bar kJ/kg
0 4.580 0.006108 0.00 2501.6 206.31 0.7734 0.000 0.7781 9.473 0.003789
1 4.924 0.006566 4.17 2503.4 192.61 0.7762 1.006 0.7813 11.204 0.004076
2 5.291 0.007055 8.39 2505.2 179.92 0.7791 2.012 0.7845 12.982 0.004381
3 5.681 0.007575 12.60 2507.1 168.17 0.7819 3.018 0.7878 14.811 0.004707
4 6.097 0.008129 16.80 2508.9 157.27 0.7848 4.024 0.7911 16.696 0.005054
5 6.539 0.008718 21.01 2510.7 147.16 0.7876 5.030 0.7944 18.639 0.005424
6 7.010 0.009345 25.21 2512.6 137.79 0.7904 6.036 0.7978 20.644 0.005818
7 7.510 0.010012 29.41 2514.4 129.06 0.7933 7.041 0.8012 22.713 0.006237
8 8.041 0.010720 33.60 2516.2 120.97 0.7961 8.047 0.8046 24.852 0.006683
9 8.605 0.011472 37.80 2518.1 113.44 0.7990 9.053 0.8081 27.064 0.007157
10 9.204 0.012270 41.99 2519.9 106.43 0.8018 10.059 0.8116 29.352 0.007661
11 9.839 0.013116 46.19 2521.7 99.909 0.8046 11.065 0.8152 31.724 0.008197
12 10.512 0.014014 50.38 2523.6 93.835 0.8075 12.071 0.8188 34.179 0.008766
13 11.225 0.014965 54.57 2525.4 88.176 0.8103 13.077 0.8225 36.726 0.009370
14 11.982 0.015973 58.75 2527.2 82.900 0.8132 14.084 0.8262 39.370 0.010012
15 12.781 0.017039 62.94 2529.1 77.978 0.8160 15.090 0.8300 42.113 0.010692
16 13.628 0.018168 67.13 2530.9 73.384 0.8188 16.096 0.8338 44.963 0.011413
17 14.524 0.019362 71.31 2532.7 69.095 0.8217 17.102 0.8377 47.926 0.012178
18 15.470 0.020624 75.50 2534.5 65.087 0.8245 18.108 0.8414 51.008 0.012989
19 16.470 0.021957 79.68 2536,4 61.341 0.8274 19.114 0.8457 54.216 0.013848
(Contd)
LS9 a—xp ueddd
20 17.53 0.023366 83.86 2538.2 57.838 0.8302 20.121 0.8498 57.555 0.014758
21 18.64 0.024853 88.04 2540.0 54:561 0.8330 21.127 0.8540 61.035 0.015721
22 19.82 0.026422 92.23 2541.8 51.492 0.8359 22.133 0.8583 64.660 0.016741
23 21.06 0.048076 96.41 2543.6 48.619 0.8387 23.140 0.8627 68.440 0.017821
24 22.37 0. 9821 100.59 2545.5 45.926 0.8416 24.146 0.8671 72.385 0.018963
25 23.75 0.031660 104.77 2547.3 43.402 0.8444 25.153 0.8717 76.500 0.020170
6UpeaUp5U3 jeU110111
26 25.50 0.033597 108.95 2549.1 41.034 0.8472 26.159 0.8764 80.789 0.021448
27 26.73 0.035636 113.13 2550.9 38.813 0.8501 27.165 0.8811 85.285 0.022798
28 28.34 0.037782 117.31 2552.7 36.728 0.8529 28.172 0.8860 89.876 0.024226
29 30.03 0.040040 121.48 2554.5 34.769 0.8558 29.179 0.8910 94.878 0.025735
30 31.81 0.042415 125.66 2556.4 32.929 0.8586 30.185 0.8962 100.006 0.027329
31 33.69 0.044911 129.84 2558.2 31.199 0.8614 31.192 0.9015 105.369 0.029014
32 35.65 0.047534 134.02 2560.0 29.572 0.8643 32.198 0.9069 110.979 0.030793
33 37.72 0.050288 138.20 2561.8 28.042 0.8671 33.205 0.9125 116.857 0.032674
34 39.89 0.053180 142.38 2563.6 26.601 0.8700 34.212 0.9183 123.011 0.034660
35 42.17 0.056216 146.56 2565.4 25.245 0.8728 35.219 0.9242 129.455 0.036756
36 44.55 0.059400 150.74 2567.2 23.967 0.8756 36.226 0.9303 136.209 0.038971
37 47.06 0.062739 154.92 2569.0 22.763 0.8785 37.233 0.9366 143.290 0.041309
38 49.69 0.066240 159.09 2570.8 21.627 0.8813 38.239 0.9431 150.713 0.043778
39 52.44 0.069908 163.27 2572.6 20.557 0.8842 39.246 0.9498 158.504 0.046386
40 55.31 0.73750 167.45 2574.4 19.546 0.8870 40.253 0.9568 166.683 0.049141
41 58.33 0.077773 171.63 2576.2 18.592 0.8898 41.261 0.9640 175.265 0.052049
42 61.49 0.081986 175.81 2577.9 17.692 0.8927 42.268 0.9714 184.275 0.055119
43 64.80 0.086391 179:99 2579.7 16.841 0.8955 43.275 0.9792 193.749 0.058365
44 68.25 0.091001 184.17 2581.5 16.036 0.8983 44.282 0.9872 '.03.699 0.061791
Index·
A Brake thermal efficiency 261

By pass governing 355
Absolute pressure 3 Bleeding 360
Adiabatic process 21, 73 Binary vapour plant 363
Application of steady flow energy Brayton cycle 422
equation 23 Bed plate 439
Available energy 45 Battery or coil ignition system 460
Avogadrow's law 68 Bell-coleman cycle 586
Air preheater 166
Artificial draught 175 C
Anthrac;ite 202
Air pump 401 Closed system 6
Air injection system 457 Cyclic process, 2
Airless injection 457 Constant volume process 19, 71
Air compressor 505 Constant pressure process .20, 72
Axial flow compressor 526 Constant temperature process 20, 72
Air refrigeration system 586 Compressor 25
Analyser 595 Centrifugal water pump 26
Clausius statement 38
B Carnot cycle 40
Clausius inequality 43
Basic units 5 Charles' law 66
Boiler 23 Change of entropy IO I
Boyle's law 65 Conditions of steam 116
Boiler shell 150 Classification of boiler 149
Babcock and Wilcox boiler 154 Cochran boiler 151
Boiler mountings 155 Charcoal 202
Blow off cock 163 Coke 202
Boiler accessories 163 Combustion 203
Balanced draught 177 · Calorific value of fuel 204
Boiler efficiency 187 Carnot cycle 228
Boiler power 188 Classification of steam engine 248
Boiler trial 189 Cylinder bore 251
Brown coal 201 Crank throw 251
Bituminous coal 202 Cut-off governing 264
Briquetted coal 202 Compound engine 265 ·
Bomb calorimeter 213 Cross-compound steam engine 267
Boys gas calorimeter 215 Cylinder volume ratio 269
Back pressure 252. Convergent nozzel 309
Brake power 259 Conver.gent-divergent nozzle 309
660 Index
Critical pressure 313 Effectiveness ·51

Critical pressure ratio 313 External energy 68
Combined velocity diagram 340 Entropy 98
Cascade system 360 Entropy is a point function 99
Central flow condenser 397 Effect of pressure on boiling
Condenser efficiency 399 point 114
Cooling tower 399 Entropy of water 121
Composite cycle 420 Entropy of vaporisation 121
Cylinder head 438 Entropy of superheated steam 122
Connecting rod 438 Economiser 163
Crankshaft 439 Efficiency of chimney 174
Cam 43.9 Evaporation 186
Crank case 439 Equivalent evaporation 186
Carburettor 455 Economiser efficiency 188
Choke valve 456 . Engine indicator 263
Common rail system 458 Effect of supersaturation 317
Centrifugal compressor 524 Efficiency ratio 358
Constant pressure gas turbine 546 Edward Air Pump 40 I
Constant volume gas turbine 562 Exhaust manifold 439
Co-efficient of performance 584 Electrolux refrigerator 595
D F
Derived units 5 Fundamental quantities

Dry saturated steam 116 Force I
Dryness fraction 117 First law of therinodynamics 17
Dead weight safety valve 157 Free expansion 21, 77,269
Draught 169 Flow process 22
Draught losses 174 Function of boiler 149
Dulong's formula 205 Fire tube boiler 149
Dead centre 251 Furnace 150
Diagram factor 257 Fusible plug 159
Divergent nozzel 309 Feed check valve 162
Degree of reaction 350 Feed pump 166
Drain pump system 360 Forced draught 176
Down flow condenser 397 Fuel 201
Diesel cycle 418 Feed heating system 360
Distributor system 458 Flywheel 439
Dry sump system 473 Four stroke petrol engine 440
Four stroke diesel engine 444
E Fuel feed system (petrol engine) 453
Fuel injection pump 459
Extensive property 8 Firing order 463
Exact differentials 7
Index 661
G K
Gas mixture 78 Kinetic energy 9

Generation of steam I14 Kelvin planck statement 38
Grate 150
Gaseous fuel 203 L
Gibbs - Dalton law 78
Governor 439 Law of conservation of mass and
energy 16
H Loss in availability · 50
Laws of perfect gas 65
Heat 9 Latent heat I 18
Heat exchanger 25,594 L9comotive boiler 152
Heat engine 38 Lancashire boiler 153
Heat pump 40 Lever loaded safety valve 157
Helm boltz and Gibbs function 49 Liquid fuels 203
Hyperbolic process 78 Losses in steam turbine 365
Heating surface I 51 Low level counter flow jet
High steam and low water safety condenser 394
valve l59 Lubrication 471
Hit and miss method of
governing 471 M
I Molecular heat 12
Mechanical draught 176
Isolated system 6 Modified Rankine cycle 235
Intensive property 8 Mechanical clearance 252
Internal energy 9, 68 Mean effective pressure 255
Irreversible process 10 Mechanical efficiency 261
Irreversibility 50 Missing quantity 262
Injector 167 Metastable flow 316
Induced draught 176 Maximum diagram efficiency 342
Indicated power 258 Magneto ignition system 462
Ihdii;ated thermal efficiency 261 Multistage compression 512
Impulse turbine 338
Internal efficiency 358 N
Individual pump system 457
Intercooling 548 Non-flow process 19
Nozzle 24
J Natural draught 170
Joule's law 68 0
Jet condenser 391
Joule cycle 420 Open system 6
Jet propulsion 564 Objects of producing draught 169
662 Index
Over expansion 318 Regenerative cycle 359

Otto cycle 415 Reciprocating compressor 506
Optimum pressure ratio 554 Reciprocating air motor 520
Rotary compressor 521
p Roots blower 521
Regeneration 548
Power 2 Rocket propulsion 567
Pressure 2 Refrigeration 584
Property 7 Refrigerating effect 584
Process 7, 70 Rectifier 595
Perfect gas 65 Refrigerants 598
Polytropic process 75
Phase transformation 113 s
Pressure gauge 161
Peat 201 S.I. System of units
Pulverised coal 202 System 5
Pyrometer 4 Surroundings 5
Point function 7 State 7
Piston speed 252 Stored energy 8
Prony brake 260 Specific heat 12
Pressure compounding 345 Steady flow process 22
Pressure-velocity compounding 346 Second law of tt1ermodynamics 37
Parallel flow jet condenser 394 Saturated steam 116
Piston 438 Superheated steam 1 r6
Piston ring 438 Supersaturated steam 117
Piston pin 439 Sensible heat 118
Push rod 439 Specific volume of steam 119
Propulsive power 566 Setting 150
Propulsive efficiency 566 Steam space 151
Spring loaded safety valve 158
Q Steam stop valve I 61
Superheater 165
Quality governing 474 Steam jet draught 175
Quantity governing 474 Solid fuel 201
S.haft work 229
R Stea[!) engine plant 248
> . �ept volume 252
Reversible process IO It Steam consumption 261
Ratio of specific heats 69 Stearri injector 319
Rankine cycle 230 _,.St�m turbine 337
Rope brake 259 · Stage efficiency 358
Reaction turbine 350 Surface condenser 396
Reheating of steam 355 Spark plug 463
Reheat factor 358 Scavenging 480
Rankine efficiency 358 Supercharging 481
Index 6153
Splash system 472 Under-expansion 318

Semipressure system 473 Uniflow scavenging 471
Subcooling 591 Unit of refrigeration 584
Undercooling 591
T
V
Temperature 4
Thermodynamic equilibrium 7 Vapour 65
Thermal capacity 12 Vapour process 124
Throttling process 26, 77 Volumetric clearance 252
Thermodynamic temperature scale 41 Valve travel 252
Third law of thermodynamics 45 Velocity compounding 343
Throttling calorimeter 129 Vaccum efficiency 396
Throttle governing 264 Valve timing diagram 442, 445
Tandem compound steam engine 266 Vane blower 522
Terminal drop 269 Vapour compression
Two stroke petrol engine 446 refrigeratiQn 588
Two stroke diesel engine 448 Vapour absorption refrigeration 593
Two stage compressor 513
Three stage compressor 517 w
Turbo prop 564
Thrust power 566 Work 2, 10
Working substance 6
u Wet steam 119
Water tube boiler 149
. Unsteady flow process 23 Water space \ 51
Unattainability of absolute zero 45 Water level indicator 155
Unavailable energy 45 Wood 201
Universal gas constant 68 Work ratio 230
Unit of entropy 99 Willans' line 264
Unif19w engine 278 Watercooling 469

B K Sarkar - Thermal Engineering

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THERMAL

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

Eighteenth reprint 2011

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

Published by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited,

The McGraw-Hill Companies

Thermal Engineering, a core subject in many universities is offered to ecigi-

1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS 1

2 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 16

2.1 Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy 16

3 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND 37

3.1 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics and Introduction

3.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 37

5.6 Change of Entropy of a Perfect Gas During Various Thermodynamic

6 PROPERTIES OF STEAM 113

6.1 Introduction 113

7 STEAM BOILERS, BOILER MOUNTINGS AND 149

8.1 Definition of Draught 169

9 PERFORMANCE OF BOILERS 186

9.1 Evaporation 186

10 FUELS AND THEIR COMBUSTION 201

IO.I Fuel 201

11 THERMODYNAMIC VAPOUR CYCLES 228

12 STEAM ENGINE 248

12.24 Governing of Compound Engine 277

13 STEAM NOZZLES 309

14 STEAM TURBINE" 337

15 STEAM CONDENSER 392

16 AIR STANDARD CYCLES 415

17 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 436

17. I Introduction 436

17.8 Theoretical andActual P-V Diagram of a Four Stroke Petrol

19 GAS TURBINE AND JET PROPULSION 546

ViOlak1401r1 WiTA NY1I851UT RAD t

1.2 S.I. SYSTEM OF UNITS

1.3 UNITS OF DIFFERENT QUANTITIES

volume. It has been found that a perfect gas expands or contracts to of

Basic Units under the S.I. System

Quantity Unit Symbol

Quantity Unit Symbol

1.4 SYSTEM AND SURROUNDINGS

1.5 WORKING SUBSTANCE

temperature. A material of single or homogeneous chemical structure is known

1.6 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

1.7 PROPERTY, STATE AND PROCESS

The state of a system can be represented by a point on a diagram whose co-

1.8 PROCESS AND CYCLIC PROCESS

1.9 ENERGY AND FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy in Transition Form

1.12 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE

the working substance should be in mechanical and thermal equilibrium with

1.13 THERMAL CAPACITY, SPECIFIC HEAT AND

= 5 = 0.066666 bar = 6666.6 N/m2.

Distance moved per second = 80 x 1000 = 800m/s

= 22222.222 W = 22.222 kW.

t2 = Temperature of iron ball = 105°C

+ 1.35 x 1000 x c x (273 + 7) + 0.06 x 1000 x c x (273 + 100)

= 1.4467 x 108 J = 144.67 MJ

= 4.5833 x 108 W = 458.33 MW

Fill in the blanks:-

8. In a , transfer of mass does not take place.

2.1 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

The law of conservation of

2.2 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS